PHCH131: Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry lecture

THE ELEMENTS OF GROUP IA

The ALKALI Metals
(Li, Na , K , Rb , Cs, Fr )
In each element, the valence electron configuration is s-block. Clinically, sodium and potassium are essential
ions for the human body and any imbalance in them has to be corrected. Lithium is medically used to treat bipolar
disorder (BD). The elements Rubidium, Cesium which is one of the softest metal and was discovered via
spectroscope and francium, which is radioactive have no pharmaceutical uses thus it will not be discussed here.

Appearance
All the Group 1 elements are silvery-coloured metals. They are soft, and can be easily cut with a knife to expose a
shiny surface which dulls on oxidation.

General Reactivity and Properties

These elements are the highly reactive metals in the periodic table. The reactivity increases on descending the Group
from lithium to cesium. There is a closer similarity between the elements of this Group than in any other Group of
the periodic table.
• Salts of the ions of this group, esp. Na and K from strong basic solution in water.
• Oxides and halides salts of group IA are very soluble in water ( except for the carbonates and sulfates salts
of lithium) thus this group also given a name, soluble group.

LITHIUM- Li
History & Properties : Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithos", from the Greek λιθoς (lithos,
"stone"), to reflect its discovery in a mineral; its name would later be standardized as "lithium".
• Lightest of all metals. Lighter than petroleum and ether, possessing similar characteristic to Na and K metals
but it also mostly resembles Magnesium.

Compounds of Lithium:
Generally, lithium salts are used in the prophylaxis and treatment of mania and in the prophylaxis of bipolar
disorder (BD).
✓ Lithium bromide (LiBr) – is sedative in psychiatry since it is a depressant to the nerve centers and to the
circulation.
✓ Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and Lithium citrate [Li3C3H5O(COO)3 ] –These agents were taken orally (up to
30mmol/day in the treatment of mania and BD.
• The precise mechanism of action of lithium ions as mood stabilizers is unknown. Current study show that it
targets in the cell the enzymes glycogen synthase kinase -3 (GSK-3) and the phosphate monoesterases family
(PMEs) which is important in many biological processes.
• It is believed that lithium potentially can protect against disease-induced cell death. GSK-3 has been implicated
in the origins of schizophrenia, but with the availability of many antipsychotic drugs on the market, lithium ions
are not in common use for the treatment of schizophrenia.
• There are also several direct roles of lithium in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.

SODIUM – Na
History & Properties: Isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807. It name is derived from the word “soda” which comes from
the word soda ash.
➢ Sodium quickly oxidizes in air and is violently reactive with water, so it must be stored in an inert medium, such
as kerosene.
➢ Sodium salts exhibits deliquescent property with the capacity to absorb large amount of moisture.
➢ Sodium is present in great quantities in the earth's oceans as sodium chloride (common salt). It is also a
component of many minerals, and it is an essential element for animal life. As such, it is classified as a “dietary
inorganic macro-mineral.”
➢ Physiologically, it is the predominant ion in the extracellular fluid and abnormality of it causes diarrhea,
perspiration, and excessive vomiting. Therefore, one of its roles is to maintain the fluid in the body via
osmoregulation, a passive transport mechanism.
➢ It is also important in the functioning of neurons, transmission of nerve impulse, contraction of muscles and for
the mode of action of several enzymes.
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 PhCh 131: Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry Lecture
Compounds of Sodium:
✓ Sodium Hydroxide [ NaOH ; Syn.: Caustic soda/Soda/Lye ] --- The compound is caustic thus it is use in
manufacturing of soap
✓ Sodium peroxide [Na2O2 ; Syn.: Oxone ] and Sodium hypochlorite [NaClO ; Syn.: Bleach] – both agents have a
bleaching property thus it can be use also in making soap and it also possess germicidal property.
✓ Sodium chloride [NaCl ; Syn. : Table salt, Rock salt ] ---- It is use as food seasoning and food preservatives.
✓ *0.9% Sodium Chloride or also known as Normal Saline Solution or NSS is use as electrolyte replenisher.
Pharmacological effect: Sodium is the cation of choice and commonly NaCl is use to optimize the pharmaceutical
utility of organic medicaments. However, sodium salts promote water retention in the tissues thus it should be
used with caution in the treatment of cardiac and renal condition in which edema is a problem.
• Sodium is the most abundant extracellular cation.
✓ Sodium sulfate [Na2SO4 ; Syn.: Glaubers salt ] – It is use as saline purgative
✓ Sodium thiosulfate & 5 mol. of water [ Na2S2O3. 5 H2O ; Syn. : Photographer’s hypo ] --- It is use as an antidote
in CN poisoning. Industrially, it is use in photographic developer and as antichlor in paper manufacture.
✓ Sodium borate [Na2B4O7 ; Syn.: Sodium tetraborate/ Sodium pyroborate/ Borax ] – It was once used as food
preservative but prohibited now FDA because it is too toxic to used internally.
• It possess an antiseptic / bacteriostatic property thus it can be used externally as eye-wash, mouth wash and
wet dressing for wounds.
• It is also use for ‘softening’ water and industrially, it is extensively use in welding and soldering.
✓ Sodium bicarbonate [NaHCO3; Syn.: Baking soda, Cooking soda] –Pharmacologically, it is use as systemic
antacid. It causes sharp increase of pH to 7 which may cause rebound hyperacidity. A systemic antacid with a
very rapid onset of action in neutralizing gastric acid but relatively with short duration.
--- NaCHO3 can cause belching and flatulence due to the production of gas.
---It is the drug of choice (DOC) to combat systemic acidosis.
✓ Sodium bicarbonate + citric acid [ NaHCO3 + H3C6H5O7 ; Syn.: Potio Reverii ] – It is a refrigerant and it can be
used as refreshing drink for fever patients.
✓ Sodium biphosphate [ Na2HPO4 ; Syn.: Grahams powder ] –It is use in the treatment of cystitis with
methenamine.
✓ Sodium metaphosphatem [NaPO3 ; Syn.: Grahams salt ] --- When converted to polymer (Calgon) is used as
effective water-softener
✓ Sodium carbonate & 2 mol. Of water [Na2CO3. 2H2O ; Syn.: Trona] --- It is use as saponifying agent.
✓ Sodium citrate [ Na3C6H5O7 ] --- It can reduce blood clotting time of stored blood.

