CONTENTS

Page
S.No Topic
No.

1 HEAT 2
2 ELECTROSTATICS 42
3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 74

MAGNETISM & ELECTRO-

4 91
MAGNETISM

ELECTRICAL MEASURING
5 136
INSTRUMENT

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
6 151
& ELECTRONICS

ADVENT OF MODERN
7 164
PHYSICS

8 THE ATOMIC SPECTRA 190

9 THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 210
10 NUCLEAR RADIATION 226

PAGE - 1
CHAPTER - 11

PAGE - 2
 THEORY
Caloric Theory:
In 18th Century, physicist believed that heat in a weightless, invisible and
indestructible fluid called “Caloric”. It was assumed to exist in every material body.
Hot bodies contain more caloric than cold bodies. This explain the conduction and
mixing of substances.
Modern Concept:
This concept of heat fluid was challenged by count Rumford. He observed while
supervising the boring of cannon that cannon barrels were being bored a tremendous
amount of heat was given off. In order to further investigate it, Rumford made use of
a very dull drill, which was unable to cut the metal. Heat was evolved in apparently
unlimited quantity.
He conclude that heat was due to the rotation of the borer and not from the metal it
self. As a result of scientists came to interpret.
“Heat a transient flow that transfers from hot body to cold body due to difference
of temperature”.
Once heat is transferred into the body it is converted into internal energy of the
system.
Units:
S.I unit of heat is Joule (J).

Temperature:
It is defined as “Measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body on some chosen
scale”.
OR
It is also defined as: on microscopic level as:
“Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules of a body”.
Scales of Temperature:
i. Celsius Scale (Centigrade Scale):
The lower fixed point called ice point is the melting point of ice (0oC), upper
fixed point called steam point is the boiling point of water, (100oC), at
standard pressure. It is divided into 100 equal intervals.
ii. Farhrenheit Scale:
The lower fixed point is 32 and upper fixed point is 212 and the interval
between them is equally divided into 180 equal parts.
iii. Kelvin Scale (Absolute Scale):
The thermodynamic temperature is measured in Kelvin. It is SI unit of
temperature. This scale uses one fixed point called “Triple point of water”.
The lowest temperature on this scale is “- 273oC”.

o
C Fo K
100 212 373
0 32 273
-273 460 0

PAGE - 3
Interconversion of Temperature Scale:
5
i. o
C= (F – 32)
9
9
ii. Fo = C + 32
5
iii. K = Co + 273
iv. o
C = K – 273
v. K = oF + 460

Thermometric Properties:
A property of a substance which changes uniformly with the change of temperature
is marked as: “Thermometric properties”.
Thermal Expansion:
“When substances are heated they undergoes change in size. This expansion of
bodies due to heat is called thermal expansion”.
When the body is heated its temperature rises, this causes the molecule to vibrate
more energetically, this produce increase displacement. Since the average distance
among the molecules inverses the size of the object increase.
Kinds of Thermal Expansion:
i. Linear Expansion.
ii. Superficial Expansion.
iii. Cubical (volume) Expansion.

Linear Expansion:
“Increase in length of solids on heating is called linear expansion”.
It is observed experimentally that increase in length is directly proportional to the
initial length and increase in temperature of the solid body.
Mathematically:
Consider a rod of length “L” at on initial temperature “T1”. After heating the rod it
final length is “L ” at temperature “T2” as shown in figure.
Let “L” is the increase in length of rod and “T” is the increase in temperature.
L
Then by experiment.
  L  L _______ (1) T1
 L  T _______ (2)
combining eq (1) and (2) After heating L

 L  LT Or T2
 L = L T _________ (A) L
 L = L – L
T = T2 – T1 ; T2 > T1
Where “” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “co-efficient of linear
expansion”. Its S.I unit is k-1. It depends upon the material of rod. Co-efficient of
linear expansion is define as:
“Increase in length per unit length per degree raise in temperature of the solid is
called co-efficient of linear expansion”. Using equation (A).
L L/  L
 = or =
L T L T

PAGE - 4
Expression for final length of Rod (optional):
Using formula => L = LT
 L = L – L
so
L’ – L = LT
Or
L’ = L + LT
Or
L’ = L (1 + T)

Volume Expansion (or Cubical Expansion):

‘Increase in volume of substance on heating is called volume expansion.’
It is observe Experimentally that increase in volume of a substance (Either solid or
fluids) is directly proportional to the initial volume and increase in temperature.
Mathematically:
Consider a body of volume ‘V’ at an initial temperature ‘T1’. After heating the body
its find volume is “V” at temperature “T2” (i.e. T2 > T1). Let ‘V’ is the increase in
volume and T increase in temperature. Then by Experimentally observation.

V  V ------- 1
V  T ------- 2
Combining equation 1 and 2
V  VT
Or
V VT ------ A

Where ‘’ is the constant of proportionality. It is known as ‘co-efficient of volume

Expansion’. Its S.I unit is ‘K-1’. It depends upon the material of the substance.
Coefficient of volume expansion is define as:
“Increase in volume per unit volume per degree raise in temperature”
Formula:
 V =  VT
Or
= V Or  = V – V
VT VT
Expression for final volume (optional):
Using equation:
 V =  = VT
 V = V – V
So,
V – V = VT
Or
V = V + VT
Or
V = V(1 + T)

PAGE - 5
Q. Discuss the relation between co-efficient of linear expansion and co-efficient of
volume expansion.
OR
Prove that:  = 3
Ans. Proof:
Consider a rectangular box of initial length (ℓ) height (h) and width (w) at
temperature ‘T1’. The volume (v) of the box will be:
V = ℓ wh ------- 1
After heating the box it expands its final length (ℓ’), height (h) and width (w) at
temperature (T2), as shown. Then final volume o f the box will be:
.: V’ = ℓ’ w’ h’ -------2
Using the definition of linear Expansion. Final length will be:
L’ = ℓ (1 + T)
Similarly,
w’ = w (1 + T)
and,
h’ = h (1 + T)
Where ‘’ is the co-efficient of linear expansion put the values to equation 2
2  V’ = ℓ’ w’ h’
or
V’ = ℓ [1 + T] w[1 + T] h[1 + T]
 V = ℓwh (1 + T)3
 Using formula (a + b)3
V = V [(1)3 + 3(1)2 (T) + 3(1)( T)2 + (T)3]
Because (T) is small so, square and higher powers are neglected.
So,
V = V [1+ 3(T) + 0 + 0]
V = V [1+ 3T]
Using equation:
V = V(1 + T) ;  = co-efficient of volume expansion.
Comparing above two equations:
V = V(1 + T) = V = V [1+ 3T]
1 + T = 1+ 3T
 = 3

proved.

PAGE - 6
Application of Thermal Expression:
Bimetallic Thermostat:
A thermostat is a device used to maintain a steady temperature. Thermostat work on
bimetal principle. They are used to maintain temperature.
Construction:
All substances do not expand equally on heating. Let two strips of different metals
for example Brass and invar (Ni – Cr, alloy) be riveted together. On heating, the
bimetallic strip bends so that the brass is on the outside of the curve because it
expands, due to greater co-efficient of linear expansion.
Working:
In an electrical heating circuit, the bimetallic strip works as an electric contact
breaker. When temperature raises the bimetal bends and the contact in broken. The
current stops to flow, when temperature falls the strip contracts and the contact
restored.
Bimetallic Thermometer:
Bimetallic thermometer is used to read temperature of hot regions. It works on the
principle of differential expansion. It consist of a thin bimetallic flat spiral whose end
is fixed and other end is attached to a spindle of a pointer which moves over a scale.
As the temperature rises the spiral tends to bend. This causes to move the scale helps
to read the temperature.

Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law:
“For the given mass of a gas volume is inversely proportional to the volume at
constant temperature”.
Mathematically:
Let:
P = Pressure of a gas
V = Volume of a gas
Then by law:
1
V
P
constant
V=
P
Or
PV = Constant OR PV = K
From above equation, Boyle’s law can also stat as:
“For a given mass of a gas, product of pressure and volume of a gas remain constant
for a given temperature”.

PAGE - 7
 Graphically:

P P

V 1/V

Charle’s Law:
“For the given mass of a gas, volume is directly proportional to the temperature at
constant pressure”.
Mathematically:
Let:
V = Volume of a gas.
T = Temperature of a gas.
Then by law:
VT
V = (constant) T
V
= Constant
T
From the above equation, Charle’s law can be stat as:
“For a given mass of a gas. Ratio of volume and temperature of a gas remain
constant for a given pressure.
Graphically:

- 273oC T (oC)

Where -273oc is called Absolute Temperature.

PAGE - 8
Prove that:
PV = nRT
Proof:

P1 P2 P2

Change in Change in
Volume Volume

At constant At constant
Temperature V , T1 pressure V2, T2

V1, T1

(a) (b) (c)

Consider a system of an ideal gas is cylinder fitted with a moveable, friction less
piston. Let p1 V1 T1 is the initial pressure, volume temperature of the system as
shown in figure (a).
If the gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature. Let P2, V is the pressure and
volume of the system as shown in fig (b). then by Boyle’s Law:
For initial State: P1V1 = K ------ 1
For Final State: P2 V = K ------ 2
Comparing Equation 1 and 2
P2V = P1V1
Or
P1V1
V= ------- A
P2

Now the system is allowed to expand at constant pressure from (b) and (c), as
shown. Let V2, T2 is the final volume and temperature of the system.
Then by Charle’s law:
V
For initial state: = K _____________ 3 (Fig b)
T1
V2
For final state: = K ___________ 4 (fig c)
T2
Comparing equation 3 and 4
V V
= 2
T1 T2
VT
V= 2 1 ______________ B
T2

PAGE - 9
Comparing equation A and B
P1V1 VT
= 2 1
P2 T2
Or
P1V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T2
Or
PV
= constant ____________ C
T
For 1 mole of gas:
PV
= constant
T
PV
=R
T
PV = TR ______________ D
Where “R” is called gas constant and does not depends on the quantity of gas in the
sample. In S.I system its value is 8.314 Jmol -1 K-1.
For n – moles of a gas:
PV = RT
PV = nRT
Proved.

Kinetic Theory of Gases:

The properties of gas are described by a set of fundamental assumptions which are
given as:
i. A gas consists of particles called molecules. Depending on the gas each
molecule will consist of an atom or a group of atoms. All the molecules of a
gas in a stable state are considered identical.
ii. Any finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of these molecules.
This assumption is justified by experiments. At standard conditions there are
3x1025 molecules in a cubic meter.
iii. The molecules are separated by large distance as compared to their own
dimensions. The diameter of a molecule considered as a sphere, is about 3x10-
10
m.
iv. Molecules move in all directions and with various speeds making elastic
collisions with one another and with the walls of a container can be
considered perfectly smooth.
v. Molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions. Therefore
in between collisions with other molecules or with the walls of the container
and in the absence of the external forces, they move freely in straight lines.
vi. Newtonian machine is applicable to the motion of molecules

PAGE - 10
Interpretation of Pressure on Kinetic Theory of Gasses:
Or
Prove that: V1y
2
P = 1/3 V V1

-V1x

L V1y

L V1

L m V1x

Proof:
In order to derive an expression for the pressure of a gas, consider a cubical vessel of
the volume ‘L3’. Contain N – molecule of an Ideal gas as shown. Consider a
molecule of mass ‘m’ in moving with velocity ‘V1’ having components V1x V1y and
V1z in the direction of the edges of the vessel. If the molecule collide with a face of
the vessel, such that x-compound of its velocity will be reserved its direction as
shown in figure (b).
So,
Momentum before collision in x-direction = mV1x
Momentum after collision in x – direction = -mV1x
Change in momentum = mV1x – (mV1x)
p = mV1x + mV1x
p = 2mV1x ________ (i)
let “t” in the time taken by the molecules between two successive collision so:
.: S = Vt
2L
t = ____________ (ii)
V1 x
Using the definition force: “Force in Equal to rate of change in linear momentum.
Let “F” is the force exerted by the molecule so,

P
.: F1 =
t
or
2mV1x
F1 =
 2L 
 
 V1x 

mV12x
F1 = __________ (iii)
L

PAGE - 11
Similarly, force exerted by other molecules, will be,
mV22x
F2 =
L
mV32x
F3 =
L
So, Net force Exerted by the Molecules will be:
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ……
Or
mV12x mV22x mV32x
F= + + + - - - - - ________ (iv)
L L L
Let ‘p’ is the preserve on the vessel, so, using definition.
F
 p= ; A = L2
A
mV12x mV22x mV32x
  
P= L L L
L2
Or
m 2
(V1x  V22x  V32x    )
P= L
L2
Or
m 2
P= (V1x  V22x  V32x    ) ___________ (v)
L3

Let ‘ nv’ is the number of molecules per unit volume.

N
 nv =
V
Or
N
nv =
L3
N
L3 =
nv

put the value in equation --- 5

m 2
P= 3
(V1x  V22x  V32x    )
L
Or
m
P= (V12x  V22x  V32x    )
N
 
 nv 
mnv 2
p= (V1x  V22x  V32x    )
N
 (V 2  V22x  V32x    ) 
P = mnv  1x 
 N 

PAGE - 12
Where;

(V12x  V22x  V32x    )

= Average Velocity of x direction.
N
(V12x  V22x  V32x    ) 
= V x2
N

So, the above Equation will be;

P = mnv (Vx2)
P = mnvVx2 ____________(vi)
Let ‘’ is the density of the gas, so,
.:  = mnv = mN
V
Let V is the average velocity of the molecules of the gas, so,
V2 = Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2
On average due to randomness of molecules,
Vx = V y = V z
So,
V2 = Vx2 + Vx2 + Vx2
V2 = 3V2x
Or

2 1 2
Vx  V
3
Put these values in Equation (2)
p = mnv Vx2
1 
P=  V2
3 
1
P= V 2

3
Hence proved.

1 3
Prove that: mV 2 = KT
2 2
Proof:
1
Using equation P = PV 2 ______________ (1)
3
Where
P = mnv
mN
P=
V
Put the value in equation (1)
1
We get P= PV 2
3
1 mN 2
P= ( )V
3 V
1
PV = mNV 2
3

PAGE - 13
Using General Gas Equation:
PV = nRT
1
mNV 2 = n RT
3
N
therefore, n =
NA
1 N
mNV 2 = RT
3 NA
1 R
mV 2 = ( )T
3 NA
R
therefore, = K (Boltzman’s Constant)
NA
so, mV 2 = 3KT
1 3
or mV 2 = KT Proved.
2 2
3
K = constant
2

1
mV 2  T Proved
2
Here prove that:
Average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.

Heat Capacity(C):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by unit degree is called
“Heat Capacity”.
Formula:
Let Q = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
T = Change (Increase) in temperature.
Then
Q  T
Or Q = CT
Where C is constant of proportionality. It is known as “Heat Capacity”.
Q
C =
T
Unit: its unit is JK-1 or J oC-1

PAGE - 14
Specific Heat Capacity (C):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through
unit degree of temperature (1oC or 1K), is called “Specific heat capacity”.
Formula:
Let Q = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
T = Change (Increase) in temperature.
m = mass of substance
Then
Q  T _________________ 1
Q  m _________________ 2
combining equation 1 and 2
Q  m T
Q = Cm T
Where “C” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Specific heat capacity
of a body”.
Q
C=
mT
Unit:
Its unit is JKg-1 k-1 OR JKg-1 oC-1
Relation: Between C and C:
Q 1 Q
C= = ( )
mT m T
C /
Q
C= ; C =
m T

Molar Heat Capacity (C):

Amount of heat required raise the temperature of one mole of a substance
through one Kelvin (or 1oC) of temperature, is called molar specific heat.
Formula:
Let Q = Amount of heat absorbed by substance.
n = number of moles of a substance
T = Change in temperature.
Then
Q  T _________________ 1
Q  n _________________ 2
Q  n T
Q = C nT
Where “C” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Molar heat capacity of
a substance”.
Q
C=
nT
Unit:
Its unit is J mole-1 k-1 OR J mol-1 oC-1

PAGE - 15
Types of Molar Specific Heat Capacity of Gases:
The molar specific heat of a gas depends whether or not the gas allowed to expand.
They are:
i. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: (Cp)
ii. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume: (Cv)

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure(Cp):

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one
Kelvin at constant pressure is called molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
Formula:
Qp
Cp =
n T
Where,
Qp = amount of heat absorbed at constant pressure.

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume(Cv):

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one
Kelvin at constant volume is called molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv).
Formula:
Qv
Cp =
nT
Where,
Qv = amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant volume.
Relation:
Between Specific heat capacity(c) and Molar specific heat (C):
Q
Using definition c= ________________ (i)
mT
Q
And C= ________________ (ii)
nT
Where,
n = no of moles
m mass in gas
n= =
M Molecular mass
so, eq (ii)
Q
C=
nT
Q
C=
( M ) T
m

M Q
C=
mT
Q
C= M( )
m T
Q
Using eq (i) C=
mT
So, C = Mc
Molecular specific heat = (Molecular mass) x (specific heat capacity)
From above equation; Molar specific heat is a defined as:
Product of molecular mass of substance and specific heat capacity.

PAGE - 16
 Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the transformation of heat
energy into mechanical energy (work). The general principles that deal with heat
energy and its transformation into mechanical energy are known as “Laws of
thermodynamics”.

First Law of thermodynamics:

Statement:
The change in internal energy of a system in any process is equals to net heat flow
into the system minus; the total work done by system.
OR
The net heat flow into the system in any process is equal to the work done by the
system plus. Change in internal energy of the system.
Mathematically:
Let:
Q = Amount of heat flow into the system.
w = Work done by the system.
u = Change in internal energy of the system.
Then by law:
u = Q - w
Q = w + u
w = Q - u

Application of First Law of thermodynamics:

1. Isobaric Process:
A process that takes place at constant pressure is called an isobaric process.
Explanation:
Consider a system of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a movable frictionless
piston. Let (V1, T1) is the initial volume and temperature of the system as
shown in fig (a). If the “Q” is amount heat transferred to the system and
system in allowed to expand at constant pressure (P), through a displacement
“x” as shown.
Let (T2, V2) final temperature and volume of the gas, as shown in the fig (b).
P P

x

V1, T1 V2, T2

Fig (a) Q Q fig (b)

PAGE - 17
Then the work done by the gas in moving a piston of area (A) through a
displacement x will be:
w = F . d
w = Fd cos  ;  = 0
w = F x
 F = PA
So, w = (PA) x
w = P (Ax)
Ax = V = V2 – V1
So w = PV = P (V2 – V1) ___________ 1
Then by 1 law of thermodynamics”
st

Q = w + u
Q = PV + u
Q = P(V2 – V1) + u

Graphically:
For an isobaric process, the PV – diagram will be straight line parallel to volume are
as follows:
P1 V1 T1 P2 V2 T2

Isochoric Process:
Isochoric process is defined as that process in which the volume of the system remains
constant.
Explanation:
Consider a system of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a moveable frictionless piston as
shown in figure.
Let (P1, T1) is initial pressure and temperature of the system a shown in fig (a) if Q
is the amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant
P1 P2

V 1 T1 V2T2

Q Q

PAGE - 18
volume “V” the pressure and temperature will increase but volume remain
unchanged, so work done of the system will be zero (i.e. w = 0). Let (P2T2) is the
final pressure and temperature is of the system as shown in fig (b).
Then by 1st law of thermodynamics:
Q = w + u
Where w = 0
Q = u
Conclusion:
In an Isochoric process amount of heat supplied to the system in converted into the
internal of the system.
Graphically:
(P2, V, T2)

(P1, V, T1)

Isothermal Process:
The processes which take place at constant temperature is called Isothermal process.
Consider a system of gas in a cylinder fitted with a moveable frictionless piston. Let
(P1, V1) is the initial pressure and volume of the gas. The cylinder has a heat
conducting base and non-conducting walls and piston, it is placed on a heat
reservoir. If the pressure of a gas in the cylinder is decreased, so there should be fell
in temperature. But, since the system is perfectly conducting to the reservoir, it will
absorb heat and maintain a constant temperature (T). Let (P2, V2) is the final pressure
and volume of the system. Then by the First law of thermodynamics.
 Q = w + u
as, temperature remain constant: u = 0
so, Q = w

Conclusion:
From above equation, P1 P2
it is conclude that amount
of heat absorbed by the
system is completely utilize
into useful work done.
So work done is maximum
in isothermal process.

V1, T V2, T

Heat Heat
Reservoir Reservoir

PAGE - 19
Graphically:
i. Isothermal process curves are called “Isotherms”.
ii. The shape of curve is “Hyperbolic”.
P1, V1, T

P2, V2, T

Adiabatic Process:
The process in which no heat can flow into or out of the system is called adiabatic
process.
Consider a system of gas in a cylinder fitted with a moveable frictionless piston. Let
(P1, V1, T1) is initial pressure volume and temperature of the system. In an adiabatic
process, the working substance is perfectly insulated from the surrounding. However
if a process such as compression or expansion of a gas done very quickly, it will be
nearly adiabatic because no heat flow in and out of the system.
Let (P2, V2, T2) is the heat pressure, volume and temperature of the system.
Then by First law of thermodynamics:
 Q = w + u
as the process adiabatic so, Q = 0.
0 = w + u
w = - u Or u = - w
Conclusion:
i. When the system expands work done by the system and initial energy
decreases.
ii. When the system compress, work is done on the system and initial energy
increases.
Graphically:
(P1, V1, T1)

(P2, V2, T2)

PAGE - 20
Q Derive a relation between molar specific heat at constant pressure and molar
specific heat at constant volume.
OR
Prove that: Cp – Cv = R
Proof:
Consider a system of a cylinder with a moveable frictionless piston combining n –
moles of a monoatomic gas as shown in fig (a).
Consider two isotherms of the given system as shown in fig (b), at different
temperature T1 and T2 (T2 = T1 + T).
For constant pressure process (a b)
If the gas is taken along the constant pressure process from point a to b. let “Qp” is
the amount of heat supplied to the system at constant pressure.
Then
Qp = n Cp T ______________ (1)
where
n = no of moles
Cp = Molar specific heat at constatnt pressure.
T = change in temperature = T2 – T1

P1

Constant Volume Constant Pressure

Process Process
V1, T1

P2 P1

V1, T2 V2, T2

 Qv (a)  Qp

c
P

a b T2

T1
V
(b)
and w = work done by the system
w = P V

PAGE - 21
Then by the First law of thermodynamics Q , w + u
Qp = w + u
Qp – w = u
u = n CP T - PV _____________ (2)
using general gas equation PV = nRT or PV = nRT
so eq (2)
u = n CP T – n RT __________ (A)
for constant volume process (a c):
If the gas is taken along the constant volume process from point a to c and Qv is the
amount of heat absorbed during the constant volume process then,
Qv = nCv T
where,
Cv = molar specific heat at constant volume
For constant volume w = 0
By the first law Q = w + u
u = Qv - w
u = n Cv T ________ (B)
comparing eq (A) and (B)
n Cv T = n CP T – n RT
n Cv T = n T (CP – R)
Cv = (CP – R)
Cp – Cv = R Proved

Heat Engine:
Heat engine is a device which transforms heat energy into mechanical energy (useful
work). A heat engine consists of
i. A hot reservoir (Hot body or Source)
ii. A cold reservoir (Cold body or Sink)
iii. Working substance.

Refrigerator:
A device in which heat flows from a cold body to a hot body with expenditure of
work is called “Refrigerator”. A refrigerator works reverse to the heat engine.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

There are two statements of 2nd law given by:
i. Lord Kelvin
ii. Clausius

Kelvin Statement:
If is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a
temperature lower than that of the coldest of its surrounding.
OR
It’s impossible to construct a heat engine with an efficiency of 100%.
OR
It is impossible to construct a heat engine with out a heat Sink (cold body), that can
convert all the heat into mechanical work.

PAGE - 22
 Hot body

Q1 w

Cold body

Calusius Statement:
It is impossible to cause to heat to flow from cold body to hot body without the
expenditure of work.

Hot body

Work done
Q2

Cold body

We can prove that both statements are equivalent by showing that either of these
statements is supposed to be false. Suppose that Kelvin’s statement is false, that we
could have a heat engine with one hundred percent efficiency, that takes heat from a
source and convert it completely into work. If we connect this perfect heat engine to
a refrigerator, we can take heat from a hot body and convert completely to work, this
work can be used to operator refrigerator, which convey heat from cold body to hot
body with out the expenditure of work, which is contrary to Clausius statement.

PAGE - 23
 Hot body
Q 1 + Q2

Q1

Q2

Cold body

Carnot Engine:
The laws governing the conversion of heat into work are investigated by considering
an ideally simple heat engine conceived by French Engineer, Sadi Carnot. It is an
idealized heat engine which is free from all sorts of heat loses and friction.
Construction:
It consist of
i. A gas cylinder with perfectly insulatory walls and perfectly conducting base.
ii. A perfectly insulated, weightless and frictionless piston fitted in the cylinder.
iii. A mole of an ideal gas as working substance.

Working:
The working of Carnot engine
is based on Carnot cycle. A
Carnot Cycle: Q1
A cycle of a heat engine is B
completed when the system P D
have returned to its original
state. The operating cycle of C
carnot engine is called carnot Q2
cycle. It consist of four processes.
V

Isothermal Expansion:
Consider a Carnot Engine, let the working substance pressure (P1), volume (V1) and
temperature (T1). If the engine is placed on a heat reservoir.
P4 P1

V4, T1 V1, T1

PAGE - 24
If the system is allowed to expand by decreasing the pressure, let Q1 is the amount of
heat absorbed by the system through the base of cylinder. So, that temperature
remain constant. The volume and pressure changes to V2, and P2 increases. But the
temperature remain constant.

P3 P2

V3, T2 V2, T1

Adiabatic Expansion:
If the engine is placed on an isolator then no heat can flow in or out of the system. If
the gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the weight on the piston. So that volume
increases from V2 to V3. In this process the temperature of the system falls from T1
to T2 and pressure also falls from P2 to P3.

Isothermal Compression:
Let the engine is placed as a cold reservoir (at temperature T2). Now the gas is
compressed by increasing the load on it piston, let Q2 is amount of heat rejected by
system to the cold body through the base.
The volume decreases from V3 to V4 and pressure increase from P3 to P4 at constant
temperature T2.
Adiabatic Compression:
Let the engine be placed on an Insulator. The gas is compressed again but
adiabatically such that system return to its initial state. The work is done at internal
energy and temperature of the system increases.
Efficiency of Carnot engine:
If Q1 is the amount of heat absorbed by the gas from hot body and Q2 is the amount
of heat rejected to the cold body. Let w is the work done by engine in a cycle. Then
by 1st law of thermodynamics:
w = Q - u ; u = 0
w = Q1 – Q2 ___________________ (1)
u is zero because system returns to initial state. Let  is the efficiency of heat
engine.
output
Then, Efficiency =  100
input
w
=  100
Q1

PAGE - 25
 Q1  Q2
=  100
Q1
 Q2 
 = 1    100
 Q1 
if can also be proved that heat transferred to or from a Carnot Engine is directly
proportional to the temperature of the hot body (T1) or cold body (T2).
Such that:
Q1 T1

Q2 T2
so, above equation will be written as

 T2 
 = 1    100
 T1 
T T 
 =  1 2   100
 T1 

 T 
 =    100
 T1 
Entropy:
Measure of disorder ness of the system is called Entropy.
For a thermo dynamical system, entropy is defined as the amount of heat supplied
per degree rise in temperature.
If Q is the amount of heat supplied and T is temperature, then Entropy (s) will be:
Q
s =
T
unit J/K or (JK-1)

Second Law of thermodynamics In Terms of Entropy:

Statement:
When an isolated system undergoes a change, the entropy of the system remains
constant or it increases.

PAGE - 26
 Reasons:
5
Q1. For a mono atomic gas, show that: Cp = R.
2
Ans. Using Relation:
Cp – Cv = R ______________ (1)
Where
Cp = molar specific heat at constant pressure.
Cv = molar specific heat at constant volume.
R = General gas constant.
For a mono atomic gas:
3
CV = R
2
Put the value in eq (1)
We get
Cp – Cv = R
3
Cp - R=R
2
3
Cp = R + R
2
2 R  3R
Cp =
2
5
Cp = R Proved.
2

Q2. Why does a gas have two molar specific heats? Define them.
Ans. The molar specific heat of a gas depends upon either or not, the gas is allowed to
expand when it is heated, i.e. at constant volume or constant pressure.
When the volume of the gas is kept constant through out heating, molar specific heat
is called molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv). it is define as amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1K at constant
volume.
When the volume of the gas is keep changing during heating but the pressure of the
gas is kept constant. Throughout heating, molar specific heat of gas is called “molar
specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)”. it is define as amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1k at constant pressure.

Q3. Prove that “Cp” in greater than “Cv” in (Cp > Cv) .
Ans: Proof:
In constant volume process work done by system is zero. So the amount of heat
absorbed by the system is totally converted into the internal energy of the (by 1st law
of thermodynamics, Isochoric process). So the temperature of the system will
increase rapidly. Where as in constant pressure process (called Isobaric process).
System will done some work. So greater amount of heat is required to raise of the
temperature of the gas through unit degree as compared to the process which takes
place at constant volume. So it is prove that molar specific heat at constant pressure
(Cp) is greater than the molar specific heat constant volume (C v).

PAGE - 27
Q4. State Kelvin and Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics. Prove
that both statements are equivalent.
Ans. Kelvin Statement:
It is impossible to drive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a
temperature lower than that of the coldest of its surroundings.
Clausius Statement:
It is impossible to cause it heat to flow from a cold body to hot body with out the
expenditure of energy work.

