6 Numerical Solutions of Equations

Chapter 6

NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF
EQUATIONS
Learning Outcome 6.1
 To be able to locate approximately a root of an equation by means of graphical considerations.
 To be able to locate approximately a root of an equation searching for a sign change.

6.1.1 Approximate Solutions by Graphs

1. We can solve some of the equations easily by using methods that we learned before such as:
(i) solving x 2  4 x  5  0 by factorizing, completing square or using quadratic roots
formula.
(ii) solving x 3  8  0 by factorizing, or any other suitable method.

2. However, we are not able to get the root of some equations such as x 3  e x  0 .
When the roots of an equation cannot be found exactly, we can look for approximate solutions.

3. First we need to locate the roots roughly and this can be done by sketching graphs.

Example 1 MJ11/33/Q6(i)
By sketching a suitable pair of graphs, show that the equation cot x  1  x 2 , where x is in radians, has
1
only one root in the interval 0  x   .
2

By NCX & TCY 104

 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 2 MJ14/31/Q8(i)
By sketching each of the graphs y  cosecx and y  x  x  for 0  x   , show that the equation
cosecx  x  x  has exactly two real roots in the interval 0  x   .

6.1.2 Locating the Roots of an Equation

1. The roots of the equation f ( x)  0 are the values of x where the curve y  f (x) crosses the
x -axis.

2. Each time the curve crosses the x -axis, the sign of y changes. Therefore, we use sign-change
rule to locate the roots of an equation.

If one root only of the equation f ( x)  0 lies

between x1 and x 2 , and if the curve y  f (x) is
unbroken (continuous) between the points where
x  x1 and x  x 2 , then f ( x1 ) and f ( x 2 ) are
opposite in sign.

Example 3 MJ11/33/Q6(ii)
1
Verify by calculation that the only one root of cot x  1  x 2 in the interval 0  x   lies between
2
0.5 and 0.8.

Example 4 MJ12/31/Q10(ii)
It is given that there is exactly one real value of t satisfying the equation t  3 t  0.8 . Verify by
calculation that this value lies between 1.2 and 1.3.

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 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations

Learning Outcome 6.2

 To be able to understand the idea of, and use the notation for, a sequence of approximations
which converge to a root of an equation.
 To be able to understand how a given simple iterative formula of the form xn1  F ( X n )
relates to the equation being solved, and use a given iteration, or an iteration based on a given
rearrangement of an equation, to determine a root to a prescribed degree of accuracy
(knowledge of the condition for convergence is not included, but candidates should understand
that an iteration may fail to converge).
 .

6.2.1 Iteration
1. Iteration produces a sequence of values by using a formula (called iteration formula) of the
form xn1  f ( xn ) .

2. To use the iterative formula, a first / initial value, x1 must be chosen. This approximation to
the root to be found can be chosen by graphical method or sign-change method. Most of the
time, initial value will be given in the question.

3. The principle about iteration is as follows:

(i) Consider the equation x 2  5 x  2  0 , to be solved using the formula x n 1  5 x n  2 .

The diagram shows two graphs, those of y  x and y  5 x  2 respectively. Their
points of intersection correspond to the solutions of the equation.

(ii) The first approximation x 0 is substituted into the formula and gives a value  call it y 0
 which then becomes x1 . This process is illustrated by the arrows.

(iii) As the iteration is repeated, the arrows build into some sort of pattern. In this particular
case, they are moving (slowly) closer to the right-hand point of intersection, and so will
eventually lead to that solution.

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 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 5 MJ09/Q4
The equation x 3  2 x  2  0 has one real root.
(i) Show by calculation that this root lies between x  1 and x  2 .
2 x n3  2
(ii) Prove that, if a sequence of values given by the iterative formula x n 1  converges,
3 x n2  2
then it converges to this root.
(iii) Use this iterative formula to calculate the root correct to 2 decimal places. Give the result of
each iterations to 4 decimal places.

