Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry

THE ELEMENTS OF GROUP IIA

The ALKALINE EARTH Metals
(Be, Mg , Ca , Sr , Ba, Ra)
These elements are all found in the Earth’s crust, but not in the elemental form as they are so reactive.
Instead, they are widely distributed in rock structures. Except for amphoteric Beryllium, these elements are strictly
metallic. Like the alkali metals , they do not occur free in nature.
➢ They fiction uniformly in the +2 oxidation state.
➢ The same group reacts readily with water to form hydroxides with the simultaneous evolution of hydrogen
(the strength of hydroxides increases proportionally with increasing atomic number).
➢ The hydroxides of Beryllium and Magnesium are insoluble in water, that of Beryllium is amphoteric, although
less soluble than the alkali hydroxides, the hydroxides of calcium, strontium, and barium give strongly basic
solutions.
➢ The carbonates, phosphates, sulfates, and fluorides are insoluble.
➢ Generally, the oxides and hydroxides of this group are partially soluble like earth soil.

BERYLLIUM- Be

History & Properties: The silver-gray metal was discovered by Woehler and Bussy in 1828. At one time beryllium was
referred to as glucinium (with the accompanying chemical symbol "Gl", the name coming from the
Greek word for sweet, due to the sweet taste of its salts.
• An amphoteric element. Beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle alkaline earth metal.
• It is also a bridge element which resembles aluminum in its behavior in group IIA.
Note: Beryllium and its metal compounds are extremely toxic when ingested, inhaled, and absorbed through the
skin. None of its compounds are employed as therapeutic agent.
Industrial Use/s:
• It is primarily used as a hardening agent in alloys, most notably beryllium copper. Commercial use of beryllium
metal presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing dusts.

MAGNESIUM- Mg

History & Properties: The name originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia. It is
related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area. In England, Sir Humphry Davy
electrolytically isolated pure magnesium metal in 1808 from a mix of magnesia and HgO, and A. A. B. Bussy
prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name magnesium is
now used.
• Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the earth's crust by mass and eighth by molarity. It is found
in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is
soluble.
• Light- silvery gray metal. It offers the greatest strength for weight among metals but readily corrodes.
Pharmacological action:
• The second most plentiful cation inside the cell, next to potassium.
• It is a natural calcium blocker, thus important in many cardiovascular diseases.
• Generally, magnesium salt is antacid in lower dose and laxative in higher dose. Magnesium salts as inorganic
cathartics are saline laxatives. For its action, one or both of the ions of the salt must not be absorbed or be
absorbed with difficulty to set up an osmotic imbalance in the intestinal tract resulting to increase of volume of fluid
in the intestine which acts as a mechanical stimulus for peristalsis.

Compounds of Magnesium:
✓Magnesium hydroxide [Mg (OH)2 ; Syn.: Milk of Magnesia/Magnesia magma] It is use as antacid and
laxative/cathartic. It should be dispensed in a blue bottle.
✓Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate [ MgSO4.7H2O ; Sym.: Epsom salt/ Sal de Guerra/Sal cathartica] The oral
powder is administered in an ice cold condition to lessen disagreeable bitter taste and use as saline cathartic.
(It increases the osmotic load of GIT and facilitate evacuation of stool).

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---Magnesium sulfate injection USP is use as anticonvulsant (intravenous or intramascular) for eclampsia. It also
has a central depressant action. It can also be used to manage hypertension, tetanus spasm and convulsion.
--- Magnesium ion has anesthetic action but its anesthetic dose and toxic dose are too close to be used.
--- Toxic manifestation following the administration of Mg are relatively rare. Calcium gluconate is given
intravenously is an effective antidote.
✓Magnesium stearate { Mg[CH3(CH2)16COO}2 It is use as lubricant, added to the main component of a tablet, to
improve flow quality.
✓Magnesium citrate [Mg3( C6H5O7 )2 ; Syn.: Purgative lemonade] -- It is a purgative/laxative.
✓Magnesium trisilicate (Mg2Si3O8) -- It can be used as antacid in the treatment of peptic ulcer by increasing the
gastric pH forming colloidal silica precipitate which protects the GI mucosa. Like any other antacids, it should
not be given together at the same time with other drugs because it may reduce the absorption of the other
drugs taken.

