UNIT 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS.................................................................................

3
I. COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM......................................................3
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................3
2. WHAT IS A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) ?..............................5
UNIT 2 DATA MINING................................................................................................6
I. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................6
II. HISTORY.............................................................................................................6
III. PROCESS.............................................................................................................6
3.1 The following steps are included in KDD process:...........................................7
3.2 Data mining involves six common classes of tasks:..........................................8
IV. ADVANTAGES OF DATA MINING................................................................9
V. DISADVANTAGES OF DATA MINING.........................................................9
VI. DATA MINING APPLICATIONS....................................................................9
UNIT 3 MACHINE LEARNING................................................................................10
I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................10
II. HISTORY...........................................................................................................10
III. INGREDIENTS OF MACHINE LEARNING................................................10
IV. TYPES OF MACHINE LEARNING...............................................................10
1. SUPERVISED LEARNING...........................................................................11
2. UNSUPERVISED LEARNING.....................................................................14
3. SEMI-SUPERVISED LEARNING...............................................................15
4. REINFORCEMENT LEARNING................................................................16
V. MACHINE LEARNING WORK.....................................................................16
VI. FEATURES OF MACHINE LEARNING.......................................................16
UNIT 4 DEEP LEARNING......................................................................................18
I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................18
II. HISTORY OF DEEP LEARNING...................................................................18
III. ARCHITECTURES...........................................................................................18
IV. TYPES OF DEEP LEARNING NETWORKS................................................19
1. Feed Forward Neural Network.....................................................................19
2. Recurrent Neural Network............................................................................19
 3. Convolutional Neural Network......................................................................19
4. Restricted Boltzmann Machine.....................................................................19
5. Autoencoders...................................................................................................20
V. APPLICATION..................................................................................................20
VI. ADVANTAGES..................................................................................................21
VII. DISADVANTAGES........................................................................................21

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UNIT 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

UNIT 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

I. COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer hardware, Computer software, Liveware
1. INTRODUCTION
- (1) A computer system is defined as a digital electronic machine that can
programmed to perform some operations as per the computer program instructions
- (2) A computer system is a programmable electronics device that can be
programmed to accept some inputs in terms of data then process this data and
provides the output in the desired format.
+ Computer is Digital Electronic Machine
+ Computer Needs to be Programmed
+ Computer Hardware can execute only Machine Code
=> (1) or (2) all true

The Computer System consist of two main components:

 Hardware Components
 Software components
Computer Software Components:
 Operating System
 System Software

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 Application Programs

User -> Input -> Application Software -> Operating System -> Output
A computer consists of four basic components:
In terms of functionnality the computer system can be grouped in to four units:
1. Input Unit – Input Device.
2. Central Processing Unit –CPU
3. Memory Unit – Memory Hierarchy
4. Output Unit – Output Device
Exemple:
1. Input Devices:
 Mouse
 Keyboard
 Speaker
2. Output Devices
 Minitor (màn hình)
 Printer
Characteristics of Computer System:
 Processing Speed
 Accuracy Of Operations
 Data Storage
 Fast Logical Decisions

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 Repetitive Task Ability

Features Of The Computer System:

 Computer is Programmable
 Converts Data Into Information
 It is Digital Electronic Machine
 Executes Only Machine Instructions
 Understands Only Binary (0 OR 1)

2. WHAT IS A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) ?

- The CPU is said to be the brain of the computer system, where all the arithmetic
calculations and logical operations take place
- The CPU handles all the instructions it receives from various computer hardware
components and also from the software applications running on the computer
system.

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UNIT 2 DATA MINING

UNIT 2 DATA MINING

I. INTRODUCTION
Data mining is the process of extracting and discovering patterns in large data sets
involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database
systems. Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and
statistics with an overall goal of extracting information (with intelligent methods)
from a data set and transforming the information into a comprehensible structure
for further use. Data mining is the analysis step of the "knowledge discovery in
databases" process.