POTASSIUM- K
History & Properties : Potassium was discovered in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash
(KOH). Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Potassium was not known in Roman times,
and its names are not Classical Latin but rather neo-Latin.
---The name kalium was taken from the word "alkali", which came from Arabic = "the calcined ashes".
---The name potassium was made from the word "potash", which is English, and originally meant an alkali
extracted in a pot from the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves.
• Potassium is usually kept under a mineral oil such as kerosene to stop the metal reacting with water vapour
present in the air. Potassium reacts with water to produce highly flammable hydrogen gas, and only a few dry
chemicals are effective for putting out such a fire.
• Potassium makes the glass amber and light resistant
Pharmacologic effect:
• Naturally, potassium possesses a diuretic effect which is especially higher in the form of KNO3 followed by KCl.
• Potassium is the predominant cation in the intracellular fluid.
• Deficiency of this ion can cause muscle weakness also known as hypokalemia which can be treated with
potassium chloride via oral or IV infusion.
--(Other option for treatment but with limited use is potassium triplex, a combination of potassium
bicarbonate, potassium carbonate and potassium citrate )
• On the other hand, excess K can cause diastolic arrest thus potassium supplement (e.g. KCl) should not be
administered by rapid IV injection.

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Compounds of Potassium:
✓ Potassium hydroxide [KOH ; Syn.: Caustic potash ] – It is caustic and principally use as saponifying agent thus
it can be used in the manufacture of soap (e.g. medicinal soft soap).
✓ Potassium chloride [KCl ] – An effective diuretic. Aside from being use in management of hypokalemia, it
has also been used successfully in the treatment of Meniere’s disease, myasthenia gravis and familial
periodic paralysis.
✓ Potassium bicarbonate [KHCO3 ; Syn.: Saleratus ] – It is generally use as antacid.
✓ Potassium carbonate [K2CO3 ; Syn.: Pearl ash/ Salt of Wronwood ] – It is use as antacid, caustic (in large
amount) and hair wash (dilute concentration).
✓ Potassium bitartrate [ KHC4H4O6 ; Syn.: Cream of Tartar/Creamor ] – It is use as refrigerant and laxative.
✓ Potassium and Sodium tartrate [ KNaC4H4O6 ; Syn.: Rochelle salt/ Sal Seignette/ Sal polychresticum] --It is
use as mild laxative and refrigerant. It is one of the constituents of Seidlitz powder which is a saline laxitive.
✓ Potassium chlorate [KClO3; Syn.: Bertholet salt] – It is use in the manufacture of gunpowder and fireworks.
It is also a component of toothpaste; it can be added as bleaching agent for cleansing and deodorant action.
✓ Potassium nitrate [KNO3; Syn.: Saltpeter Salitre] –It possess a diuretic action. It is also use in the
manufacture of gunpowder.
* Salt prunelle - is an old form of KNO3 made by fusing the salt at low temperature and then pouring
into spherical molds.
✓ Potassium permanganate [KMnO4 ; Syn.: Mineral chameleon ] – It is an antidote for organic poisoning; It is a
powerful oxidizing agent exhibiting antiseptic and antimicrobial property in a concentration of 0.2%.
✓ Potassium polysulfide [ Liver of Sulfur/Sulfurated potash]– It chiefly compose of potassium polysulfide and
potassium thiosulfate . It is rarely used internally due to the liberation of hydrogen sulfide.
• 10% in ointment (e.g. White Lotion with ZnSO4) is use to treat acne, scabies, ringworm, psoriasis, and
tinea versicolor.