We shall now prove that both statements are equivalent by showing that if either of
these statements is supposed to be false; the other must be falls.
We suppose that Kelvin’s statement is false, and then we could have a heat engine
with thermal efficiency 100%. If we connect this perfect heat engine to an ordinary
refrigerator; we can take heat from the hot body and converted it completely to work.
This work can be used to operate the refrigerator which conveys heat for cold body
to the hot body. The net result is a transfer of heat from a cold body to a hot body
without the expenditure of work which is contrary to the Clausius statement.

PAGE - 28
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. How do you distinguish between temperature and heat give example?
Ans: Heat is the energy flowing between bodies and surrounding due to the difference of
temperature. But temperature is a measure of the average translation kinetic energy
of the molecules of a body. If we dip a red hot iron ball in the sea, heat will flow the
amount of internal energy possessed by the ball is very small as compared to the
immense amount contained in the sea.

Q.2. Why is the earth not in thermal equilibrium with the sun?
Ans: The earth is not in the thermal equilibrium with the sun; because while the earth is
being warmed by the absorbed radiant energy, it is also losing heat in various ways
(e.g. re-radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation) Moreover, they are not in
perfect thermal contact with each other. The average temperature of the earth is
about 300 K.

Q.3. Is temperature a macroscopic concept?

Ans: Yes, temperature is a macroscopic concept.

Q.4. It is observed that when mercury in glass thermometer is put in a flame, the
column of mercury first descends and then rises. Explain.
Ans: when mercury in glass thermometer is put in a flame, the glass bulb expends. So the
column of mercury descends. But no sooner the heat reaches the mercury in the bulb,
it expends; and this expansion is greater than that of the glass bulb. So, now, the
mercury rises in the column.

Q.5. Is it correct that unit for specific heat capacity (c) is m2.s2.oC-1?
Ans: Yes, it is correct. Because c = Q
mT
The SI unit of c = Jkg C = N.m. kg-1 oC-1 = Kg m / sec2 m. kg-1 oC-1
-1 o -1

= m2 s2 oC-1

Q.6. What is the standard temperature?

Ans: The standard temperature is the ice-point at S.T.P., i.e. 0oC or 273 K.

Q.7. When a block with a hole in it is heated, why does not the material around the
hole expand into the hole and make it small?
Ans: Thermal expansion of homogeneous substance causes increase in all direction with
the same linear thermal expansion coefficient. This increase in all directions causes
an effective magnification of an object. So a hole in the block, on heating, expands
outward (i.e. becomes big).

Q.8. A thermometer is placed in direct sunlight. Will it read the temperature of the
air, or of the sun, or of something else?
Ans: This thermometer will record the temperature of the surroundings (thermometric
substance).

PAGE - 29
Q.9. Will one kilogram of hydrogen contain more than one kilogram of lead?
Explain.
Ans: Yes, one kilogram of hydrogen will contain more atoms than one kilogram of lead
because hydrogen atoms are much lighter then lead atoms (the atomic mass of
hydrogen is 207 times less than the atomic mass of lead).

Q.10. The pressure in a gas cylinder containing hydrogen will leak more quickly than
if it is containing oxygen. Why?
Ans: This is so because the hydrogen molecules are lighter than oxygen molecules (since
the molecular mass of hydrogen is 16 times less than the molecular mass of oxygen).
Molecular speed (and hence rate of diffusion) is inversely proportional to the
molecular mass. Hence hydrogen will leak more quickly than oxygen.

Q.11. What are some factors that affect the efficiency of automobile engine?
Ans: The efficiency of an automobile engine depends upon
Temperature of hot reservoir
Temperature of cold reservoir
Friction and heat losses (dissipative effect)

Q.12. What happens to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left
running on a table in the middle of the room?
Ans: When an air conditioner is left running on a table in the middle of a room, heat is
removed from the room by the air conditioner. But, heat is radiation on the other side
to the room by the coils (condenser) at the back of the refrigerator. The heat pumped
out the back of the air conditioner and into the room is greater than the heat pulled
into the front of the unit, as work done to remove the heat from cold hot puts into
the room an additional amount of heat Q1 = Q2 + W. Consequently, the air
conditioner warms the room.

Q.13. When a sealed thermos bottle full of hot coffee is shaken? What are the
changes, if any in?
Ans: The temperature of the coffee increase due to shaking.
The internal energy of the coffee increases. Infect, the work done in shaking the
coffee appears as increase in internal energy. Hence the temperature of the coffee
increases. (due to friction of walls of the flask)

Q.14. When an object is heated, not all the energy it absorbs goes into increasing the
velocity of the molecules? Explain where does the remaining energy go?
Ans: When an object is heated, not all the energy it absorbs goes into increasing the
velocity of the molecules. Some goes into the rotational motion of the molecules and
some into the internal vibration motion.

Q.15. If a pendulum clock has to keep correct time at different temperatures, will it
be better to use aluminum or steel?
Ans: It is better to use steel in a pendulum clock that has to keep correct time at different
temperatures because the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is almost half of
that of aluminum

PAGE - 30
Q.16. Why is the average velocity of the molecules of a gas zero but the average of the
squares of the velocities is not zero?
Ans: Due to the random motion of the molecules in a gas, the number of molecules, on the
average, moving with certain velocities along the positive x, y and z axis is equal to
the number of molecules moving along negative x, y and z axis with the same
velocities. Hence the average velocity of the molecules of a gas is zero. But,
however, the square of a negative component of velocity is also positive. Hence the
square of the molecular velocities is not zero.

Q.17. (a) What is kilo-mole of 72g of water? (b) What is the value of universal gas
constant in J . k mole-1 K-1?
Ans:
a) Kilo-mole is the mass of a substance in kilogram and is numerically equal to the
molecular mass of a substance in kilogram.

Mass of substance in kg m
Number of kilo-mole, n = →n=
Molecular mass in kg per mole M

72 x 10-3 kg
For water, n = = 4 x 10-3
18 kg / mole

a) R = 8.314 x 10-3 J. k mol-1 K-1

Q.18. Why does the pressure of a gas in an automobile tyre increase if the automobile
is driven for a while?
Ans: When an automobile is driven on road, it does work to over the friction between the
tyres and the road. So heat is produced. This, in turn, raises the temperature of the
gas. Since pressure is directly proportional to temperature, hence pressure of the gas
in the tyre increase.

Q.19. Under what condition can heat be added to a system without changing its
temperature?
Ans: Heat can be added without changing the temperature of the system.

 For a gaseous system, it can be achieved in an isothermal process.

 For a liquid, it can be achieved at the boiling point of the liquid.
 For a solid, it can be achieved at melting point of the solid.

Q.20. Is it possible to cool a room by keeping the refrigerator door open?

Ans: A room can not be cooled by leaving the door of an electric refrigerator open. What
ever heat Q2 is removed from the air directly in front of the open refrigerator is de-
positive directly back into the room at the rear of the unit. Also, work done to
remove the heat from cold to hot puts into the room an additional amount of heat: Q1
= Q2 + W. consequently, the refrigerator warms the room.

PAGE - 31
Q.21. When does the entropy of a system decrease?
Ans: When it rejects to the surroundings.

Q.22. Is it possible, according to the second law of the thermodynamics. to construct

an engine that is free from thermal pollution?
Ans: It is not possible to construct an engine free from thermal pollution since heat
rejected to a sink is an essential requirement. This sink is the atmosphere to which
the heat rejection results in thermal pollution. The small temperature changes have
disruptive effects on the overall ecological balance. Thermal pollution is an
invertible consequence of the second law of thermodynamics.

Q.23. When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, do they have the same amount of
kinetic energy?
Ans: Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules of a system. However, the systems with the same average translational
kinetic energy have the same temperature, even if one has greater internal energy
(due to greater rotational and vibration energy)
Q.24. What do you mean by “heat is energy in transit”?
Ans: Heat is not the energy that a body contains; it refers to the amount of energy
transferred from a hot body to a cold body.

Q.25. What is the nature of graph between the length and temperature of a heated
metal rod?
Ans: The graph between length and temperature is a straight line (linear relationship).

Q.26. How much work should be done to produce 1 calorie of heat?

Ans: 4.2 J, since W = JQ. When work is in Joule and quantity of heat is measured in
calories, then Joule’s constant.
J = W/Q = 4.2 J/cal.

Q.27. Why are the values of molar heat capacities of substance (with a few exceptions)
are the same, i.e. almost mole-1 K-1?
Ans: In case of molar heat capacity, we add heat energy to the some number of molecules,
irrespective of the nature of the substance. Thus C = cM = 25 J mole -1 K-1.

PAGE - 32
Q.28. Why is the specific heat of polyatomic gasses higher than that of monatomic
gasses? Calculate specific heat ratio () of a monatomic gas.
Ans: In a monatomic gas, the whole of the supplied is used up in increasing the
translational kinetic energy, i.e. its temperature. But in diatomic or polyatomic
gasses, the heat energy supplied is wasted in increasing the rotational kinetic energy
and vibration kinetic energy. Thus to obtain the same range of temperature, more
heat is required for polyatomic gasses.
Increase of KE of 1 molecule of monatomic gas = 3/2 kT
Increase of KE of 1 mole of monatomic gas = N A ( 3/2 kT )
Increase of KE of I mole of monatomic gas per Kelvin = 3/2 k N A
Increase of KE of I mole of monatomic gas per Kelvin = 2/3 R

 CV = 3/2 R = 3/2 x 8.3 = 12 J mole-1 K-1

 Cp = CV + R = 3/2 R + R = 5/2 R = 20.75 J mole-1 K-1

Cp 20.75
 = = 1.667
CV 12

Q.29. Work can be converted completely into heat ( W  Q ), so can heat be

converted completely into work?
Ans: A given amount of heat cannot be completely converted into work, as some of the
heat energy is used up in increasing the internal energy of the system. If heat is
converted completely to work, then efficiency of heat engine will be 100. This
violates the second law of thermodynamics.

Q.30. Entropy has often been called as “time arrow”. Explain?

Ans: Entropy is called “time arrow”, because it tells us in which direction the time is
going. The normal sequence of events is that in which disorder increase with time.

PAGE - 33
CHAPTER - 12

PAGE - 34
 THEORY
The study of electric charges at rest is known as “Electrostatics”.
Electric Charge:
Electric charge is the property of the bodies (i.e. electron, proton, etc) by which they
attract or repel other bodies. There are two kinds of charges positive and negative. Like
charges attract each other and unlike charges attract each other. Charge is quantized and
the smallest unit of charge is the charge of electron (e = 1.6x10-19 coul).
Coulomb’s Law:
He was a French physists, named Charles Augustin and he used torision balance.
Statement:
The force of attraction or repulsion between two static point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically:
 r 
q1 q2
Consider two points’ charges q1 and q2 placed at a distance ‘r’ from each other. The
electrostatic force (F) between them will be:
F  q1 q2 ___________ i
1
F  ___________ ii
r2
Combining equation i and ii
q1 q 2
F
r2
qq
F = K 1 22 ____________ (A)
r
Where ‘K’ is the constant of proportionality. It’s value depend upon the nature of
medium between two charges.

i. For Free Space (Vacuum):

`If the medium in free space (Vacuum) between two charges than value of ‘K’ is given
as:
1
K=
4 o
and it’s value is approximately is 9x109Nm2/coul2
where ‘o’ is called “permittivity of Free space”. It’s value is 8.85x10-12 C2/Nm2.
So equation (A) will be
1 qq
F= . 1 22
4 o r
And vector form is
1 qq
F= . 1 22 r̂
4 o r
‘ r̂ ’ is the unit vector specify the direction of force.

PAGE - 35
ii. For Dielectric Medium:
If the medium between charges is not a free space (vacuum) then the value of “k” is
given as:
1
K= ______________ (1)
4 
Where, ‘’ is the permittivity of the dielectric medium. Let ‘r’ the relative permittivity
of the medium it is given as:
r = 
o
or
 = or
So, equation 1 will
1
1 => K=
4 o r
So, the equation A will have the form
q1 q 2
A => F=K
r2
or
1 qq
F= . 1 22
4 o r r

Unit of Charge:
The SI unit of charge is ‘coulomb’ (C). it is defined as:
“If two Equal charges placed in vacuum are 1m part and the force exerted is 9x10 9 N
then each charge is of magnitude 1C”.

Electric Field:
The modified Region or Space around the charge in which it can attract or Repel other
charge bodies is called Electric Field. It is a Vector Quantity.

Electric Field Intensity (E):

Electric Field Intensity (or strength) is defined as: the force experienced by the test
charge in the given field of charge.
Or
It is also define as:
“Force acting per unit test charge in the given electric field”.
Let ‘F’ is the Electric Force Experienced by the test charge ‘qo’ (i.e. a positive charge of
very small magnitude). The by Definition.
Electric field intensity

= Force / Charge

F
E =
qo
It is a Vector quantity. Its direction is same as that of the force.
The SI unit is Newton/ coulomb (N/C) and volt/ meter (Volt/m) or Vm-1.

PAGE - 36
 Electric Field Intensity Due to a Point Charge:
qo (Test charge)
 
+q r p
( point charge)

Consider a point charge (+q) and a test charge (qo) at a distance ‘r’ from point charge. Then
by Coulomb’s law force experienced by the test charge is:
E
1 qq
 F= . 1 2 2 (+) - - - - - - - - 
4 o r
or E P
1 q qo
F= . 2 (-) - - - - - - - - 
4 o r
E
Then the Electric Field Intensity (E) at a point ‘p’ is given as:


F
E =
qo
or
F
E =
qo

1 q qo
. 2
4 o r
E=
qo
1 q 1
E= . 2 ;K=
4 o r 4 o
Kq
E=
r2
Kq
Vector form: E= . r̂
r2

For Dielectric Medium:

If dielectric medium is present between two charges than
1 q
E= . 2
4 o r r

PAGE - 37
Electric Lines of Forces:
Electric line is a imaginary line drawn in an electric field such that the direction of the
tangent at any point represents the direction of the electric field at the point. The electric
lines of forces originate from positive charge and terminate on a negative charge. They
are continuous and cannot intersect each other.

+ –

Electric Flux:
Flux is a Latin word for flow. Electric flux is defines as: Number of electric lines of
forces crossing the surface normally is called Electric flux through the surface.
OR
Electric flux through the surface is equal to the scalar product (Dot product) of electric
field intensity and area vector normal to the surface.
Mathematically:
Let E is the electric field intensity and A is the area vector normal to the surface placed
in the electric field. The by definition electric flux (E). through the surface will be
Electric Flux (E) = E . A E
E = E A cos 

where ‘’ is the angle between E and A.

Electric flux is scalar quantity. The SI
unit is of electric flux is Nm2C-1 or
(Nm2 / C).
 condition for +ve flux (maximum):
From figure
  = 0o
so

PAGE - 38
 E = E A cos 
E = E A cos (0)
E = E A
 condition for zero flux (Minimum):
from figure
  = 90o
so
E = E A cos 
E = E A cos (90)
E = 0
 condition for -ve flux:
for figure
  = 180o
so
E = E A cos 
E = E A cos (180)
E = - E A

Electric Flux Through A Sphere Due To Charge At Centre:

Consider a hollow sphere of radius A
‘r’ and ‘q’ is the point charge place at its E
centre as shown in figure.
In order to calculate the electric flux (E)
through the sphere, it is divided into
small elements, each of area A.
The electric field is uniform for each r
element. +q
So, the electric flux through each element
will be.
 E = E.A
E = E A cos  ;  = 0 (from figure)
E = E A cos 0
E = E A
and the total outward flux (E) through the sphere will be
E = E
E = E.A
E = E  A
 A = Area of sphere = 4r2
so
E = E (4r2) _________________ (1)
1 q
by definition: E= . 2
4 o r

PAGE - 39
so eq (1)
E = E (4r2)
1 q
E = . 2 (4r2)
4 o r
q
E =
o

Gauss’s Law:
K.F. Gauss a German physicist was giving the relation between electric flux and net
charge enclosed by a surface.
Statement:
The total outward flux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed
divided by “o”.
Mathematically:
Consider a closed surface enclosing the total charge ‘q’ than by Gauss’s law total
outward flux will be
Charge enclosed
Total outward Flux =
o
q
E =
o
Proof:
Consider a closed surface of arbitary shape. Let, q1, q2, q3, . . . . qn is the charges
enclosed by the surface.
Total charges = q = q1 + q2 + q3 + . . . . + qn

In order to calculate total outward flux through the surface it is divided into small and
equal elements such that each part is so small that it is almost a plane.
Let 1,  2, 3 , . . . . n is the electric flux due to
q1, q2, q3, . . . . . qn consider a imaginary surface (Gaussian surface) around each
charge in the form of sphere then the flux due each charge will be:
q1
Electric flux due to q1 = 1 =
o
q
Electric flux due to q2 = 2 = 2
o
q
Electric flux due to q3 = 3 = 3
o

qn
Electric flux due to qn = n =
o
Total outward flux (E) is sum of the flux due to
each charge.

E = 1+ 2 + 3 + . . . . + n
q1 q q q
E = + 2 + 3 + . . . .+ n
o o o o

PAGE - 40
 1
E = ( q1 + q2 + q3 + . . . . + qn)
o

q
E =
o
Hence proved that total outward flux through any closed surface is equal to charge
enclosed divided by o.

Application’s of Gauss’s Law:

i. Electric Field Intensity Due to Sphere of Charge:
Consider a sphere of charge of radius ‘a’
on which charge ‘q’ is uniformity distributed.
I order to calculate Electric field Intensity (E)
at point ‘p’ outside the sphere. Consider a
Gaussian Surface in the form of sphere of
radius ‘r’ containing point ‘p’ as shown.
To calculate the Electric Field through the
surface it is divided into small elements each
by area ‘DA’. So the Electric Field through each
element () will be:
.: E = EA Cos ;  = 0o
’E = EA
and total our ward flux (E) will
E = E
E = E A
 A = Area of sphere = 4r2
so, E = E 4r2 ____________ (i)
and by Gauss’s law:
charge enclosed
E =
o
q
E =
o ____________ (ii)
comparing equation (i) and (ii)
q
E 4r2 =
o
1 q
E= . 2
4 o r ______________ (A)
This is the equation for electric field intensity outside the sphere.

PAGE - 41
 Electric Field on Surface:
If point ‘P’ is on the surface of the sphere than r  a
So from eq (A)
1 q
E= . 2
4 o r
1 q
E= . 2 _________________ (B)
4 o a
In Terms of Charge Density ():
Let () is the surface charge density of the sphere which is define as charge per unit area
of the sphere.
So,
ch arg e
=
area
q
=
4a 2
q =  (4a2)
Put the value in equation (B)
We get
1 q
E= . 2
4 o a
1  (4a 2 )
E= .
4 o a2

E= Proved
o
Field inside the sphere:
If the point ‘P’ is inside the sphere (r < a) then outward flux will be zero because
Gaussian surface enclosed zero charge.
So, q = 0, E = 0
E=0 inside the sphere field is zero.

ii. Electric Field Intensity Due to Infinite Sheet of Charge:

Consider an insulating sheet of charge on infinite extend on which charge is uniformally
distributed and  is the surface charge density of the sheet. Suppose a small portion of
the sheet as shown in figure. In order to calculate the electric field intensity (E) at a
point ‘P’ near the sheet. Consider a Gaussian surface in the form of cylinder of cross –
section area (A) containing point P. the cylinder emerges out perpendicularly and
equally on both side. The total outward flux through this Gaussian surface will be
E = 1 + 2 + 3 _____________ 1
where 1 and 2 is the flux through flat surfaces which is suppose to be same and 3 is
flux through curved surface.
For  and 2:
E = E.A = EA cos 
  = 0o
E = E A cos 
1 = E A cos (0)
1 = E A

PAGE - 42
similarly
2 = E A
for 3:
3 = E A cos  ;  = 90o
3 = E A cos (90)
3 = 0

so, equation 1 will be

1  E = 1 + 2 + 3
E = EA + EA + 0
E = 2 EA _____________ (A)

By Gauss’s law:
charge enclosed
Total outward flux =
o
q
E =
o ____________ (ii)
ch arg e
By definition, surface charge density =
area
q
=
A
q=A
so, equation (ii) will be:
q
E =
o
A
E = ______________ (B)
o
comparing equation (A) and (B)
A
2 EA =
o

E= Hence proved
2 o
In vector form:

E= r̂
2 o
Where is the unit vector in the direction E.

PAGE - 43
iii. Electric Field Intensity At A Point between Two Oppositely
Charged Sheets:
Consider two infinite sheets of charges of opposite polarity on which charge is equally
and uniformally distributed. Let ‘’ is the surface charge density of each plates and E+ is
electric intensity due to +ve plate and E- is electric intensity due to –ve plate at that
point.
Then electric field intensity is given as:

E+ =
2 o

E- =
2 o
And total electric field intensity (E) at ‘P’ will be
E = E + + E-
 
E= +
2 o 2 o
2
E=
2 o

E=
o
It is directed towards –ve plate.

In vector form:

E= r̂
o
r̂ is the unit vector in direction of E.

Electric Potential (v):

Electric potential at a point in field of charge is define as:
“Potential energy of test charge per unit charge”.
P.E of Test Charge
 Electric potential =
qo
u
Or V=
qo
Unit: SI unit of electric potential is volt.

Potential Difference:
The electric potential difference between
two points is defined as:
“The change in potential energy of the test
charge per unit charge between two points.
OR
The electric potential difference between two
points is defined as:
“The work done in moving the test between
two points per unit charge is called p.d
between two points”.

PAGE - 44
Formula:
By 1st definition:
Change in P.E
Potential difference =
qo
u
V =
qo
UB U A U B U A
V = = 
qo qo qo
V = VA – VB

By 2nd definition:
work done B/W two points
Potential difference =
qo
W A B w
V = or V =
qo qo
1J
Unit: SI unit is volt (voltage) and 1V =
1C

Definition of Volt:
1 volt is the p.d between the points when 1 joule work is done in moving a charge of 1C
between two points against the field.

Relation between Electric Field Intensity and Potential

Difference:
In order to discuss the relation between
electric field intensity (E) and potential
difference (V) between two points.
Consider a test charge (qo) is moved from
point A to B against the field through a
displacement s. then potential difference
(V) between two points will be

work done B/W two points

Potential difference =
qo
s = d = displacement
W A B
V =
qo

F .d
V =
qo
F .s
V =
qo
FsCos
V = ;  = 180o (against the field)
qo

PAGE - 45
 FsCos180
V =
qo
 F = qoE

qo Es(1)
V =
qo

V =  Es
v
E=-
s
v
Where ( ) is called potential gradient. So electric field intensity is equal to the
s
“Negative of the potential gradient”.
The electric field intensity in terms of its components (3 – dimensional case).
v v v
Ex = - , Ey = - , Ez = -
x y z

Potential Difference between two points (Very Far) due to an

Isolated Point Charge:
OR
Electric potential Due to an Isolated point charge:
Consider an isolated point
charge ‘q’. in order to calculate
potential difference (or electric
potential) due to point charge.
Consider two points A and B in
a straight line very far from each
other in the field of given charge
as shown. To calculate the p.d
between two points using relation ( V = -Es).
The distance between points is divided
into small and equal intervals. First we
calculate the p.d across each interval
and p.d between two points A and B
will be sum of each interval.
From figure: Let
rA = Distance of point ‘A’ from the ‘q’.
rB = Distance of point ‘B’ from the ‘q’.
r1 = Distance of point 1 from the ‘q’.
r = Average of the 1st interval from ‘q’.
or
Distance from the middle of the 1st interval from ‘q’.

PAGE - 46
Derivation for r:
r1  rA
 r= ______________ (1)
2
from fig: rA = r1 + r ; (r = length of interval which is small)
r = rA – r1
so,
r1  rA
(1)  r=
2
r1  r1  r
r=
2
2r1  r
r=
2
 2r1  r 
2

r =
2

 2 
4r 21  4r1 r  r 
2

r2 =
4
B/C r is small so square power is neglected.
So,
4r 21  4r1r
r2 =
4
r2 = r 12 + r1r ; (r = rA – r1 )
r = r + r1 (rA – r1)
2 2

r2 = r 1 2 + r 1 rA – r1 2
r2 = r 1 rA _____________ (A)
r = r1rA

Potential difference for 1st Interval (V1) :

let V1 is the p.d for 1st Interval than:
.: V = - s
or
V1 = - E (r1 – rA) ; s = change in displacement s = r1 – rA
V1 = E (rA – r1)
Kq 1 q
 E= = . 2
r 2
4 o r
So,
V1 = E (rA – r1)
Kq
V1 = (rA – r1)
r2
(r  r )
V1 = Kq A 2 1
r
 A => r2 = r A r1
So
(rA  r1 )
V1 = Kq
rA r1
 rA r 
V1 = Kq  1 
 rA r1 rA r1 
PAGE - 47
 1 1 
V1 = Kq  
 r1 rA 
Similarly for 2nd Interval from point 1 to 2:
1 1
V2 = Kq  
 2 r1 
r
1 1
V3 = Kq  
 r3 r2 
1 1
Vn = Kq  
 B rA 
r
and the total p.d between two points will :
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + … Vn

1 1
Vn = Kq  
 B rA 
r

Absolute Potential:
“Absolute potential at a point is work done in moving a test charge from infinity to that
point against the field.”
If we assume that point ‘A’ is at infinity then,
rA   and VA  0
So,
1 1
B => VB - V A = Kq  
 rB rA 
or
 1 1
VB – 0 = Kq  
 rB  
1 
VB = Kq  0 
 rB 
Kq
VB =
rB
or, dropping the subscribed
Kq
V=
r
or
1 q
V= .
4 o r

Electron Volt:
Electron Volt is a unit of energy used in atomic physics.
1ev = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Definition:
One electron is the energy acquired by an electron in falling through p.d of 1 volt.

PAGE - 48
Equipotential Surfaces:
An equipotential Surface is the surface consisting of a set of points all having the same
potential.
Or
The surfaces that represent the graphical distribution of potential is an electric field is
known as Equipotential Surfaces.

Capacitor:
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and energy. A simplest capacitor
consists of two similar metal plates of any shape, carrying equal and opposite charges
separated from each other by an insulating medium (called ‘dielectric’). It observed that
charge store by capacitor is depends upon the p.d across its plates and nature of medium
of the plates.
Mathematically:
Let ‘q’ is the charge stored on any one plate of the capacitor and ‘v’ is the p.d across it
then:
qv
or
q = CV
or
q
C=
V
Where “C” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Capacitance of capacitor”. It’s
unit is Farad (F). it’s value depend unpon the dimensions of the plates and dielectric medium
between the plates.

Capacitance:
Capacitance of a capacitor is the ability to store charge. It may also define as:
“Charge store by capacitor per unit volt”.
q
 capacitance C=
V
Unit: S I unit is Farad (F).

Smaller units are:

i. Micro farad ( F)
ii. Pico Farad (PF)

Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor:

A parallel plate capacitor consist of two
metal plates placed parallel to each other
and an insulating medium is inserted
between them as shown let ‘d’ is the
distance between plates and ‘A’ is the
area of each plate.

PAGE - 49
Capacitance with Air (Vacuum)
between its plates:
Let ‘q’ is the charge on each plate and
‘V’ is the p.d across the plates.
Then capacitance (C) of the capacitor is given as:
q
C= ___________ i
V

Using equation:
V = Es
or
V = Ed ___________ ii
Where, ‘E’ is the electric field intensity between the plates. By Gauss’s law.

E=
o
  = surface charge density
q
=
A
 q 
E=  
A
so
o
q
E=
A o
Put the value in equation (ii)
V = Ed
q
V= d
A o
Put the value in equation (i)
q
C=
V
q
C=
qd
A o
A o
C= ____________ A
d

From equation it is calculate that:

Capacitance of capacitor is directly proportional to the Area and inversely proportional
to the distance (separation) between the plates.

PAGE - 50
 Capacitance when Dielectric Medium between the Plates:
Let ‘c’ is the capacitance of the capacitor when dielectric medium of permittivity ‘’ is
present between the plates. Then capacitance will be given as:
Q
C = _____________ iii
V/
 V = Ed
 
V =   d
E
 E = or ; r = Relative permittivity of the
medium

  
V =   d
 o r 
Qd
V =
A o r

Put the value in equation (iii)

Q
Eq (iii)  C =
V/
Q
C =
Qd
A o r
A o r
C =
d

A o
C = r
d
A o
 =C
d

C = Cr

Combination of Capacitors:
There are two basic combinations of capacitors.
i. Parallel Combination of Capacitors
ii. Series Combination of Capacitors

PAGE - 51
1. PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS:
Capacitors are said to be connected C1
in parallel when they are joined across
the same two points. q1
Consider three capacitor of capacitance C2
C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel and
‘v’ is the potential different across the q2
combination as shown in figure. C3
In parallel combination charge across q3
each capacitor is different but potential
difference is same each capacitor. +
Let q1, q2, q3 is the charge across +V
C1, C2, C3 respectively.
For C1:
 q1 = C1V
For C2:
 q2 = C2V
For C3:
 q3 = C3V
let ‘q’ is the total charge of the combination and ‘C’ is the total capacitance of the
combination.
 q = q 1 + q2 + q 3
 q = CV
CV = C1V + C2V + C3V
CV = V (C1+ C2+ C3)
C = C 1 + C2 + C 3
“When capacitor connected in parallel total capacitance is equal to the sum of the
individual capacitance”.