Other information:
• Grignard reagent which is used synthetically to form new carbon-carbon bonds (converts haloalkane to an
alkane) , usually contain Magnesium ion.
• Artificial Mg radioactive isotope is involved in the research of photosynthesis since chlorophyll contains Mg++.
• Aside from activated charcoal, universal antidote also contains tannic acid and MgO.
• Magnesium ion can be detected using P-nitrobenzeneazo resorcinol dyestuff in strongly alkaline solution with
the production of blue precipitate.
• Flash light powders are mixtures of potassium chlorate or barium peroxides and powdered magnesium. This is
also use in pyrotechnics and tracer bullets, night boms and night flares.

CALCIUM- Ca

History & Properties : From the word “calyx” meaning lime. Discovered by Davy in 1808.
• Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, which is harder than lead and may be cut, drawn and rolled.
• Calcium is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust but it is never found free in nature.
Physiological and Pharmacologic action:
• Calcium is the most abundant metal by mass in many animals. It is thd cation of hydroxylapatite which is a major
constituent (98%) of the bones and teeth. The artificial radioactive Ca isotope has been employed in the studies
involving mineral metabolism. Thus deficiency may lead to rickets and faulty growth and osteomalacia in adult.
--- Calcium absorption in enhanced by vitamin D and its distribution is under the complex hormonal control of
parathyroid hormone , thyrocalcitonin and calcitonin.
• Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, where movement of the calcium ion Ca2+
into and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many cellular processes.
• It can be found inside and outside the cell but more dominant extracellularly, next to sodium.
• Calcium has a cardiac action similar to digitalis and it is believed that high Ca concentration increases the toxicity
of digitalis.
• Calcium has a function in proper cardiac functioning but excess calcium can cause systolic arrest.
• It is also essential for blood coagulation or blood clotting.
• It is also the frequent cation of choice to carry therapeutically active anions such as aminosalisylate and calcium
cyclobarbital.

Compounds of Calcium:
✓ Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2 ; Syn. : Slaked lime ] –It is an antacid and also an antidote for acid poisoning.
--Calcium hydroxide is also used in infant’s milk formula for the purpose of preventing curdling of milk in the
presence of gastric contents, promoting the digestibility of the milk
✓Soln. of Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2.H2O ; Syn.: Lime water] –It is use as antacid.
✓Calcium bromide (CaBr2) – It has a hypnotic action.
✓Calcium carbonate [CaCO3 ; Syn.: Precipitated chalk/Marble/Limestone/Marble] – It is use as antacid; It is also a
componetnt of toothpowder/dentifrice.
✓Calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) – It can be uses as desiccating agent. It has also a capability to induce blood
coagulation; It is also a urine acidifier and can also be found in intravenous fluids that is use as electrolyte
replenisher.
✓Calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2 ; Syn.: Apatite’ Hydroxyapatite] It is the basis of human skeleton or bones and the
source of calcium.
✓Calcium sulfate ½ molecules of water [CaSO4.1/2 H2O ; Syn: Plaster of Paris] – It is use in setting of broken
limbs(Surgical cast). It can also be used in making of pestles.

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✓Calcium sulfate & 2 molecule of water [CaSO4.2 H2O; Syn.: Gypsum] --It is use in the making of Plaster of Paris.
✓Calcium chloride hexahydrate [CaCl2. 6H2O; Syn.: Sympathetic ink] – It is use in the making of indelible ink.
✓Calcium sulfide (CaS) --It is use as depilatory agent.
✓Magnesium carbonate & calcium carbonate [MgCO3 + CaCO3; Syn.: Dolomite] –It is a source of Mg & Ca.
✓Calcium gluconate C12H22CaO14 Less irritating source of calcium; use for treating black widow spider bite;
antidote for magnesium poisoning.