II. HISTORY
In the 1990s, the phrase "data mining" was invented. Data mining emerged from
the convergence of three scientific disciplines: artificial intelligence, machine
learning, and statistics.
Artificial intelligence is the human-like intelligence demonstrated by software and
machines, machine learning is the term used to describe algorithms that can learn
from data to create predictions, and statistics is the numerical study of data
correlations.

III. PROCESS
- The Knowledge Discovery in Databases is considered as a programmed,
exploratory analysis and modeling of vast data repositories.KDD is the organized
procedure of recognizing valid, useful, and understandable patterns from huge and
complex data sets. Data Mining is the root of the KDD procedure, including the
inferring of algorithms that investigate the data, develop the model, and find
previously unknown patterns. The model is used for extracting the knowledge
from the data, analyze the data, and predict the data.
- The unifying goal of the KDD process is to extract knowledge from data in the
context of large databases.

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Note: KDD is an iterative process where evaluation measures can be

enhanced, mining can be refined, new data can be integrated and
transformed in order to get different and more appropriate
results.Preprocessing of databases consists of Data cleaning and Data
Integration.
3.1 The following steps are included in KDD process:
1. Data Cleaning: Data cleaning is defined as removal of noisy and
irrelevant data from collection.
 Cleaning in case of Missing values.
 Cleaning noisy data, where noise is a random or variance
error.
 Cleaning with Data discrepancy detection and Data
transformation tools.
2. Data Integration: Data integration is defined as heterogeneous data from
multiple sources combined in a common source(DataWarehouse). Data
integration using Data Migration tools, Data Synchronization tools and
ETL(Extract-Load-Transformation) process.

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3. Data Selection: Data selection is defined as the process where data

relevant to the analysis is decided and retrieved from the data collection.
For this we can use Neural network, Decision Trees, Naive bayes,
Clustering, and Regression methods.
4. Data Transformation: Data Transformation is defined as the process of
transforming data into appropriate form required by mining procedure.
Data Transformation is a two step process:
 Data Mapping: Assigning elements from source base to
destination to capture transformations.
 Code generation: Creation of the actual transformation
program.
5. Data Mining: Data mining is defined as techniques that are applied to
extract patterns potentially useful. It transforms task relevant data into
patterns, and decides purpose of model using classification or
characterization.
6. Pattern Evaluation: Pattern Evaluation is defined as identifying strictly
increasing patterns representing knowledge based on given measures. It
find interestingness score of each pattern, and uses summarization and
Visualization to make data understandable by user.

3.2 Data mining involves six common classes of tasks:

 Anomaly detection (outlier/change/deviation detection) – The identification
of unusual data records, that might be interesting or data errors that require
further investigation due to being out of standard range.
 Association rule learning (dependency modeling) – Searches for
relationships between variables. For example, a supermarket might gather
data on customer purchasing habits. Using association rule learning, the
supermarket can determine which products are frequently bought together
and use this information for marketing purposes. This is sometimes referred
to as market basket analysis
 Clustering – is the task of discovering groups and structures in the data that
are in some way or another "similar", without using known structures in the
data.
 Classification – is the task of generalizing known structure to apply to new
data. For example, an e-mail program might attempt to classify an e-mail as
"legitimate" or as "spam".
 Regression – attempts to find a function that models the data with the least
error that is, for estimating the relationships among data or datasets.

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 Summarization – providing a more compact representation of the data set,

including visualization and report generation.

IV. ADVANTAGES OF DATA MINING

 The Data Mining technique enables organizations to obtain knowledge-
based data.
 Data mining enables organizations to make lucrative modifications in
operation and production.
 Compared with other statistical data applications, data mining is a cost-
efficient.
 Data Mining helps the decision-making process of an organization.
 It Facilitates the automated discovery of hidden patterns as well as the
prediction of trends and behaviors.

 It can be induced in the new system as well as the existing platforms.

