EDX2190: Module 1

Lindy Buckley

Jacinta Maxwell, Katie Burke

and Yvonne Salton, 2015
Introduction
Purpose
Module 1 is a guide to assist in developing your understanding of the principles of inquiry
pedagogy, and how to ‘do’ History and Geography using inquiry. The EDX2190 course team
has taken an inquiry approach to the development of this course as we believe that it is
important that you experience the pedagogical approach required in the Australian
Curriculum. Consequently, you will be provided with opportunities to practice what you are
learning by actively engaging in inquiry processes throughout.

Key inquiry questions

The ideas presented in this module are built around key inquiry questions:
1. What is inquiry pedagogy?
2. What is history? What is geography?
3. Why teach History and Geography?
4. How is inquiry pedagogy an integral element of teaching History and Geography?

This module is divided into three main sections, with the latter two sections addressing
these key questions separately for each of our disciplines:
 Inquiry pedagogy
 A focus on History:
o What is History?
o Historical inquiry
o History curriculum
 A focus on Geography:
o What is Geography?
o Geographical inquiry
o Geography curriculum.

This study guide will frame the learning that you will undertake when studying History and
Geography, and the underpinning understandings required to teach about these disciplines.
Other knowledge and skills around critical reading; critical analysis; and writing skills that
are essential understandings for your assessments are addressed in your assignment
support booklet.

As you work through this Module you will have the opportunity to engage with material on
StudyDesk (online students), on campus tutorials (ONC students) and audio recordings. You
will also see signs, outlined below, which encourage you to participate in activities to
progress your learning.
 Write  Consider pedagogical implications
  Access the StudyDesk  Go further

 Read or view and analyse  Important note

 Go outside  Review and reflect

It is important at this time to note that this module material does not provide answers, but
raises more questions. We have followed an inquiry approach to these materials so that you
can journey through self-discovery of History and Geography and determine for yourself
what these distinct disciplines mean and the importance of both to the students who will
learn with us.

Inquiry Pedagogy
 Read Chapter 8 of Place and Time which provides a quick introduction to inquiry
pedagogy, including some information about its history and issues involved with the
approach.

The theory behind inquiry pedagogy

Both the Essential Learnings: SOSE and the Australian Curriculum have encouraged the use
of a learner-centred approach to learning and teaching. The idea of a student or learner-
centred approach has been connected with a range of pedagogies for teaching, including
active learning, cooperative learning, problem based and inquiry learning.

Socrates - Questioning
Socrates was a 400BCE Greek Philosopher. He did not write down his thinking so all
we know of him is from his student, Plato. Socrates was Plato’s mentor; Plato was
“impressed with Socrates’ method of emphasizing critical thinking and the search
for meaning over traditional doctrinal wisdom, custom and opinion” (Gutek, 2011,
p. 35). This is an important distinction and provides a clear underpinning to this
pedagogical framework. Socrates utilised a process of examining beliefs and
opinions in order to come to an understanding of his own truth, or in the instance of
the classroom, the students’ understanding of the truth.

Wikipedia commons, 1910, Socrates

Through an inquiry process, Socrates examined long held views about politics, religion and
other customs (Gutek, 2011). In fact, Socrates forced his students to examine everything
critically and challenge everything. Socrates’ questions were disturbing to people and so too
will the questions we use in history, as we challenge the status quo and come to an
understanding of the different ways history is, or can be, viewed.

History and Geography are neither clean nor sterile, and the use of Socratic questioning
enables students to delve into long held beliefs about history to explore the hidden
components or mis-truths that have surfaced over time. The key point in Socratic
questioning/method is dialogue, which is suggested in this Module for teaching and learning
through inquiry

Matthew Lipman – Philosophical inquiry

In the early 1960s, Matthew Lipman began to see that American children’s ability to reason
and solve problems was diminishing (Johnson & Reed, 2008). In an effort to increase these
abilities in children, Lipman proposed a program of using philosophy for children (P4C). This
program was designed with a holistic view of critical thinking, whereby critical thinking is
prompted by a curiosity about the world, requires a respect for fellow inquirers, and a
desire for knowledge that is relevant to students’ lives. This is in contrast to a view of critical
thinking as a series of cognitive skills. The process of inquiry is quite simple. The teacher
starts with a novel, picture or other stimulus, asks questions regarding this stimulus, and
engages students in a dialogue around ethics or other such element of philosophy. This
moves us away from dyadic teaching (teacher to student) to allow continuous engagement
between students. The teacher is a facilitator of learning, rather than the expert in all things.
The focus is on using thinking skills in dialogue rather than learning about critical thinking as
an abstracted skill and then using that skill in a separate activity. There is, however, a focus
on metacognition, ‘thinking about thinking (Johnson & Reed, 2008), where students are
made aware of the thinking process they are experiencing. Self-correction (rather than
teacher initiated correction) is a priority and a key focus is on reasoning so that students can
understand why they think the way they do and whether their argument or interpretation is
appropriate.

Matthew Lipman’s contribution to inquiry pedagogy also includes the use of Communities of
Inquiry to facilitate an understanding of events and circumstances in history. This engaging
and reflective process develops students’ ability to self-correct and engage with the ideas of
others to extend their reasoning and critical thinking. This is of particular significance in this
course as it is what you need to engage in for your second assessment piece.

 This paper by Swan, Garrison and Richardson (2009) explores communities of inquiry
with a particular focus on how they put Dewey’s philosophy into practice (just close the
window with the download button to see the article). Some suggestions for successful
communities of inquiry are also provided by the authors. (NB. Just click on
‘read paper’ if you don’t want to download it).

John Dewey - Reflection

John Dewey was committed to social justice and democratic principles and
his influence on the pedagogical framework is based on these ideals.
Within his Pedagogic Creed (1897) he describes the educated person as a
John Dewey in 1902,
“sense-maker…one who can wrest as much meaning as possible from her Watson-Schutze
or his experience” (Johnson & Reed, 2008, p. 101). Like Parker Palmer,
Dewey rejected ‘either/or’ thinking and contends that:

Educative experience is one in which an active mind interacts with a wide-open

world to solve genuine problems that are continuous, yet different from,
previous experiences. Recognizing that we are creatures of habit, Dewey
suggests that it is our unique ability to stop, reflect, and then act – that is, to
respond intelligently to a problematic situation requiring more than a mere
habitual reaction – that distinguishes humans from less intelligent animals.
(Johnson & Reed, 2008, p. 102)

A pedagogical framework influenced by Dewey requires that students are given

opportunities to reflect, to consider their actions and to determine how and why they are
acting in a particular manner – asking ‘is it habit or is it as a result of intelligent reflection
and thinking?’. This is an important component of a pedagogical framework for inquiry and
is particularly evident in philosophical inquiry and communities of inquiry.