STRONTIUM- Sr
History & Properties: A soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element that is highly reactive chemically. The metal
turns yellow when exposed to air. It occurs naturally in the minerals celestine and strontianite. The 90Sr isotope is
present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.90 years
• The human body absorbs strontium as if it were calcium. Due to the elements being sufficiently similar
chemically, the stable forms of strontium might not pose a significant health threat, but the radioactive 90Sr can
lead to various bone disorders and diseases, including bone cancer.
Compounds of Strontium:
✓ Strontium90 was among the radioactive materials that was used in diagnostics to scan bones.
✓ Strontium lactate (Strontolac) – Together with Ca, it is used to promote remineralization of depleted bones
thus it can be use in the management osteoporosis.
✓ Strontium ranelate ( Protelos or Protos by Servier) It is also use for the management of osteoporosis.

BARIUM- Ba

History & Properties: Barium (Greek barys, meaning "heavy") was first identified in 1774 by Carl Scheele and
extracted in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy in England. The oxide was at first called barote which was changed
by Antoine Lavoisier to baryta, from which "barium" was derived to describe the metal.
• Barium is a soft silvery metallic alkaline earth metal and it is the most active of Group IIA.
• It is never found in nature in its pure form due to its reactivity with air.
• The most common naturally occurring minerals are the very insoluble barium sulfate, BaSO4 (barite), and barium
carbonate, BaCO3 (witherite).
Pharmacologic Action:
• At low doses, barium acts as a muscle stimulant, while higher doses affect the nervous system, causing cardiac
irregularities, tremors, weakness, anxiety, dyspnea and paralysis. This may be due to its ability to block
potassium ion channels which are critical to the proper function of the nervous system.
• Inhaled dust containing barium compounds can accumulate in the lungs, causing a benign condition called
baritosis.
Compounds of Barium:
✓Barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2 ; Syn.: Caustic baryta/Baryta water] It was once use as carbon dioxide absorber.
✓Barium nitrate [Ba(NO3)2 ] –Industrially, it is use in the manufacture of green fire; It is also use as reagent in
water analysis.
✓Barium sulfate ( BaSO4) -- It is the only non-toxic form of Barium because it does not dissociate in GIT. Barium
sulfate can be taken orally because it is highly insoluble in water, and is eliminated completely from the digestive
tract. Unlike other heavy metals, barium sulfate does not bioaccumulate.
• BaSO4 that can be available as Baropaque suspension is use as radiopaque material in the alimentary tract (use
to detect colon cancer). Side effect of this compound is constipation.
*Commercially, it can be used in making lithopone paints, paper fillers, and modifying colors of pigments.
Note: The most readily available antidote for barium ingestion is Epsom salt or Magnesium sulfate.

RADIUM- Ra

History & Properties: Radium (Latin radius, ray) was 2nd element discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and her
husband Pierre in 1898 in pitchblende from North Bohemia, in the Czech Republic.
• Radium is a decay product of uranium and is therefore found in all uranium-bearing ores.
• The 6th rarest element, and which emits alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
Uses: Radium was formerly used in self-luminous paints for watches, nuclear panels, aircraft switches, clocks, and
instrument dials.
• The isotope 223Ra is currently under investigation for use in medicine as cancer treatment of bone metastasis. It
has the distinction of being the first radionuclide used in medicine employed as early as 1901.