 It is a quick process that makes it easy for new users to analyze enormous
amounts of data in a short time.
V. DISADVANTAGES OF DATA MINING
 There is a probability that the organizations may sell useful data of
customers to other organizations for money. As per the report, American
Express has sold credit card purchases of their customers to other
organizations.
 Many data mining analytics software is difficult to operate and needs
advance training to work on. Different data mining instruments operate in
distinct ways due to the different algorithms used in their design. Therefore,
the selection of the right data mining tools is a very challenging task.
 The data mining techniques are not precise, so that it may lead to severe
consequences in certain conditions.

VI. DATA MINING APPLICATIONS

Healthcare, Market Basket Analysis, Education, Manufacturing Engineering,
CRM (Customer Relationship Management), Fraud detection, Lie Detection,
Financial Banking

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UNIT 3 MACHINE LEARNING

UNIT 3 MACHINE LEARNING

I. INTRODUCTION
Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence, which is broadly
defined as the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior.
Artificial intelligence systems are used to perform complex tasks in a way that is
similar to how humans solve problems.
Building systems with the ability to continuously improve their performance on a
given task based on the experience obtained from the data they are exposed to is
the aim of machine learning

II. HISTORY
In 1957, Frank Rosenblatt – at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory – combined
Donald Hebb’s model of brain cell interaction with Arthur Samuel’s machine
learning efforts and created the perceptron.
In 1959, the term "Machine Learning" was first coined by Arthur Samuel.

III. INGREDIENTS OF MACHINE LEARNING

For any machine learning algorithm to function properly, four ingredients are
necessary.
1.Data: Input data provided to the machine learning algorithm

2.Model: machine learning algorithm that we are going to construct

3.Objective Function: measures how close your predicted output to the actual one

4.Optimisation Algorithm: a loop of trials

IV. TYPES OF MACHINE LEARNING

Depending upon how the learning process takes place for the machine, machine
learning is classified into 3 main categories

Types of
Learning

Semi -
Supervised Unsupervised ReInforcement
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UNIT 3 MACHINE LEARNING

1. SUPERVISED LEARNING
Supervised learning, also known as supervised machine learning, is a
subcategory of machine learning and artificial intelligence. It is defined by its use
of labeled datasets to train algorithms that to classify data or predict outcomes
accurately. As input data is fed into the model, it adjusts its weights until the
model has been fitted appropriately, which occurs as part of the cross validation
process. Supervised learning helps organizations solve for a variety of real-world
problems at scale, such as classifying spam in a separate folder from your inbox.

* Supervised learning can be further divided into two types of problems:

a) REGRESSION
Regression algorithms are used if there is a relationship
between the input variable and the output variable. It is used for the
prediction of continuous variables, such as Weather forecasting,
Market Trends, etc. Below are some popular Regression algorithms
which come under supervised learning:
 Linear Regression: Linear regression is one of the
easiest and most popular Machine Learning
algorithms. It is a statistical method that is used for
predictive analysis. Linear regression makes
predictions for continuous/real or numeric variables
such as sales, salary, age, product price, etc.
 Regression Trees
 Non-Linear Regression
 Bayesian Linear Regression
 Polynomial Regression: Polynomial Regression is a
regression algorithm that models the relationship
between a dependent(y) and independent variable(x) as
nth degree polynomial. It is also called the special case
of Multiple Linear Regression in ML. It is a linear
model with some modification in order to increase the
accuracy. It makes use of a linear regression model to
fit the complicated and non-linear functions and
datasets.