What are the benefits of inquiry pedagogy?

Watch the following YouTube clip to see an example of inquiry learning in a science
classroom and to gain a sense of why some teachers favour it as an approach to teaching
and learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8Lh5MfyE-E&feature=related

Some key benefits of inquiry pedagogy are inclusivity, engagement, higher order thinking
and collaboration. Another significant feature of inquiry pedagogy is that it provides a
platform on which genuine connections can be made between the historical skills required
by the curriculum, and the learning activities students engage in. The structure of inquiry
pedagogy ensures that the required skills and understandings are achieved during the
normal course of an historical inquiry. Other approaches to the teaching of History, such as
theme-based units, can result in more casual or forced links being made between the
curriculum content and the chosen theme (Hamston & Murdock, 1996).

Inquiry versus Problem Based Learning

Problem based learning (PBL) develops critical thinking through reflection, and depending
on the possible solutions there may be space for creative thinking. Inquiry thinking however
promotes critical and creative thinking at each stage. Inquiry learning is a collaborative
process with the teacher, whereas problem based learning is usually the teachers working in
isolation and teaching, but not participating as a co-learner. Inquiry requires students to not
just consider one problem, but examine a range of complexities in the world and form
concepts and generalisations instead of being told. Inquiry requires students to investigate,
process, organise, synthesize, refine and extend knowledge; it is not limited by the problem
or question in PBL. Unlike PBL, inquiry requires relationship building. PBL may do, but may
not, depending on its implementation. PBL creates the context; inquiry is placed in real life
contexts.

In this video, Lee Meadows makes a really clear distinction between both approaches.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTUh3YfPy1k

Pedagogical frameworks
A pedagogical framework offers “broad guidance on the steps that a teacher
might use to plan and deliver lessons” (Poon, Lee, Tan & Lim, 2012, p. 306). In
other words they are the road maps for instruction. Within pedagogical
Cocoparisienne
frameworks are strategies that teachers utilise to engage students in
learning. Let us clarify this further. Pedagogy is the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of
teaching and learning, and teaching strategies are the tools to support engagement. In any
pedagogical framework teachers can utilise a range of teaching strategies. These terms
should not be used interchangeably as they relate to different components of the craft of
teaching.
A pedagogical framework for inquiry

Levels of student ownership

In this course the broad pedagogical framework is one of inquiry, but the way in which the
framework is utilised depends on the openness of the inquiry, or the degree to which it is
scaffolded. An important consideration of inquiry pedagogy is whether the student or the
teacher is guiding the process. The level of student-directed inquiry indicates the level of
openness in the inquiry. As you work through the modules in this course you will notice the
tasks you are required to undertake become less guided and more open. The following
diagram is provided to assist you in understanding the terminology that describes the
various levels of inquiry, from closed to open.

Closed-ended demonstration
Some scholars and teachers debate whether closed-ended demonstration should be
classified as a type of inquiry at all. You will often see closed-ended demonstrations in a
Science classroom. During one of these teaching episodes, the teacher essentially models
inquiry by sharing a question or hypothesis, explaining how and why they are doing a
particular experiment, sharing ways of collecting the required data and presenting their
findings. Students do not participate in the inquiry itself although they might be asked what
they think will happen at various points of the experiment and so on. At no point in a closed-
ended demonstration does the student have ownership of the inquiry process or the results
of the process. The intention is not to create new knowledge, but to guide students toward
an assumed or established fact determined by the teacher or syllabus.

Guided Inquiry
During a guided inquiry the teacher provides the question and method of investigation.
Although students may be allowed to select the materials and resources to inquire into, the
strict guidelines regarding questions and method of investigation limit the students’
capacity to develop a new way of thinking about a topic. Like the previous level, the intent
of a guided inquiry is to lead students to a predetermined piece of knowledge or way of
understanding a topic. The students’ engagement in the learning process involves the
provision of answers once the investigation is completed.

Bounded Inquiry
A bounded inquiry differs from a guided inquiry in several key areas. This is evident just by
thinking about the differences in the names of the levels. A guided inquiry requires a
predetermined outcome that students are guided to by teachers, whereas in a bounded
inquiry students are still provided with boundaries by the teacher but are expected to start
constructing their own knowledge or understanding of a topic. Another significant
difference is that students have more ownership of the inquiry process by virtue of being
allowed propose and implement plans for their inquiry – factors that will enable them to
conduct their research successfully.

Open-ended Inquiry
An open-ended inquiry is usually completely driven by the students, although in a History
classroom there will be guidance from the teacher about a topic, timeframe and other
required curriculum elements. Students formulate the question, determine the process of
knowledge construction and locate materials and sources to conduct their research. The
method of analysis will also be determined by the student as will the mode of presentation
of the results.

Collaboration with researcher

This is quite a different level of inquiry when we compare it to those above. The teacher (or
an outside expert who will be a co-researcher with the student) chooses the first question
to investigate, specifically targeting a particular element of the curriculum (Martin, 2001).
The research plan might be developed by the student or teacher/expert or be a
collaborative effort. Similarly, the selection of resources, the process of gathering
information and evidence, the analysis and presentation of results of the research might be
guided by one or both participants. The obvious difference between this type inquiry and
those outlined above is the intention behind the process: the intended outcome is the
development of new ways of understanding something. Students collaborate with someone
who has experience in doing this kind of work in order to learn how to do it independently.
 Try to find examples of each kind of inquiry in your daily life. You might be able to see
examples where you work or on the television. You might spend some time watching and
listening to children or adolescents you know and notice how they go about learning
something new. When are they engaged in open-ended inquiry? When do they observe a
closed-ended demonstration?

 Share your examples on the Module one: Inquiry Pedagogy forum. What was your
response to these examples of inquiry in action? Which seemed natural? Which worked?
Which didn’t? What was the result of failure? What learning happened?