Note: The next element and ion/molecule are not part of group IA but are discussed together with group IA because
hydrogen is on top of Li in the periodic table and NH3/NH4 has properties that resembles with some of the alkali metals.

HYDROGEN
History & Properties: Recognized by Paracelsus and Cavendish produced it by the action of HCl and H2SO4, and
called it inflammable air, in which the name conforms to the Phlogiston theory. Lavoiser named the
gas, Hydrogen (Greek: Hydro= water and gen= to produce).
➢ The lightest of all elements. Combustible but does not support combustion.
➢ Pure hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas.
➢ A good reducing agent absorbed and occluded by many metals.
➢ Hydrogen being a diatomic gas has no therapeutic use.
Isotopes of Hydrogen:
1. Protium
2. Deuterium
3. Tritium

Deuterium (two neutrons) and Tritium (three neutrons ) are the heavy isotopes of Hydrogen. They are
isotopes of hydrogen in the form of its diatomic and triatomic structure. Since Tritium is unstable compound, it does
not have any compound. Deuterium oxide (D2O –aslo known as heavy water), is used as a moderator in nuclear
reactors and as solvent in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance studies. Protium on the other hand is the most abundant
isotopes of hydrogen.
Compounds of Hydrogen:
✓ Nitric acid [HNO3 ; Syn: Aqua fortis ] – An oxidizing acid that reacts with metals which are less active than
hydrogen gas.
✓ 3 molecules of hydrochloric acid & 1 molecule of Nitric acid [3 HCl + HNO3 ; Syn.: Aqua regia ] –It dissolves
almost kinds of metals, even gold and platinum.
✓ Hydrochloric acid [HCl ; Syn.: Gastric acid ] – It is the only acid that is present in the stomach. It is necessary
to the principal digestive function of the gastric juice (e.g. its action upon protein).
*Diluted hydrochloric acid (with sufficient quantity of purified water) can be administered in case of
achlorhydria (a condition which is related to lack of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juices).
* HCl is oxidized by strong oxidizing agent (e.g. KMnO4) liberating chlorine forming a precipitate.

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 PhCh 131: Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry Lecture

✓ Sulfuric acid [H2SO4; Syn: Oil of Vitriol/ King of all acids/ Yardstick of civilization] – It is use as dehydrating
agent in the esterification process.
✓ Hydrogen peroxide [H2O2 ; Syn.: Thenard’s oxygenated acid] in diluted concentrations are used as
mouthwash. However, prolonged use can cause hairy tongue.
• H2O2 being a powerful reducing agent is also utilized to oxidize chromic ions to chromate ions, to separate
chromium ions from the metals of the iron subgroup.
• The USP also cited that Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is considered germicide together with sodium
hypochlorite (NaClO) (the active moiety is the hypochlorous acid [HClO]) as well as Iodine.

Note: Hydrogen peroxide concentration is available in 3%, 6%, 30%, 70%, and 90% solutions. Concentration is also
expressed in ‘volume strength’, the volume of the gas released form one volume of solution. The volume
specifications is based on:
*3% solution ( 10 volumes ) is used for wounds as antiseptic and germicidal.
It means 1 ml of H2O2 liberates 10 ml of O2 at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).
*6% solution ( 20 volumes) is used to bleach skin, hair, and fabrics.
It means 1 ml of H2O2 liberates 2o ml of O2 at STP.

Water
Natural Waters contain varying amounts of suspended material, eg. clay, sand, microorganisms, fragments
of plants and animals. The dissolved bicarbonate of Mg and Ca constitute the temporary hardness, while sulfate and
chlorides of Mg and Ca constitute the permanent hardness in water.

* Mineral water - is a natural spring or well water which contain in solution sufficient quantities of mineral of
gaseous matter to render them unfit for domestic use.