2. Series Combination of Capacitor:

C1 C2 C3
a b c d

V1 V2 V3
q q

+ -
V
Capacitor’s are said to be connected in series when they are joined end to end.
Consider three capacitors of different capacitance C1, C2, and C3 connected in parallel
and ‘V’ is the potential difference across the combination as shown.
In series combination potential difference across each capacitor is different and charge is
some across each capacitor. Let V1, V2 and V3 is the potential difference across C1, C2
and C3 respectively. Let ‘q’ is the charge across the combination.

PAGE - 52
For C1:
q
V1 =
C1
For C2:
q
V2 =
C2
For C3:
q
V3 =
C3
Let ‘C’ is the total (equivalent) capacitance of the combination.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
q
V=
C
q q q q
So, = + +
C C1 C 2 C 3
q 1 1 1
=q( + + )
C C1 C 2 C 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C 2 C 3
“when capacitors connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total capacitance of the
combination is equal the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitance”.

Compound Capacitor:
A compound capacitor is one where the space between the plates is partially filled with
a dielectric medium.
Consider a capacitor containing air and slab of dielectric medium between the plates.
Let
t = thickness of dielectric medium slab. (b)
d = distance between the plates.
do = Thickness of air
do = d – t
do = d – t
This system serves as two capacitors t d
in series as shown fig (b). let ‘C’ is
the capacitor with dielectric medium
and “C” is the capacitance of capacitor
with air and Cd is the capacitance of
the compound capacitor. Compound capacitor
Then

1 1 1
= /  do – d – t air
Cd C C
using relation
A o
C=
do
A
C = t dielectric
dt

PAGE - 53
slab
Where, A = area of the plates
 = permittivity of the dielectric medium
solving equation (A)
1 1 1
(A)  = / 
Cd C C
1 C C/
=
Cd C /C

CC /
Cd =
C/ C
 A o
 A  
  
 do  t 
Cd =
 A    A o 
 
 t   d o 
A 2 o 
dot
Cd =
A  d o  A o t
dot

A 2 o 
Cd =
A( d o  A o t )
A o 
Cd =  = or
( d o  o t )
A o (o r )
Cd =
(o r d o  o t )
A o r
2

Cd =
o (r d o  t )
A o r
Cd =
r d o  t
A o
Cd =
(d o  t r )
A o
Cd =
t
(d  t ) 
r

Types of Capacitors:
i. Multiplate Capacitor.
ii. Electrolytic capacitor
iii. Variable capacitor.

PAGE - 54
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. Repulsion is the sure test of electrification. Explain?
Ans: Electrostatic attraction is observed between oppositely charged bodies and
also between a charged (+ve or –ve) and an uncharged body. But, however, only two
charges of the same kind (both +ve or both –ve) can repel each other. Hence, repulsion
is the sure test of electrification.

Q.2. Will a solid metal sphere hold a large electric charge then a hollow
sphere of the same diameter? Where the charge does resides in each case?
Ans: A solid metal sphere will hold the same amount of charge as is held by a
hollow sphere of the same diameter. This is due to the fact that any excess electric
charge resides only on the outer surface of a conductor.

Q.3. Explain why is it so much easier to remove an electron from an atom of

large atomic mass than it is to remove a proton?
Ans: In an atom of large atomic mass, the number of both protons and electrons is
large. This big atom contains many orbits (or shells). So it is easier to remove an
electron from its outermost orbit. The heavy positive nucleus exerts weaker coulomb
attraction force on it as compared to an electron in the innermost shell (e.g. K shell).
However, protons are in the nucleuses which are held very strongly by strong nuclear
forces.

Q.4. Why is it not correct to say that potential difference is the work done in
moving a unit positive charge between the points concerned?
Ans: The potential difference is the increase in electric potential energy (or work) per
unit charge. So, if a small positive charge (qo) is moved against the electric field
between the two points, then the work divided by the amount of charge (w/qo) gives the
p.d.

Q.5. Why is it logical say that the potential of an earth connected object is zero?
What can be said about the charge on the earth?
Ans: Practically, the earth is taken to be at zero potential. If a charged body is connected
to the earth by a conductor, electron flow takes place such that the charge of the body is
neutralized.
The earth is a reason sly good conductor.
It is a huge neutral body. It is considered as an
Infinite sink to which electrons can easily migrate
Without changing its potential

Q.6. Can an electric potential exist at a point in a region where the field is zero?
Can the potential be zero at a place where the electric field intensity is not zero?
Give example to illustrate your reasoning.
Ans: Yes. Electric potential can exist where the electric intensity is zero. The electric
charge resides on the outer surface of a hollow sphere. At all points inside the sphere,
the electric field intensity is zero. Otherwise the field lines would link the charges of
opposite sign in the sphere. Thus no work is done when a charge is moved between two
points inside the sphere. Hence, potential is the same at all points through out the

PAGE - 55
sphere, and equals that at the surface, i.e. potential is constant inside and no the surface.

 Electric potential can be zero at a point where electric intensity is not zero. For
example, consider a point in the middle of two equal and opposite charges. There the
electric potential is

V=Kq/r +k -q / r = 0

But the net electric intensity is toward the negative charge.

 Both the potential and intensity are zero for a point at infinity.

Q.7. An air capacitor is charged to a certain potential difference. It is then

immersed in oil. What happens to its (a) charge (b) potential and (c) capacitance?
Ans: The dielectric constant €r of oil is greater than that of air. When an air capacitor is
immersed in oil (after disconnecting the battery), then:

1. its change remain constant (since there is no path for charge transfer);
2. p.d. between the plates decreases (and also the electric field is weakened) by a
factor 1/€r.
3. the capacitance increase (since C= q / V) by a factor €r.

Q.8. Two unlike capacitors of different potential and charges are joining in
parallel. What happens to their potential difference? How are their charges
distributed? Is the energy of the system affected?
Ans: When two unlike capacitors of different potentials and charges are joined in
parallel, then:
1. The resultant p.d. will be less than the highest applied p.d. on one capacitor. This
resultant p.d. will be the same for the two capacitors in parallel;
2. The charge is redistributed and the capacitor of higher capacitance will have more
charge (since q = CV) ;
3. The energy of the system will decrease. The missing energy is used in heating the
wires.
Q.9. Four similar capacitors are connected in series and joined to a 36 v battery.
The mid point of the group is earthed. What is the potential of the terminal of the
group?
Ans: If two similar capacitors are connected in series, joined to a 36v battery and if the
mid point of the group is earthed, then there is no transfer of charge. This mid point is
between two oppositely charged plates (of C2 and C3). Hence p.d. across the end of the group
will remain the same (i.e. 36v).

Q.10. A point charge is placed at the centre of a spherical Gaussian surface. Is the
flux changed?
1. If the spherical Gaussian surface is replaced by a cube of the same volume.
2. If the sphere is replaced by a cube of 1/10 of this volume.
3. If the charge is moved from the centre in the sphere.
4. If the charge is moved outside the sphere.
5. If a second charge is placed inside the sphere.
Ans: 1. No 2. No 3. No 4. Yes 5. Yes

PAGE - 56
Q.11. Four capacitors each of 2uF connected in such a way that the total
capacitance is also 2uF. Show what combination gives this value?
Ans: To get an equivalent capacitance of 2uF, the four capacitors, each of 2uF, can be
combined in (i) two pairs of parallel combination or (ii) two pairs of series capacitors
combined in parallel.

Q.12. A capacitor is charged by a battery. The battery is disconnected and a slab of

some dielectric is slipped between the plates. Describe what happens to the charge,
potential difference, capacitance and the stored energy?
Ans: When a capacitor is charged, battery is disconnected, and a slab of some dielectric
(of relative permittivity €r) is inserted, then:

1. The charge remains constant (since there is no path for transfer of the charge);
2. The p.d. decreases (and also the electric field is weakened) by a factor €r ;
3. The capacitance increase (since C = q / v) by a factor
4. The energy stored will decrease by a factor 1 / €r (since , energy = ½ qV),
which is used in polarizing the dielectric.

Q.13. Answer Question 12. if the battery is not disconnected?

Ans: When a capacitor is charged and the battery is not disconnected, and a slab of
some dielectric (of relative permittivity €r ) is increased, then;
1. The charge increase (additional charge is delivered by the battery).
2. The p.d. (and also the electric field) remains constant.
3. The capacitance increase (since C = q / v).
4. The energy stored will increase (since, energy ½ qV = ½ CV2).

Q.14. A capacitor is connected across a battery. Why does each plate receive a
charge of the same magnitude? Will it be true if the plates are of different sizes?
Ans: When a capacitor is connected to a battery, such that +ve, terminal ‘b’ is at higher
potential than the plate B, then electrons are drawn toward, ‘b’ from B. however, the –ve
terminal ‘a’ is at potential than the plate A, so the electrons are drawn the plate A from
‘a’. Thus B is positively charged. The charging stops when V AB = V. if the sizes of the
plates are different, then the plate of larger area will receive more amount of charge.

Q.15. Write electric field statements analogous to the following in gravitational field. 1.
Water flows from a higher level to a lower level; 2. Water always maintains its level; 3.
The total mass is conserved; 4. When a body falls through a height ‘h’ it losses potential
energy and gains kinetic energy?
Ans: The analogous statements are:
1. Electric charge flows from a higher potential to a lower potential.
2. Charge always maintains its potential.
3. The total charge is conserved.
4. When a charge body falls through a potential difference, it losses its electrical
potential energy and gains kinetic energy.
PAGE - 57
Q.16. Is it true that “an alternating current can pass through a capacitor while
a direct current”. Explain?
Ans: A capacitor is said to ‘block’ direct current or voltage. That is, there is no current
through a capacitor by a steady direct voltage. However, when the capacitor is connected across
an a.c. supply, the capacitor (or plates) are continuously charged and discharged (during
alternate quarter cycle), and charged the other way round by the alternating voltage. The current
thus flows round the circuit. A capacitance that allows alternating current offers opposition (in
ohms), called capacitive reactance (X-C).

Q.17. The unit of permittivity C2 N-1 is the same as Fm-1. How?

Ans:
F = C/V = C x 1 = C x 1 = C2 = C2 = C2
M m V m J/C m J.m N.m.m N.m2

Q.18. What happens if a charge is moved in an electric field?

Ans: A charge is displaced in two ways:
1. Against the electric field (say from point A to B): then work is done on the
charge. This increase electric potential energy thus ∆ (P.E.) = q∆V.
2. in the direction of the electric field (from B to A): then p.e. decreases which
appears as increase in K.E. thus ∆ (K.E.) = ½ mv2
Since ∆ P.E = ∆ K.E
q∆V = ½ mV2

Q.19. What will be the flux through a closed surface which does not contain any
charge?
Ans: As the surface encloses no charge, so the flux is zero.
From Gauses’ Law: Ǿ = q / € o = 0 / €o = 0

Q.20. What is the flux, electric field intensity and potential inside a charged
sphere?
Ans: Both the flux and the intensity are zero inside a charged sphere. The potential
inside a charged sphere is the same as at its surface.

Q.21. An uncharged conducting spherical shell is placed in the field of a positive

charge q. what will be the net flux through the shell? What is the unit of electric
flux?
Ans: According to Guass’ law, the net flux through the shell will be zero as then it
contains no charge. The SI unit of electric flux is N. m2 C-1.

Q.22. Is electrical p.d. same as electrical p.e?

Ans: No, electrical p.e. is the total work done in moving certain charge q from one point
to another against electric intensity.
Thus, UB – UA = WA  B = ∆W
Electric p.d. is the work done in moving a unit positive a unit positive charge from one
point to another against electric intensity.
Since VB – VA = ∆W / qo = ∆U / qo
Now, a relation between them is: ∆U = qo ∆V

Q.23. Why is water not used as a dielectric?

Ans: The near impossibly of removing all impurities dissolved in water makes it
unsuitable in practice as a dielectric.
PAGE - 58
CHAPTER - 13

PAGE - 59
 THEORY
The field of electrodynamics or current electricity deals with the study of electric charges in
motion. The substances through which electric charges can flow very easily are called
conductors (e.g. Gold, silver, copper etc.) the substances through which Electric charges
cannot flow called Insulators. (e.g. rubber, wood, paper, dry air, etc)

Electric Current:
Electric Current through a Cross-Section of conductor is the flow (movement) of
Electric charges under an electric field in one direction.
OR
The strength of electric current in a conductor is the number electric charges
(electron) which pass any section of a conductor in unit time.
It ‘q’ is the quality of electric charges flowing in unit time ‘t’ then by definition.
Ch arg e
Electric Current =
time
q
I=
t
The SI unit of current is Ampere (A)
So,
1C
1A =
1Sec
Definition:
one ampere is the Electric current when 1-coulomb of charge passes through any
section of a conductor per Second.

Direction of Current:

1) Electronic Current;
An Electric Current through a conductor is due to the movement of free
electrons. These electrons always flow from lower potential (negative
terminal) to a higher potential opposite to the electric field. This current is
known as electronic current.

2) Conventional Current:
The early experimenters with electricity through that current really was a flow
of positive charges. The current which is due to the flow of an equivalent
positive charge from a higher potential (+ve terminal) to a lower potential (-ve
terminal) is called “Conventional current”.
The direction of convential current is the direction in which positive charges
would flow. However this is in the opposite direction to the actual flow of
negative charged electrons.

PAGE - 60
Ohm’s Law:
George Simon Ohm made an investigation of the relation between the potential difference
and current flowing through a conductor.
Statement:
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between
its ends provided that physical conditions remains constant.
Mathematical Expression:
Ohm’s law mathematically is expressed as:
V = IR
Where,
‘V’ is the potential difference across the ends of a conductor, ‘I’ is the current through it
and ‘R’ is the resistance of it.
Explanation:
If ‘I’ is the current through a conductor and ‘V’ is the potential difference at its ends then
by Ohm’s law.
IV
I = KV _______________ (i)
Where ‘K’ is the constant of proportionality is called conductance. It measures the ease to
the flow of current. Its value depend upon the nature of material and its physical state. Its
unit is (mho) or Simens.
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current through a conductor. It is the reciprocal
of conductance and depends upon the nature and physical state of conductor. It is denoted
by ‘R’.
So,
1 1
K= Or R=
R K
Hence, equation (i) will be
(i)  I = KV
1
I=( )V
R
V = IR
Unit of Resistance:
The SI unit of resistance is “Ohm” denoted by””. From equation:
V = IR
V
R=
I
1(Volt )
1 ohm =
1(ampere)
so, 1ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 ampere flows when a
potential difference of 1 volt applied across its ends.
Graphical Representation of
Ohm’s Law:
The graph between the potential difference
and current through a given conductor is a
straight line as shown provided physical
condition vcmain unchanged I
Relation Between Resistance and Resistibility:
Or V

PAGE - 61
Relation between Resistance and Resistivity:

OR
Dependence of Resistance on other Factors:
For a given temperature, Resistance of conductor depends upon fallowing factors:
1. The length (L) of the conductor, the longer the conductor, the greater should be
the resistance.
2. The cross – sectional area (A) of the conductor, thicker the conductor less will be
it Reasistance
3. The material of which the conductor is made under the same conditions, were of
different metals show different value of resistance. From the above condition, the
resistance (R) of the cconductor is directly proportional to the cross-section Area
(A).
So,
RL ----- 1
R1 ----- 2
A
Combining equation (1) and (2)
RL
A
R = p  L ----- A
A
Where ‘p’ is the constant of proportionally. It is known as Resistivity or specific
Resistance of the matevial.

Definition of Resistivity:
Using equation A => P = AR
L
So, Resistivity of a conductor is defined as;
Resistance of the conductor per unit length per unit area of the cross-section of the
conductor.
Or
Resistivity of a material is the Resistance of a cube of unit length.
Unit:
Its S.I unit is ohm-meter (m)
Its value depends upon the nature of material and Temperature.

Dependence of Resistance and Resistivity upon Temperature:

The electric Resistance of a conductor Increases with the increase of temperature:

Explanation:
The resistance of most metal increases with the increases in temperature, b/w atoms sitting
on their sites are start vibrating more violently about their mean position due to increase in
temperature. This increase the probability of collision of free electron with them which
ultimately effects the drift velocity of free electrons. For a given applied voltage. As we
know that the electric current depends upon the drift velocity of the free electrons, so with
rising temperature the decrease in the drift velocity is attributed to the decrease in the
electric current or the increase in the Resistance for a given voltage.

PAGE - 62
Mathematically:
Experimentally it is observed that, to the change (in Resistance is directly proportional to
the change in temperature and to thte initial resistance.
Let:
Ru = Resistance of the conductor at OoC
Rt = Resistance of the conductor at toc
R = Rt – Ro Change in Resistance
T =t–o o
Change in Temperature
R  RO ---- 1
R  T ---- 2
Combining equation 1 and 2

R  Ro T
or R =  Ro T
or
R1 – Ro =  Ro T
Where  is the constant of proportionality. Its known as ‘Temperature co-efficient of
Resistance or Resistivity’. Its unit is oC-1 or K-1
  = Rt – Rc
RoT
So, temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as:
The charge is resistance per unit Resistance per degree Rise of temperature.
Or
It may also define as: “Fractional change in Resistance per degree Celsius or per Kelvin.

In terms of Resistivity:
The resistivity of the conductor also increases with the increase of the temperature in the
way as the resistance. So, equation B will be have the form
  = Pt - Po
Pot
Where,
Po = Resistivity at Ooc
Pt = Resistivety at toc
And the solving the above equation
PE = Po (1 + t)
Combination of Resistors:
1) Resistances in Series:
Resistances are said to connected in series if they are connected end to end.
Consider three resistances R1, R2, R3 connected in series and ‘V’ is the
potential difference across the combination. In series combination current
following through each resistance is same b/c there is only one path for the
flow of current but the p.d is distributed across the individual resistors. Let
V1, V2 and V3 is the p.d across R1, R2 and R3. then
V = V1 + V2 + V3 -----1

PAGE - 63
By Ohm’s Law:
V = IR
Where, I is current across the combination and ‘R’ is total Resistance of the combination.
Similarly,
V1 = IR
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
So,
Equation 1 will be
1 => V = V1 + V2 + V3
or IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I(R1+ R2 + R3)
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, equivalent Resistance of the combination is the sum of individual Resistance.

2- Resistance in Parallel:
Resistance are said to be connected in parallel if they are joined across the same two points.
Consider three Resistances R1, R2, R3
connected in parallel and
‘V’ is the potential difference
across them.
In parallel combination p.d
across each resistance is same
because they are connected
across same two points but
different current flow through
each resistance. Let ‘I’ is the
total current through the
combination and I1, I2, I3 is the
current flow through R1, R2, R3
respectively.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
By Ohm’s law:
V = IR
I = V/R
Where, ‘R’ is the equivalent resistance of the combination.
Similarly,
V
I1 =
R1
V
I2 =
R2
V
I3 =
R3

PAGE - 64
 Put values in equation (1)
(1)  I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V V
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
V  1 1 1 
= V    
R  R1 R2 R3 
1  1 1 1 
=    
R  R1 R2 R3 

When resistance connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to
the sum of reciprocals of the individual resistances.
This relation shows that equivalent resistance is less than resistance of the individual
resistances.

Power Dissipation in Resistors:

A battery is connected across a resistor ‘R’ which produces a potential difference
‘V’ across the end as shown in figure.
If ‘I’ is the current flows through it for
time ‘t’ the charge transported is Q = I x t.
Since ‘V’ is the p.d causing the transfer of
charge therefore work done is transferring
charge (Q).
This work is done at the expense of the P.E
of the charges as they pass through the
resistor. This loss of P.E is converted into
vibrational energy of the atoms to which the electrons collide during their motion
and thus the energy lost by electrons is gained by the atoms of the conductor
(resistor) in the form of heat.
Mathematically:
We define power as:
The rate of doing work (or) work done or energy spend per unit time.
Work
So, by definition power =
time
 Work = QV

P = QV
T
 I = Q/t
P = VI
This is the general relation gives the power dissipated in Resistor R and I is the current that
flows through it. Using OHM’s law:
V = IR
  P = (IR) I = I2R
P = I2R
 I = V/R
  P = VI = V(V)
R

PAGE - 65
 P = V2
R
Unit:
1. S.I Unit of power is watt (1 watt = 1J ) 1s
2. Other Units:
i. Kilo-watt and mega watt
ii. Horse power (h.p) is 1h.p = 746 watt

Electromotive Forces:
When current passes through a resistance, the charges dissipated Energy. Hence to
maintain a steady flow of current in a resistance a source of energy is needed
which supplies energy to the charges.A battery or cell is the source that gives the
energy to the charges by doing work. So, Electromotive force is define.
“The work done in driving unit charge round the complete electric circuit in which in
which the source is connected is called electromotive force.
Suppose resistors ‘R’ is connected across the terminals of a battery. A current flows
through it is ‘I’ from positive terminal to negative terminal. The same current flows
through the battery from –ve to +ve terminal where it comes across a resistance ‘r’.
This is known as Internal Resistance of a battery. This is due to electrodes and
electrolytes. Thus the total resistance of the circuit is (R+r) as the resistance is in
series. Let E is the e.m.f of the battery then by OHM’s law:
.: I= E
R+r
E = I(R + r)
E = IR + Ir
Where ‘IR’ is the p.d which drives current in the Resistance ‘R’ while ‘Ir’ is the
voltage which is lost across internal Resistance. Where voltage (V = IR) is called
Terminal voltage and ‘E’ is the Emf of the battery. So, equation 1 will be written as
1 => E = IR + Ir
E = V + Ir
V = E – Ir
If no current is drown from the battery than:
r=0
So,
2 => V=E
Hence:
‘Emf’ is the potential difference between the terminals of a battery when no current is drawn
from it.

PAGE - 66
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. Electrons leave a dry cell and flow through a lamp back to the cell. Which
terminal the positive or negative is the one from which electrons leave the cell?
In which direction is the conventional current?
Ans: Electrons leave the negative terminal of the cell and move towards the positive
terminal. However, as a convention, the conventional current is assumed to the
consisted of positive electric charges moving from a positive terminal to the negative
terminal change flowing through the area per unit time (1 = q/t).

Q.2. Both p.d. and e.m.f. are measured in volts. What is the difference between these
concepts?
Ans: P.d. is the work done per unit charge across a resistor in a closed circuit. But e.m.f.
the total p.d. across the external and internal resistance, it refers to a source of
current and is greater than the potential drop in an external circuit. (e.m.f. = p.d. +
internal resistance drop)

Q.3. Can you construct two wires of the same length, one of copper and one of iron,
that would have the same resistance at the same temperature?
Ans: Yes, since resistibility is proportional to cross-sectional area. The resistively of iron
is about 7 times higher than that of copper. Hence the iron wire must be 7 time
thicker than a copper of the same length to have the same resistance at the same
temperature.

Q.4. Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with the rise in temperature?
Ans: As the temperature of a conductor rises, the amplitude of the vibration of the atoms
in the lattice increases. This, in turn increases the probity of their collision with free
electron. This impedes the drift of the electron. Hence the resistance of the conductor
increases.

Q.5. Why is heat produced in a conductor due to the flow of electric current?
Ans: As electric charge flows due to certain p.d. through a conductor, it suffers loss of
electrical potential energy. The energy is delivered to the lattice atoms. This energy
is utilized in increasing their vibration kinetic energy which appears as heat.
Consequently, the temperature of the conductor rises.

Q.6. When a metallic object is heated both its dimensions and its resistively increase.
Is the increase in resistively likely to be a consequence of the increase in length?
Ans: The receptivity is given by p = RA / L. the increase in receptivity of a conductor due
to heat is a consequence of the increase in resistance, and not a consequence of the
increase in length.

Q.7. It is sometimes said that an electrical appliance “uses up” electricity. What does
such an appliance actually use in its operation?
Ans: An electrical appliance, in its operation, uses the kinetic energy carried by the
moving electrons, and not their quantity of charge.

PAGE - 67
Q.8. Do bends in a wire affect its resistance?
Ans: No, bends in a wire do not affect its resistance. However, it depends upon length,
cross sectional area, temperature and nature of the material.

Q.9. Resistances of 10Ω, 30Ω and 40Ω are connected in series. If the current in 10Ω
resistance is 0.1A, what is the current through the other?
Ans: When resistors are connected in series, then the same current flows through each 0,
them (as there is only one path). Hence the current in this case will be 0.1A through
all the three resistors in series.

Q.10. The resistances of different values are connected in parallel. If the p.d. across
one of them is 5V, what is the p.d. across the remaining nine resistors?
Ans: When resistors are connected in parallel, then the same p.d. exists across each of
them as they all are connected to two common points. Hence the p.d. in this case will
be 5V across all the nine resistors in parallel.

Q.11. For a given potential difference V, how will the heat developed in a resistor
depend on its resistance R? will the heat be developed at a higher rate in a
larger or smaller R.
Ans: The heat developed H = V2 / R x t.
For a constant p.d. the resistance R should be small to develop heat at a higher rate.

Q.12. Is there any electric field inside a conductor carrying an electric current?
Explain motion of charges here?
Ans: When a p.d. is applied across a conductor by connecting it to a battery and electric
held E is established inside a conductor (parallel to the conductor, directed form the
positive toward the negative terminal). The field exist here because the battery keeps
the charges moving and prevents them coming to equilibrium on the outer surface of
the conductor (in contrast to the situation in electrostatic), where they would cause
the net electric field on the interior to be zero.

Q.13. Can the terimal voltage of battery be zero?

Ans: When a battery is short circuited, the existence of negligibly small resistance in the
circuit makes terminal voltage zero but current to a maximum value.
[Since R = 0, V = 0 and I = E / r]

Q.14. Why is internal resistance of a cell not constant?

Ans: The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the resistance of electrolyte, terminals
and electrons (and also on their area and separation) of the cell. Due to chemical
changes (e.g. absorption of hydrogen and sulphate ions) in the electrolyte during the
process of discharging the resistance of the electrolyte increase. Thus the internal
resistance of cell does not remain constant.

Q.15. What is resistance? What is its mechanical analogue?

Ans: Resistance is a property of a given conductor which limits the current flow. It is due
to the collisions of the drifted electrons with the crystal lattice which causes frequent
scattering of the electrons under an electric field.
This property is analogous to mechanical friction for moving bodies.

PAGE - 68
Q.16. Often, you might have noticed crows sitting safely on high tension wires. Why
are they not electrocuted, even when sitting on a part of the wire where the
insulation has worn off?
Ans: For electrocution, the current should pass through the bodies of crows. When a crow
sits on a signal wire, a p.d. is not developed for the flow of current because his both
claws are the same potential. Hence they are not electrocuted.

Q.17. Why is it dangerous to touch a live wire standing on the earth barefooted?
Ans: We may be electrocuted if one touches a live wire while standing on barefooted;
because we provide lower potential of the earth through out barefoot (conductor).
[The effective resistance of the body is 50 kΩ/cm3 which reduces to 0.7 kΩ/cm3
when it is wet].

Q.18. A heavy duty battery of a truck maintains a current for 3.0A for 24 hours. How
charge flows from the battery during this time.
Ans: The charge, q = I x t = 3 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.6 x 10 5C.
Q.19. What a short circuit and open circuit mean to you?
Ans: A short circuit is a closed when no load is present i.e. external resistance (R) is zero.
But an open circuit implies an infinite resistance (or gap) along its conduction path
(i.e. wires).

Q.20. Is it possible to have a situation in which the terminal voltage will be greater
than the e.m.f. of a battery?
Ans: In general, V = E –Ir. V>E in the case when a battery is being charged. [V= E + Ir]

Q.21. Why is resistance of a conductor inversely proportional to the area of cross

sectional a conductor?
Ans: The larger the area of cross section of a conductor, the wider path is provided by it
for the flow of charges through it (R proportional 1/A). Hence, the resistance
decreases.

PAGE - 69
CHAPTER - 14

PAGE - 70
 THEORY
Introduction:
Magnetism devices its name from magnesia a region in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) where
it was found in the form of lumps of certain Iron core. These lumps of iron ores were found
to have the property of attracting small piece of iron. Later it was found that these
properties are existed not only by iron, but also by Cobalt, Nickel and many compounds of
these metals. These are called magnetic materials.

A body that attracts small pieces of iron and points towards North – South direction when
suspended freely, is called a magnet. The end of the magnet pointing towards North is
called the North Pole while other is called South Pole. Like poles of two magnets repel,
while unlike poles attract one another. The space around a magnet where the influence of
the magnet is felt by another magnetic or a magnetic substance is called magnetic field.

The existence of a magnetic force is due to the electrical nature of matter, consisting of
electric – charges. A electric charge at rest produce “Electrostatic field”. However, a
moving charge produces magnetic field. Thus a circulating electron about the nucleus
produce magnetic dipoles. Since all magnetic field are due to the moving charges. So
magnetism and electricity may be regarded being two aspect of a single phenomenon
“Electromagnetism”.

Magnetic Field Due to Current:

The interaction of one charge with some other charge is generally described by associating
fields around the charges. Just as an electric charge brought in the field around a fixed
charge interacts with the field and experiences an electrostatic force. Similarly a moving
charge interacts with a field around moving charge and experiences magnetic force.
The field around a moving charge is called “Magnetic field”, as opposed to an electric field
around stationary charge. The magnetic field is denoted by “B” it is a vector quantity. Its
experimental demonstration was carried out by Hans avested. He showed that an electric
current in a wire deflects a near by compass needle. Thus a current carrying wire has a
magnetic field around it, which is the manifestation of interaction between moving charges
in a conductor. The lines of forces form concentric circles around the conducting wire and
the magnetic field remains effective so long as the current keeps flowing through the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field is greater near the current carrying wire and decreases as
the distance from the conducting wire increases. The direction of the magnetic lines of
forces is given by “Right Hand Rule”. If the wire is grasped in the right hand with the
thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers of the hand will circle the wire in
the direction of the magnetic field.
In 1820, A. M. Ampere observed that when current flows in two parallel wires in the same
direction, they attract each other. Also, when current flows in two parallel wires in the
opposite direction the repel each other. This is due to the fact that the moving charges
interact with a field around other magnetic charges and experiences a magnetic force.