 How will you determine which level of inquiry is appropriate for which lesson? What
resources will assist you in making this decision?

Using the framework for Unit/Lesson Planning

Teaching through inquiry involves engaging students in the research process with the
teacher supporting and coaching at a level appropriate to their starting skills. Students learn
discipline specific content but in doing so engage in and refine their inquiry skills. The lesson
sequence part of inquiry tends to be driven by:

 Stimuli to prompt curiosity and engagement

 Questions rather than topics or content

 The need to develop research and critical thinking skills

 Mechanisms for monitoring progress

In order for these drivers to be enacted, inquiry lessons need to be designed with them in
mind. Planning for these phases requires the presentation of some kind of stimulus as a
starting point, the development of researchable questions, skill development in locating and
analysing sources, interpretation of sources and finally, a mechanism for monitoring
progress and reflection.

Before moving into lesson development, it is first important to consider how sequences of
lessons (or units) are developed. The following outline gives a generalised structure to
demonstrate how teachers can facilitate learning over a period of time using an inquiry
framework. You should find this information very relevant to all three assignments.

1. Determine relevant curriculum content and skills for the unit of work

2. Outline learning outcomes from the curriculum intent

3. Determine what assessment will best collect information on the learning

4. Outline the key questions which will guide each stage of the unit of work
 5. Sequence questions; historical knowledge and understanding; as well as sequence
historical skills.

6. Check progression of critical and creative thinking skills and how learning and skills
are scaffolded throughout the unit of work.

Community of Inquiry
In order to facilitate philosophical inquiry in schools Matthew Lipman, through the
Philosophy for Children (P4C) program, developed a strategy called “community of inquiry”
(CoI). A community of inquiry is a method of engaging individuals in dialogue and provides
opportunity for engagement with each other’s ideas. Like all methods of inquiry, a CoI
requires participants to ask questions, engage in dialogue, interact with and respond to
sources of information, and reflect on their learning. A key focus of a community of inquiry
is the interaction between the participants, and the dialogue that occurs between them
needs to be based on mutual respect, a desire to learn from one another and a commitment
to challenge each other’s thinking. Communities of inquiry also need facilitation among
students who are new to the approach. A CoI should follow something akin to the
framework outlined above, beginning with stimulus, and moving through questions,
thinking, and monitoring.

 After watching this short piece about a community of inquiry in an Australian primary
classroom, summarise what you saw and heard. Add this information to that above and
answer the following question: What is a community of inquiry and what are its benefits to
teaching and learning?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tk_B32HtnWg&feature=related

You can find out more about CoIs in the Assignments and assignment support guide.
Understanding History

Everyone knows what history is until he begins to think about it. After that, nobody knows.
— Allan Griffin.

What is History?

History as a curriculum area has been clearly defined by the Australian Curriculum and
Reporting Authority (ACARA). In the Australian Curriculum, History is described as a
“disciplined process of inquiry” (ACARA, 2011, p. 1). This appears to be a fairly simple
definition, and one that we have adopted in this course, but it is one that requires some
unpacking.

Before getting stuck into the “doing” of history it is important to consider our first inquiry
question: What is History?

 Read pages 27 – 40 of our textbook Place and Time with this question in mind. As you
read, make a note of the points made throughout this section of the text that help you to
develop your understanding of the concept of ‘history’. Try to make these notes in your own
words – paraphrasing is a vital skill in assignment writing and worth practicing often.

 Once you have read the above section of chapter 3, take a moment to synthesise your
notes and share your conclusions in the Module one: History forum. It will be helpful to
others if you can provide some insight into the specific parts of the text that you’ve drawn
upon to answer the question, so refer to the text by paraphrasing parts of it, or explaining
how a quote shaped your thinking.

As explained in the Orientation guide, the shift to History as a discipline reflects a movement
away from subjects such as Studies of Society and the Environment (SOSE) which have been
in schools across the country for the past few decades. The reasons for this shift and the
implications for teachers and students were briefly explained, but it is worth touching on
why ACARA’s focus on History as a discipline is an important pedagogical development.

Subjects such as SOSE have allowed teachers and students to draw upon an almost limitless
range of schools of thought in order to understand an equally broad range of topics. History
has a particular tradition of scholarship that guides the process of inquiring into historical
events and issues. History is generally understood as requiring a logical process of inquiry to
the extent that the results of that inquiry can be traced, tested and understood by others.
This requires the work of historians and students of history to be based on the examination
of evidence. History needs to be more than a description of events from a single, apparently
universal perspective – this discipline requires research, analysis and explanation.

As you will be aware from the text, as well as from current debates reported in the media,
the work of historians and History teachers are complex.

The complexity of History, and the work of History teachers and historians, is reinforced in
this insightful quote from historian Louis Gottschalk (1950, p. 45),
Most human affairs happen without leaving vestiges or records of any kind
behind them. The past, having happened, has perished with only occasional
traces. To begin with, although the absolute number of historical writings is
staggering, only a small part of what happened in the past was ever observed;
and only a part of what was observed in the past was remembered by those
who observed it; only a part of what was remembered was recorded; only a
part of what was recorded has survived; only a part of what has survived has
come to historians' attention; only a part of what has come to their attention is
credible; only a part of what is credible has been grasped; and only a part of
what has been grasped can be expounded or narrated by the historian.

Gottschalk’s statement raises the particularly difficult job that students of history undertake
when they seek to collect, interpret and represent an accurate narrative of the past. It also
draws attention to the incompleteness of historical records and the potential for vastly
differing accounts of events. Gottschalk suggests that there are far more gaps in our
collective knowledge of history that there is knowledge of it, and what knowledge we do
have has passed through several filters before it comes to us. These gaps and uncertainties
are some of the features of History that make it especially exciting for some students; they
are also the cause of trepidation amongst others.

 Pages 40-44 of the textbook offers some insight into what History means for teachers
in their day-to-day work in terms of their pedagogical knowledge, understanding how
historians put ‘history’ together and, consequently, how teachers might help students to
understand it. Reflect on Activity 3.2 from page 44 according to your own experiences and
knowledge.

Why Teach History?