Kinds of Mineral water:

a. Alkaline water - contain appreciable quantities of Na and MgSO4, together with NaHCO3.
b. Carbonated water - are those which have been charged with CO2 under pressure coming to the earth surface.
Artificial carbonated water may be made by charging water under pressure with carbon
dioxide.
c. Chalybeate water - contains Fe in solution or in suspension characterized by a ferruginous taste. Spring and well
water containing Fe are very common.
d. Lithis or Lithia water- as a rule, do not contain appreciable quantities of lithium. If present, it occurs in the form
of CO3 or CI.
e. Saline water- sometimes called “ Purgative Water”, contains relatively large amounts of Mg and NaSO 4 with
NaCl.
f. Sulfur water- contains H2S. Ex. Waters from white sulfur springs, Richfield springs.
g. Siliceous water – occurs in Yellowstone Park and Icelend and contain very small quantities of soluble alkali
silicates.

Potable water. This is water that is fit to drink. In emergency cases, water may be purified by boiling for 15-
20 minutes, or by treatment with halazone and iodine. Potable water can then be purified through distillation, ion-
exchange, reverse osmosis and other processes. The purified water is rendered sterile and pyrogen free by
repeated distillation.
Water may possess temporary and permanent hardness. Temporary is caused by presence of soluble
calcium or magnesium bicarbonate. Temporary hardness can be softened by Boiling , Clark’s Lime process, Addition
of Soluble Alkali Carbonates or Hydroxides, Addition of Ammonia, Zeolite Process, De-ionized or Demineralized Water.
Permanent hardness is caused by the presence in the solution of the sulfates, chlorides or hydroxides of calcium
and/or magnesium. Permanent hardness can be softened by Addition of Soluble Carbonates, Zeolite process, De-
ionized or Demineralized water, Sequestration & Chelation.

Note: Escherichia coli, once present in water, can cause diarrhea which is also known as Traveler’s diarrhea.
Nessler’s test (Alkaline Mercuric-Potassium Iodide T.S.)for Ammonia – important chemical test for sewage
contamination of ammonia, yellow to brown color indicates the presence of ammonia.

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AMMONIA (NH3) / AMMONIUM(NH4)

History and Properties: In 1756, Black differentiated between ammonia and ammonium carbonate. Priestly was the
first to obtain almost pure ammonia which is called ’alkaline air’
• Ammonia is a colorless and gas having a strong, pungent, characteristics odor. The gas ammonia can be
liquefied at -60oC and it can then be used as solvent, ionizing medium and a reducing agent.
• Ammonia is a respiratory stimulant. The ammonia in household use contains 10% NH3 and is known as 16
ammonia ( degrees Baume’, a concentration term).
• Liquid ammonia is also use for refrigeration and for manufacture of artificial ice.
• Warning: Use care in handling ammonia because of its caustic and irritating nature even its vapor. It is
recommended to cool the container well before opening or may cover the closure with a cloth
• When ammonia gas is passed into water, a solution containing dissolved ammonia, undissociated ammonium
hydroxide, ammonium ions, and hydroxide ions are produced. The Ammonium ion displays many of the
properties of the alkali metal ion. It is also known as the “hypothetical alkali metal” since its salt show striking
resemblance to potassium and rubidium salts.
--Ammonium ion is essential in acid-base equilibrium in the body particularly in combating acidosis.

Compounds of Ammonia/Ammonium:
✓ Solution of Ammonium hydroxide [ NH4OH . H2O; Syn.: Ammonia water/Spirit of Hartshorn] – It is use as
stimulant in the form of spirit
✓ Solution of Ammonium acetate [NH4CH3COO ; Syn.: Spirit of Mendererus] -- It is use as refrigerant.
✓ Ammonium bromide (NH4Br) --- It is use as central depressant.
✓ Ammonium carbonate [(NH4)2CO3 ; Syn.: Baker’s ammonia / Hartshorn liniment] –It is a common ingredient in
expectorant preparation; It is also a respiratory stimulant; It can also be used as leavening agent.
✓ Ammonium chloride [NH4Cl ; Syn.: Muriate of ammonia] It is also a common ingredient in expectorant.
----It also possesses a diuretic effect but caution should be given to patients with impaired hepatic function due
to accumulation of ammonia.
--- It can be used also as an acidifying agent which is effective in the treatment of alkalosis when introduced
intravenously.
FYI: Water vapor is still considered as best expectorant
✓ Ammonium iodide ( NH4I) --- It is use generally as expectorant by increasing the irritating effect on the mucous
membrane

References:

Felton, Linda E.Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 22nd edition. Philadelphia: pharmaceutical Press
Soine, T.O. and Wilson, C. O. 1970. Rogers’ Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Strohfeldt, Katja A. Essential of Inorganic Chemistry For Students of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicinal Chemistry
(2015). United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons.
Tan, E. and See, G.L. (2015). Essentials of Inorganic Medicinal Chemistry. Mandaue City, Philippines: Phiazarra Publishing House.

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