PAGE - 71
Force on A Moving Charged Particle In A Magnetic Field:
A moving charge produces a magnetic field. If the charges are made to move through an
applied magnetic field, then these two field interact with each other. Thus the moving
charges experiences a force due to the interaction of the two magnetic fields.
Consider a charge “q” moving in a uniform magnetic field of strength “B” in a direction
making some angle with the field. Experiments shows that force experience is proportional
to the:
i. Magnitude of the charge (q).
ii. Strength of the magnetic field of induction (B).
iii. Velocity of the charge (v).
iv. Sine of angle (sin) between field and velocity.
So,
F  qvB sin
F = K(qvB sin) v B

q )

In this case, the constant of proportionality is unity (K = 1)

Than,
F = qvB sin

Vector Form:
In vector form, above expression can be written as:
F = q (v x B) ______________ 
Equation  applies to a positive charge, for a negatively charged particle, force will given
as:
F = q (v x B) = - q (v x B) ___________ 
The direction of force for equation  and  both is determined by right hand rule,
perpendicular to the plane containing v and B.

Case study:
The magnitude of the magnetic force is :
F = qvB sin
i. If the charge particle moves parallel to (or) opposite to the direction of magnetic
field i.e.( = 0o or 180o)
than,  F=0 (No force experience by the charge particle)
ii. If the charge particle moving right angle (perpendicular) to the
magnetic field,
i.e .( = 90o). 90 o B
Than, F = qvB
(Maximum force experience by the particle.) 
q
The magnetic force experience by the particle perpendicular to the direction of the
motion does not change the speed of the charge. It only changes the direction of the
motion.

PAGE - 72
Unit of Magnetic filed of Induction (B):
 F = qvB sin
F
B=
qvSin
SI unit of B is Tesla ().
If , q = 1C , F = 1N, v = 1m/s,  = 90o
Than,
1N N N
Unit of B = = =
1C .1m / s C A.m
.m
s
So, 1 tesla = 1NA-1m-1

The magnetic field of induction at a point is said to be one Tesla. If a charge of one
coulomb moving at right angle to the magnetic field with a velocity of one meter per second
experiences a force of one Newton.
Other unit is “Gauss” (G):
This is CGS unit of “B”
1 T = 104 G

Force on a Current – Carrying Conductor in a Uniform

Magnetic Field:
Current in a conductor is due to the directional drift of the free electrons along the
conductor. Conventionally, we consider equivalent positive charge drifting with a velocity
V is the direction of current. Because magnetic field exerts a side ways force on a charge
moving through it, we expect that it will also exert a
side ways force on a current
carrying conductor.
Consider a conductor of length ‘ℓ’
And cross – sectional area ‘A’.
Let I is the current flows through ℓ
the conductor which is placed in I )
B a uniform magnetic field of
induction B, such that the direction
of motion of charges makes an angle
‘’ with the direction of B, as shown
in figure. A
So,
Volume of the conductor = V = Aℓ
Let ‘n’ is the number of free electrons (N) per unit volume(v).
N
n=
V
N = nV
N = nAL
So,
Total charge drifting through the conductor = q = Ne
Where ‘e’ is the charge of electron.

PAGE - 73
So,
q = Ne
q = (nAL)e
q = nALe _______________ (1)
Then the force on the conductor is given as:
 F = q (V x B)

F = nALe (V x B) _____________ (2)

Where, V is the drifting velocity. By definition .


l
V=
t
(ℓ is the length of the conductor, is consider as a vector quantity whose direction is
in the direction of motion of charge), than

eq (2)  F = nALe (V x B)

l
F = nALe ( x B)
t
nALe  
F= (l  B )
t
Where ‘t’ is the time taken by the charges to move through the length ‘ℓ’.
q  
F= (l  B ) (q = nALe)
t
q
 I=
t
 
so F = I (l  B ) (Vector form)
or F = I ℓ B Sin (Magnitude form)
This is the expression for the force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic
 
field. The direction of force (F) is perpendicular to the plane of l and B given by
Flaming’s left hand rule.

PAGE - 74
 Torque on a Current Carrying Rectangular Coil in a
Uniform Magnetic Field:
When current is passed through a coil, placed in a magnetic field. Its experiences a torque.
Consider a rectangular coil ABCD is suspended in a uniform magnetic field as shown in
figure. x

D I F C
b

I
B
ℓ ℓ

A B
F I b/2

b/2 b/2

x
b

The plane of the coil is parallel to the field. Let “I” is the current flowing round the coil and the coil
is capable of rotating about an axis xx.
When the current passes through the coil, sides AB and CD experience no force as they are parallel
to magnetic field. The sides BC and AD experience force because they placed perpendicular to the
field, as shown in figure. From the right hand rule the force on the BC is directed upward and on
the AD is directed downward. The forces form a couple and the coil rotates about the axis xx.
If ‘ℓ’ is the length of the coil, then force on each of the side BC and AD is given by:
 
F = I (l  B )
F = I ℓ B Sin ____________ (1)
As the sides are right angle to the field (B). Than  = 90o.
Eq (1)  F = I ℓ B Sin ; sin 90 = 1
F=IℓB ____________ (2)
So, total torque produce due to couple of forces is
 = 1 + 2 ____________ (3)
Since, 1 = 2 (because the forces acting the sides are equal and the distance from axis of rotation
is same)
By definition:
 =rxF
or
= r F Sin
and  = 90
so,
1 = (b/2) F Sin 90
b
1 = F
2
b
and 2 = F
2

PAGE - 75
 put the values in equation (3)
iii =>  = 1 + 2
b b
= F+ F
2 2
 = bF
 = b(IℓB)
 = Iℓb ( A = ℓ b)(‘A’ is the area of coil)
 = IAB
 = BIA
If the coil makes N – Turns, so
 = BINA ________________ A
If the coil has rotated from its initial position as shown. The vertical sides AD and BC are still
perpendicular to the field. The forces acting vertically have the same magnitude and the magnitude
as they had before the coil turned, however the separation between forces alter. It ‘’ is the angle
which the plane of the coil makes with the lines of induction the torque will be.
x

B

A - b cos 

Torque = Fb Cos 
And the equation A will have the form
A =>  = BINA
Or
 = BINA Cos 
This formula is valid even for circular coils.

Magnetic Flux and Flux Density:

Magnetic Field of Induction in a region can be visualized by magnetic lines of induction
just as electric field was represented by Electric lines of forces. Unlike electric lines of
forces the magnetic lines of induction are endless and continuous lines in the field region
can be traced using compass needle.

PAGE - 76
Magnetic Flux:
The magnetic flux across a surface is defined as: the total number of lines of induction
crossing the surface normally is called magnetic flux over that surface.
Mathematically:
Magnetic flux (m) through a surface is also defined as the scalar product (Dot product) of
magnetic field of induction (B) and area – vector normal to the given surface (A).
If B is the magnetic field of induction and A is the area vector normal to the surface than,
by definition.
Magnitude Flux = m = B. A
m = B. A
 = BA Cos _____________ (A)

A B

)

Where ‘’ is the angle between B and A. the SI Unit of magnetic flux is weber (wb)
 1wb = 1NmA-1
Magnetic Flux is scalar quantity

Condition for Maximum Flux:

From Figure B
.:  = 0o
So,
A => m = EA Cos
m = EA Cos (o)
A
m = EA

Condition for Minimum Flux:

From figure: A
.:  = 90o
m = EA Cos
m = EA Cos 90
m = 0
90o
B

PAGE - 77
Magnetic Flux Density (B):
The magnetic flux per unit area across an area at right angle to the magnetic field is called
‘Magnetic Flux Density’.
 m
Formula .: B =
A
A/c to the relation, the unit of flux density is ‘weber/m2’
1Weber
So, 1Tesla = = 1wb.m-2
1m 2

Motion of charged particle in a Magnetic Field:

A moving charge experience force in a magnetic field which is given by:
F = q ( V x B)
And the magnetic of force is
F = qvB Sin
Consider a uniform magnetic field
a strength (B) directed perpendicularly V
into the time of the paper. Consider a
charged particle q enters a magnetic
field such that if velocity (V) is the right O F
angle to the field. The magnitude of the
force is: F = qvb. Since the force is
perpendicular to the velocity, it will not r
effect the magnitude of the velocity, but `
it will only arranged to the diversion of the
velocity. The magnitude of force (F) remain
constant since magnitude of q, v and B are constant.
The followed by the particle is circular as shown. Thus the necessary centripetal force is
provided by the magnetic force acting on the moving charged particle. Hence:
Magnetic force = Centripital Force
Or
mV 2
qvB =
r
or
mV
r=
Be
Where ‘r’ is the radius of the circular path and ‘m’ is the mass of the particle. The above
Relation shows that greater the mass and speed of the particle greater will be the radius (or
deflection).

PAGE - 78
Determination of Charge – to – mass Ratio (e/m) of an
electron: b

- V + (DC – Voltage)
several thousand volts

A’
P

Low a. c voltage P’
(6 – 10 volt)
To Vacuum

e/m, the charge-to-mass ratio by electron was first determine by Sir J.J Thomson in 1897 at
caven dish laboratory in Cambridge, England, the apparatus used by him is shown in the
above figure.

Apparatus:
Thomson used a special apparatus. It consists of:
i. Filament:
Electrons are produced by heating a tungstent filament using battery.
ii. Cathode:
It is a hollow cylinder at negative potential. It emit electrons that is produce
by filament.
iii. Anodes (A.A’):
Anodes accelerates the electrons that are emit by cathode and a positive
potential is applied on the plates (A.A) and they have hole in the centre.
iv. Parallel plate (P.P):
Two parallel plates P.P placed horizontally and a potential difference in
applied between them. They produce electric field.
v. Coils:
A pair of coil is used across the horizontal plates to produce uniform magnetic
field (B) which directed into the page. The magnetic field and electronic field
is perpendicular to motion of electron.
vi. The whole equipment is sealed in a special evacuated glass tube.

PAGE - 79
Working:
Filament is heated by a battery and hot filament emits electrons due to thermionic emission.
These electrons are emitted by cathode a hollow cylinder surrounded the filament. These
electrons are accelerated by anode plates A.A.
The narrow electron – beam due to p.d “V”, acquires kinetic energy. The electron beam
passes through the region between the plates P.P and strikes at the end of the tube, a screen
is coated with fluorescent material to produce visible spot at the centre (O).
A magnetic field “B” is then applied perpendicular to the tube, in the space between two
horizontal plates (P.P) which is directed into the paper. The electron beam is deflected in
the magnetic field and strikes at another point O on the screen. The magnetic force
provides the necessary centripetal force to move the beam in a circular are of radius “r” and
the shift ‘a’ of the electron beam is observed.

Mathematically:
As mention in the above paragraph, the magnetic force provides a necessary centripetal
force to move in a circular path of radius ‘r’ than,
Magnetic force = centripetal force
Or
mV 2
eVB =
r
or
e V
 _________________ (A)
m Br
Where, V is the speed of the electrons and ‘r’ is the radius of circular path. If values
of r and V are known as the e/m is determined.

Determination of Velocity (v):

i. First Method:
If ‘V’ is the potential difference applied at the anode and the electrons are
accelerated than,
Gain in K.F = Lost in P.E
½ mV2 = e V
2eV
V2 =
m
2eV
V=
m
So, equation (A) will be
e V

m Br
e 1 2eV
 .
m Br m
Square root of both sides
e2 1 2eV
2
 2 2.
m B r m
e 2V
 2 2 ______________ (B)
m B r

PAGE - 80
 ii. Second Method:
(velocity selection method)
The velocity (V) can also be
determined by providing an
electric field between the
plates P and P in addition to
the magnetic field. The intensity
of the electric field is so adjusted
that the force of electric field is balanced by the force
of magnetic field. Such a condition that the beam
of electrons travel undeflected in the region between the plates.
Thus,
Magnetic field = Electric force
eVB = eE
E
V =
B
Put the value in equation (A)
e V

m Br
e 1 E
 .
m Br B
e E
 2 . _____________ (C)
m B r

iii. Determination of Radius (r):

From the geometry of the figure product of the intercepts are equal)
So, C
O a
a(2r – a ) = b x b a
b B b O
Where
a = shift of the electron (which is
very small) 2r – a
b = distance from the point of
defelection to the screen.
So,
2ar – a2 = b2
because ‘a’ is small, so, square power is neglected.
Than,
2ar = b2
b2
r=
2a
put the value in equation (A)
e V

m Br
e V

m B (b 2 2a)
e 2aV

m b2B
Result: From the above relation, the value of charge to mass ratio is found to be
1.758803x1011 C.kg-1.

PAGE - 81
Biot and Savart’s Law:
Biot and Savart determined the value of magnetic field (B) at any point around a straight
current carrying conductor.
Biot and Savart experimentally found that magnetic field (B) around a current carrying
straight conductor at is point is directly proportional to the current (I) through the conductor
and inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance of the point from the conductor (r).

Such that:
BI ______________ i
1
B ______________ ii
r

Combining equation i and ii I r

I
B 
r
KI
B = _____________ A
r
Where ‘K’ is the constant of proportionality. Its value depend upon the medium in which

the conductor is placed. It’s value is K = o
2
-7 -1 -1
(k = 2x10 wb.A m ).
Where ‘o’ is the called “permeability of free space”. It’s value is
(4 x10-7 wb.A-1 m-1).
So, equation (A) will be:
KI
B =
r

o I
B = (Biot – Savart Law )
2r

Ampere’s Law:
Statement:
“The sum of the products of the tangential components of magnetic field ofinduction and
the length of an element of a closed curve taken in the magnetic field is “o” times the
current which passes through the area bounded by the curve”.

Mathematically:
Let “B” is the magnetic field and L is the element of the curve and “I” is the current through
the conductor then by Ampere’s Law.

B.ℓ = o I (Vector Form)

Bℓ cos  = o I (Magnetic Form)

PAGE - 82
Derivation:
Consider a long straight conductor carrying current “I” in a particular direction as shown.
The magnetic field of induction (B) exists in the form of concentric circle around the
conductor. Consider a closed curve in the form of circle in a magnetic field around a current
carrying conductor, let ‘r’ is the radius of the circle. The curve is divided into small
elements each of length “ℓ”, such that each element is very small.
The component of B in the direction of ℓ is B cos (where ‘’ angle between B an
ℓ) is called tangential component. Hence,
(B cos ) ℓ = B ℓ cos 
  = 0o
B . ℓ = Bℓ cos(0)
B . ℓ = Bℓ
And for the elements,
 B . ℓ = Bℓ
As the magnetic field is uniform over the closed
curve so
Where
 ℓ = 2r (Circumference
of the circle)
 B . ℓ = B (2r)
using Biot – Savart law:
 I
B = o
2r
 I
 B . ℓ = o (2r)
2r

 B . ℓ =  o I

This is the mathematical form (Prove) of Ampere’s Law.

Application of Ampere’s Law:

Ampere’s law can be used to calculate magnetic field of induction (magnetic flux density)
for symmetric current carrying configuration.

1. Field Due to Current in Solenoid:

A solenoid is a coil of wire is the form of helix which is wound over a cylindrical support.
The magnetic flux density due to current carrying solenoid can be determined by Ampere’s
law.
Consider the magnetic field in side a current carrying solenoid. The magnetic field is
uniform and strong inside the solenoid and it is weak outside the solenoid. To calculate the
value of magnetic flux density using ampere’s law,

PAGE - 83
consider a closed rectangular loop abcd (called amperian loop), as shown. The loop consist
of four elements, ℓ1, ℓ2, ℓ3, and ℓ4.
Than by Ampere’s law,
 B .  
4

  o I _______________ 1
 1

or
(B.ℓ)1+(B.ℓ)2 + (B.)3 +(B. ℓ)4 = oI
Where, ‘I’ is the total current enclosed by ;oop.
For Element ℓ1:
(B ℓ)1 = B ℓ1 cos  ;  = 0o
= B ℓ1 cos (0)
= B ℓ1
For Element ℓ2:
(B ℓ)2 = B ℓ2 cos  ;  = 90o
= B ℓ2 cos (90)
=0
Similarly,
For Element ℓ4:
(B ℓ)4 = B ℓ4 cos  ;  = 0o
= B ℓ4 cos (90)
=0
For Element ℓ3:
Since outside the solenoid field is very weak, if is almost zero
(B  0)
(B ℓ)3 = B ℓ3 cos  ;  = 0o

= (0) ℓ3 cos ()

=0
put the values in equation (1)
 B .  
4

  o I
 1

or
Bℓ1 + 0 + 0 + 0 = o I
Bℓ1 = o I
Let: N = Number of turns in the loop.
i = Current in each Turn.
Than I = Ni
Let: n = Number of turns per unit length
N
So, n=
1
N = n ℓ1
And
I = n ℓ1 i
Put the value in equation (ii)
Bℓ1 = o I
Bℓ1 = o (n ℓ1 i)
B = o n i
This is the value of magnetic field of induction (magnetic flux density) of the solenoid.

PAGE - 84
2. Field Due to Toroid:
A toroid is a coil of wire has many turns, wound on circular support. It is a circular
solenoid. When current is passed through a toroid, magnetic field in the form of
concentric circles produce. The field outside is very weak almost equal to zero, but
very strong and uniform inside it. Let the toroid consist of ‘N’ number of turns and
carry current ‘I’.
To compute the field due to toroid, consider three circular paths, 1, 2, 3 as shown in
the figure below.

We apply ampere’s law to each path.

It is evident from the symmetry that
the magnetic field (B) at all the points
of the curve must have the same
magnitude and it should be
tangential to the path at each
point so.
  B . ℓ = Bℓ Cos 0
= Bℓ
= Bℓ
B. ℓ = B (Circumference of the curve) ______________ (A)
For path 1:
By Ampere’s law:
 B . ℓ =  o I _______________ (1)
where ‘I’ is the current bounded
by the curve. It is clear from the
figure that no current passes
through the path.
So, I=0
Equation (1)
 B . ℓ =  o I

or B (circumference of the circle) = oI

or B (2r) = o(0)
B = 0 __________________ (B)
Thus the value of magnetic field inside the toroid is zero.
For path 2:
By Ampere’s law:
 B . ℓ =  o I
or B (circumference of the circle) = oI
or B (2r) = oI ____________ (2)
Where, ‘r’ is the radius of the circular path ‘2’.
Let i = current in each turn
N = Number of turns
Than, I = Ni
So, equation (2) will be
B (2r) = oI
 o Ni
B = ____________ (C)
2r
This is the value of magnetic field of induction inside the toroid.

PAGE - 85
For Path 3:
It is clear that each turn of the winding passes twice through the area bounded by this path,
carrying equal current in opposite directions. The net current through the area is therefore is
zero and hence,
I=0
So,
B=0
It is clear that magnetic field of toroid is confined wholly to the space enclosed by the core
(winding).

Electromagnetic Induction:
The link between electricity and magnetism was discovered in 1819 by overfed. The effect
that elective current could be produce by changing magnetic field was discovered by
Faraday’s and Joseph Henry. This phenomenon is termed as “electromagnetic induction”.
Thus,
Whenever there is a changing magnetic flux linked with a circuit, an electromotive force
(emf) is induced called induced e.m.f.
This induce emf causes an Electric Current to flow through the Circuit called ‘Induced
Current’. This phenomena is called ‘Electromagnetic Induction’.

Methods to Produce Induce E.M.F:

i. By Relative motion between a coil (conductor) and a magnet.
ii. By rotating a coil (in a magnetic field)
iii. By changing current in near by conductor (coil) or in the coil

Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

i. An emf is induced in a coil through which magnetic flux is changing. The emf
last so long as the change of flux is taking place and becomes zero as soon as the
flux through the coil becomes constant.
ii. The magnitude of induced emf depends upon the number of turns in the coil and
the rate of change of magnetic flux in it.

If ‘N’ is the number of turns of the coil and is the rate of change of magnitude flux,
t
this induce emf () is given as:

ξ=-N ____________ (i)
t

 ( N )
ξ=- ____________ (ii)
t
and in differential form:

Nd
ξ=- ____________ (iii)
dt

d ( N )
ξ= - ____________ (iv)
dt
Where, negative signs shows the division of induce emf, that is explain by Lenz’s law. The
quality (N) is called Flux Linkage.

PAGE - 86
Lenz’s Law:
The direction of induced emf and current is given by Lenz.

Statement:
The direction of induced current in a coil (conductor) is always such as to oppose the cause
that produce it.
The negative sign in the equation below, to shows that current due to induced emf produces
an opposing flux change.
 ( N )
=-
t

Explanation:
When we drag a wire across a wire a magnetic field we move the free electrons across the
magnetic field (perpendicularly). These free electrons experience a force. In a closed
conductor, a current flows around it, called ‘induced current’.
When the N-pole of the magnet is brought near the coil, the end of the coil becomes a N-
pole face, due to anti-clockwise direction of current. When the N-pole is moved away from
the coil, the face of the coil becomes S-poles due to clockwise direction of current. Hence
the direction of induced current is given by “Flemings left hand rule”.

Mutual Induction:
If two coils are closed together then a changing current in one coil (called primary coil) set
up a changing magnetic field in the other coil (called secondary coil). This changing
magnetic flux induced an emf on the secondary coil. This phenomenon is called ‘Mutual
Induction’.
Consider two coils as shown in the figure, one has a battery and a variable resistance in this
current.

PAGE - 87
This is called primary coil. The other has a galvanometer in the circuit and is called
secondary coil. The current in the primary coil produces magnetic field which causes
magnetic flux in the coil. When the current in the primary coil is charged, by varying the
resistance, the flux through the secondary also charges. This induces on emf in the
secondary coil.
The magnitude of induced emf in the secondary coil is directly proportional to the rate of
the charge of current in the primary coil lie.
I p
s 
t
I p
s = -M _____________ (1)
t
Where ‘M’ is the constant of proportionality. It id called “Mutual Inductance” of the coils.
It’s value depends upon
i. The area of coils
ii. The nature of core.
iii. Number of turns of the coils
iv. Distance between the coils.
Where negative sign shows the direction of emf which obeys Lenz’s Law.
From equation (1)
s
M=-
Ip
t
Definition:
Mutual inductance is define as:
“The ratio of the e.m.f unduced in the secondary coil to the rate of change of current in the
primary coil”.
The SI unit of mutual inductance is “Henry (H)”.
The mutual inductance is said to be one Henry if a current changing at the rate of one
ampere per second in the primary causes an induced emf one volt in the secondary coil.

Using equation (1)

I p
ξ =-M
t
 ( MI p )
ξ =- _________________ (2)
t
By Faraday’s law, emf induce in the secondary will be
s
ξ = -Ns
t
OR
 ( Ns )
ξ=- __________________ (3)
t
comparing equation (2) and (3)
MIp = Ns s
Or
Nss
M=
Ip
Where (Ns) is the flux linkage in the secondary coil and (Ip) is the current in primary coil.
Hence Mutual Inductance is the ratio between flux linkage in the secondary coil to the
current in primary coil.

PAGE - 88
Self Induction:
The current in a coil produces magnetic field and a flux linked with the coil. When current
is changed, the flux changes and an emf is induced in the coil. This is called self induced
emf and the effect is called “Self Induction”.
Consider a coil as shown in the figure,
It has a battery and a variable
resistance (Rheostate) in the
circuit. The current in the coil
produce a magnetic field which
causes magnetic flux in it.
The magnitude of emf induced
in the coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of current
in the coil. Hence,
I

t
I
or =-L ______________ (i)
t
where “L” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Self Inductance of the coil”. Its
calue depends upon the
i. area of coil
ii. Number of turns
iii. Permeability of the core.
Where negative sign shows the direction of induced emf (back emf) which obey’s Lenz’s
law.
From equation (i)
L=-

I
t
Definition:
“Self Inductance is defined as the ratio of emf induce to the rate of change of current in the
coil”.
The SI unit of self inductance is “Henry (H)”.
The self inductance is said to be one Henry when the current changing at rate of one ampere
per second and causes an emf of one volt in the coil.
Using equation (i)
I
=-L
t
OR
 ( LI )
=- _________________ (ii)
t
by Faraday’s law, emf induce in the coil will be


 = -N
t
 ( N )
 =-
t
____________________ (iii)
Combining equation (ii) and (iii)
L I = N

PAGE - 89
Where ‘N’ is the number of turns of coil and ‘’ is the flux, through the coil and (N) is
flux linkage. Hence,
N
L=
I
So, self inductance is the ratio between flux linkage and current passing through the coil.

Non Inductive Winding:

In bridge current such as used for resistance measurements, self inductance is a nuisance,
when the galvanometer key of bridge is closed the currents in the cones of bridge are re-
distributed unless bridge happens to be balanced. While the currents are being re-distributed
these are changing and self induction delays the reading of a new equilibrium. Thus
galvanometer deflection at the instant of closing the key does not correspond to steady state
which the bridge will eventually reach. It may, therefore be misleading.
To minimize their self inductance, coil of the bridge and resistance boxes are so wound as
to set up extremely small magnetic fields. The wire is doubled back on itself before being
coiled up. Such a coil is called “Non – inductive”. In this type of winding current flows in
opposite directions in the double wires and consequently the magnetic flux set up by one
wire is neutralized by that due to the outer wire. Hence self – inductance emfs will not be
produced when the current through the circuit changes.

Motional emf:
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a potential difference is set – up
between its ends. This potential difference is called “Motional emf”.
Consider a wire of length ‘ℓ’ moving with a velocity “V” in a uniform magnetic field of
induction (B) as shown.

a F V
+

)
B
ℓ
) B B
)

V
- F
(Fleming’s left hand rule)

The free electrons in the wire are also moving with the conductor and thus experience force.
This force on each electron is given by:

F = e (B x V)
Or F = eBV Sin  ____________ (1)
Where ‘e’ is the charge of electron.

PAGE - 90
Due to this force electrons will move from end ‘a’ to end ‘b’. Thus end ‘a’ became positive
while the end ‘b’ became negative. Hence an electrostatic force is setup on the electrons
within the conductor in the direction b to a. the electrons go on accumulating at the end ‘b’
until the electrostatic force balances the force duel to magnetic field.
Let ‘q’ is the total charge moves from end ‘a’ to ‘b’. Then force is given as:
F = qVB Sin  ___________ (2)
Where ‘’ is the angle between V and B.
Net work done by the force = w = Fℓ
= (qVB sin ) ℓ
= qVBℓ sin 
and, by definition:
Work
potential difference = V=
q
qVBl sin 
V=
q
V = VBℓ sin  _________________ (A)
This equation gives motional emf, when length of the wire is moving perpendicular with
some angle.
If the wire is moved perpendicular to the magnetic field. Then: ( = 90o)
So,
Equation (A) is V = V Bℓ sin 
V = V Bℓ sin 90o
V = V Bℓ
A.C Generator:
An electric generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Principle:
Its principle is based upon the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction when a coil rotates
in a magnetic field an emf is induced in if due to changing magnetic flux linkage.
The essential parts of an ac-generator are;

1. Field Magnet:
It is a strong permanent horse shoe magnet which produces a strong and uniform
magnetic field of induction (B) between its poles

2. Armature:
It is a soft iron cylinder mounted on an axle which rotates on ball bearing thus
rotating the cylinder between the poles of the magnet. A coil of insulated copper
wire of large number of turns is wound on the cylinder in the grave cut length wise.
The coil has large number of turns.

PAGE - 91
3. Slip Rings and Collecting Brushes:
The ends of the coil are joined to
two separate copper rings fixed on
the axle. Two carbon brushes remain
pressed again each of the rings which
form the terminal of the external circuit.
Consider a rectangular coil ABCD rotating
in uniform magnetic field B. suppose ‘ℓ’
is the length and ‘b’ is the breath of coil.
As the coil rotates the flux and the
magnitude and direction of emf vary
alternately when the coil is in position ‘a’
as shown in figure (b), the flux in the coil
is maximum. As the coil rotates, the flux
decreases and becomes zero in position
‘b’. the flux increases again and
becomes maximum in position ‘c’ and the cycle will continues in the same manner.

Variation in emf:
From figure (b), above shown, the emf is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to
the field and zero when it is perpendicular to the field. This is agreement with the fact that
in the parallel position the sides AB and CD are moving normally (perpendicularly) to the
field, while in the perpendicular position their motion is parallel to the field.
From fig (b), in position ‘a’ the sides AB and CD of the coil are moving parallel to the
magnetic field, hence emf is zero at t = 0. As the time passes, the emf becomes maximum
when the plane of coil becomes parallel to the magnetic field as shown in figure at position
‘b’. in this position the sides AB and CD are moving perpendicular to the magnetic field.
As the coil continues to rotate further the sides AB and CD will move downward and again
becomes parallel then emf falls to zero. During the next half cycle of the coil the variation
of emf is same, as for the 1st half cycle but direction is reversed.
The emf induced in a way due to rotating coil changes both its magnitude and direction is
called “alternating emf” and the current caused by the emf is called “alternating current”.