Once we have an understanding of what History is, we then need to extend our thinking
further to consider the reasons for engaging with the subject. You will have your own views
about why History is important enough to be taught in schools, or you might be in a position
where you are yet to be convinced that it is worthwhile. Your own experiences of the
subject will have left you with particular pedagogical and content knowledge that may
influence your opinion, or you might have an understanding of some recent historical
debates relevant to your future work as a teacher.
 The rest of chapter 3, from page 44-53 provides some key material to engage with and
reflect upon. Raising important questions about the purpose of History, the consequences
of ‘the abuse of [H]istory’, and the differences between the social value and pedagogical
value of history are addressed here.

 Upon finishing chapter 3, reflect on the situation posed in Activity 3.2 and share your
response in the Module one: History forum. Feel free to weave your thoughts on the
reflection questions from page 51 into your forum response. Again, remember to make
reference to particular points in the text that have influenced your thinking on this topic.

Resources throughout this course invite perspectives of history and teaching of history that
may be the same or different to one you currently hold. The key component of History
through inquiry contends that we consider more than one perspective. The consideration of
multiple perspectives enables us to analyse a topic more critically as we are familiar with a
broader range of information.

 Read Larry Cuban’s blog post contrasting heritage pedagogy (“cultivating a national
identity, patriotism, and a faith in one’s nation”) with historical pedagogy (“not a single
account of the past but many accounts”). Cuban’s article provides another perspective on
these issues and is well worth a read. Once you have read the article, have a think about the
notions of historical pedagogy and heritage pedagogy and figure out which your views are
more closely aligned with. Access the rationale of the Australian Curriculum: History – which
of Cuban’s pedagogies is the statement reflective of? Share your thoughts in the Module
one: History forum on these tasks and what the implications of ACARA’s approach might be
for students, teachers, and communities.

 Watch John Gillespie: The Uses and Misuses of History (Parts 1 & 2)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DgV0BxBFqsk

 How do these resources influence your perspective on the teaching of History?

 By this stage you should have a fairly clear idea of your own perspective of what
History is, and have a grasp of other people’s view of what History is about. You should also
have a basic knowledge of some of the debates around Australian History that have taken
place between 1993 and the beginning of this century.

Understanding Historical Inquiry

Historical inquiry involves a particular collection of skills which are explained in the video on
the right. You need to familiarise yourself
with the method, utilise it throughout the
course, and implement it in your third
assignment. Many of the elements of
historical inquiry are relevant to part of the
second assignment: pay attention to the
content of the video and refer to it
frequently. It is important that you
start to develop a broad
understanding of this approach to
‘doing history’ and teaching and
learning about history. http://www.historicalinquiry.com/inquiry/explanation/explanation2.cfm

The various elements of historical inquiry mentioned in this video are explored over the next
few pages.
Historical Inquiry Processes

Historical inquiry involves at least three processes which can be broadly summarised as
follows:

1. Asking historical questions

2. Locating and critically analysing sources
3. Constructing an historical interpretation

1. Asking historical questions

As you will know from your previous studies, the kinds of questions we ask of ourselves and
our students require a good deal of thought if the required thought processes are to be
engaged with and the right kinds of answers are to be arrived at. For various reasons,
teachers often end up asking a lot of questions that seek to determine whether or not a
student knows a specific fact or can do a certain activity. The purpose of historical inquiry is,
as we discussed earlier, to increase students’ understanding of concepts, topics and events
and to do so in a manner that allows students to take an active role in constructing that
understanding. This does not mean that students are simply left to their own devices; a
well-designed question can enable students to actively engage with a topic. The
transformative learning that can be facilitated by asking different kinds of questions is a
really exciting thing to be part of and well worth the effort (it’s also a key skill that you’ll be
utilising during assignment 2). In the study of history we ask questions for different reasons,
including those that:

 stimulate interest;
 promote understand of the context in which an event took place;
 require the evaluation of sources and evidence;
 uncover our own (or students’) perspective about an issue or event;
 develop a particular inquiry skill;
 focus an inquiry on particular historical content and concepts; and/or
 extend historical knowledge and understanding.

You are likely to have a wealth of knowledge (or at least awareness) of a variety of
strategies that can diversify the questions you ask. Questions might be developed by using
Bloom’s Taxonomy, the 5 Ws and an H, or De Bono’s Thinking Hats. These are all useful
when we are ‘doing history’, so don’t just save them for the classroom – be sure to use
them yourself throughout this course. The point of difference between the generic use of
one of these thinking frameworks and their employment in historical inquiry is the reason
why you are using the framework. So, you might decide to apply Bloom’s-based questions to
the list above in order to determine whether evaluation or knowledge questions are more
likely to stimulate interest in a new topic, and whether you need to ask students to classify
sources before they can analyse them.
2. Locating & critically analysing sources
Considering the seemingly infinite number of sources we can access in order to get
information, students need to be particularly critical of the sources used during historical
inquiries. This has implications for you as a teacher because you will need to evaluate the
sources of information used by your future students. It is also imperative for you during this
course, particularly when you are completing your assessment pieces. The video on the right
provides a basic explanation about scholarly and non-scholarly sources. If you’ve been
picked up on your use of sources that are not ‘academic’ enough, this might be a useful
resource.

In a nutshell, when trying to find sources it is helpful to have a clear idea of what you need
to locate, and then keep the following features and questions in mind:

Is the book/article/website general enough or specific enough for your

Scope
needs?

Audience Is the material written for an expert audience or more casual readers?

When was the source published? If it is a website, when was it last

Timeliness
updated?

Authority What are the author’s academic credentials?

Documentation What evidence is there that the author has consulted other sources?

What point of view does the author represent? Is the website

sponsored by a company or organization that advocates a certain
Objectivity
philosophy? Is the article published in a magazine that has a particular
editorial position?

(Adapted from University of California, 2008)

This guide needs to be deployed critically. The idea that primary sources are always more
reliable than secondary sources should not be accepted without question (Pappas, n.d). It is
often said that sources from the time and place of the event reduce distortion or
misrepresentation, but students of history should ask questions such as those below in
order to evaluate their sources:

• Is the source reliable and how can I know?