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b) CLASSIFICATION
Classification algorithms are used when the output variable is
categorical, which means there are two classes such as Yes-No, Male-
Female, True-false, etc.
* CNN: Convolutional Neural Networks are a special type of feed-
forward artificial neural network in which the connectivity pattern
between its neuron is inspired by the visual cortex.
WORKING OF CNN:
 Input: If the image consists of 32 widths, 32 height
encompassing three R, G, B channels, then it will hold the
raw pixel([32x32x3]) values of an image.
 Convolution: It computes the output of those neurons, which
are associated with input's local regions, such that each
neuron will calculate a dot product in between weights and a
small region to which they are actually linked to in the input
volume.
 ReLU Layer: It is specially used to apply an activation
function elementwise, like as max (0, x) thresholding at zero.
It results in ([32x32x12]), which relates to an unchanged size
of the volume.
 Pooling: This layer is used to perform a downsampling
operation along the spatial dimensions (width, height) that
results in [16x16x12] volume.
 Locally Connected: It can be defined as a regular neural
network layer that receives an input from the preceding layer
followed by computing the class scores and results in a 1-
Dimensional array that has the equal size to that of the
number of classes.

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TYPES OF LAYERS OF CNN:

o Convolution layer is the first layer to extract features
from an input image. By learning image features using
a small square of input data, the convolutional layer
preserves the relationship between pixels. It is a
mathematical operation which takes two inputs such as
image matrix and a kernel or filter.
o Pooling Layers plays an important role in pre-
processing of an image. Pooling layer reduces the
number of parameters when the images are too large.
Pooling is "downscaling" of the image obtained from
the previous layers. It can be compared to shrinking an
image to reduce its pixel density. Spatial pooling is
also called downsampling or subsampling, which
reduces the dimensionality of each map but retains the
important information.
o The fully connected layer is a layer in which the input
from the other layers will be flattened into a vector and
sent. It will transform the output into the desired
number of classes by the network.
o ReLu layer
* The algorithm which implements the classification on a dataset is
known as a classifier. There are two types of Classifications:
 Binary Classifier: If the classification problem has only two
possible outcomes, then it is called as Binary Classifier.
Example: YES or NO, MALE or FEMALE, SPAM or NOT
SPAM, CAT or DOG, etc.
 Multi-class Classifier: If a classification problem has more
than two outcomes, then it is called as Multi-class Classifier.
Example: Classifications of types of crops, Classification of
types of music.

2. UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
Unsupervised learning, also known as unsupervised machine learning, uses
machine learning algorithms to analyze and cluster unlabeled datasets. These

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UNIT 3 MACHINE LEARNING

algorithms discover hidden patterns or data groupings without the need for human
intervention.
Its ability to discover similarities and differences in information make it the ideal
solution for exploratory data analysis, cross-selling strategies, customer
segmentation, and image recognition.

2.1 Types of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm:

 CLUSTERING: Clustering is a method of grouping the objects
into clusters such that objects with most similarities remains into
a group and has less or no similarities with the objects of another
group. Cluster analysis finds the commonalities between the data
objects and categorizes them as per the presence and absence of
those commonalities.
 K-Nearest Neighbor(KNN):
o K-NN is a non-parametric algorithm, which
means it does not make any assumption on
underlying data. It is also called a lazy learner
algorithm because it does not learn from the
training set immediately instead it stores the
dataset and at the time of classification, it
performs an action on the dataset
o KNN algorithm at the training phase just stores
the dataset and when it gets new data, then it
classifies that data into a category that is much
similar to the new data.
o K-NN algorithm can be used for Regression as
well as for Classification but mostly it is used
for the Classification problems.
 ASSOCIATION: An association rule is an unsupervised
learning method which is used for finding the relationships
between variables in the large database. It determines the set of
items that occurs together in the dataset. Association rule makes
marketing strategy more effective. Such as people who buy X
item (suppose a bread) are also tend to purchase Y (Butter/Jam)
item. A typical example of Association rule is Market Basket
Analysis.

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2.2 Supervised Learning compare to Unsupervised Learning

Supervised vs Unsupervised Learning

Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning

Objective To approximate a function that maps To build a concise
inputs to outputs based out example representation of the data
input-output pairs. and generate imaginative
content from it.
Accuracy Highly accurate and reliable. Less accurate and reliable.
Complexit Simpler method. Computationally complex.
y
Classes Number of classes is known. Number of classes is
unknown.
Output A desired output value (also called No corresponding output
the supervisory signal). values.