PAGE - 92
Magnitude of emf:
The magnitude of the emf induced in the coil can be calculated either from the rate of
change of flux through the coil or from the velocities of its sides with which they transverse
the magnetic field.
Suppose at any instant during the rotation of coil, the velocity makes an angle ‘’ with the
field, then the emf is:
emf = VBℓ Sin 

because as the emf induced in two sides of coil AB and CD.

So, magnitude of emf will
 = 2 VBℓ Sin 
The net emf in the N turns of the coil
 = 2 NVBℓ Sin  _____________ (1)
let ‘w’ is the angular speed than:
 V = rw
b b
or V= w ; (r = )
2 2
bw
V=
2

And by definition, w =
t
Or  = wt
Put the values in equation (1)
 = 2 NVBℓ Sin 
Or
bw
 = 2 N( )Bℓ Sin wt
2
 = NwB(ℓ xb) sin wt
therefore (A = ℓ x b)
 = NwB A sin wt __________ (2)
if ‘f’ is the rotational frequency, then

w = 2f
so, equation (2) will be
 = NwB A sin wt
 = N(2f)B A sin (2f)t
 = 2 fNBA sin 2ft ___________ (3)

Maximum emf:
The emf is maximum only Sin wt is maximum.
So, sin  = 1
or sin wt = sin 2ft = 1
so, equation (2) will be
 = NwB A sin wt
 = NwB A

PAGE - 93
 Maximum emf = Max = NwB A ____________ (4)
Or Max = NwB A
Max = N(2f)BA
Max = (2f)NBA ____________ (5)
so, instantaneous emf interms of maximum emf will
from eq (2)
 = NwB A sin wt
or  = Max sin wt _____________ (6)
from eq (3)
or  = Max sin wt
 Max = 2ft NwB A
 = Max sin 2ft ____________ (7)

in some generators the field magnet and these generators are called alternators. The
performance of A.C generators is more satisfactory when the armature is stationary and
field magnetic rotates around the armature. Stationary armature is called stator and rotating
magnet rotor.

D.C. Generator or Dynamo:

A D.C generator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. It generates the emf due to which current always flows in one direction.
The current obtain is unidirectional but it varies between zero and maximum value. Such a
current is called “Pulsating current”. Due to variation if is said to passes “Ripples”.
A D.C generator utilizes a split ring or commutator instead of slip rings. As the coil of D.C
generators rotates the magnitude of emf varies in the same way as that of alternating emf.
But as soon as the direction of emf is about to reverse the parts of split ring which connect
the coil to the external circuit are interchanged and in this way the direction of current in the
outer circuit remain unchanged. To obtain a steady current a number of coils are mounted at
different angles round the armature and the commutator.

PAGE - 94
Electric Motor (D.C Motor):
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is
essentially a generator run backward. Like a generator a simple motor consist of coil
rotating in the field produce by a magnet. A simplified diagram of the motor is shown in
figure below. It consist of coil which is situated between the pole pieces of a magnet. This
magnet is an electromagnet and not a permanent magnet. The coil itself is wound on a soft
iron core to intensify the magnetic field resulting from the current through it. The current
carrying coil itself acts as a bar magnet as explained earlier. It’s strength increases many
fold due to iron core. When current is supplied to the coil by a battery, the torque acting on
the current carrying coil causes it to rotate. The commutators reverse the current in the coil
at the proper instant to produce a continuous Torque and as a result rotation continuous.
There are various modifications of such a motor. Most motor consist of several loops
wound with their plans but at varies angles to one anothers. Each loop
has current flowing through it, for small portion of cycle. Such a motor gives a much move
uniform torque than one could obtain from single loop.

Dc Motor

Transformer:
A transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the magnitude of alternating voltage
(emf) or current from a source.

Construction:
A transformer consists of a laminated soft iron core on which two coils of insulated copper
wire are wound. One coil is called primary coil and other one is called secondary coil as
shown.

PAGE - 95
Principle:
When current is changed in a primary coil, its changing flux induces an e.m.f in a near by
coil, called secondary coil. This phenomenon is known as “Mutual Induction”.

Working:
Let that an alternating emf “EP” is applied to the primary coil and current “IP” passes
through it. The changing produce a varying flux in the iron core of the coils. This vary flux
induces an opposing emf in the primary which is equal to the applied voltage (if the
resistance of coil is negligible). The magnitude of emf induce in the primary will be given
as:

EP  N P ______________ (i)
t
where, NP = Number of turns of primary coil.

= Rate of change of flux.
t
This varying flux also passes through the secondary coil and induce an emf in the secondary
coil. The magnitude of emf induce in secondary (ES) will be:

ES   N S ________________ (ii)
t
where; NS = Number of turns of secondary coil.
Dividing equation (ii) by (i)
 N   
ES

S
 t 
E P  N   
P 
 t 
or
ES N S
 _______________ (A)
EP N P

Power Dissipation:
Let “PP” is power input of the primary coil and PS is the power output of the secondary coil.
Then by definition;
PP = EP IP ______________ (iii)
PS = ES IS _____________ (iv)
Where, IP and IS is the current through primary and secondary coil.

PAGE - 96
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. What is flux density and how is it related to the number of lines of induction
expressed in ewers?
Ans: Magnetic flux density B is the magnetic flux per unit area (B = Ǿ/A). The unit of
flux density is Weber per m2 (or tesla, T). Magnetic flux is the total number of
magnetic lines of induction passing perpendicularly through on area (Ǿ = B
perpendicularly A). Its SI unit is ‘Weber’ (1Wb = 1T. m2). Hence magnetic flux
density refers to the number of lines of induction (in Webbers) per square meter. It
gases (G) = 104 T & 1T = 1NA-1 m-1.

Q.2. Charge particles fired in a vacuum tube hit a fluorescent screen. Will it be
possible to know whether they are positive or negative?
Ans: Yes, the charge no particles in motion can be found by applying magnetic field
perpendicular to the motion of the charges and by observing the deflection. A
positive charge in an inward perpendicular magnetic field is deflected upward. In an
electric field, a positive charge will be deflected towards the negative side (plate).

Q.3. Beams of electrons and protons are made to move with the same velocity at
right angles to a uniform magnetic field of induction. Which of them will suffer
a greater deflection? What will be the effect on the beam of electrons if their
velocity is doubled?
Ans: The radius of the circular path of particle moving in a magnetic field is r = mv/Bq.
Thus r proportional m. but deflection proportional = 1/m. thus electron, being lighter,
wily be deflected more than the proton.
Since radius r proportional v. Hence if velocity is doubled, radius will also be
doubled; but deflection is halved.

Q.4. A circular lop of wire hangs by a thread in a vertical plane. An electric current
is maintained in the loop anti-clock wise on looking at the front face. To what
direction will the front face or the coil turn in the earth’s magnetic field?
Ans: Toward the geographic north pole.

Q.5. Imagine that the room in which you are seated is filled with a uniform magnetic
field pointing vertically upward. A loop of wire, which is free to rotate about
horizontal axis is its plane through its centre parallel to its length, has its plane
horizontal. For what direction of current in the loop, as viewed from above, will
the loop be in a stable equilibrium with respect to forces and torque of magnetic
origin?
Ans: Anti-clock wise.

Q.6. Two identical loops, one of copper and the other of aluminum, are similarly
rotated in a magnetic field of induction. Explain the reason for their different
behaviour. Is electric generator a ‘generator of electricity’? Where is the
electricity before it is generated? What do such machines generate?
Ans: Since the conductivities of copper and aluminum are different, they show different
behaviour with the induced e.m.f. As the conductive of copper is higher than that of
aluminum, so a copper loop will have greater induced current than an identical
aluminum loop moving with the same speed in the same magnetic field.

PAGE - 97
 An electric generator is not a generator of electricity (i.e. quantity of charge).
Electricity is present in the conducting coil of the generator before it was driven in
an electoral circuit.
A generator provides e.m.f. to drift the haphazardly moving electrons in the
conducting coil. In fact, a generator converts mechanical energy into energy of
moving charges.

Q.7. A loosely wound helical spring of a stiff wire is mounted vertically with the
lower just touching mercury in a dish. When a current is started in the spring,
it excretes a vibratory motion with its lower and jumping out and into mercury,
explains the resistance for its behaviour?
Ans: When a current is passed through a helical spring, whose one end is just above a
mercury pool, a magnetic field is produced. The current through all the loops is the
same direction. This produces attraction between them. So its length decreases. The
dipping and moves out of the mercury. Consequently, the circuit is broken. The
helix, due to elasticity, regains its original length. The electrical contact is
established again. The process is repeated. So the helix will vibrate up and down.

Q.8. What is the mechanism of transfer of energy between the primary an secondary
windings of a transformer. A certain amount of power is to be transferred over
a long distance. If the voltage is stopped up 10 times, how is the transmission
line loss reduced?
Ans: Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon responsible for the transfer of energy
between the primary windings (one circuit) to the secondary windings by means of a
changing magnetic field which links the two coils. The mutual induction transformed
the voltage or e.m.f. of large or similar value due to different number of turns in the
primary and secondary coil.
Suppose a power a lines has input power P. the same power can be carried at low
current if voltage is made high. Input current, I1 = PV1. if voltage is stopped up 10
times i.e.
V2 = 10V1 then I2 = P/V2 = P/10V1, Thus I2/I1 = P/10V1 / P/V1 = 1/10. When the
current is 10 times smaller, the power loss as heat in the wires (I2R) is (10)2 i.e. 100
times smaller.

Q.9. What is the difference between magnetic find a.c. generators? What is meant by
the frequency of alternating current?
Ans: An alternating current generator that uses a permanent magnet to provide the
magnetic flux rather than an electromagnet is called ‘magnetic’. It is used in the
system of petrol engines, motor bikes and motor boats, etc. The a.c. generator that
employs electromagnets is called “alternate”. It has rotating field magnet (called
rotor) and stationary armature (called stator) or the other way round.
Alternating current (a.c.) is produced by a voltages source whose terminal polarity
reverses with time. The number of cycles per second made by an a.c. is called its
frequency (f).its unit is hertz (Hz). We have f = 1/T. an a.c. reverse its polarity 2f
times per second. An a.c. with frequency of 50 Hz has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02
second. This a.c. reaches at zero value every 0.01 second.

PAGE - 98
Q.10. In what direction are the magnetic field lines surrounding a straight wire
carrying current that is flowing directly towards you?
Ans: Anti-clock wire (using the right hand rule)

Q.11. What kind of field or fields does or do surround a moving electric charge?
Ans: When an electric charge is in motion, it is surrounded by an electrostatic field as well
as a magnetic field.

Q.12. Can an electron at rest be set in motion with a magnet?

Ans: No. when an electron is at rest, it has no magnetic field (F = qvB = o if v = o). So, in
the absence of any magnetic field of its own, it cannot interact with a magnet.

Q.13. A beam of electron is directed towards a horizontal wire in which the current
flows from left or right. In what direction is the beam deflected?
Ans: If the beam is parallel to the wire, it will follow a spiral path; and if it is
perpendicular to the wire, it will adopt a circular path.

Q.14. A charged particle is moving in a circle under the influence of a uniform

magnetic field. If an electric field is turned on that point along the same
direction as the magnetic field, what path will the charged particle take?
Ans: When a charged particle is moving in a circle under the influence of a uniform
magnetic field; and if an electric field is applied along the same direction, it will
exert lateral force on the charged particle. Consequently, the charged particle will
move in a cyclic path in the form of spiral (called helix).

Q.15. A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel
to the pole faces. What happens if direct current is passed through the coil?
What will happen if an alternating current is passed instead?
Ans: When d.c. passes through the loop such that its magnetic field is: (i) opposite
direction of the field of the magnet, the coil will turn round through 180 o and then
will stay in equilibrium. (ii) Along the field of the magnet, the coil will stay in
equilibrium. However, when an a.c. is passed through the loop, it will remain in its
initial position (with slight vibration).

Q.16. A current carting wire is placed in a magnetic field. How must it be oriented so
that the force acting on it is zero or is maximum?
Ans: Force will be zero if theta is equal to zero (parallel to B);
Force will be maximum if theta is equal to 90o (perpendicular to B).

Q.17. Why is the magnetic field strength greater inside a current carrying loop of
wire?
Ans: In a loop of wire, the direction of current in the opposite sides of the loop is opposite
to each other. This is analogous to two parallel conductors carrying current in
opposite direction. The directions of both the magnetic fields are along the same
direction in the loop. This increase the strength of the field.

PAGE - 99
Q.18. What exactly does transformer transform?
Ans: A transformer transforms the magnitude of alternating voltage and current.

Q.19. Can an efficient transformer step up energy? Explain.

Ans: Transformers can not charge energy. In an ideal transformer, the power remains
constant i.e. power input = power output (VP IP = VS IS). Thus it can not step up
energy.

Q.20. In what three ways can a voltage be induced in a wire?

Ans:
 By moving a wire in a magnetic field.
 By moving magnet near it;
 By changing current through a circuit near it.

Q.21. Does the voltage output of generator change it its speed of rotation is increased?
Ans: Yes, because induced e.m.f. = BNA omega sin (omega time). Thus, an e.m.f.
increases if speed of rotation “Omega” is increased.

Q.22. When a beam of electrons is shot into a certain region of space, the electrons
travel a straight line through the region. Can we conclude that in the region
there is no electric field? No magnetic field?
Ans: There are two possibilities:
 No electric or magnetic field is present.
 The electric and magnetic field are at right angle to each other and their strengths
are exerting equal but opposite forces on the electron beam.

Q.23. A copper ring is placed above a solenoid with an iron core to increase its field.
When the current is turned on in the solenoid, the copper ring moves upward?
Why?
Ans: When current in a solenoid (with an iron core) increase, an induced current is
produced in a copper ring (held above it) in opposite direction. This is analogous to
opposite currents in two parallel wires. Thus they develop similar poles and repel
each other. Consequently, the ring moves up

Q.24. A very long copper pipe is held vertically. Describe the motion of a bar magnet
dropped length wise down the pipe?
Ans: Suppose a bar magnet falls through a very long copper pipe (under gravity). When
the magnet is well inside the pipe, the configuration of the magnetic field remains
the same. So it will fall freely with acceleration of gravity only.

Q.25. A solenoid is viewed in such a way that the solenoid current appears clockwise
to the viewer. What is the direction of the filed with in the solenoid?
Ans: The end viewed will develop south polarity. So the direction of the magnetic field
will be away form the viewer inside the solenoid.

PAGE - 100
Q.26. A hollow copper tube carries. Why is B = 0 inside the tube? Is B non zero
outside the tube?
Ans: The charges always reside or move on the outer of a conductor. Since inside the
tube, current is zero, hence B = 0 (according to Ampere’s law). The outer surface of
the tube behaves like a set of parallel wires carrying current down their length. The
magnetic field, outside the tube, exists; and its direction is given by the right hand
grip rule.
Q.27. Can a current carrying coil be used as compass?
Ans: A current carrying coil behaves like a bar magnet (magnet dipole). Thus when it is
suspended freely, it can be used as a compass.

Q.28. When a charged particle enters magnetic field, it is deflected by the magnetic
force? Can the magnetic force do work on the moving charged particle
Ans: No. magnetic force can do no work on a moving charged particle , because it is
always perpendicularly to the velocity of the particle.

Q.29. If both electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) act on a charged particle, what is
the total force on it?
Ans: The total force is F = qE + q (v x B). This force is called the Lorenz force.

Q.30. Can an isolated magnetic pole (monopole) exist? What is the source of the
magnetic fields?
Ans: No, magnetic monopoles cannot exist. The only known source of magnetic field are
magnetic dipoles (current loops), even in magnetic materials.

PAGE - 101
CHAPTER - 15

PAGE - 102
 THEORY
Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is a basic instrument which is used to detect Electric Current. One common
form of analog galvanometer is moving coil galvanometer.

The Moving Coil Galvanometer:

Moving coil galvanometer is a current detector based on magnetic dipole torque.
Principle:
When a current flows in a rectangular coil placed in a magnetic field it experiences a
magnetic toque. It rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through it.
The rotation or deflection thus indicates a current through it.

Essential Parts:
The essential parts of moving coil galvanometer are:
i. A permanent Magnet (M):
It is a U – shaped magnet. Its pole pieces are made concave to make magnetic
field stronger and radial.
ii. Coil (C):
A coil of fine enameled (or insulated) copper wire, wound on a aluminum
frame, that can turn around a central axis.
iii. Core (B):
A soft iron cylinder, co-axial with the pole piece is placed inside the coil.
iv. Suspension Fibre (F):
A phosphor-bronze strip is used to suspend the coil.
v. Copper Spiral (E):
It is a loosely wound copper
Spiral which is connected to another terminal of the coil.
vi. Mirror (m):
A small plane mirror is attached with the suspension fibre to measure
definition:
vii. A lamp and Scale Arrangement:
It is used to determine the deflection of the coil.

Construction:
A coil of enamel insulated wire is wound over a non-metallic or aluminum frame. The coil
with frame is suspended between the cylindrically concave pole pieces of a strong U –
shaped magnetic by means of a thin metallic strip. The upper end of the wire of coil is
soldered to the metallic strip. Whose other end is fixed to the frame of galvanometer and
connected to an external terminal.
The suspension strip acts as one current lead. The other end of the wire of coil is soldered to
a soft spiral which is which is connected to another external terminal. It serve as a second
current lead. A soft iron cylinder is fixed in the frame of the lead coil. It makes the
magnetic field stronger and radial. The coil is capable to rotate freely between the poles of
the magnet. Due to radial magnetic field the plane of coil is always parallel to the lines of
induction.

PAGE - 103
Theory and Working:
When current is passed through the coil it experiences torque and rotates. The torque is
given as:
Deflecting magnetic torque = BINA Cos  --- 1
Where,
B = Strength of the magnetic Field
I= Current in the coil
A = Area of the coil
N = Number of turns in the coil
 = The angle of deflection of the coil
As the coil rotates, the suspension. Strip is twisted. The twisting of suspension strip gives
rise to an opposing torque due to elasticity. This opposing torque called the restoring torque
is directly proportional to the angle of twist ‘’.
.: Restoring torque  
Restoring Torque = C
Where ‘c’ is the constant depending upon the nature and dimension of the suspension strip.
It is defined as:
“Torque produce per unit twist is the suspension strip”
The deflecting torque rotates the coil while restoring torque opposes the rotation and goes
on increasing as the coil rotates move and move. Finally a stage is reached. When the
restoring torque balances the deflecting torque and the coil stops rotating. Then:
Deflecting torque = Restoring Torque
BINA Cos  = C
Or
I= C
BNA Cos
As the field is radial (.:  = oo , cos  = 1)
So,
I= C
BNA

I= C  ; C = Constant
BNA BNA
Or
I
Thus:
“Current passing through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of definition.”

PAGE - 104
Ammeter:
An ammeter is a device which is used to measure current. A galvanometer can be converted
into ammeter, if a low resistance is connected in parallel called “Shunt” for measuring
current an ammeter, must be connected in series with the circuit to allow all the current
through it.

Conversion of Galvanometer into an Ammeter:

Let ‘Rg’ is the resistance of the galvanometer which deflects full scale deflection for a
current ‘Ig’.
Suppose ‘I’ is the current to be measured which is the desired range of ammeter.Let ‘Rs’ is
the resistance of shunt connected in parallel with the galvanometer to measure current ‘I’
and “Is” is the current in the shunt is equal to (I – Ig) as shown.
Voltage across galvanometer (Vg).
.: Vg = Ig Rg ---1
Voltage across shunt (Vs)
.: Vs = Is Rs
or Vs = (I – Ig) Rs ----2
As two Resistance are in parallel:
.: Vs = Vg
or
(I – Is) Rs = IgRg
or
Rs = IgRg
I-Is
Rs = Ig Rg
I - Ig
From the above equation the value of shunt resistance (Rs) can be calculated for any desired
range of the ammeter.

PAGE - 105
Multi – Range Ammeter:
It is an ammeter with more than one range for the measurement current. The desired range
is selected by the proper choice of shunt.
1. In this type a number of
external terminals are
provided. The terminal
of a desired range is used
with a common terminal.

2. In this type, each shunt

acts independent to
provide the divided range.
Each shunt can be put in
the circuit separately by
means of a range switch.
It has only two external
terminals.

Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is a device which is used to measure potential difference between two points. A
galvanometer can be converted in to a voltmeter if a high resistance is connected in series.
To find the potential difference at the two ends of a ciruit. Voltmeter is always connected in
parallel across the ends.

Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:

Let ‘Rg’ is the resistance of the galvanometer which deflects full scale deflection for a
current “Ig”. Let ‘Rx’ is the resistance of a resistor connected in series with the
galvanometer and ‘V’ is the potential difference which is to be measured.

Potential difference across Rg:

.: Vg = Ig Rg ------ 1
potential difference across Rx;
.: Vx = IgRx ------ 2
B/c Rg and Rx are in series so draw the same current ‘Ig’ and
.: Total p.d = Vg + Vx
V = IgRg + Ig Rx
Ig RX = V – IgRg
.: Rx = V – IgRg
Ig
Rx = V= Rg
Ig

From this equation the value of Rx of the series resistor for any desired voltage ‘V’ of the
voltmeter can be calculated.

PAGE - 106
Multi-Range Voltmeter:
A voltmeter with more than one range is called multi-range voltmeter. It has a number of
series resistors. It is of two types.
1. Is this type, various external
terminals are provided.
The terminal for a desired
ranges is used with a
common positive terminal.

2. In this type, only two external

terminals are provided.
One terminal is used as a
common terminal. The other
terminal is connected to a range
switch when puts the desired
range in the circuit.

Wheatstone Bridge:
If four resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 are connected end to end in order to form a closed mesh
ABCDA and between one pair of opposite junctions. A and C, a cell is connected through a
key while between the other pair of opposite junctions, B and D, a sensitive galvanometer
‘G’ is connected through another key the circuit is 1 formed is called ‘wheat stone bridge’.
As shown in the circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram: (Analysis)

In the bridge circuit as shown in if the K1 is closed first some current flows through a cell
and the resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4. if the key K2 is also closed a current will usually
found to flow through the galvanometer indicated by its deflection. However, if the
resistance R1, R2, R3 and R4 (or at least of them) are adjusted, a condition can always be
attained in which the galvanometer shows no deflection at all, such that no current passes
through it. Then the p.d between B and D must be zero i.e B and D must be at the same
potential.
This implies that p.d betweeb B and A (across R1) must equal that between D and A (across
R2). Also the p.d between B and C (i.e. across R2) must Equal between D and C (i.e. across
R3). Since no current flows through the galvanometer. Then ‘I1’ is the current through R1
and R2 and I2 is the current through R3 and R4 as shown:

PAGE - 107
 So,
p.d across AB = p.d across AD
or
VAB = VAD
Or
I1R1 = I2R3

R = I2 __ (1)
R3 I1

Similarly,
p.d across BC = p.d across CD
Or
VBC = VCD
Or
IfR2 = I2R4

R2 = I2
R4 I1

Comparing 1 and 2

R1 = R2
R3 R4
Or
R1 = R3
R2 R4

This is an important relation true only for balanced wheat stone bridge i.e. when no current
flows in the galvanometer with both K1 and k2 closed

PAGE - 108
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. What is the function of the concave pole pieces and the coaxial soft iron cylinder
in the moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: The concave magnetic poles and the cylindrical core make the magnetic field redial
and stronger (so the current becomes directly proportional to the deflection).

Q.2. Why is it necessary to have some form of controlling couple in the moving coil
galvanometer?
Ans: Controlling couple is necessary to control the motion of the coil. It is proportional to
the current to be measured. It is produced by using spring control method, which
consists of two hair springs attached to a spindle wound in the opposite directions.
As the coil rotates the spring wind up and produces a counter torque. The coil comes
to rest (the final deflection of the pointer is given) when the deflecting torque (or
magnetic torque) is counter balanced the controlling torque (or restoring torque).

Q.3. What is meant by the sensitivity of a galvanometer? On what a factor does it

depends? How can we have large sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: A galvanometer is sensitive if it gives large deflection for a very small current. The
sensitivity of a galvanometer is the current in micro amperes required to cause a
deflection of 1mm or 1division.
S = I (in µA)
0 (in div)
Since I = K. tetha hence the galvanometer is sensitive if K (=C/BAN) is small.
Sensitivity depends on C (couple per unit twist), N (number of turns), A (area of
coil) and B (strength of magnetic field).
For large sensitivity a soft iron core (sphere or cylinder) is placed inside the coil and
the poles are made circular or cylindrical. This makes ‘B’ stronger and redials.

Q.4. Which galvanometer usually has greater sensitivity, aluminum pointer or lamp
and scale type? Why?
Ans: Lamp and scale type galvanometer has greater sensitivity (-10-15 A/div), because it
gives large deflection for a very small current.

Q.5. We want to convert a galvanometer into (a) an ammeter (b) a voltmeter. What
do we need to do in each case?
Ans:
 To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, we connect a low resistance in parallel
(called shunt)
 To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, we connect a high resistance in a series
(called multipart)

Q.6. Why is it necessary for an ammeter to have zero or negligibly small resistance?
Ans: An ammeter must have negligibly small resistance so that it may not after the current
being measured.

Q.7. What necessary condition a voltage measuring should satisfy?

Ans: A voltage measuring device must contain a very high (in fact, infinite) resistance, so
that it will, practically, draw no current form the circuit across which it is connected.

PAGE - 109
Q.8. Why must an ammeter be connected to a circuit in series and a voltmeter in
parallel?
Ans: An ammeter must be connected in series to a circuit because its resistance is very
small as compared to the total resistance of the circuit. Hence it does not after the
current being measured. But a voltmeter has very high resistance. So it must be
connected in a parallel to a circuit.

Q.9. An ammeter and voltmeter of suitable ranges are to be used to a circuit. What
might happen if by their mistake positions are interchanged?
Ans: If, by a mistake an ammeter is connected in parallel to a circuit, its coil will be burnt
out to heavy current (because of its extremely low resistance).
When a voltmeter, by mistake is connected in series to a circuit its will give reading
but will not record correct p.d. because it will decrease the current (due to its very
high resistance). It will not damage.

Q.10. The terminals of ammeters are usually made of thick and bare metal while
those of voltmeters are quit thin and well insulated. Explain why?
Ans: An ammeter must have very low resistance. So its terminals should have almost zero
resistance. Hence terminals must be made of thick, bare metal.
A voltmeter must have very high resistance. So its terminals should be thin and well
insulated to avoid sparking between the terminals.

Q.11. Why is a potentiometer considered one of the most accurate voltage measuring
devices?
Ans: The principle of a potentiometer is that the potential drop across any length of wire
of uniform cross section is directly proportional to the length of the wire. At the
balance point, the two terminals of the galvanometer are at the same potential, and
no current flow through it. Hence, a potentiometer is an instrument which can be
used to measure the emf of a source and compare potentials without drawing any
current from the source. Essentially, it balances an unknown p.d. against an
adjustable, measurable p.d.

Q.12. How is a Wheatstone bridge used for measuring an unknown resistance?

Ans: If we connect three resistances R1, R2, and R3 of precisely known adjustable values
and a fourth unknown resistance R4, and these are so adjustment that the
galvanometer shows no deflection; then in this balanced condition, R square root R2
is equal to R3 square root R4. Hence R4 can be calculated.

Q.13. In a balanced wheat stone bridge, will the balance be affected if the position of
the cell and the galvanometer are interchanged?
Ans: No.

Q.14. In a slide wire bridge, is it absolutely necessary to have the bridge wire one
meter long?
Ans: No.

Q.15. A post office box is a compact Wheatstone bridge. Then why is it so named?
Ans: A post office box is so named because it was originally used for measuring the
resistance of telegraphic wires and for fault flinging work in the post and telegraph
office.

PAGE - 110
Q.16. Which is the more accurate instrument a meter bridge or a P. O. Box?
Ans: A. P. O. Box is more accurate instrument than a meter bridge, because the higher the
value of the ‘ratio arm’ the greater the accuracy in the measurement of the unknown
resistance.

Q.17. A wire is covered with a carpet. How will find out whether any current is
passing through it?
Ans: If the needle of a compass is deflected, then the current is passing through the wire
covered with a carpet. Otherwise, no current flows through the wire.

Q.18. A voltmeter cannot read the exact e.m.f. of a cell. Why?

Ans: A voltmeter, connected across a cell, will not read its true e.m.f; because it draws a
small portion of current through itself. Thus emf is decreased. The error can be
decrease by using a voltmeter of very high resistance.

Q.19. In a galvanometer, why are the two springs coiled in opposite directions?
Ans: The two (in a galvanometer) are coiled in opposite direction to provide opposite
torques (magnetic field torque and restoring torque) and to neutralize the effect of
rotation of the coil due to variation of temperature, if any.

Q.20. Why is the suspension of phosphor bronze strip used in a suspended type
moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: Phosphor bronze (Cu = 92.5%, Sn = 7%, P = 0.5%) has a large tensile strength
approaching that the steel and it offers a large surface area for the dissipation of heat
produced by the current. Further, it is not really oxidized.

Q.21. Why should the potentiometer wire be long and uniform in diameter?
Ans: The potentiometer wire should be long and uniform due to the following facts:
 The p.d. is proportional to the length of the wire. Thus, the long wire will
proportional greater range.
 For a wire of uniform cross sectional area, the resistance is proportional to the length
of the wire.
 A long wire has high resistance. Thus, small constant current flows through it.
 A long wire eliminates error due to non uniformity.