 • What do I know about the author/artist?
• Is the creator’s point of view obvious, subtle or hidden?
• How many perspectives are explored?
• Are there differences between comparable sources?
• What was the purpose/intention of the source? Was it meant to be kept private or
prepared for public purposes
These questions should enable you to come to evaluate the reliability of a source depicting a
perspective on an historical event or topic. The key is to remain sceptical and critical of what
you are reading or viewing, and to apply the same rigour to how you are responding and
you are thinking. It can be helpful to make a note of your own perspective about an
historical event, person or process before you start the inquiry, and track any changes in
your thinking. Every writer and reader has a purpose, and in understanding history we need
to understand what that purpose is and how it has influenced what is written and how we
interpret it. Vastly different meanings and understandings can be gained when you are able
to determine the intention of the author or artist (Pappas, n.d).

SCIM-C Framework : In conjunction with the asking of historical questions and the rules
above, an additional analysis strategy can be found within SCIM-C framework (Doolittle,
Hicks, & Ewing, 2005), which you will already have seen at work in the Historical Inquiry
video on page 14. The SCIM-C framework was designed to support critical thinking and does
this by scaffolding five distinct stages (Summarising, Contextualizing, Inferring, Monitoring
and Collaborating):

 Quick examination of text

S 

Search for explicit information
Identify key facts about the text
Summarising  Identify immediately apparent ideas and perspectives
 More in depth analysis of the text.
C 

Identify different terms, meanings, values, customs etc.
Begin understanding the text in its historical context.
Contextualizing
 Revisit initial facts
I 

Use developing understanding of text and context to make inferences
Draw out implicit meanings by reading subtexts
Inferring
 Question and reflect upon initial assumptions based on inquiry
M 
questions
Examine the credibility and usefulness or significance of the source in
Monitoring answering the historical questions at hand
 Starts when a series of sources has been analysed
 Identify similarities and differences in ideas, information, and

C 
perspectives between sources
Look for gaps in evidence that may hinder interpretations and the
Corroborating answering of inquiry questions
 Investigate contradictions and check the credibility of the source
 Draw conclusions based upon the synthesis of the evidence
(Adapted from Doolittle, Hicks, Ewing, 2005)
It is important to note that inquiry requires students of history to remain alert and critical at
all times. All students (you as well as your future students) need to look for a variety of
sources which allow more than one view of history to emerge, and then ask questions about
the meaning of those perspectives in a relevant historical context and today.

3. Constructing an historical interpretation

As highlighted by the quote at the beginning of this study guide and exemplified during the
History Wars mentioned in chapter 3 of Place and Time, the study of historical events,
personalities and other topics is contentious. The discipline of History often involves hard
work, but there are significant implications of engaging in only parts of an inquiry and,
consequently, drawing unsupported conclusions. The purpose of conducting an historical
inquiry is to enable the construction of an interpretation of an aspect of history that is
informed and reasonable, rather than one that is simply based on values, biases or
misinformation.

Some of the key safeguards against the latter are active thinking and constant critique. If
you (and your future students) ‘do history’ by engaging with the processes outlined in this
module, remain alert to possibilities you hadn’t considered, stay critical of sources and of
your own perspective, and are thoughtful in your presentation of your findings, then you
will be well on your way to producing good quality work.

 Read chapter 10 (pp.147-164) which focusses on historical inquiry.

 Make a note of your response to the reflection questions 1 and 2, and then post your
responses to questions 3 and 4 on the Module one: History forum.
Understanding Geography

Let’s turn our attention now to the discipline of Geography. The section is divided into
three parts:
What is Geography?
Why teach Geography?
Geographical inquiry
Exploration of the Australian Curriculum: Geography V.7.5 is embedded throughout the
latter two sections.

What is Geography?

 Read Chapter 2 of Place and Time: Why Geography Matters

 Activity 2.1 on page 13 asks you to identify which of the listed themes dominate the four
definitions of geography on pages 12-13. Before you complete this activity, find some
definitions of the listed themes and make a note of them (remember to include references
so you can access your sources later).

Social construction of
space:
Spatial analysis:

The physical
environment:
People-environment
relations:

Next, access the definition of Geography from the F-10 Australian Curriculum: Geography
(rather than the definition offered in the textbook which is based on the Draft curriculum),
then complete Activity 2.1.

Geography is often equated with a study of the physical dimension of our natural
environment, and this is certainly an essential aspect of geographical study. Along with the
study of the physical features of places, geographers also investigate the human dimension
of places. As you can see from the diagram below, the disciplines associated with human
geography consist of a range of areas that contribute much to our understanding of people
and societies. The specialist sub-divisions indicate the variety of contexts in which
geographers in this field work.
This website introduces students to geographers who work in a variety of roles. These
diverse roles highlight the breadth and scope of geographical study, and prove that this
discipline is about far more than the mere study of physical features of the natural world.

http://www.geocareers.net.au/meetageographer.htm

A brief history of paradigm shifts in Geographical thinking/ Geographical

debates.

Just as we have seen that thinking has changed over time regarding what constitutes History
and how its study is approached, so too have significant changes occurred in thinking about,
understanding, and appreciating the significance of Geography. In the early1900s,
understandings of Geography represented a clear and unambiguous belief that the natural
environment could be understood as an external, objective reality. Matthew and Herbert
(2008) provide an interesting example of such thinking:
One of the early grand theories, environmental determinism, exemplified the
emphasis on the natural environment in explaining human actions: the latter were
presumed to flow from the former. It was suggested, for example, that people living
in hot climates tended to be lazy and promiscuous and that crimes of violence were
higher in hotter parts of countries, such as the ‘violent south’ in the United States.
(pp. 50-51)

This environmental determinism eventually turned towards a focus upon cultural and
historical sources of geographical explanation, recognising the impact of human activity
upon landscapes, and that human conditions often countered or over-rode the influence of
the natural environment. However, such thinking was regarded in the 1960s as overly
descriptive and lacking in scientific rigour, leading to the establishment of spatial science, in
which scientific methods such as accurate measurement and the generation of generalizable
scientific theory were applied to geographical studies. In time, spatial science gave way to
humanistic thinking, which emphasised “the meanings of place, rather than the geometry of
space” (Matthews & Herbert, 2008, p. 57), developing an appreciation that people perceive
and experience the world in different ways.
The advent of Structural thinking brought with it “grand theory” that attempted to explain
both human behaviour and societal outcomes of this behaviour, maintaining that
geographical analysis that focussed only upon certain “surface” geographical issues was not
addressing powerful societal forces that governed both society and the lifestyles of citizens:
Harvey, a British geographer working in the USA and a leading Marxist scholar,
argued that there was a clear disparity between the sophisticated theoretical and
methodological frameworks of spatial analysis and geographers’ ability to say
anything really meaningful about events as they unfolded around them. In other
words, geographers were not grasping the significance of these major structural
forces and were only dealing with the surface manifestations of a deeper process.
(Matthew & Herbert, 2008, p. 62)