3. SEMI-SUPERVISED LEARNING
3.1 Introduce
Semi-supervised learning (SSL) is a machine learning technique that uses a
small portion of labeled data and lots of unlabeled data to train a predictive model.
Supervised learning has a few limitations. Supervised learning is slow as it
requires human experts to manually label training examples one by one. In
addition, supervised learning is costly as a model should be trained on large
volumes of hand-labeled data to provide accurate predictions.
3.2 Work
 Self-training is a variation of pseudo labeling. The difference
with self-training is that we accept only the predictions that have
a high confidence and we iterate through this process several
times. In pseudo-labeling, however, there is no boundary of
confidence that must be met for a prediction to be used in a
model
 Low Density Separation Models
 Graph Based Algorithms

4. REINFORCEMENT LEARNING

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Reinforcement learning (RL) is an interdisciplinary area of machine

learning and optimal control concerned with how an intelligent agent ought to take
actions in a dynamic environment in order to maximize the cumulative reward.
Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms,
alongside supervised learning and unsupervised learning.
Reinforcement learning differs from supervised learning in not needing
labelled input/output pairs to be presented, and in not needing sub-optimal actions
to be explicitly corrected. Instead the focus is on finding a balance between
exploration (of uncharted territory) and exploitation (of current knowledge).

V. MACHINE LEARNING WORK

A machine learning system builds prediction models, learns from previous data,
and predicts the output of new data whenever it receives it. The amount of data
helps to build a better model that accurately predicts the output, which in turn
affects the accuracy of the predicted output.

VI. FEATURES OF MACHINE LEARNING

- Machine learning uses data to detect various patterns in a given dataset.
- It can learn from past data and improve automatically.

- It is a data-driven technology.

- Machine learning is much similar to data mining as it also deals with the huge
amount of the data.

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UNIT 5 E-COMMERCE

UNIT 4 DEEP LEARNING

I. INTRODUCTION
Deep learning is based on the branch of machine learning, which is a subset of
artificial intelligence. Since neural networks imitate the human brain and so deep
learning will do. In deep learning, nothing is programmed explicitly. Basically, it
is a machine learning class that makes use of numerous nonlinear processing units
so as to perform feature extraction as well as transformation. The output from each
preceding layer is taken as input by each one of the successive layers.

Deep learning models are capable enough to focus on the accurate features
themselves by requiring a little guidance from the programmer and are very
helpful in solving out the problem of dimensionality. Deep learning algorithms are
used, especially when we have a huge no of inputs and outputs.

Since deep learning has been evolved by the machine learning, which itself is a
subset of artificial intelligence and as the idea behind the artificial intelligence is to
mimic the human behavior, so same is "the idea of deep learning to build such
algorithm that can mimic the brain".

Deep learning is implemented with the help of Neural Networks, and the idea
behind the motivation of Neural Network is the biological neurons, which is
nothing but a brain cell.

Deep learning: One of the machine learning technique that learns features directly
from data.

II. HISTORY OF DEEP LEARNING

o 1940 -1960: Cybernetics - Điều khiển học
o 1980–1990: Connectionism - Lý thuyết mạng liên kết
o 2006: Deep learning - Học sâu

III. ARCHITECTURES
 Deep Neural Networks: It is a neural network that incorporates the
complexity of a certain level, which means several numbers of hidden
layers are encompassed in between the input and output layers. They are
highly proficient on model and process non-linear associations.
 Deep Belief Networks: A deep belief network is a class of Deep Neural
Network that comprises of multi-layer belief networks.