PAGE - 111
CHAPTER - 16

PAGE - 112
 THEORY
Band theory of Solids:
In solids large numbers of atoms are close to each other. The electrons are influenced
strongly by the nuclei, the valence electrons overlap. The discrete energy levels then
broaden it in to continuous bands of energy. Thus a group of overlapped sublevels iS called
energy bands. They contain allowable energy levels very close to each other. The valence
orbtials of the atoms combine to form two sets of energy levels. These are called the
valence band and conduction band. The valence band has the lower enemy level electron in
a partially filled conduction band can move rapidly throughout the crystal.

Kinds of bands:
i. Valence band:
The lowest available energy band is called valence band. It corresponds to
ground state. Normally valance electrons reside in this band, and are not free to
gain energy from an applied field.
This band may be completely or partially filled.
ii. Conduction band:
The energy band having next, higher permitted energy band i.e. next to the
valence band is called conduction band. This band is occupied by conduction
electron or free electrons. It is upper most bands of the atoms.
iii. Forbidden band:
The region in which electrons cannot occupy is called forbidden energy gap.
This band lies in between the valence band and the conduction band and
contain no available energy level.

C.B
Partially filled

F.B
V.B
Fully or partially filled

Types of solids:
There are three types of solids i.e. conductors, insulators and semi conductors.

1. Conductors:
In conductors valence band and conduction band overlap. The electrons in the
overlapping region are conduction electrons. There are no forbidden bands. In
metals the valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction band is
partially filled.
The electrons from valence band can easily cross to conduction band. When
electric field is applied electron in partially filled band will gain energy and
move to empty band.
The resistivity of conductors is small however the resistance increases with
temperature.

PAGE - 113
 2. Insulator:
In insulator the valence band is completely filled with electrons but
conduction band empty. In between valence band and conduction band.
The resistance also remains high with the increase of temperature.

3. Semiconductors:
In semiconductors forbidden band is of very small width between the valence
band and the conduction band. The energy gap is low. A few electrons can be
transferred easily from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus slight
electric conduction is possible with the rise of temperature more electron are
excited in to the conduction band and the conductivity increases rapidly
Semiconductors have resistivity in between conductors and insulators. The
resistance decreases with the rise of temperature.

Intrinsic semiconductors:
The substances that have intermediate resistivity ~10 are called Intrinsic semiconductors
or simply semiconductors e.g. silicon and germanium. They posses narrow forbidden, band
between valence and conduction, bands. They have four valence electrons, thus there are
four covalent bonds per atom when an electron escapes from the bond it leaves a vacant
place. This is equivalent to a +ve charge of electron called hole. The process of entering
electrons in the holes is called recombination.
In pure crystalline state the semiconductors have very low conductivity due to very small
number of electrons and holes.

Preparation of semiconductors (Doping):

The process of addition of impurity i.e. adding externally the small amount of penta or
trivalent substance to a pure intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.

Extrinsic semiconductor:
Doped semiconductor materials are called extrinsic semiconductors. They are of two types
i.e. n-type and p-type semiconductors.

N-type semiconductor: (Donor doping)

When small amount of pentavalent substance such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorous
are added to germanium or silicon crystal n-type semiconductor is formed. The process of
doping is called donor doping.
Each atom of the doping material form covalent bond with four
Neighbouring atoms. The filth electron is the surplus electron and it is free in the lattice.
The impurity atoms are called donor because they donates electrons.
When electric field is applied, the free electrons are excited and jump in to the conduction
band from the valence band. Thus in addition to electrons and holes we have conduction
electrons. Infact in n-type semiconductors majority charge carriers rue electrons.

PAGE - 114
P-type semiconductors: (Acceptor doping)
When small amount of trivalent substance such as boron, gallium, indium and aluminium
etc. are added to germanium or silicon p-type semiconductor is formed. The process of
doping is called acceptor doping.
Each atom of the doping material forms covalent bond with the four neighbouring atoms.
The covalent bond with the fourth atom remains incomplete. The vacant place of the
electron is called hole. When a nearby electron jumps over to fill the hole it creates another
hole at its place. Thus holes are able to move about in the crystal, thus the impurity atoms
are called accepter since they accept electrons.
When an electric field is applied the holes are migrated to add to conductivity so the current
is carried through the holes. Thus In p-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are
holes.

The P – N Junction (Semiconductor diode):

When p-type and N-type semiconductors are joined together then p – n junction or junction
diode is formed. This is achieved by a process called thermo compression process.
Initially there are holes in p-type and electrons in n-type semiconductors. A diffusion of holes
and electrons takes place across the junction, the electrons move across the junction from n-
type to p-type and a +ve
charge is developed on the n-side of the junction, at the same time holes move from p-type to n-
type and a -ve charge is developed on the p-side of the junction. A potential is set up at the
junction. It is called
potential barrier or junction barrier (Vo).

The potential barrier give rise to the electric field which prevents the respective majority charge
carriers from crossing the barrier region. It contains no charge carriers.

PAGE - 115
Function of junction or diode:
A p-n junction consist of two regions of low resistivity separated by a region of high resistivity
i.e. depletion region. It has the property of one way conduction. It allows the current to flow in
one direction and the flow of the current is practically zero in opposite direction .Thus it acts as
diode. The p-type end is referred as anode and n-type as cathode. Anode is represented by arrow
and cathode by bar.

Biasing:
The application of electric potential
across the semiconductor diode is
called biasing. There are two types
of biasing.

1. Forward Biasing:
If a junction diode is connected to a battery with its +ve terminal to
p-type and -ve terminal to n type of the junction. It is said to be forward biased. This
forward potential establishes an electric field which is opposite to the field due to the
potential barrier. This reduces the potential barrier at the junction. Thus the junction
resistance is decreased and a low resistance path is established tor the charge carriers
and current flows through the circuit.

2. Reverse Biasing:
If a junction diode is connected to a battery with its -ve terminal to p-type and
+ve terminal n- type of the junction It is said to be reverse biased.
The applied reverse potential establishes an electric barrier. The resultant field
becomes strong. This increases the potential barrier at the junction. This
increased potential barrier prevents the flow of majority charge carriers. The
junction resistance becomes high. Thus a high resistance path is established.
However a very small reveres current flow across the junction due to the
minority charge carriers.

PAGE - 116
Transistor:
Transistor means transfer or resistance. It is a three terminal device. It consists of three
layers of doped semiconductors. The middle thin layer is base and the other two layers are
called emitter and collector.
The emitter supplies free charges i.e. electrons or holes. Base controls the flow of charges
where as collector collects the charges.
There are two kinds of transistors.

N-P-N Transistor:
It is the transistor with p-type material sandwiched between two n - type materials. Thus
emitter is n-type base is p-type and collector is n-type. In this transistor electrons are
majority charge carriers. They always flow in opposite direction of the arrow for the
emitter.

Working of N-P-N Transistor:

Consider an n-p-n transistor. Let emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base
junction is reverse biased.
The forward biase causes die electrons to flow from emitter to base, this constitute emitter
current IE. In p-type base a few electrons combine with holes to constitute base current IB.
The remainder more than 95% cross over into the collector region, this constitute collector
current Ic. Thus the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. Hence
IE = IB + IC
The ratio of collector current to emitter current is called current gain  Thus
= !C/ IE
In this configuration the transits serve as current amplifier.

P – N – P Transistor:
It is the transistor which consists of n-type material sandwiched between two p-type
materials. Thus emitter is p-type base is n-type and collector is p-type. In this transistor
holes are the majority charge carriers.

PAGE - 117
Working of P – N – P Transistor:
Consider p-n-p transistor. Let emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector base
junction is reverse biased. The forward biase causes the holes to flow from emitter to base,
this constitute emitter current IE .In n-type base only a few holes combine with electrons to
constitute base current IB. The remainder more than 95% cross over to collector region. This
constitute collector current IC. Thus the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.
Thus current conduction is by holes but in the external circuit the current is carried by
electrons.

Transistor as am Amplifier:
The device that raises the strength of a weak signal is known as amplifier. The process used
to convert low voltage or current signal to a high voltage or current is known as
amplification. Transistor is basically a current amplifier.

PAGE - 118
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. Under what circumstances does a charge radiate electromagnetic waves?
Ans: A charge radiates e.m. waves when it is accelerated.

Q.2. In an electromagnetic wave, what is the relationship, if any, between the

variation in the magnetic and electric fields?
Ans: In an electromagnetic wave, the transverse sinusoidal oscillating electric field and
magnetic field are propagated at right angles to each other and to the direction of
motion.

Q.3. A radio transmitter has a vertical antenna. Does it matter whether the receiving
antenna is vertical or horizontal?
Ans: A receiving antenna should be vertical just like a transmitting antenna. A horizontal
receiving antenna will intercept much less radio frequency signals.

Q.4. Explain why are light waves able to travel through a vacuum, whereas sound
waves cannot?
Ans: Light waves are electro-magnetic waves (of wavelength 400 nm to 760 nm). Sound
waves are produced due to the vibration of the molecules of a medium. Hence sound
waves require a material medium, whereas light waves do not require medium for
their propagation.

Q.5. Explain the condition under which radiation of electromagnetic waves takes
place from a certain source?
Ans: When a transmitting antenna is couples with an alternating source of potential
(known as oscillator), charges (electrons) are accelerated up and down the antenna.
This creates a fluctuating electric flux, which generates a magnetic flux. Hence the
waves propagated from an antenna are e.m. waves.

Q.6. Can a diode be used for amplifying a weak signal?

Ans: Normally, a diode cannot be used for amplifying a weak signal. But specially
constructed diode (e.g. tunnel diode) can be used as amplifier and oscillator for
microwave frequencies.

Q.7. Are radio waves form of light?

Ans: Since both radio waves and visible light are electromagnetic in nature, hence we can
say that radio waves are a form of light (of frequency 4 x 1014 Hz), having
frequencies much lower (30 kHz to 300 MHz) than light.

Q.8. Can e.m. waves be propagated through a piped vacuum?

Ans: Yes.

PAGE - 119
Q.9. Why does a semi conductor act as an insulator at OK and why does its
conductivity increase with increase of temperature? – OR – discuss the effect of
temperature on semi conductors?
Ans: In a semiconductor, at OK, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction
band is totally empty. The semiconductor, therefore, behaves like a perfect insulator.
At room temperature, some of the electrons in the valence band gain energy from
thermal agitation of the lattice atoms and move up into the conduction band, leaving
holes in the valence band. If the temperature is increased, due to further thermal
agitation, more electrons occupy conduction band. Thus conductivity of
semiconductor increases with increase of temperature.

Q.10. Explain the role of forbidden band in solids?

Ans:
1. In conductors, the conduction band and valence bands are overlapping and hence no
forbidden band exists.
2. In insulators, the conduction and valence bands are separated by a large for bidden
band.
3. In semiconductors, the conduction and valence bands are separated by a small
forbidden energy gap.

Q.11. Why is light not seen in ordinary diode but an LED emits light?
Ans: Silicon is opaque to light. So ordinary silicon diode does not emit light but an LED is
a junction diode made from gallium arsenide phosphate crystal. When it is forward
biased, electron hole recombination takes place which results in the release of light.

PAGE - 120
CHAPTER - 17

PAGE - 121
 THEORY
Frames of Reference:
The position of any object in space identified with respect to certain reference. A set
of coordinate axis with respect to which measurements are made is called “Frame of
Reference”.
The most commonly used set of coordinates is the rectangular Cartesian system and
is often called as frame of reference. The reference frame is mathematically
expressed interns of a set of three mutually perpendicular lines called axis of the
frame of reference as shown.
Inertial Frame of Reference: Y
“An Inertial Frame of Reference is that P
which is moving with constant or uniform
velocity”.
OR
“An Inertial frame of reference is that in Z
Which Newton’s Laws are valid”.

X
All Inertial Frames are equivalent from the point of making measurements of
physical phenomena. Different observers in different inertial frames may have
different value of physical quantities, but the basic physical laws remain the same for
all observers. An interfacial frame of reference is non – accelerating frame of
reference.

Galilean Transformation:
According to Newton’s all inertial frames of reference are equivalent from the point
view of making physical measurement.
Consider two inertial frames of reference S and S. Such that reference frame “S” at
rest at time t = 0 and reference from “S” is moving with uniform velocity V with
respect to the frame “S”. Also assume that at origins of two frames are coincides at
the initial time t = 0.
The frame S is moving along a-direction after time “t” it will be at a distance “Vt”
from the origin of the stationary frame of reference suppose an experiment is made
to measure F = ma in space and time at same point (i.e.P).let the coordinate of “p”
w.r.t S will (x, y, z) and w.r.t S will be (x, y, z) at same time ”t”.
So,
x = x – Vt
y = Y
z = Z
and time is absolute (constant)
Similarly if S is moving along y – axis then the coordinates will be:

x = X
y = Y – vt
z = Z
Similar situation is true for Z – axis.

PAGE - 122
From above equations, we have krans formed the co-ordinate (x,y,z, t)
of frame “S” in terms of the co –ordinates (x, y, z, t) of frame “S”. this is called
“Galilean Transformation of space time co-ordinates”.
Similarly if the body is moving with certain velocity “V” with respqect to frame “S”,
thus,
X = x + Vt or
x x / Vt
 
t t t
Vx = V /x + V
Where, Vx is the velocity measured in frame S / and V /x is the velocity of the body
measured in “S”. This is Galilean transformation law for addition of velocity.
Now, measurement of acceleration of an object in an inertial frame of reference
requires the measurement of time difference and the difference of velocities.
Such that:
V2  V1
a= ___________________ (A)
t 2  t1
Where, V1 and V2 are the velocities in the frame of reference (S) According to law of
addition of velocity, we have:
V1 = V 1/ + V OR V 1/ = V1 – V
V2 = V 2/ + V OR V 2/ = V2 – V
Where, V 1/ and V 2/ are the velocities of body measured in S,
Hence acceleration (a) in S will be:
V2/  V1/
a =
t 2/  t1/
(V  V )  (V1  V ) V2  V  V1  V
or a = 2 
t 2/  t1/ t 2/  t1/
V2  V1
a = ; t1 = t 1/ , t2 = t 2/
t 2/  t1/
V V
or a = 2 1 ______________________ (B)
t 2  t1
comparingeq (A) and eq (B)
a = a
Thus acceleration measured in moving frame of reference (S) is exactly equal to that
measured in the stationary frame (S).
Hence laws of physics are same in both frames.
F = ma , F = ma
Or F = F
This forces are equal in two frames and Newton’s law remain unaltered under
Galilean transformation.

PAGE - 123
Principle of Relativity:
According to Albert Einstein, “A possible reference frames moving at uniform
velocity relative to one another (inertial frames) are equivalent for the statement and
description of physical laws”.
This assumption is known as the principle of relativity. Theory of relativity also
called relativistic mechanics is divided into two parts; General theory of relativity
and special theory of relativity.

Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity:

There are two postulates of theory are stated below:
1. There is no preferred or absolute inertial frame of reference. Such that all
inertial frames are equivalent for the description of all physical laws (i.e.
Newton’s laws as well as the Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations).
2. The speed of light in free space is the same for all observers in uniform
translational relative motion and is independent of the motion of observer and
source.

Consequence of Special Theory of Relativity:

Based on the above postulates Einstein’s special theory of relativity gives the
following results:
i. Mass Variations:
Let “mo” is mass of a body when it is at rest relative to an observer, “mo” is
called “Rest mass”. Let “m” is the mass observed by an observer moving with
uniform velocity “V” with respect to the body’s frame where ‘m’ is called
“relativistic mass or moving mass of the body”. It is given as
mo
m= ; (C = speed of light)
 C
1 V
2

The above equation shows that the mass of body changes with velocity and
relativistic mass (m) is greater than the rest mass (mo) of the body.

ii. Length Contraction:

Let “Lo” is the length of a rod when it is at rest relative to an observer then the
length (L) measured by an observer moving at constant speed “V” relative to
the rod, parallel to its length will be:
L = Lo 1  V
C
  2

Hence the length of the rod is appears to be shorter when moving relative to
observer at rest provided that speed is comparable to light speed (C).

iii. Time Dilation:

Time in special theory of relativity is not an absolute quantity. Let ‘to’ is the
instant of time of an event as measured by an observer at rest. Then the time
interval for the same event recorded by another observer moving with
velocity “V” is given by:
to
t=
 C
1 V
2

This effect is known as “Time Dilation”.

PAGE - 124
iv. Mass Energy Relation:
Einstein showed that mass is a form of energy i.e. mass and energy are
interconvertable. If a body in motion has a mass ‘m’ then the mass is
equivalent to energy (E) given by equation:
E = mC2 ; (C = speed of light)
Then energy is regarded as total energy and is given by:
E = moC2 + K.E or mC2 = moC2 + K.E
Hence the energy of a body in motion is equal to the sum of kinetic energy
and moC2called (Rest mass energy).

Black Body Radiation:

An ideal body that absorbs the entire radiation incident upon it, regardless of frequency.
Such a body is called “Black Body”.
The advantage of introducing the concept of black body is, we now disregard the precise
nature of whatever is radiating in the discussion of thermal radiation because all black
bodies behave identically. A black body can be approximated by a hollow object with a
very fine hole leading to its interior as shown in fig(a).
Any radiation striking the hole enters the cavity where it is trapped by reflection back and
forth until it absorbed. The cavity walls are constantly emitting and absorbing radiation. Just
as a black body is nearly a perfect absorber, so the most effective emitter of radiation when
healed radiation emitted from the cavity are known”Black Body Radiations”.
Experimentally observe that black body radiates more when hot them when it is cold the
spectrum of a hot black body has its peak at a higher frequency than the peak in the
spectrum of a cooler one as shown in figure below:
Different attempts to have been made to explain the experimental results from the black
body.

i. Wein’s Laws:
According to Wein’s displacent law:
“The wavelength for maximum radiation is emitted is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the Black Body”.
OR
“The product of wavelength for maximum radiation emitted and absolute
temperature of the black body remain constant”.
If “m” is maximum wavelength of emitted radiation, then according to law,
wavelength shifted shorter with the increase of temperature:
1
m
T
Cons tan t
m =
T
m T = constant

PAGE - 125
ii. Stephen’s Law:
According to Stephen’s law:
“The total amount of energy radiated per second per unit area of a black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
If “E” is the energy radiated per second per unit area and “T” is the temperature,
than:
E  T4
E =  T4 where  is called Stephen’s constant

Rayleigh – Jean’s Law:

Rayleigh and Jeans consider that radiation inside a cavity of absolute temperature whose
wall are perfect reflectors to be a series of standing electromagnetic waves and density of
the standing waves in the cavity is independent of the shape of the cavity. The higher the
frequency shorter the wavelength and greater the number of possible standing waves.
Each standing wave (radiations) in cavity originates by an atomic charge oscillators and has
an average energy of “KT”.
According to Rayleigh – Jeans law:
“The energy associated with a particular wave length is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength”.
If “E” is the energy associated with radiation and “” is the wavelength then:
1
E 4 this is known as “Rayleigh – Jeans law

This law has been found to give a good agreement with experimental results at large
values of wavelength (). For wavelength of large values (values of max.
wavelength) the total energy tending to acquire infinite value. This is called “Ultra –
Violet Catastrophe”.

Planks’s Law (Quantum – Theory):

According to Plank’s hypothesis:
Energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amount or in the form of bundles of energy,
each bundle is called quanta (plural quantum). The energy of each quanta is directly
proportional to the frequency of the radiation:
Such that,
E 
E = h
When h is a constant and it is known as Plank’s constant. Its value is 6.63x10-34 J –
S.
On the basis of assumption that energy could be emitted or absorbed by atomic
oscillators in discrete quanta. The Plank’s law would have the for.
 E =nh; n = 0, 1, 1, 3, . . . .

Results:
Plank’s law successfully explain the Black body radiations both short and long
wavelengths. Second and great success of law was that:
According to Plank’s theory such electromagnetic radiations carries with it a minimum
energy that is a function of its frequency. Where as according to classical theory of a wave.
The energy of the wave is related to the amplitude; greater the wave amplitude greater will
be the energy.

PAGE - 126
Photoelectric Effect:
When high frequency radiations (ultraviolet, X – rays, etc) fall on a metal surface,
electrons are emitted. This phenomenon is known as “Photo electric field”. The
electrons emitted are called “photo – electrons”.
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect can be observed by the arrangement. Shown
on figure.
An evacuated tube contains two electrodes connected to a battery. Through a
galvanometer, when light of high frequency falls on the negative plate. The
galvanometer indicates current. This current is caused by photo – electron, which are
emitted from cathode plate and absorbed by anode plate. Photoelectric effect was
found to depend upon the frequency of light, the nature of metals and the intensity of
light.
Following observations were made during the emission of photo detectors:

i. A strong light beam (high intensity) yields more photo electrons than a weak one of
the same frequency, but the average kinetic energy of electrons is same.
ii. A certain minimum frequency of light is necessary to cause photo-electric emission.
This minimum frequency called “threshold frequency” is different for different
metals.
iii. Photoelectron energy depends upon the frequency of light employed. At frequencies
below threshold frequency, no photoelectrons are emitted. Above threshold
frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with
increasing frequency.

Failure of Classical Wave Theory:

Attempts were made to explain these aspects of the photoelectric effect from the point of
view of classical wave theory of light, but no successful explanation was obtained due to the
following reasons:
1. According to classical wave theory, light of any frequency should cause
photoelectric emission because the electrons may absorb coefficient amount of
energy from light if it is made incident for appropriate time. Hence there should be
no threshold frequency.
2. According to wave theory, light of greater amplitude (greater intensity) posses
greater energy. Hence the energy of photoelectrons should depends upon intensity of
light rather
than frequency.

PAGE - 127
Experimental Result of the Photoelectric Effect:
i. If we draw the photoelectric curves by plotting the photoelectric current (I)
verses the accelerating voltage (V). the curves shown in figure. From these
curves, it follow that there is a saturation current for different intensities I, II,
III etc, and even when the potential is zero (V = 0) ; there is some photo
current, when a retarding voltage is applied the current drops and become
zero for a certain voltage (Vo).
This voltage (Vo) is called stopping
potential and it determines.
Maximum K.E of photoelectrons.
i.e. K.E(Max)= eVo
Or
1 2
eVo = mVMax
2

ii. If light of same intensity but

different frequencies are made
incident on a metal the photoelectric
current at zero voltage is found to be
same. However when retarding
voltage is applied, the stopping
potential is of greater value for
light of greater frequency. This
suggest that the greater the frequency
of light, greater is the K.E of photoelectrons.

iii. A graph between frequency of

incident light and the max. K.E
of photoelectrons is straight line. K.E
The graph shows that there is a (eV)
certain minimum values of
frequency for what the energy of
photoelectrons is zero. This is called
“Threshold frequency” (o). o Frequency()

Einstein’s Explanation of Photoelectric Effect on the Basis of Quantum

Theory of Light:
Einstein explains the photoelectric effect by using Plank’s Quantum theory of
radiation.
According to quantum theory radiations are emitted and absorbed in discrete manner,
in the form of packets of energy. The energy of each quantum is proportional to the
frequency of radiation.
Thus:
E = h[ h = Plank’s constant = 6.63x10 -34 J-S]
Einstein assumed that a beam of light conserves of quanta called photons. When
light falls on a metal surface, the photons interact with the electrons present in the
metal. The interaction between a photon and electron is treated as a collision in
which energy is conserved. The photon transfers all its energy (or non of its energy)
to the electron.
PAGE - 128
The minimum energy required to overcome the attractive forces acting on an
electron and to eject it from the metal is called “work function” when an energy of
proton is larger than work function, emission of electrons take place instantaneously.
Mathematically it is written as:
 Quantum energy = work required to + K.E of photoelectron
of incident photon drag out electron from metal
h = o + K.EMax ___________________ 1
Where “o” is called work function of the metal. Its unit is Joule (J) or electron volt
(eV). It is the characteristic of the surface of the metal used.

If K.E of photoelectrons will zero, then o = ho where, o is the threshold frequency
of the metal. Than;
1 => h = o + K.EMax
h = ho + eVo
eVo = h - ho _______________ 2
This relation is called “Einstein’s photoelectric equation” .
This equation can be written as:
(K.E)Max= h - o
hc hc
eVo = -
 o
where ‘o’ is called cut-off wavelength.

Photo Cell:
A simple photo cell based on the photoelectric effect in shown in figure below:
The photo cell or photo tube consist of evacuated glass tube fitted with an anode
plate and a concave metallic cathode of appropriate surface. The material of the
cathode can be chosen to respond to the frequency range over which the photocell
operates. The response can be made proportional to the intensity of the light source.
The photocell is connected in shown to operate for a particular use of the cell as a
source of photoelectric emission. A photocell can be used in any situation where
beam of light falling on a cell is interruption or broken.
For example (uses):
i. To count vehicles passing a road or items running on a conveyer belt.
ii. To open doors automatically in a building.
iii. To operate burglar alarms.

PAGE - 129
Compton Effect:
Compton effect in an interaction between a photon of electromagnetic
radiations (X – rays in this case) and a free electron (or other charged
particles) in which some of the energy of the photon is transferred to the particle.
Compton effect provided a solid support for photon theory of light since the results
were elegantly described by assigning the
h
photon an energy (h) and momentum ( ).
c
It is sufficient to analyze the scattering process in a single frame of reference as
shown in fig(a).
Figure shows a collision in which
an X – ray photon strikes an
electron which is initially treated
at rest. The photons approaches
toward the electron with a frequency
() and scattered out at an angle ()
with a lower frequency ().
The photon energies before and after
collision are h and h respectfully.
During the scattering electron receive
impulse and begins to move. The gain
in K.E of the electron (e) is the loss in
the energy of photon. Let “E” and “P”
be the energy and momentum of the
recoiled electron respectively.
In an elastic collision energy and
momentum both are conserved.

(Schematic diagram of Compton Effect)

Conservation of Energy:
Total initial energy = total final energy
h + moC2 = h + mC2
OR
h - h = mC – moC
2 2
______________ (i)
where
mo C2 = rest mass energy of electron
mC2 = relativistic energy of the scattered electron.

Conservation of Momentum:
Along X – axis: Along the line of impact
h h /
+0= cos + P cos ; P = mv (for electron) ____(ii)
c c

Along Y –axis: Across the line of impact

PAGE - 130
 h /
0+0= sin  - P sin 
c
h /
0= sin  - P sin  _________________ (iii)
c
These three equations can be solved and the following equation is obtained.
1 1 h
  (1  Cos ) ________________ (A)
 /
 moC 2
c
Using equation = ;  = wavelength

So
1 1 h
(A) =>   (1  Cos )
c / c moC 2
 
 /
 h
  (1  Cos )
c c moC 2
/   h
(1  Cos )

c moC 2
h
/    (1  Cos )
moC
Where
 -  =  is called Compton shift in wavelength and quantity
h
( ) is called “Compton wavelength (c).
mo C
h
 = c (1 – cos) ; c =
mo C

Pair Production:
A photon may lose its energy, when it interacts with nucleus of an atom. In this interaction
photon disintegrates (or disappear) and an electron-positron pair is created. This process is
known as pair production. The schematic diagram is shown below.
Positron is a positively charged particle, its charge and mass are equal to
the charge and mass of an electron. That’s why it is called positive e -. it is an anti particle of
electron. The role of the nucleus in this process is just to share some energy and momentum
in order to conserve the two quantities.
According to mass energy relation, E = mC2. Energy of ‘2moC2’ is needed to create an
electron-positron pair. Thus a photon with energy (h) greater than (2moC2) is required for
the pair production to take place. Thus the photon energy (h) in this process is equal to the
sum of the (2moC2) and Kinetic Energies of electron and positron such that:
h = 2moC2 + (K.E)e- + (K.E)e+
Due to large mass of the nucleus, recoil kinetic energy of the nucleus is neglected.
This process is also known as “MATERIALIZATION OF ENERGY.”

PAGE - 131
Debroglie Hypothesis:(wave nature of particle)
Debroglie in 1924 put forth a novel idea called Debroglie’s Hypothesis.
According to Debroglie Hypothesis:
If electromagnetic waves can have particle behaviours then material particles such as
electrons, protons etc can also behave in a wave like manner.
Hence momentum (P) of a particle in terms of wavelength () associated with it is
given by:
h
P = mV =

We know that
P = mV ________________ 1
Using equation E = mC2
E = mV2
E = PV _________________ 2
hc
E = h

hV
E= __________________ 3

Comparing equation (2) and (3)
hV
PV =

h
P=


Annihilation of Matter:
In the process of pair production energy (the photon) is converted into mass (electron
and positron). The reverse of this process is also a reality. That is an electron and
positron when combined together they annihilate each other and the mass of these
particles appears as the energy of two photons. Each photon will have energy equal
to the rest mass energy of the electron (moC2).

Diagram represents annihilation of electron-positron and the appearance of two

photon moving into the opposite direction. Each proton will have the energy
(0.51Mev).
P = mV

h
mV =


h
=
mV

Where “m” and “V” are relativistic mass and velocity, “h” is the Plank’s constant.
This relation is known as Debroglie’sRelation. This wave associated with particles
are called “Debroglie’s wave.”
Theoretical prediction of Debroglie’s hypothesis was sconfirmed by the famous
experiment conduct by Davission and Gevner. They were investigating the scattering
of an electron beam by the metallic crystal of Nickel.

PAGE - 132
The Uncertainty Principle:
Heisenberg uncertainty principle state that:
“It is in principle impossible to measure with accuracy both momentum and
corresponding position of a particle simultaneously.”
Thus, if P2 is the uncertainty in the measured value of the component of
momentum and ‘z’ is the uncertainty in corresponding coordinate of the positron.
Then according to the principle, the product of these uncertainties must satisfy the
inequality:
h
P n≥
2

h
PxX
2

Where ‘h’ is the Plank’s constant.