Structural theory came under criticism with the emergence of Postmodern thinking, which
debunked the concept of a grand theory or the idea that a central truth could exist. Instead,
postmodern thinking in geography emphasised the importance of pluralities and diverse
ways of interacting with an understanding the world. This appreciation of different
perspectives has been the most influential aspect of postmodernity on the study of
Geography. Similarly, Post-structuralism rejects grand theory, but focusses more on
language, signs, and the interpretations of texts. Its relevance for Geography lies in the
focus upon the relationships between situations and the ways in which they are
represented. A criticism of the latter schools of thought in Geographical study is the lack of
focus upon empirical evidence, evidence-based research, scientific rigour and the analysis of
interaction between people and their environment. The study of Geography can thus be
seen as having moved from:
…a simple and straightforward analysis of the relationships between people,
settlement, and environment into a study of far more diverse and complex
relationships. One can argue that the thread of space, place, and environment is still
there, at least for many of the lines of study, but its nature is now very different.
(Matthew & Herbert, 2008, p. 62)
 (Matthew & Herbert, 2008, p. 52)

The above summary of the paradigm shifts in Geographical thinking is vastly truncated, but
should help you to gain an appreciation for the kinds of debates that have occurred in this
discipline over the last century. Importantly, what it highlights is that Geography cannot be
considered as a single, unified or uncontested concept, and that understandings will
continue to evolve.

 How has my understanding of Geography evolved even in the short space of time since
commencing this course? What changes have occurred in my thinking? What importance
might this have for the classroom? Do I need to revisit my original definition of
“Geography”?

Why teach Geography?

Perhaps you find the prospect of teaching Geography extremely dull: a product of your own
engagement with previous learning that reduced Geography learning to facts, measurement
and memorisation of the names of landmarks, cities, states, and countries. Others
apparently find such memorisation fascinating, such as this child (not necessary viewing, but
enjoyable nonetheless). However, it is hoped that by now you are beginning to appreciate
that Geographical learning goes well beyond the dry facts of where places are on the map,
and that we can facilitate engaging learning that values diverse perspectives on the earth’s
geographical features, and the social and economic processes that have influenced
them. Before looking into Geographical inquiry, let’s pause to consider the rationale for
including this subject as a separate discipline in the Australian Curriculum. Start here, with
the introduction video to the development of the Australian Curriculum: Geography.

http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/humanities-and-social-
sciences/geography/rationale

Read The Australian Curriculum: Geography Rationale and The Australian

Curriculum: Geography Aims

These three texts don’t give a list of reasons why we should teach Geography. Instead, they
highlight the value of this subject for the development of a range of skills, capacities,
knowledge and understanding. Do you note any differences with how Geography is
explained here with how you were taught? If so, do you think these differences are
important/beneficial? As you critically engage with the above introductory video and two
documents, keep in mind the inquiry question: Why teach Geography?

 Share your thoughts to this inquiry question with other students in our Module one:
Geography forum on the StudyDesk. Be sure not to simply list your thoughts, but engage
critically with the thoughts others have put forward. What can you learn from the
contributions of other students?

Introducing Geographical Inquiry

Now that you have considered the key questions about what Geography is and why we
teach it, we now have to consider how do we ‘do Geography’. By this we mean, how do we
learn about geography? Hopefully, our explorations into inquiry pedagogy up to this point
should have paved the way for a strong foundation with which to begin to answer this
question. Instead of starting with a reading about geographical inquiry, let’s experience it by
stepping away from the computer and into our community.
Doing Geographical Inquiry
 Go for a walk around your neighbourhood or your workplace. Take a
camera and a notebook or voice recorder. Look around you and start asking
some questions about things you would like to know more about, such as
landmarks, objects, people and places. You might ask questions about
something that is unusual, or decide to question the things we often take for
granted. If you’re struggling to initiate some questions, use some stem words Artverau
or phrases on p. 131 of your text to help kick-start the process.

Take photos of the things that arouse your curiosity and make note of your questions and
any other thoughts you have as you walk around.

Start thinking about where you might to find answers to some of these questions and record
those thoughts as well. When you get home, do a quick internet search and see what you
can find out or head down to your local library or information centre and ask for help in
finding answers.

 Think about how you could develop a walking field trip for a Geography class. What
might be some advantages of a trip in terms of pedagogy and practicalities?
Remember, this is the kind of work you will be engaging with in assignment 1, so
start thinking about it now!
 Include your photos, inquiry results and thoughts on field trips in the Module one:
Geography forum.
 Reflect for a moment on the elements of the activity that you believe facilitated the
most learning. For some the answer might be ‘questions’, for others it might the mere fact
of being able to investigate something of interest to them, and others will have found
moving around the space they were learning about was most significant. Doing geography is
not simply about learning facts, but asking questions and engaging in the process of finding
answers to these questions. The finding of sources (in the above activity by exploring our
community), asking questions of these sources (the who, what, where, when, why and
how), and the analysis of sources (asking the right kinds of questions to expand our
understanding) are key elements of the pedagogical approach now used in the Australian
Curriculum: Geography called Geographical inquiry.

 Now that you’ve engaged in a mini-inquiry, read chapter 9 in Place and Time which will
explain some of the finer points of geographical inquiry.

Geographical skills

By this stage, you should hopefully be feeling more confident with inquiry pedagogy and
how this might be used in your studies of Geography. Students and teachers initiate the
inquiry process with geographical questions that stimulates the process of collecting,
evaluating, analysing and interpreting relevant information and data. From this, conclusions
and proposals for action are proposed.

Geographical Skills are described in the curriculum under five sub-headings

representing the stages of a complete investigation. Over each two-year stage
students should learn the methods and skills specified for that stage, but it is not
intended that they should always be learned in the context of a complete inquiry.
Teachers could, for example, provide students with data to represent or analyse
rather than have them collect the information themselves. Inquiry does not always
require the collection and processing of information: the starting point could be a
concept or an ethical or aesthetic issue that can be explored orally. Many inquiries
should start from the observations, questions and curiosity of students. Inquiry will
progressively move from more teacher-centred to more student-centred as students
develop cognitive abilities and gain experience with the process and methods across
the years of schooling. (ACARA, 2103).