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THE ELEMENTS OF GROUP IIIA

The Boron Group
(B, Al, Ga, In, Tl )
Appearance and General Reactivity
These elements are not found free in nature, but are all present in various minerals and ores. Boron is
physically a non-metallic grey powder, and all the other members are soft, silvery metals. Thallium develops a bluish
tinge on oxidation.
➢ The general trend down Group 3 A is from non-metallic to metallic character. Boron is a metalloid with a covalent
network structure. The other elements are considerably larger than boron and consequently are more ionic and
metallic in character.
➢ Aluminium has a close-packed metallic structure but is on the borderline between ionic and covalent character in
its compounds.
➢ The remainder of Group III A are generally considered to be metals, although some compounds exhibit covalent
characteristics.
➢ With the loss of all three valence electrons the 3+ oxidation state appears in all the elements of the family.

BORON-B

History & Properties: Compounds of boron (Arabic Buraq from Persian Burah from Turkish Bor) have been known for
thousands of years.
• Boron does not appear in nature in elemental form but is found combined in borax, boric acid, colemanite,
kernite, ulexite and borates.
• Boron resembles those of silicon, its diagonal neighbor in Group IVA.
• Borates plus methanol produces green bordered flame.

Compounds of Boron:
✓ Boric acid or Orthoboric acid [H3BO3 ; Syn.: Agua boricada ]-- In its 2% solution, it is used as an eyewash due to its
antiseptic property.
✓ Sodium tetraborate decahydrate Na2B4O7. 10 H2O Borax – It was once used as food preservative but prohibited
now FDA because it is too toxic to used internally.
• It possess an antiseptic / bacteriostatic property thus it can be used externally as eye-wash, mouth wash and
wet dressing for wounds.
• It is also use for ‘softening’ water and industrially, it is extensively use in welding and soldering.

Other uses:
* Boron or borates is added in glass to reduce the coefficient of expansion .
* It is also use in ceramics, porcelain enamel, and born fuels for rocket propulsion.
* Elemental boron is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry, while boron compounds play important roles
as light structural materials, nontoxic insecticides and preservatives, and reagents for chemical synthesis.
* Boron is an essential plant nutrient, although higher soil concentrations of boron may also be toxic to plants.

ALUMINUM-Al

History & Propertie: Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for
dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic.
• Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed alumium and later
aluminum.
• The most importantaluminium-containing minerals are bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) and cryolite (Sodium
hexafluoroaluminate- Na3AlF6).
• Though aluminum does not occur free in nature but it is considered as the most abundant of the metals and the
third (3rd) most abundant element being exceeded only by oxygen and silicon.
• Has a natural astringent property thus it is a common component of antiperspirant preparation.
Compounds of Aluminum:
✓ Aluminum chloride (AlCl3) --- It possess an astringent thus is one of the components in deodorant and
antiperspirant preparation.
✓ Aluminum oxide [ Al2O3 : Ruby/ Sapphire] Commonly found in jewelry.

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✓ Alum:
o Potssium Aluminum sulfate and 24 molecules of Water AlK(SO4)2.12 H2O or K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24 H2O; Syn: Tawas
o Ammonium Aluminum sulfate and 24 molecules of Water AlNH4(SO4)2.12H2O or (NH4)2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24 H2O
--It can be orally administered to remedy diarrheal condition because it can precipitate diphtheria and even tetanus
toxoid.
--Externally, it can also be uses as deodorant ; has irritant and caustic effect; syptic and can prevent bleeding in small
cuts.
✓ Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] -- A systemic and amphoteric antacid that prevent systemic alkalosis .
*Aluminum hydroxide colloidal gel is generally use as antacid and protective in treating peptic ulcer, it exhibit
astringent and antiseptic property.
* Aluminum has a constipating side effect thus it can also be used to treat diarrhea and cholera. In case it is a must
to treat constipation, it can be managed by administering magnesium trisilicate simultaneously.
* Externally, it is also use as dusting powder for desiccating foul wounds.
o A preparation, Kremil-S/Mylanta/ Simeco/ Maalox in combination with Mg(OH)2 .
✓Aluminum carbonate [ Al2(CO3)3 ; Sy.: Basaljel ] Is a gel that is use for the management of phosphoric urinary
calculi.
✓Aluminum acetate solution [ Al (CH3COO)2OH ; Syn.: Burow’s Solution ] –This is prepared by adding glacial acetic
acid to aluminum subacetate solution mixing with purified water. If it is a component of colloidal suspension
(brand: Hydrosal) it is use as ointment. I can also be used as a buffer in crème and lotion to make it compatible
with skin pH of 4.0 to 6.6.
✓Aluminum Magnesium Silicate [ Al2SiO410(OH)2.xH2O ; Syn. Fuller’s Earth/ Floridin ] It is mainly morillonite . Use
for decolorization of oils and other liquid. It has also been used as filtering agent and rubber filler.