Similar relations follow for the other y and Z direction.
Pyy ≥ħ

P2Z ≥ ħ

Similarly to the uncertainty relation above, there is another principle of uncertainty

which limits. The accuracy in the measurement of time and energy. If E is the
energy uncertainty in time ‘t’ then we have the relation.
h
Et ≥
2

h
Et (ħ)
2

The effects of the uncertainty principle are not apparent with large systems because
of the small value of ‘h’. however the principle is of fundamental importance in
behavior of system on the atomic scale.

PAGE - 133
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. What do you understand by a frame of reference? What is the difference
between inertial frame and non-internal frame?
Ans: The position and motion of a body can be located with reference to some coordinate
system, called the frame of reference.
The frame of reference that is either at rest or moves with uniform velocity is called
inertial frame. It has zero linear or rotational acceleration. Newton’s laws hold well
in such a frame. All inertial frames of references are equivalent.

The frame of reference which possesses acceleration is known as non-inertial frame.

Laws of motion do not remain valid in such a frame.

Q.2. Explain why the Compton Effect is not observable with visible light?
Ans: In Compton’s experiment of x-rays of wavelength – 1A, equivalent to energy – 140
ev, were directed on a graphite block, where binding energies of bounded electrons
were -102 eV. If visible light is used, it possesses law of frequency and these
photons have energies -0.1 eV. This energy is too small to be given to loosely bound
electrons to get them scattered.

Q.3. What phenomena require wave description of light? What phenomena required
particle picture of light? How are the two aspects related punitively?
Ans: The convincing evidences that light are a wave phenomena are:
 Interference of light
 Diffraction of light
 Polarization of light
 Production of electro magnetic waves
 The optical Doppler Effect.
The idea of quantum nature of light, i.e. photon (which has a particle nature) was
introduced due to the following evidences:
 Black body radiation
 The photoelectric emission
 Compton scattering
 X-ray production

The wave and particle aspects are related in de Broiler equation as:  = h/mv. Thus a
particle of non- zero rest mass moves as if it were guided by an associated matter waves.
Nevertheless, the ‘particle waves’ are waves of probability. Confirmation of de Broglie
wavelength came in 1927 by C.J. Division and L.H. German and, independently, G.P.
Thomson. It is astounding to note that Thomson (J.J), the fate, was awarded the Nobel
prize in 1906 for having shown that the electron is a particle; and 31 years later
Thomson (J.P). The son, for having shown that the electron is a wave

PAGE - 134
Q.4. In what way do the particles of light (photons) differ from the particles of
matter, such as electrons and proton?
Ans: Particles of matter (e.g. electron, proton, etc.) possess certain characteristic:
 Non- zero rest mass.
 They posses inertia and contain no energy ‘packets’.
 Their speed is always less than c (speed of light).
 Their energy proportional to the square of the speed. (E = ½ mv2)
 They may be charged or uncharged.
 When in motion, they are guided by the matter waves.
Particles of light (photon) posses following distinct characteristic:
 Zero rest mass.
 They consists of waves in packets of discrete amounts (called ‘energy packets’ or
quanta)
 They travel with speed equal to that of light.
 Their energy is proportional to frequency (E = hV)
 They ae always electrically neutral.
 They are not guided by matter waves.

Q.5. In the photoelectric effect, the energy of a photoelectron is less than that of
incident photon. Explain?
Ans: When radiation (a photon) strikes a metal surface, it deposits its entire energy on
some electron in the absorbing surface. If the energy of the photon (hv) exceeds the
energy required by the electron in work against the force binding it to the surface
(Ǿo), it will be emitted with some energy. As K.E. = hv -Ǿo, hence k.e. < hv.

Q.6. How did de Broglie hypothesis help to explain the stability of the atom?
Ans: According to de Broglie hypothesis, an electron moving around the nucleolus is
pictured as a kind of wave packet (Standing wave). An electron can circle a nucleus
indefinitely without radiating energy provided that its orbit contains an integral
number of de Broglie wavelengths.

Q.7. What is rest mass of a body?

Ans: Rest mass (mo) is the mass of a body when it is at rest with respect to an observer.
The relativistic mass of a body moving with certain velocity is given by

Mo
m= 1- v2
c2

Q.8. If we keep applying a force on a material object, can the object gain the speed of
light?
Ans: If we keep applying a force which can produce a velocity equal to velocity of light
(v = c), then the mass of the material body would become infinite. This is not
possible.

PAGE - 135
Q.9. A block of polished metal having a black spot in the middle is heated above
3000 K and then placed in a dark room. Write your observations?
Ans: If a metal block is heated to incandescence at about 1000K, the metal has a dull red
glow. A further high temperature changes into orange, then yellow and finally to
white (3000 K), the black spot behaves as a block body. It absorbs maximum energy
and appears as black. When seen in a dark room, the black spot radiates more energy
(since good observer is a good emitter) than the rest of the block. The black spot
appears brighter than the rest of the surface.

Q.10. Does the fact that an atom can emit a photon violate the law of conservation of
energy? Explain?
Ans: No. an atom in an excited state can emit a photon. The energy received in jumping
up is released in the emission.

Q.11. Can matter (e.g. electron) be created or destroyed?

Ans: Matter can be created from energy (photon) in pair production; and can be destroyed
as photons in annihilation of matter process.

Q.12. Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain

Ans: No, because this process requires a heavy nucleus to conserve momentum and
energy of the system. The heavy nucleus takes the recoil after stopping the photon.

Q.13. Can an intense beam of television waves focused on a metal cause

photoemission?
Ans: No, because TV waves are of low frequency, while a metal requires high threshold
frequency for photoemission.

Q.14. Both photoelectric emission and Compton scattering are processes that involve
interaction of radiation with matter. How do they differ?
Ans: In photoelectric effect a law of energy photon (e.g. ultraviolet light) can lose all its
energy on striking an electrons and the photon vanishes. But in Compton Effect, a
high energy photon (e.g. x-ray) loses part of energy and a photon is scattered with
the remaining energy (and hence frequency decreases).

Q.15. The speed limit of our highways is 65 km/h. if speed of light were the same,
would you be able to drive at the speed limit?
Ans: No, because mass would become infinite.

Q.16. A ball is dropped from a helicopter flying at constant speed horizontally.

Describe its motion relative to the pilot and an observer on the earth’s surface.
Ans: According to the observer to the earth, it will fall forward towards the ground
following a projectile path.

According to a pilot, it will to a point on the earth vertically.

Q.17. Why does the casing of a large electric transformer have metal have metal
blades fastened to it perpendicular to the surface and painted black?
Ans: The blades transfer heat by radiation to the atmosphere by increasing the surface
area. They are painted black because black body radiates energy at a faster rate.

PAGE - 136
CHAPTER - 18

PAGE - 137
 THEORY
Spectrum:
Spectrum is a wavelength analysis of a source of light. Each element, under certain
conditions, emit rays that consist of a set of particular wavelength called spectrum.
Each element has it own characteristics
spectrum. Spectra of elements may be classified into three classes.
i. Line Spectra (Atomic Spectra)
ii. Band Spectra
iii. Continuous Spectra

i. Line Spectrum (or Atomic Spectrum):

A spectrum consisting of relatively sharp lines is known as line spectrum. The
spectrum may consist of a number of series. In a typical series the spectral
lines are well separated at one end. Line spectrum originates in the atom of
incandescent gases or vapours. The wavelengths of the lines are characteristic
of atoms of the element emitting the light. Hence the line spectra are also
called “atomic spectra.”

ii. Band Spectrum:

It consists of broad bands, each usually having one sharp edge. Under high
dispersion, a band it seen to consist of regularly spaced sharp lines very close
together. In solids atoms are so closely arranged their line spectrum is
arranged in an orderly manners giving rise to band spectrum.

iii. Continuous Spectrum:

It consists of all wavelengths over a considerable range without any abrupt
discontinuity in intensity. It produces by incandescent solid or liquid or gas
under very high pressure.

Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom:

Hydrogen is the simplest atom. The spectrum of hydrogen has been found to consists
of five sets of spectral lines. Each set is called a series. Each line is formed has
definite frequency and wavelength. Scientists tried to obtain empirical formula to
find the wavelength of the spectral lines in different series. The empirical formulas
are given below:

i. Lyman Series:
Lines of this series lies in ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum, have
frequency greater than visible light. Wavelength of each line of the series can
be obtained by:
1 1 1 
 R 2  2  ; n = 2, 3, 4, . . . . .
 1 n 

PAGE - 138
 ii. Balmer Series:
This series consist of visible lines and the wavelength can be found from
1  1 1 
 R 2  2  ; n = 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . . .
 2 n 

iii. Paschen Series:

Lines of this series consist of infra red light of high frequency. The empirical
formula is:
1 1 1 
 R 2  2  ; n = 4, 5, 6, . . . . .
 3 n 
iv. Bracket Series:
The lines of this series consist of infra red of low frequency and wavelength is
given as
1  1 1 
 R 2  2  ; n = 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . . .
 4 n 

v. P/ fund Series:
Lines of this series consist of Far – infra red wave length of very low
frequency and wavelength will be
1 1 1 
 R 2  2  ; n = 6, 7, 8, . . . . .
 5 n 

Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom:

Bohr’s Postulates:
To explain the spectrum of hydrogen atom Bohr give the following postulates:

1. Only those orbits are permitted for which the angular momentum is an
h
integral multiple of the value “ ” (i.e h = Plank’s constant) i.e.
2
nh
Angular momentum =
2
nh
L= ; L = mVA
2
h
mVr = nħ ; ħ=
2
where, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . .

PAGE - 139
2. When an electron revolves in an allowed orbit its total energy remains
constant i.e. it neither radiates nor absorbs energy.
3. If an electron jumps from an initial orbit of energy (E i) to final orbit of energy
(Ef) i.e. Ei>Ef. the difference of energy can be emitted as a photon of energy
“h”, where  is the frequency of the emitted radiation i.e.
Ei – Ef = h
Ei  E f
=
h
Ei  E f
=
2 h

Radii and Energies of Orbits of Hydrogen:

Radii of nth Orbit:
Hydrogen atom consists of a proton in the nucleus and an electron revolving around
it. There exists an electrostatic field inside the atom produce by the positive charge
(proton). The coulomb electrostatic force between proton and electron provides the
necessary centripetal force to the electron. Such that
Electrostatic attraction = Centripetal force
Between proton and electron
1 e2 mv 2
. 
4 o r 2 r
Where, e = charge of electron.
 = electron speed in orbit
m = mass of electron
r = radius of the orbit
1 e2
  mv 2 ________________ (i)
4 o r
Using Bohr’s postulate.
h
mvr = n. n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . .
2
mvr = nħ
nh
v=
mr
Put the value in eq (i)
1 e2
  mv 2
4 o r
2
1 e2  nh 
  m 
4 o r  mr 
1 e2  n2h2 
  m 2 2 
4 o r m r 
e2 n2h2
 2
4 o m r
4 o h 2
rn  n 2
me2 ____ (ii)

PAGE - 140
n = principle quantum number = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Expression for the radius of nth hydrogen orbit.
Substituting the values of constants we get the radius of nth orbit:
 = 3.14
o = 8.85x10-12
rn = n2(0.53x10-10m)
For first orbit ground state: n = 1
r1= 0.53x10-10m

For 2ndorbit : n = 2
r2 = 4 x 0.53x10-10m = 2.12x10-10 m
The ratio between the radii is:
r1 : r2 : r3 . . . . = 1 : 4 : 9 : 16

Energy of nth orbit:

In an orbit, the electron partly possesses both kinetic and potential energy. Let ‘E’ is
total energy of the electron in orbit. Then,
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
E = K.E + P.E ______________ (A)

For kinetic energy (K.E):

K.E = ½ mv2 _________________ (iii)
Using equation (i)
1 e2 1
(i) => mv = 2
 ; K=
4 o r 4 o
Ke 2
V  2

mr
So,
(iii) => K.E = ½ mv2
K.E = ½ m( ke2/mr)
Ke2
K .E  ________________(iv)
2r

For Potential Energy (P.E):

Using the relation o fthe absolute potential and potential energy.
P.E = qv ;q=e
Ke 1 e
V  .
P.E = eV ; r 4 o r

P.E = - e(Ke/r)
P.E = - Ke2/r ____________________ (v)
Negative sign is due to the attractive force.
So, equation (A) will be using (iv) and (v)
(A) => E = K.E + P.E

PAGE - 141
 Ke2  Ke2 
E  
2r  r 
Ke2 Ke2
E 
2r r
2
Ke 1
E k
2r 4 o
Or
e2
E
8 o r
Or
1 e2
En   .
8 o rn
Using the value:
 4 o h 2 
rn   2 
 me 
So,
1 e2
En   .
8 o  4 o h 2 
n2  2 
 me 
1 me4
En   .
8 o n 2  4 o h 2 
1 me4
En   .
n 2 32 2 o2 h 2

This is expression for the energy of nth orbit of hydrogen atom.

Negative sign shows that the electron is bound to the atom and energy must be spent
in order to remove the electron from orbit.
Substituting the values of constants in above equation.
2 
2.18  1018 J 
1
En  
n
Or
En = - 13.6/n2eV (Binding energy in ‘eV’ for nth orbit of hydrogen
orbit)
For 1st orbit: n = 1
E1 = -13.6 eV
nd
For 2 orbit: n = 2
E2 = -3.4 eV
rd
For 3 orbit: n = 3
E3 = -1.51 eV
When 13.6 e = 
For E= - 13.6 eV () = 0

PAGE - 142
Expressions for frequency and wavelength:
A/c to Bohr Postulates when electron jumps from initial state (ni) of energy (Ei) to
find state (nf) of energy “Ef” it radiates energy, which has particular frequency ()
and wavelength ().
Using equation for the energy of nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 me4
En  
n 2 32 2 o2 h 2
So,
1 me4
Ei  
ni 2 32 2 o2 h 2
1 me4
Ef  
nf 2 32 2 o2 h 2

So using Bohr’s Postulate:

Ei  E f
= ; ħ = 2h
2 h
1 1 me 4 1 me 4
= - 2 - (- 2  )
2 h ni 32 2 o2 h 2 nf 32 2 o2 h 2

me4  1 1
=    
64 3 o2 h 3  ni2 n 2f 
me 4 1 1
= 3  2
 
64 o h  n f ni2 
3 2

Expression for the frequency of the radiation.

For wavelength ():
c
=

So,
c me 4 1 1
= 3  2
 
 64 o h  n f ni2 
3 2

1 me 4 1 1
= 3  2
 
 64 o h c  n f ni2 
3 2

Where,
me 4
= RH (Rydberg constant)
64 3 o2 h 3c
It’s value is 1.097x107m-1 .
So,
1 1 1
= RH   2
 2
 n f ni 
Expression for wavelength.

PAGE - 143
Series of Hydrogen:
The formulas for the first five series its spectrum of hydrogen are:

Lyman Series:
nf = 1, ni = n ; n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
1 1 1
= RH  2  
 1 n2 
Balmer Series:
nf = 2, ni = n ; n = 3, 4, 5, . . . .
1 1 1
= RH   2
  2 2
n 
Paschen Series:
nf = 3, ni = n ; n = 4, 5, 6, . . . .
1 1 1
= RH   2
 2
3 n 
Bracket Series:
nf = 4, ni = n ; n = 5, 6, . . . .
1 1 1
= RH   2
 2
4 n 
P fund Series:
nf = 5, ni = n ; n = 6, 7, . . . .
1 1 1
= RH   2
  52
n 

The Bohr’s theory successfully explained both qualitatively and quantitatively the
experimentally observed atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.

PAGE - 144
Excitation Energy:
The energy needed to move atom (or electron) from its ground state to on excited
state is called “Excitation Energy”
First and second excitation energies of an hydrogen atom are 10.2 ev and 12.09 ev.

Excitation potential:
If an electron of charge (e) is accelerated by applying a potential difference of “V”
volts to achieve the excitation energy, then the voltage applied is known as
“Excitation potential”.
First and second excitation potentials of an hydrogen atom are 10.2 ev and 12.09 ev.

Ionization Energy:
The minimum energy required to ionize an atom, which is in the ground state called
“ionization energy” of the atom.
The ionization energy of the hydrogen atom which is in the ground state is -13.6 ev
or -2.18 ev x 10-10 J.

Ionization potential:
It is an accelerated potential which removes an electron completely from an atom.
For hydrogen atom there is a one value of ionization potential equal to 13.6 V.
In atom with several electrons, there can be make their one value of ionization
potential (I.P).

X – Rays:
When high energy electron strike a metal surface, high frequency radiations of
extremely large penetrating power are emitted which are called X – rays.
They are also called “Routgen Rays”. The wavelength range is 0.001 to 1 nm.

Properties:
i. The electromagnetic radiations having wavelength.
ii. X – Rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
iii. They posses high penetration power.
iv. They effect photographic plate.
v. They ionize gases weakly.
vi. They can diffract by a crystal lattice.
vii. They destroy the living cells and tissues.

X – Rays Spectrum:
Spectral analysis of X – Rays shows that spectrum of X – rays can be categorize in
two types.
1) There is a continuous spectrum. The X – ray “Bremsstrahlung”.
2) Under certain condition, there is a line spectrum. The “characteristic
Spectrum”.

PAGE - 145
1) X – ray Continuous Spectra or X – ray Spectrum (Bremsstrahlung):
It is produced due to the declaration of high velocity electrons when they are
deflected while passing near the positively charged nucleus, in the target
material. This is continuous X – rays Bremsstrahlung.
In terms of quantum theory, a quantum of light (h = Eo-E)(Eo>E) is emitted.
However, since the beginning and end states are not quantized the electron are
free. This process is represented as:
Atom + e- (Fast) atom + e-(Slow) + h

2) Characteristic X – Ray Spectrum:

Some of the high velocity electrons, while penetrating the interior of the
atoms of the target material, knock off the tightly bound electrons in the
innermost shells (K, L shells) of the atom. Electrons from outer shell jump to
fill up the vacancy. The energy difference due to this inner shell transition is
given out as X – rays of definite wavelength. This constitutes a “line
spectrum” or “characteristic X – rays.”

The Laser:
The laser is a light source that produces a beam of highly coherent and very nearly
monochromatic light as a result of co-operative emission from many atoms. The
name laser is acronym for “light amflication by stimulated emission of radiation”.

The Laser Principle:

Principle of a laser is explained by considering that atoms of a material have a
number of energy levels and at least one of which is meta stable state (Temporarily
Excited State), the state having much longer life time than excited state.
We consider a three level system as shown in the above figure. The atoms are raised
from the ground state Eo to the excited state E2 of life time 10-8 sec. They do not fall
back to the state Eo because such transitions are not allowed. The atoms in the state
E2 decay spontaneously to state E1, which is metastable state (has a mean life time of
3x10-3 sec). This means that the atoms reach state E1 much faster than they leave
state E1. This result in an increased number of atoms in E1 as compared to Eo. Thus
population inversion is achieved.
After population inversion is obtained the state E1 is exposed to beam of energy hv =
E1 – Eo, which causes induced emission. In order to sustain this process the emitted
radiation is confined in assembly and at the ends of which mirrors are fitted. One end
mirror is totally reflecting while the other is made partially reflecting for the laser
beam to taken out.
PAGE - 146
Some Important terms:

i. Metastable State:
In an certain atoms, certain excited state persist for a longer period of time
upto 10-3 sec or even more such states are known as metastable state.

ii. Population Inversion:

The non – equilibrium condition in which the number of atoms is higher.
Energy state is greater than the number in a lower energy state such a
situation is called population inversion.

iii. Stimulated Emission:

In stimulated emission each incident photon of energy (h) encounters a
previously excited atom which is in metastable state. A kind of resonance
effect induces each atom to emit a second. Photon with same frequency
direction, phase and polarization as the incident photon, which is not changes
by the process.

iv. Amplification:
The process of stimulated emission is enhanced by using mirrors at the end of
the assembly of lasing material. The emitted photons move back and forth and
thus suffer multiple reflections. They continue stimulating other atoms to emit
photons. This is called “Amplification”. The resulting radiation is much more
intense and highly coherent.

PAGE - 147
Ruby Laser:
Construction:
Ruby is a crystal of Al2O3 (Aluminum oxide) in which a small number of Al atoms
are replaced by Cr+++ (Chromium) ions. Such ions are Cr atoms that have lost three
electrons each. A high intensity helical flash lamp surrounding the ruby provides
adequate pumping light to raise the Cr atoms from ground to excited state. In
practice, the ruby laser is a cylindrical rod with parallel, optically flat reflecting ends,
one of which is only partly reflecting as shown.

Working:
The flash tube provides necessary pumping energy. The chromium atoms absorb
energy and are excited. The laser action begins. The atoms from excited state make
transition to metastable state with spontaneous emission making the number of
atoms larger at metastable state, because mean life time of this state is of the order
10-3 sec. A few Cr atoms make transitions spontaneously from matastable to ground
state and emit photons. These emitted photons have wavelength of the order of
694.3mm and stimulate further transitions. Stimulated emission will dominate
stimulated absorption and we obtain an intense, coherent and mono chromatic red
beam of light.

Application of Laser:
There are a number of applications of laser technology. Some applications are as
follows:
i. Three dimensional images of objects obtained by using lasers in a process
called Holography.
ii. As surgical tool for “welding” detached retina.
iii. To perform precision surveying and length measurement.
iv. As a potential energy source for inducing nuclear fusion reactions.
v. For telephone communications along optical fibers.
vi. For precision cutting of metals and other materials.

PAGE - 148
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. The Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any
of these assumptions contradict classical physics?
Ans: The assumption in Bohr’s theory that an electron moving around the nucleus in a
certain orbit does no radiate energy is contrary to classical electrodynamics.

Q.2. Why does the hydrogen gas produced in the laboratory not glow and emit
radiations?
Ans: A spectrum is given by the light emitted from an incandescent gas or vapour e.g.
electric discharge through a gas or hydrogen filled discharge tube.

Q.3. Why are the energy levels of the hydrogen atom less than zero?
Ans: The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are negative. This shows that the electron is
bond (not free). Thus one must do work (or expend energy) to remove it from the
atom.

Q.4. If the hydrogen gas is bombarded by electrons of energy 13.6eV, would you
expected to observe all the lines of hydrogen spectrum?
Ans: If a hydrogen atom is bombarded by electrons of energy 13.6eV, it gas ionized;
because – 13.6 eV is the ground state energy, which is equivalent to the ionization
energy. As such, no spectral lines of hydrogen will be observed.

Q.5. Hydrogen gas at room temperature absorbs light of wavelengths equal to the
lines in the Lyman series but not those balmier series. Explain?
Ans: Hydrogen gas at room temperature contains electrons in ground state (p=1). If the
energy supplied to the electron is such that the electron is lifted from its ground state
to one of the higher allowed orbits, the atom will be excited and it will absorb energy
equal to the difference of the energies of the electron in the two states. Thus light of
wavelength equal to the lines in the Lyman series will be absorbed.

Q.6. How are x-rays different from the visible radiations?

Ans: Both x-rays and visible radiations are electromagnetic waves but x-rays differ from
the visible radiations in the following features:
1. X-rays are highly penetrating. They can pass through many opaque solids such as wood or
flesh but are stopped by bones and metals. Hence x-ray photographs are used in medicine.
2. They cause ionization in gases.
3. They can eject photoelectrons on striking some metals.
4. They produce fluorescence in many substances like zinc sulphide, barium plateinocyanide,
etc.
5. They can damage living tissues if exposed to them for longer duration.

Q.7. What property of x-rays makes them so useful in seeing otherwise invisible
internal structures?
Ans: In solids, the atoms are grouped together in a regular manner. The inter atomic distance in a
crystal is of the order of the wavelength of x-rays. Hence a crystal is used as a ‘transmission
grating’ to produce diffraction of x-rays. This x-ray crystallography has helped to locate the
internal structure of crystal systems (called basic unit cells). Recently developed internal
imaging devices (for human body) include CT (computerized tomography) scanning. MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and PET (Positron Emission Tomography).

PAGE - 149
Q.8. Explain the difference between laser light and light from an incandescent lamp
(or bulb)?
Ans:
Laser Light Incandescent Light
1. laser light is highly mono 1. Light from an incandescent bulb
chromatic. is a mixture of several
2. It consists of parallel ways in a wavelengths.
narrow beam and is highly 2. It is emitted in all directions and
directional (i.e. moves straight spreadsheet.
without spreading). 3. It is produced due to
3. It is produced due to stimulated spontaneous emission of
emission of radiation. radiation.

Q.9. Does the light emitted by neon sign constitute spectrum or only a few colours?
Explain?
Ans: The luminous neon in a discharge tube has a reddish colour. Its spectrum is
composed of a few colours (line spectrum) of wavelength, very close to each other.
So the spectral lines are closely spaced to form band spectrum.

Q.10. Suppose you are given glass tube having two electrodes scaled on both ends.
The inside is either hydrogen or helium. How can you tell which one is it
without breaking the tube?
Ans: The electrodes are connected across a voltage source. If the voltage is gradually
increased, then hydrogen filled tube will become luminous first, because its
ionization potential is four times less than that helium.
The gases can also be differentiated by taking spectrum of each other.

Q.11. Hydrogen atom contains only a single electron and yet the hydrogen spectrum
contains many lines. Why is this so?
Ans: The atoms of hydrogen can excited to different energy levels. The excited electrons
will not stay there. These will jump to the inner orbits. One de-excitation, an electron
does not necessarily return to the ground state in a single jump. Rather, it may retune
by several jumps. Thus several spectral lines of different frequencies are emitted,
depending upon the differences of energies between the levels for the transitions. so,
the spectrum of hydrogen contains many lines.

Q.12. The electron in a hydrogen atom requires energy of 10.2eV for the excitation to
a higher energy level. A photon and an electron, each of energy 10.5eV, are
incident on the atom. Which of these can excite the atom? Give explanation in
support of your answer?
Ans: To excite an electron, energy can be supplied to the electron by direct collision with
accelerated particles as well as by the photons of energy hv. The energy of a photon
must be exactly equal to the excitation energy (10.2 eV) for the bound electron;
otherwise it will not be absorbed (since it cannot transfer its energy in parts). On the
other hand, accelerated particles can give energy to the bound electron in full as well
as in part. Hence as electron 10.5eV (a little higher than the excitation energy of 10.2
eV) can excite the hydrogen atom

PAGE - 150
Q.13. Describe the atomic processes in the target of an x-ray tube whereby x-ray
conterminous spectra and characteristic spectra and produced?
Ans: The x-rays produced by an x-ray tube consist of two parts.
1. A series of un-interrupted wavelengths having a short cut off wavelength (min) are
produced when high velocity electrons are decelerated by a heavy nucleus. This
constitutes a continuous spectrum of photons, including x-rays. This process is called
‘bremsstrahlung’ (German for breaking radiation).
2. A number of distinct and discreet wavelengths which constitute line (or
discontinuous) spectrum of the x-rays are produced when electrons are dialoged
from the inner most orbits, followed by electron jumps from the outer orbits. So
characteristic spectra result from transitions to a; hole’ in an inner energy level.

Q.14. Explain clearly why x-ray emission lines in the range of 0.1nm are not observed
from an x-ray tube when a low atomic number metal is used as the target in the
tube?
Ans: For the production of most energetic x-rays, the electrons must be raised from
deploying energy levels of the target atoms and certain electrons of innermost shell
must be knocked out. The target metal with low atomic number will have x-rays of
larger wavelengths. Hence, emission lines of x-rays in the range of 0.001 – 1nm are
not observed.

Q.15. Why does the frequencies of characteristic x-rays depend on the type of the
material used for the target?
Ans: The transitions for the emission of chiastic x-rays depend upon the nature of the
target material atoms, because frequency of x-rays (v) depends upon the atomic
number (z) of the target material [ v proportional z- according to Moseley’s law: v:
=(2.48 x 1015 hz) (Z – 1)2]. Due to Moseley’s work, the characteristic x-ray spectrum
became the universally accepted signature of an element.

Q.16. Does the maximum frequency in the bremsstrahlung process’ depend on the
nature of the target material?
Ans: No. the maximum frequency and minimum wavelength in the ‘bremsstrahlung
process’ do not depend on the material.

Q.17. In laser operation what process is required to be produced before ‘stimulated

emission’?
Ans: Laser operation requires the creation of a non-equilibrium condition, called
“population inversion” in which the number of atoms in a high energy state is greater
thus the number in a lower energy state.

Q.18. Why does laser usually emit only one particular colour of light rather than
several colours?
Ans: A laser beam is highly coherent and monochromatic, i.e. the emitted photons have
the same frequency and wavelength. As each and every colour has got its own
wavelength; so laser, being monochromatic, emits only one particular colour of light.

PAGE - 151
CHAPTER - 19

PAGE - 152
 THEORY
Charge Number (Z):
“Number of proton or the charge number or electron present in the atom is called
charged number”. It is denoted by (Z)

Mass Number (A)

“Number of nucleus present inside the nucleus is called mass number.” It is denoted
by (A).

Nuclear Mass (M):

Total mass of nucleus present inside the nucleus is called Nuclear mass.
“OR”
The sum of the mass of neutrons and the mass of the protons is called nuclear mass
“It is denoted by “M”.

Isotopes:
Elements have same charge number but different mass is called isotopes. Consider
following three isotopes of hydrogen atoms.
1st isotopes protium:
1st isotopes deuterium:
1st isotopes tritium:
Its show that the neutrons are responsible for the formation of isotopes. Isotopes can
also be define as elements having same protons number but different neutrons
number.