The key stages of a geographical inquiry are summarised by The Australian Curriculum:
Geography, in the Content Structure: Geographical Inquiry and Skills:
 Observing, questioning and planning
 Collecting, recording evaluating and representing
 Interpreting, analysing and concluding
 Communicating
 Reflecting and responding

Let’s explore each of these briefly.

Observing, questioning and planning

“Identifying an issue or problem and developing geographical questions to investigate the

issue or find an answer to the problem” (ACARA, 2013).

Geographic questions turn an interesting observation into a focus for exploration. Think
back to the activity you just engaged in. Once you began to establish some questions
regarding your community you should have then begun to see possible directions for
meaningful inquiry. Good geographical inquiry questions can range from the simple to the
more complex and often use the stem words or phrases, such as those listed on p. 131 of
your text:
 What?
 Where?
 How?
 Why?
 With what impact?
  Whose perspective?
 How should…?
 What might I do about this?

Depending on your specific year level and unit of inquiry, there will be various opportunities
for the inquiry question to be teacher-generated, student-generated, or somewhere in
between. (The continuum of participation in geographical inquiry on p. 133 highlights this).
The important focus is in generating, or stimulating questions that engage critical thinking
and reasoning. This has been covered quite extensively in both the inquiry and History
sections of this module, so please refer back to these explorations on eliciting higher order
thinking through questioning when considering this element of geographical inquiry.

Collecting, recording evaluating and representing

Students must sense of information gathered by identifying order, diversity, trends,
patterns, anomalies, generalisations and cause-and-effect relationships, using quantitative
and qualitative methods appropriate to the type of inquiry and develop conclusions from
these. This also involves interpreting the results of this analysis and developing conclusions.
Students need to engage with this process critically, evaluating their sources for reliability
and bias. (ACARA, 2013)
Through the study of Geography, students will need to develop skills in working with
geographical tools, which will develop in complexity over time. In the case of collecting,
recording, evaluating and representing, data, such tools might include:

Using geographical instruments, including:

 A compass to determine direction;
 A clinometer and tape;
 Weather instruments;
 Vegetation identification charts; and
 Measurement devices: ruler, linear scale on maps, tape measures

Geographic Literacy skills, such as:

 Identification and use of elements of maps;
 Using an atlas/library/internet search engines; and
 Reading synoptic charts: wind direction & speed, pressure patterns, fronts.

Collecting and recording data in the field, including:

 Constructing a sketch map;
 Designing and conducting interviews;
 Constructing and implementing surveys;
 Field sketches, diagrams;
 Graphing and statistics;
 Constructing & interpreting bar, column, line climatic & proportional graphs; and
  Photographs.

 It is likely that you don’t have strong background knowledge of each of these skills
(or others that you may use in geographic inquiry). Can you identify gaps in your
understanding that might require further reading in order to prepare you with a good
foundation of geographical knowledge and skills?

This document, which was produced by the NSW government, provides an excellent
introduction to many of the basic skills required to engage students in geographical inquiry,
and is well-worth not only reading now, but also holding on to for future access to these
important skills.

Collecting, recording evaluating and representing

Making use of the aforementioned geographical skills is only half the equation. Students
must be able to make sense of the information they have gathered in order to interpret
results and make conclusions. These skills might include “identifying order, diversity,
trends, patterns, anomalies, generalisations and cause-and-effect relationships, using
quantitative and qualitative methods appropriate to the type of inquiry” (ACARA, 2013).

Communicating
After conducting the investigation and determining various analyses, students must
communicate their results. This can be done in a number of methods, including written,
oral, audio, graphical, visual and mapping. An important factor in determining the most
appropriate form of communication is consideration of the subject matter, purpose and
audience (ACARA, 2103).

Reflecting and Responding

This final step is one that should not be overlooked: learning is consolidated when students
are given concerted time to reflect upon their findings, upon what has been learned, upon
the process, and the effectiveness of the investigation. Most importantly, this is the
opportunity for students to consider the environmental, economic and social factors of their
inquiry and to empower them as “informed, responsible and active citizens who can
contribute to the development of an environmentally and economically sustainable and
socially just world” (ACARA, 2013).

 In order to better familiarise you with these key stages of geographical inquiry and
engage you in critical thinking as to how these are represented in the Australian Curriculum:
Geography, take some time to fill out the table below. Write a brief definition of each step
in your own words, and then try to identify what strategies you may use to engage students
in thinking critically in each step about the methods used to obtain, represent, analyse and
interpret information and then communicate findings:
 Stages of Definition What strategies could I use?
geographical
investigation
Observing,
questioning and
planning
Collecting, recording
evaluating and
representing
Interpreting,
analysing and
concluding
Communicating

Reflecting and
responding

Place-based inquiry
A form of inquiry that is specific to Geography is place-based inquiry. As the name suggests,
place-based pedagogies utilise a particular place for the context of investigation which
allows for students to make meaningful connections between their physical and natural
world. Place-based pedagogies are founded in the work of Dewey, who argued for the
importance of using local context in education. He saw that the neighbourhood and local
community could provide an integral element of the school’s curriculum, thereby generating
learning that was student-centred, personally meaningful, and connected with the lived
experience of students. Saracino (2010) states:

…place-based practitioners attempt to overcome that disconnect between children’s

lived experience and school learning. They are revealed when practitioners embrace
the belief that the curriculum begins with the learners’ interests and abilities. They
are made known wherever teachers use local phenomenon as a context for learning.
They are witnessed when educators explore subject matter that is socially
significant. They are disclosed when education engages learners in solving real
problems that directly impact their lives. They are witnessed whenever teachers
forgo the role of expert and instead don the mantel of facilitator, guide and broker
of community resources. Lastly, they are revealed whenever and wherever teachers
help their learners grow in their ability to be of service to the communities in which
they live. (p. 27)

Place-based learning is therefore visibly student-centred, hands-on, and authentic learning

that is embedded in everyday situations. It is not limited to the local context. As students
develop a sense of understanding, connection with and empowerment within their local
context, their focus moves to appreciate their place within increasingly wider contexts (as
reflected in the focus of the Australian Curriculum: Geography).