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 Steps to perform DBN:

- With the help of the Contrastive Divergence algorithm, a layer of
features is learned from perceptible units.
- Next, the formerly trained features are treated as visible units,
which perform learning of features.
- Lastly, when the learning of the final hidden layer is accomplished,
then the whole DBN is trained.
 Recurrent Neural Networks: It permits parallel as well as sequential
computation, and it is exactly similar to that of the human brain (large
feedback network of connected neurons). Since they are capable enough to
reminisce all of the imperative things related to the input they have
received, so they are more precise.
IV. TYPES OF DEEP LEARNING NETWORKS
1. Feed Forward Neural Network
A feed-forward neural network is none other than an Artificial
Neural Network, which ensures that the nodes do not form a cycle. In this
kind of neural network, all the perceptrons are organized within layers, such
that the input layer takes the input, and the output layer generates the
output. Since the hidden layers do not link with the outside world, it is
named as hidden layers. Each of the perceptrons contained in one single
layer is associated with each node in the subsequent layer. It can be
concluded that all of the nodes are fully connected. It does not contain any
visible or invisible connection between the nodes in the same layer. There
are no back-loops in the feed-forward network. To minimize the prediction
error, the backpropagation algorithm can be used to update the weight
values.
2. Recurrent Neural Network
Recurrent neural networks are yet another variation of feed-forward
networks. Here each of the neurons present in the hidden layers receives an
input with a specific delay in time. The Recurrent neural network mainly
accesses the preceding info of existing iterations.
3. Convolutional Neural Network
Convolutional Neural Networks are a special kind of neural network
mainly used for image classification, clustering of images and object
recognition. DNNs enable unsupervised construction of hierarchical image
representations. To achieve the best accuracy, deep convolutional neural
networks are preferred more than any other neural network.
4. Restricted Boltzmann Machine

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RBMs are yet another variant of Boltzmann Machines. Here the

neurons present in the input layer and the hidden layer encompasses
symmetric connections amid them. However, there is no internal
association within the respective layer. But in contrast to RBM, Boltzmann
machines do encompass internal connections inside the hidden layer. These
restrictions in BMs helps the model to train efficiently.

5. Autoencoders
An autoencoder neural network is another kind of unsupervised machine
learning algorithm. Here the number of hidden cells is merely small than
that of the input cells. But the number of input cells is equivalent to the
number of output cells. An autoencoder network is trained to display the
output similar to the fed input to force AEs to find common patterns and
generalize the data. The autoencoders are mainly used for the smaller
representation of the input. It helps in the reconstruction of the original data
from compressed data. This algorithm is comparatively simple as it only
necessitates the output identical to the input.
o Encoder: Convert input data in lower dimensions.
o Decoder: Reconstruct the compressed data.

V. APPLICATION
 Seft Driving Cars
 Entertainment
 Visual Recognition
 Virtual Assistants
 Fraud Detection
 Natural Language Processing
 News Aggregation and Faud News Detection
 Detecting Developmental Delay in Children
 Colourisation of Black and White images
 Adding sounds to silent movies
 Healthcare
 Personalisations
 Automatic Machine Translation
 Automatic Handwriting Generation
 Automatic Game Playing
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 Language Translation
 Pixel Restoration
 Photo Descriptions
 Deep Dreaming

VI. ADVANTAGES
o It lessens the need for feature engineering.
o It eradicates all those costs that are needless.
o It easily identifies difficult defects.
o It results in the best-in-class performance on problems.

VII. DISADVANTAGES
o It requires an ample amount of data.
o It is quite expensive to train.
o It does not have strong theoretical groundwork.

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UNIT 5 E-COMMERCE

UNIT 5 E-COMMERCE
I. INTRODUCTION
E-commerce stands for electronic commerce. E-commerce is the activity of
purchasing or selling products via the internet. E-commerce offers almost everything
to buy, making it extremely competitive. Some notable examples of successful e-
commerce businesses are Amazon, Flipkart, eBay, and Myntra.
E-commerce utilizes technology like mobile commerce, electronic funds transfers,
supply chain management, inventory management systems, internet marketing, online
transaction processing, EDI, and automated data collection mechanisms.

II. HISTORY

III.

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