Other information:
• A thin aluminum foil has been used for burn treatment. It does not only protects the burn and conserves fluid but
also seems to stimulate tissue growth.
• Ladd’s Paste contains aluminum powder, liquid petrolatum, and zinc oxide ointment which is use as protective
agent.

GALLIUM- Ga
History& Properties: Before its discovery, most of its properties had been predicted and described by Dmitri
Mendeleev (who had called the hypothetical element "eka-aluminium") on the basis of its position in his periodic
table. Later, in 1875, Boisbaudran discovered the spectroscopic lines in a sample of zinc blende and named it
gallium after his native country, France (Gallia).
➢It is a soft silvery metallic poor metal, gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures but liquefies slightly above room
temperature and will melt in the hand.
Uses :
• It has similar properties to iron. In fact, it binds to transferrin, an iron transport protein, and appears to be useful
in treating cancer- related hypercalcemia.
• Potentially, it may use as a dental alloy (together with Ni & Si).
• Radioactive gallium maybe useful for detecting bone cancers.
• It has been used in special thermometers since it is second for mercury for having the lowest melting point
(29.750).
• Industrially, it is also important application is in the compounds gallium nitride and gallium arsenide, used as a
semiconductor, most notably in light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar panels.

INDIUM- In

History & Properties: Indium (named after the indigo-blue line in its atomic spectrum) was discovered by the
German Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Theodor Richter in 1863.
➢It is more than three times as abundant as silver, which occurs at 0.075 ppm.
➢This rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible poor metal is chemically similar to aluminum or gallium but more closely
resembles zinc (zinc ores are also the primary source of this metal).
Use :
• It has no medicinal use. Its current primary application is to form transparent electrodes from indium tin oxide
in liquid crystal displays.
---- Demand has risen rapidly in recent years with the popularity of LCD computer monitors and televisions.

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THALLIUM- Tl

History & Properties: Thallium (thallos, meaning "a green shoot or twig") was discovered by Sir William Crookes in
1861 in England. The name comes from Thallium's bright green spectral emission lines.

Uses:
• It is use as insecticides, especially ant poison.
• One of the distinctive effects of thallium poisoning is loss of hair, which led it to its initial use in cream as a
depilatory (Thallium acetate) before its toxicity was properly appreciated.
• Its toxicity also can damage peripheral nerves (victims may experience a sensation of walking on hot coals).
• Thallium was once an effective murder weapon and can be manage with prussian blue {Fe4[Fe(CN6]3}as antidote
if discovered promptly. Furthermore, chemotherapy of thallium poisoning requires Trihexyphenidyl (for tremors)
and Dimercaprol (detoxifying agent).

References:

Felton, Linda E.Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 22nd edition. Philadelphia: pharmaceutical Press
Soine, T.O. and Wilson, C. O. 1970. Rogers’ Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Strohfeldt, Katja A. Essential of Inorganic Chemistry For Students of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicinal Chemistry
(2015). United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons.
Tan, E. and See, G.L. (2015). Essentials of Inorganic Medicinal Chemistry. Mandaue City, Philippines: Phiazarra Publishing House.

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