Mass Defect:
The nuclear mass of an element from mass spectrograph is always less than the sum
of the masses of the nucleons (proton and neutrons) present inside the nucleus. The
difference between two masses is called mass deficit.
Or
The difference between he theoretical (calculated mass of the constitute nucleons)
and the experiment mass (from mass spectrograph) is called mass defect.
Mass defect = Calculate mass – Experimental mass

Building Energy:
The energy required to bound the nucleons form the nucleus is called binding
energy.
Or
The energy, which is due to the mass deficit, is called binding energy.
According energy mass relation of special theory of relativity, mass defect converts
into binding energy as
B.E. = mC2

Packaging Fraction:
The mass deficit per nucleons is called packing fraction.
M = m/A

PAGE - 153
Binding Fraction:
The binding energy per nucleon called binding fraction.
f=E/A

Radioactivity:
Definition:
The spontaneous emission of invisible rays from the elements having atomic number greater
than 82 are called radioactivity. The invisible rays are called radioactive rays and the
elements, which emit such rays, are called radioactive element.
In 1896 Henry Becquerel discovered that uranium atom emit radiation these radiation cause
blackening of photographic plates they can penetrate into glass water and thin layers of
metal. The nuclei of such heavy element are unstable and disintegrate spontaneously.

Compound Of Radioactive Radiation:

Experiments have revealed radioactive radiation consists of charge particle and
photon of energy. The charge particles are -rays. β-rays. The photons are -rays.

Alpha Rays:
-Rays are positively charge particle with A = 4 and Z= 2. Alpha particle is helium
nuclei. The speed of the alpha rays in one-hundredth speed of light. It has low
penetrating power but high ionization power as compared to beta rays.

Beta Rays:
β-Rays consist of negatively charged particles. Beta rays are electron-having charge
–ve it has a velocity, one tenth of the velocity of light. It has high penetrating power
as compared to alpha rays but less than -rays.

-Rays:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation. Gamma ray has no charge and mass they
travel with the speed of light. Penetrating power as compared to alpha and beta rays
is very high.

Disintegration Of Radioactive Elements:

The process by which , β, -rays originate from within the nucleus of an atom is
called radioactive transformation (decay) or radioactive transmutation.
A nuclear species corresponding to given value of “A” and “Z” is called a nuclide
and it is denoted by ZXA, where X is the chemical symbol for the particular elements.

Alpha Disintegration:
In case of an unstable nucleus, decay by the emission of -particle change charge
number by 2 and mass number by 4. The transformation is represented by the
equation
A A-4 + He4
ZX Z-2 Y 2
Examples
226 222
88Ra 86Rn + 2He4
210 206
84P 82Pb + 2He4

PAGE - 154
Beta Disintegration:
In case of an unstable nucleus, decay by the emission of β-particle change charge
number by 1 and the mass number remain unchanged. The transformation is
represented by the equation.
A A 0
ZX Z+1Y + -1e
This is called “negative β decay”
Gamma Distintegration:
A 0
ZX Z+1 YA + -1e
This is called “positive β decay” -Emission will cause no change on
either “A” or “Z”. A nucleus with excess
Examples energy undergoes -emission.
14 14
6C 7N + -1e0 210 210
210 83Bi 83Bi +
82P
210
83Bl + -1e0
30 30
15P 14Si + +1e0

The Law of Radioactive Decay:

The two law of radioactive decay, are as follow.

1st law:
The rate of decay is directly proportional to the number of parent’s nuclides present
in the unstable radioactive element.

2nd law
The rate of decay decrease as the time passes.
N
 N
t

N
 N
t

Where –ve sing shows that rate of decay decreases as the time passes
N
= Rate of decay
t
 = Decay constant
N = No. of parent element

Activity:
The number of disintegration per second is called the activity “A” and is taken as a
positive number.
Using relation of radioactivity law.
N
 N
t
dN
Activity A 
dt

A   N

PAGE - 155
Expression for number of atoms presents any time ‘t’:
Using relation of radioactivity law

N
Rate of decay =   N
t
Rate of decay can be written as
dN
  N
dt

dN
   dt
N

Taking integral both sides

dN
 N
   dt

dN
 N
   dt

In N = –t + C ------------------ 1
At t = 0, N – No (Original parents nuclides)
In No = –(0) + C
C = In No Substituting C in 1
In N = –t + 1n No
In N – 1n No = –t
N
1n   t
No
N
1n   t
No

N
 e  t
No

NO
 t
N  Noe

Where N=No/2
N = Number of parents element at time t N=No/4
No = Number of original Parents element N=No/8
 = Decay constant
t = Time Half-life

Above equation gives the no of atom radioactive element in time ‘t’.

PAGE - 156
Half-life of radioactive element:
Definition:
The time required for the radioactive elements to decay to one half of its initial
number No.
Mathematically

06.93
T1 / 2 

Proof
Using relation of radioactivity law

N  N o e  t

t  T1
2

No
 N o e  T 1 / 2
2

No
 e T 1 / 2
2N o

1
 e  T 1 / 2
2
ln ½ = – T1/2
ln(1) – ln(2) = – T1/2

ln(1) = 0; ln(2) = 0.693

0 – 0.693 = – T1/2

06.93
T1 / 2 


Mean life:
The total radioactive life of radioactive element is called mean life.

Nuclear Fissions:
“The process in which a heavy nucleus is broken into two or more lighter nuclei with
the emission of large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.”
In 1939 Strassmann found that when 92U235 is bombarded with neutrons, it split-up
into Barium and Krypton along with three neutrons and enormous amount of energy
released.
1
on + 92U
235
 (92U236)  56Ba144 + 36Kr89 + 3on1 + Q
Chain Reaction:
In fission process three neutrons are emitting, in certain condition these neutrons
perform further fission called chain reaction. The minimum quantity of fissile
material that is capable of producing self-sustaining chain reaction is called “critical
mass”. A subcritical mass will not produce chain reaction.

PAGE - 157
Fusion reaction:
In this process two lighter nuclei are combined to form a stable and heavier nuclei
with the release of tremendous amount of energy. This reaction required several
million-degree Kelvin temperature and very high pressure.

1H + 1H2  2He3+on1 + 3.27 Mev

2

1H + 1H  1H + 1H + 4.03 Mev
2 2 3 1

Both reactions required 400 million-Kelvin temperatures.

1H + 1H3  2He4+ on1 + 17.59 Mev

2

Reactions required 50 million-Kelvin temperatures.

Nuclear reaction:
Definition:
A device which used to perform controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission, is called
nuclear reactor.
Purpose:
Following are some main purpose of the nuclear reactor.
 To convert controlled fission reaction to controlled chain reaction.
 To produce large amount of energy.
 To produce radioisotopes.
Principles:
It is used on the principle of nuclear fission “a process in which heavy nucleus
breaks in to lighter nuclei with the emission of large amount of energy”.

General feature of nuclear reaction:

Following are the general feature. Which are common or almost nuclear reactor.
1. Nuclear Fuel: A Material consisting of the fission able isotopes is called the
reactor fuel that may be used in a reactor. For example (Uranium 92U235)

2. Moderators: In the nuclear fission process at least one or more energetic

neutrons are produce per fission. To reduce the energy of neutron some suitable
material are required which are known as moderators. The ordinary water (light
water) an attractive moderator because of its supply at low cost. Heavy water is
supposed to be best material. Other moderator is graphite beryllium and its
oxides and certain organic compound.

3. Coolant: Huge amount of heat is generated in the reactor core as a result of

fission take place in the unclear fuel. To remove this large quantity of heat,
material are required which are called coolant. These materials are usually
circulated though the core in order to absorb heat and transfer it to the out side of
the core.

PAGE - 158
 4. Control material: In order to control the nuclear fission in a reactor, suitable
neutron absorbing material is required to be placed in the core region. The control
material should be such that it does become radioactive by neutron capture.
Cadmium and boron are good control materials.

5. Shielding: During nuclear reactions neutrons and gamma rays emits out and
becomes hazardous in the vicinity of the reactor. Therefore proper shielding
material is always required. A shielding material use for such protection is called
the biological shielding because its purpose is to protect health. Generally a layer
of concrete about 6 to 8 feet thickness has been found to absorb both neutrons
and gamma rays. For rector operating at high power thermal shielding is required.
A few cm of iron or steel very close to the core of the reactor provide the
required thermal shield.

Liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR):

Generally in nuclear reaction only the less abundant 92U235 isotopes produce energy
because more abundant 92U238 isotopes does not fission with thermal neutrons. There
are one more methods in which abundant isotopes 92U238 used as a fuel in nuclear
reactor. In this method 92U238 can be converted into plutonium 94Pu239by means of
nuclear reaction. This isotopes of plutonium can be fission with thermal neutrons and
it is good as 92U235 during reaction. Reactor produces energy as will as it breed more
plutonium than it is consumed in the operation. These reactors are known as breeder
reactors. Following nuclear reactions are used to convert 92U238 to 94Pu239.
238
92U + on1 92U
239

 
–1β T1  23.5 min 
238 o
92U + 93Np239
 2 

 
–1β T1  2.4 days 
239 o
93NP + 94Pu239
 2 

The isotope 94Pu239 is also radioactive and can decay into 92U235 with the emission of
 particle. But due to its long half life large quantities of 94Pu239 can be collected and
used for lower reactors where its fission under neutron of bombardment with the
release of huge amount of energy through the following nuclear reactions.
1 239
on + 94Pu 2on1 + x + y + 200 Mev
Where x and y are fission products products consisting of a variety of isotopes. The
term breeder is used to signify that starting with the non fissile abundant isotopes
238
92U , 92U239 we breaded the isotopes which can be used in a reactor to produce
almost the same amount of energy as is available from the fission reaction of 92U235.
It is also called liquid metal fast breeder reactor, because a liquid metal like sodium
is used as coolant.

PAGE - 159
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. How many neutrons and protons do the following nuclei contain?
Ans:
Nuclide Protons Neutrons
13Al
27
13 27 – 13 = 14
18Ar
40
18 40 – 18 = 22
56Ba
138
56 138 – 56 = 82
82Pb
207
82 207 – 82 = 125
14Si
28
14 28 – 14 = 14
92 U 238
92 238 – 92 = 146

Q.2. Do α,ß and gamma rays come from the same element. Why do we fine all three
in many radioactive samples?
Ans: A radioactive element either emits α-particle of ß-particles, but never both. Gamma
radiations generally accompany ß emission and in some cases with α emission.
A radioactive element (or sample) is a mixture of various nuclides of different
relative abundances and with different modes of disintegration. Hence we can find
all the three activates in a radioactive sample at the same time. For example, R-226
is an α-emitter, but Ra-25 is a ß emitter.

Q.3. It is more difficult to start fusion reaction that fission. Why?

Ans: Fission is caused by captured of neutrons by heavy nuclei. Neutron, being
electrically neutral, is highly penetrating particle for nuclei. But in fusion of two
light nuclei, the positively charged nuclei are repelled by the repulsive forces. So
work has to be done against the repulsive forces of the two nuclei.

Q.4. Is it possible, that fusion of two small nuclei may occur without collision at
extremely high energy?
Ans: No. two nuclei must collide with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate their mutual
“Columb Barrier” and come within the range of the nuclear forces.

Q.5. Explain how a nuclear reactor produces heat as a result of fission?

Ans: In fission the difference of binding energies of reactants and products is converted
into energy. The difference of mass (0.22u) appears as energy(200 MeV). If fission
takes place in a bulk solid, most of the disintegration energy appears as an increase
in the internal energy of the solid, which shows a corresponding rise in temperature.
This thermal energy is carried away to the heat exchange by circulating the coolant
through the reactor.

Q.6. What are the benefits and risks of nuclear reactor? Which reactor is relatively
better from the point of safety?
Ans: Nuclear reactor is used to produce (i) electricity (ii) nuclear fuels (iii) radioisotopes.
These are peaceful uses of nuclear energy the reactor fuel sis clean burning and
relatively easy to transport.
The risks of reactor include the possibility of safety hazards for the workers,
environmental damage near the plant, the problem of storing highly radioactive
wastes, an a limited supply of raw materials.

PAGE - 160
 Nuclear reactors have built in safety devices. The accidental problems, such as
leakage of radioactive substance could occur if safety features malfunctioned.
Pressurized water reactor, using water as moderator and coolant, are safer with shut
off control rods and liquid ‘poison’.

Q.7. Both fission and fusion apparently produce energy. How can you reconcile this
with the law of conservation energy?
Ans: In fission of U-235 with thermal neutrons, the loss of mass (0.2153 u) is converted
into energy producing about 200 MeV per fission.
In fusion, four protons may be combined to produce one helium nucleus and two
positrons. Here the losses of mass (0.027 u) is converted into energy producing about
26 MeV. Thus in both cases, the total ‘mass-energy’ remains conserved.

Q.8. When a photon disappears in producing an electron and a position, is the

energy of a photon equivalent to that of the particles produced? Explain.
Ans: No, the energy of photon is always greater than the rest mass energy of elements
position pair (1.02 MeV). The surplus energy is taken by the two particles as their
kinetic energy.

Q.9. When a neutron decays into a proton and an electron, there would be a loss of
mass. What would be the energies of the products and their relative directions
of motion?
Ans: Neutron is not a stable particle outside nuclei. It decays into a proton, an electron and
an antineutrino. The half life of the free neutron is 10.8 min.
1 1 o
on 1p = -1e + v
Mass of neutron = 1.008649u = 939.58 MeV
Mass of proton = 1.0072766 u = 938.23 MeV
Mass of electron = 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV
Mass of proton + electron = 1.0078256 u
Loss of mass = .0086649 – 1.0078256 = 0.0008393 u = 0.7818 MeV
These would be the energies of the products. Due to their kinetic energies the two
particles will move a part (and not be attracted).

Q.10. Why do most moderators, used in nuclear reactors, are light atoms like H-1, H2
C12 slow down the neutron, and hence they are slowed?
Ans: Fast moving neutrons can be stopped when they make elastic collision with
stationery particle of the same mass. Since mass of proton, deuteron or graphite
nucleus is comparable to mass of neutron, hence they are slowed.

Q.11. Can a conventional fission reactor ever explode like a bomb does? Why?
Ans: In a nuclear reactor, a fission explosion is not possible, because the amount of fuel
(e.g. U-235 or Py-239) is of sub critical mass and it can shut off control rods in
emergences. Also, liquid ‘poison’ can be inserted directly into the moderator if other
safely devisees fail.

Q.12. In LMFBR would you expect the radioactivity of the sodium coolant into
include the life time of the reactor?
Ans: Yes, because sodium can capture neutrons
23 1 24
11Na + on 11Na + Y
Here Na 24 is radioactive (beta and gamma emitter) with half life of 15.0 h.

PAGE - 161
Q.13. Consider a sample of 1000 radioactive nuclei with a half life T. approximately,
how many will be left after a time 3T?
Ans: The number of nuclei decayed in one half life (T1/2 = T) are 500. Also, the numbers
of nuclei which decay in three period of half life are 1000/23. Hence the number of
nuclei left undecided is 125.

Q.14. What is the condition for “critical mass?”

Ans: If mass of fissile material is such that the multiplication factor k ≥ 1, then fission is
said to occur in a critical mass. The multiplication factor is the ratio of number of
neutrons in any particular generation to the number of neutrons in the preceding
generation. In a reactor, it is slightly above 1; but in a fission bomb, it is about 2.5.

Q.15. Why is heavy water more efficient moderator than ordinary water?
Ans: Heavy water (D2O) has much lower probability of capturing neutrons but it can slow
down neutrons. In fact, heavy water is 1600 times more efficient as moderator than
ordinary water (H2O).

Q.16. In LMFBR, why is water not used as coolant instead of liquid metal?
Ans: If water is used as coolant in LMFBR, it shows down the neutrons through collisions
and hinders the process of breeding (which requires fast neutrons to convert U-238
into Pu-239). Also, the probability of capturing of neutrons for water is high.
Moreover, high pressure is needed to stop vaporization of water, and the core is
heated up.
Sodium is a said at room temperature but becomes liquid at 98oC. Hence threes is no
need to pressurize the reactor to keep the sodium from vaporizing. Sodium is high
values of thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficient.

Q.17. Why are breeder reactors a necessity?

Ans: The world’s deposit of fossil fuels may not last more than 500 years and the nuclear
fuels may not last for more than 5000 years. So the reactors that generate more
nuclear fuels than they consume – breeder reactors – are necessary.

PAGE - 162
CHAPTER - 20

PAGE - 163
 THEORY
NUCLEAR RADIATIONS:
The Spontaneous disintegration of the nuclear of certain elements, like radium,
uranium, etc. is called radioactivity. Soon after the discovery of radioactivity,
experiments have revealed that radioactive radiation consist of charged particles
named as Alpha() and Beta (β) particles and pheton of Energy are -rays.

1. ALPHA-PARTICLES:()
They are found to be helium nuclear (2He4) with double positive charge (He++). Their
emission from a nucleus decreases proton No. (z) by ‘z’ and mass number (A) to 4.
zX  z - zY
A A – 4 + He4++
2

PROPERTIES:
1. The measurement of e/m shows that they are doubly positive charged with mass
of 4 units.
2. These radiations are deflected by electric and injnetic fields, showing that they
are positively charged particles.
3. They affect photographic plate.
4. Their speed in one-tenth of speed of light (c).
5. Their penetration power in low. They are stopped by few centimeter of air.
6. Their ionization power very high (10,000 times greater than -rays)
7. They produce Fluoresensce.
8. They are scattered when pass through thin sheets.

2. BETA-PARTICLES(β):
They are found to be fast moving electrons, which are of nuclear origin. The charge
on these electrons either positive or negative. Electron with positive charge called
positron (β+) and electron with –ve charge called Beta (β- emission of Beta particles
from a nucleus causes one of the neutrons to become proton( ) proton to neutron.
zX  z – 1Y
For β+: A A+1 + β+ (P+  no + β+)

For β++: zX  z + 1Y + β (n  P + β )
A A o + -

PROPERTIES:
1. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields, showing that have charge
equal to charge of electron but with different polarities positive or negative.
2. The measurement of e/m shows that there mass equal to the mas of electron.
3. They effect photographic plate more strongly the -particle.
4. Their velocity is one-fifth of the speed of light.
5. The ionization power in lower than -particle.
6. Their penetration power is more than -particle.
7. They reduce flouresence.
8. They are scattered when pass through matter.

PAGE - 164
3. GAMMA RAYS():
These radiations are electromagnetic photons (waves) of very high frequency. This
emission does not alter proton number (z) on mass number (A). But merely lowers
ZX + -rays
A A
the energy of the excited nucleus. zX

PROPERTIES
1. They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields, showing that they are not
charged particles.
2. They affect photographic plate more intensly than β-particle.
3. They travel with the speed of light.
4. The ionization power is less than β-particle.
5. Their perefration power is extremely high (about 10,000 times -particle).
6. They are deflected by crystals.
7. They are produce flouresence.
8. They cause damage to human cells.

DETECTORS:
The device used to detect nuclear Radiations are called “radiation detectors”.

WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER:

Wilson cloud chamber is a device for making visible the path of ionizing particle.
This devise was devised in 1895 by the British Physicist (T.R. Wilision)
.

CONSTRUCTION:
Wilson Cloud chamber consist of a closed cylindrical chamber with transparent glass
top and a movable piston at the bottom as shown in the figure. On the sides near the
top, the cylinder is provided with a glass window for illuminating light and an inlet
for the ionizing particles (radiations). The piston can be moved up or down by a
lever attached to it (not shown in the figure).

PAGE - 165
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:
The Wilison chamber contains supercooled vapours in a dust-free atmosphere. When
radioactive radiations pass through the chamber, ions are formed, which serve as
nucleation centres. The supersaturated vapour get condensed on them. So the path
shows up a as a fog trail. In this way the instrument is used to ussualize the track of
charged particles.

WORKING:
The chamber is filled with a mixture of alcohol & water. The air chamber is formed
between the moveable piston and glass top contains saturated vapour. A particle
source is mounted in the chamber at the inlet and radiation skirts to enter. (An
intense became of light is projected into the chamber through window to illuminate
the fog trock and a photographic camera is mounted above the glass top of the
chamber. With the above pre-setting of the apparatus, the piston is pulled down
suddenly with the help of lever. The saturated vapours cool down below the down
point into supersaturated vapours.
If an ionizing particle or radiation passes into the chamber at the same time, the gas
molecules all along its path ionize into a trail behind it. The supersaturated vapours
immediately condense round that ions farming tiny droplets of fog which becomes
visible by the reflection of light from them. The track of the particle shows as a
bright line which can be photographed at the proper instant.
An -particle in highly ionizing. The ins produced are so numerous that its track is a
thick and continuous line. The β-particle is much ion ionizing. Its track is therefore, a
thin and broken line. Gamma rays are photons emitted in a widening cone of some
angle. They produce ionization by photoelectric effect, distributed over a wide space.
The overall effect of -rays is that the whole region exposed to radiations shows
scattered dots and small lines rather like a fog and no well-defined line track.

G.M. COUNTER:
G.M. Counter is a portable device which is widely used for detection of nuclear –
radiation. It was discovered by Gieger & Muller.

PAGE - 166
CONSTRUCTION:
G.M. tube consist of a hollow metal cylinder one end of which is closed by an insulating
cap. At the centre of the cap is fixed a stuff straight wire along the axis of the cylinder.
A thin mass or glass disc closes the other end which also serves as the entrance window
for Nuclear Radiation. The tube usually contains a special mixture (air, argon, alcohol,
etc.) at a low pressure of 50 to 100 millimeter of mercury. A potential difference of the
order of one to three thousand volts is applied between the metal cylinder and a wire
through a suitable series resistance (R) (about 109 – ohms).

WORKING:
When a ionizing particle ( or β) enters the tube through the window, it ionizes the gaseous
mixture. A few electrons and ions are produced. Those positive and negative ions travel
through tube toward the electrodes. The accelerated ions suffer collisions with the gas
molecules. They produce further ionization. ID p.d. in above the break down potential, the
number of ions are multiplied. The ions are accelerated towards their respective electrodes.
As a result current flows between the wire and the cylinder and through the Resistor ‘R’,
producing a p.d. across ‘R’. The ends of R are connected to  load speaker OR Electronic
Counter.
Semiconductor Diode

P N

Particle p – n junction
R

– +
Bias Battery

SOLID STATE DETECTORS:

It is a device that makes use of solid state semi-conductor diode to detect nuclear
particles. When an energetic PN – functions a reverse current past passes through the
function.

CONSTRUCTION:
A solid state detector consist of a semi-conductor diode (combination of p and N-type
material). The p-type material is connected to –ve terminal of the battery and N-type
with +ve terminal of the battery to make it reverse biased. A battery of low voltage is
used for this purpose. A high Resistance (R) is connected in series with diode and the
battery to amplifies small current and a speaker or counter is used to register particles.

WORKING:
When PN-junction is revered biased, the thickness of the depletion layer widen (increases)
when an ionizing particle falls on the N-type side, it is absorbed in the depletion region.
Thus more electron-hole pairs are created. These charges caries more under the influence of
biasing potential. The electrons more towards the positive side of the battery holes are
swept towards the negative side of the battery. The arrival of there charges at the two layers
produce a potential drop across the junction. This result in a current pulse of small
magnitude. The current pulse is fed to an amplifier. The amplified pulse is applied to a
counter to register het particle.
PAGE - 167
 SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Q.1. Explain how you would test whether the radiation from a radioactive source is
α, ß or Gamma radiation?
Ans: When radiations are allowed to pass through a magnetic field. The α and ß particles
are deflected while Y-rays pass through un deflected. This technique helps to
identify the radiation.

Q.2. A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why?

Ans: When particle ionizes an atom, it losses a part of its energy. Since-the greater is the
ionizing power, the greater is the loss of energy; and hence, the smaller is its
penetrating power.

Q.3. It is said that α or ß particles carries an atom without colliding with its
electrons. How can each do so?
Ans: A α-particle is positively charged and a ß particle is negatively charged. So an α
particle ionizes an atom by attraction while a ß particle ionizes an atom by repulsion.

Q.4. In how many ways can Gamma rays produce ionization of the atom?
Ans: Gamma rays only ionize an atom by collision. Being high energy photon, it can
produce ionization in three ways.
1. it may lose all its energy in a single collision with the electron of an atom
(photoelectric effect);
2. it may lose only a part of its energy in a collision (Compton effect);
3. it may be stopped by a heavy nucleus giving rise to electron position pair
(materialization of energy).

Q.5. In what way does a neutron produce ionization of an atom?

Ans: A neutron collides with a substance containing a large number of hydrogen atoms
and knocks out a proton. In this way, it causes ionization.

Q.6. Name different electromagnetic radiations which are capable of producing

ionization of atoms. By what process do they ionize?
Ans:
1. Ultraviolet rays
2. X-rays
3. Gamma rays.
The rays interact with matter in elastically. They remove electrons from the atoms of
the target material.

Q.7. Why is lead better shield against α, ß and gamma radiations than an equal
thickness of water column?
Ans: α and ß particles do not travel far enough in water due to intense ionization they
produce. Reduction of gamma rays beam intensity is a measure of its range which is
considerably more. However, materials having large numbers of electrons per unit
volume are more effective absorber gamma radiations. When gamma rays are
incident on lead then, because of photoelectric effect, they lose their energy in single
encounter and travel only a small distance. But as water has fewer electrons than
lead, so gamma rays lose less energy and penetrate through a large distance in water.
Hence lead is a better shield against gamma rays than water.
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Q.8. Lead is heavier and denser than water. Yet water is more effective shield
against neutrons?
Ans: To be stopped or slowed down, a neutron must undergo a direct collision (elastic)
with a nucleus or some other particle that has a mss comparable to that of neutron.
Water contains hydrogen. Thus nuclear protons of hydrogen atoms, after collision,
move; while neutron is slowed down. But when neutrons collide with nucleus of
lead, it bounces neutrons back almost with the same speed. Hence water is a better
shield against neutrons than lead.

Q.9. In an X-ray photograph bones show up very clearly the fleshy part shows very
faintly. Why?
Ans: X-rays can be stopped by bones, but can penetrate flesh.

Q.10. In a cloud chamber photograph, the path of an α particle is a thick and

continuous line whereas that of a ß particles is a thin a and broken line. Why?
Ans: An α-particle is highly ionizing than ß-particle.

Q.11. Why do gamma rays not give line track in the cloud chamber photograph?
Ans: Gamma rays do not produce ionization directly. They interact with atoms to eject
electrons. These electrons, like ß particles, produce irregular cloud tracks of their
own which branch out from the direction of gamma rays.

Q.12. A neutron can produce little ionization. Is there any sure chance of getting a
cloud chamber track for it a count in the Geiger counter?
Ans: Neutrons are unable to ionize a gas. However, ionization is only produced when a
neutron strikes directly a nucleus or a hydrogenous material, e.g. body tissues. The
knocked out proton produces ionization in the Geiger counter.

Q.13. A cloud chamber track of an α particle sometimes show an abrupt bend

accompanied by a small branched track. What could possibly be the cause of
this forked track?
Ans: When an α-particle strikes a nucleus, the recoiling nucleus leaves a track. This is the
cause of a forked track.

Q.14. Why is the recommended maximum dose for radiation a bit higher for women
beyond the child bearing age than for young women?
Ans: It has been found that ovary and grown follicular cells are most sensitive cells for
radiation. But primordial follicles and Occitan are more radiation repellent and they
grown even after the irradiation. Also, the fertility of ovary is much affected when
the whole body is irradiating by a specific dose of radiation (e.g. 200 RAD) than
when ovary alone is irradiated by the same dose.

Q.15. It is possible for a man to burn his hand with x- or y-rays so seriously that he
must have it imputed and yet may suffer no other consequence. However, a
whole body x- or y-ray over exposure so slight as to cause no detectable damage
might cause birth deformity in one of its subsequent children. Explain. Why?
Ans: The damage to body cells, caused by very high doses of radiation, can as serious as
to stop the, working and multiplying. Widespread damage of cells may kill people.
Delayed effects, such as cancer, leukemia, deformity and metal retardation in
children and grandchildren may take place due to genetic syndromes.

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Q.16. Which of α,ß and gamma rays would you advise for the treatment of (i) skin
cancer (ii) the cancer of flesh just under skin (iii) a cancerous tumor deep inside
the body?
Ans:
1. For the treatment of skin cancer, we use α-particles; as their penetration is small.
2. For the treatment of cancer of flesh just under skin, B-particles should be used
because of their medium penetration power.
3. For the treatment of deep infection in the body, gamma rays should be used; as they
are highly penetrating.

Q.17. Two radioisotopes of an element are available: one of long half life and the
other of short half life. Which isotopes is advisable for the treatment of a patient
and why?
Ans: For the treatment, radio isotopes of short half life should be used so that any material
remaining in the body quickly decays away.

Q.18. Why are many artificially prepared radioisotopes of elements rare in nature?
Ans: Many artificially prepared radioisotopes of elements are rare in nature because of
their extremely small half life.

Q.19. Can radiocarbon dating be used to measure the age of stone walls of the ancient
civilizations?
Ans: No, radiocarbon dating cannot be used to measure the age of stone walls. ‘carbon-14
clock’ can be used for organic archeological samples (i.e. far meter that was once
living). However, ‘uranium clock’ can be used for this purpose.

Q.20. How can a radioisotope are used to determine the effectiveness of a fertilizer?
Ans: When P-32 is given to a plant mixed with water, the amount of the chemical
absorbed by various parts of the plant is checked by a G.M. counter. This technique helps to
find the exact amount of the fertilizer required.

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