Example 6 ON08/Q9
1
x

a
The constant a is such that xe dx  6 .
2
0
1
 x
(i) Show that a satisfies the equation x  2  e 2 .
(ii) By sketching a suitable pair of graphs, show that this equation has only one root.
(iii) Verify by calculation that this root lies between 2 and 2.5.
(iv) Use an iterative formula based on the equation in part (i) to calculate the value of a correct to
2 decimal places. Give the result of each iteration to 4 decimal places.

By NCX & TCY 107

 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 7
It is given that the equation e x 1  x  3  0 has two roots  and  where  is a value close to -3
and  is a value close to 0.
By using the iteration formula xn1  e xn 1  3 , find the roots by using the initial value
(a) x1  3 (b) x1  0

6.2.2 Choosing Convergent Iterations**

1. Example 7 should have started you thinking. Why is it, the iterative formula can only lead to
the value of  but fail to converge to the value  ?

2. If the equation x  F (x) has a root, then a sequence by xn1  F ( xn ) with a starting value close
to the root will converge to the root if the gradient of the graph of y  F (x) art and around the
root is not too large (roughly between -1 and 1).

3. In short, to decide whether an iteration formula is convergent or divergent:

(i) Rewrite the equation f ( x)  0 in the form x  F (x) .
(ii) Find F ' ( x) , then the value of F ' ( x1 ) .
(iii) If the value of F ' ( x1 )  1 , means that the sequence converge.
If the value of F ' ( x1 )  1 , means that the sequence diverge.
** There is rare case where F ( x1 )  1 can correspond either to very slow convergence
or to very slow divergence.

4. The smaller the modulus of the gradient, the fewer steps will be needed to reach the root to a
given accuracy.

5. If the gradient is negative, the terms will be alternately above and below the root,
if the gradient is positive, the terms will approach the root steadily from one side.

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 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 8
(i) Show to the equation x 3  4 x  1  0 can be rearrange as the following iterative formulae:
x n 1  x n3  1 ------(A)
1
x n 1  3 4 x n  1 ------(B)
4
(ii) By using the initial value x1  2 , show that one of these formulae produces a sequence which
fails to converge, and use the other formula to calculate  correct to 2 decimal places. Give
the result of each iteration to 4 decimal places.

Example 9 ON05/Q4
The equation x 3  x  3  0 has one real root,  .
(i) Show that  lies between 1 and 2.
Two iterative formulae derived from this equation are as follows:
xn1  xn  33 ------(B)
1
xn1  xn3  3 -------(A)
Each formula is used with initial value x1  1.5 .
(ii) Show that one of these formulae produces a sequence which fails to converge, and use the
other formula to calculate  correct to 2 decimal places. Give the result of each iteration to 4
decimal places.

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 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 10 ON04/Q5

The diagram shows a sector OAB of a circle with centre O and radius r . The angle AOB is 
1
radians, where 0     . The point N on OA is such that BN is perpendicular to OA . The area of
2
the triangle ONB is half the area of the sector OAB .
(i) Show that  satisfies the equation sin 2 x  x .
(ii) By sketching a suitable pair of graphs, show that this equation has exactly one root in the
1
interval 0  x   .
2
(iii) Use the iterative formula xn1  sin 2 xn  , with initial value x1  1 , to find  correct to 2
decimal places, showing the result of each iteration.

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 6 Numerical Solutions of Equations
Example 11 MJ03/Q8
2
The equation of a curve is y  ln x  , where x  0 .
x
(i) Find the coordinates of the stationary point of the curve and determine whether it is a
maximum or a minimum point.
(ii) The sequence of values given by the iterative formula
2
x n 1  ,
3  ln x n
with initial value x1  1 , converges to  . State an equation satisfied by  , and hence show
that  is the x -coordinate of a point on the curve where y  3 .
(iii) Use this iterative formula to find  correct to 2 decimal places, showing the result of each
iteration.

By NCX & TCY 111