The Centre for Eco Literacy defines place-based learning as follows:

 Learning takes students out of the classroom and into the community and natural
environment.

 Projects have consequences; students' contributions make a difference to

environmental quality and to the well-being of communities.

 Place-based projects are integrated back into classroom lessons.

 Students want to learn in order to apply their knowledge to solving real problems.

 Students play an active role in defining and shaping projects.

 Students collaborate with local citizens, organizations, agencies, businesses, and

government. Working alongside community members, students help make plans
that shape the future of their social, physical, and economic environments.

 Students are encouraged to view their community as an ecosystem and to

understand the relationships and processes necessary to support healthy living.

 By mapping their school and its surrounding community, students create visual
representations of the systems nested within larger systems that constitute their
local place in its wholeness.

A particularly important element of place-based inquiry is that it encourages students to

wonder about places; to develop and act upon their innate curiosity and feel empowered as
to how they may “find out more”, and then to apply this knowledge to new situations or
solve problems. Reflect back to the Geography walk you just conducted in your local area.
You may already have found that this simple place-based inquiry generated a new way of
looking at, and sense of interest in, your locale. This is a wonderful website that is well
worth visiting that aims to whet the appetite for the wonder of geography, making
connections between art, philosophy and the natural and physical world. Have a meander
through its pages, and as you do, consider how it might inspire you as to your approach to
the teaching of Geography.

 How can you help your students to reconsider the world with a fresh sense of
wonder, and to see things from new perspectives? Consider also how you could utilise such
a site within your own classroom. Think big: Could your students be engaged in the creation
of a similar website for a local context?

Let’s compare the benefits and approaches of place-based inquiry with the Australian
Curriculum: Geography Aims:
The Foundation - Year 10 Australian Curriculum: Geography aims to ensure that students
develop:

 a sense of wonder, curiosity and respect about places, people, cultures and
environments throughout the world

 a deep geographical knowledge of their own locality, Australia, the Asia region and
the world

 the ability to think geographically, using geographical concepts

 the capacity to be competent, critical and creative users of geographical inquiry

methods and skills

 as informed, responsible and active citizens who can contribute to the development
of an environmentally and economically sustainable, and socially just world.

 Reflect: For each point in the Aims listed above, list how the concepts and approach
of place-based inquiry fulfil the aims of the Australian Curriculum: Geography Rationale?

 Share your responses on the Module one: Geography forum.

References and suggested reading
Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2011). Australian curriculum: History -
Rationale. Retrieved 12 August, 2012 from
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/History/Rationale

Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2012).Western civilisation front and centre
in new curriculum [Media release]. Retrieved 28 September, 2012 from
http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Media_Release_-
_Western_Civilisation_Front_and_Centre_in_New_Curriculum.pdf

Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2013). Australian curriculum: Geography.
Retrieved February 11, 2013, from
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/Geography/Rationale

Barton, K. C. & Levstik, L. S. (2008). Teaching history for the common good. Mahwah: Lawrence
Erlbaum.

Chaffee, J. (2010). Thinking critically (tenth edition). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Clark, A. (2004). History teaching: Historiography, and the politics of pedagogy in Australia. Theory &
Research in Social Education 32(3), 379 – 396.

Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (2007). Describing 16 habits of mind. Retrieved 24 September, 2012, from
http://www.instituteforhabitsofmind.com/resources/pdf/16HOM.pdf

Davey Chesters, S. (2012). The Socratic classroom: Reflective thinking through collaborative inquiry.
Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

Dewey, J. (1897). My Pedagogic Creed. School Journal, 54, 78-80.

Donnell, K., & Harper, K. (2005). Inquiry in teacher education: Competing agendas. Teacher
Education Quarterly, 32(3), 153-165.

Doolittle, P., Hicks, D., & Ewing, T. (2005). SCIM-C Explanation: A strategy for interpreting history.
Retrieved 15 August, 2012 from http://www.historicalinquiry.com/scim/index.cfm

Etherington, K. (2007). Ethical research in reflexive relationships. Qualitative Inquiry, 13, 599-616.

Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding history: A primer of understanding method. New York: Alfred A.
Kopf.

Gutek, G. L. (2011). Historical and philosophical foundations of education: A biographical

introduction (5th edition). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Hamston, J. and Murdoch, K. 1996, Integrating socially: Planning units of work for social education,
Melbourne: Eleanor Curtin.

Howard, J. (2012). Sir Paul Hasluck Foundation Inaugural Lecture. Retrieved 10 August, 2012 from
http://resources.news.com.au/files/2012/09/27/1226482/801957-sir-paul-hasluck-
foundation-inaugural-lecture.pdf
Johnson, T. W., & Reed, R. F. (2008). Matthew Lipman. In T. W. Johnson & R. F. Reed (Eds.),
Philosophical documents in education (3rd ed., pp. 250-272). Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Education.

Murdoch, L. (2006). Inquiry learning : journeys through the thinking processes. Teacher Learning
Network, 13(2). 32-34.

O’Brien, M. & Burgh, G. (2001). Re-visioning SOSE: Examining the role of philosophy in contemporary
social education. Paper presented at AARE Annual Conference, UQA Freemantle, Western
Australia. Retrieved 2 February, 2011 from http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/obr01469.htm

Pappas, P. (n.d.). Analysing primary sources. Retrieved 15 August, 2012 from

http://www.edteck.com/dbq/more/analyzing.httm

Poon, C., Lee, Y., Tan, A., & Lim, S. (2012). Knowing inquiry as practice and theory: Developing a
pedagogical framework with elementary school teachers. Research in Science Education,
42(2), 303-327.

Saracino, P. C. (2010). Place-based pedagogy in the era of accountability: An action research study
(Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Rochester. New York.

Sharp, H. (2010). Constructing history: Selective representations of Indigenous Australians and British
heritages in Queensland history curriculum. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of
Southern Queensland, Australia.

Swan, K., Garrison, D. R. & Richardson, J. C. (2009). A constructivist approach to online learning: The
community of inquiry framework. In Payne, C. R. (Ed.) Information technology and
constructivism in higher education: Progressive learning frameworks. Hershey: IGI Global, 43-
57.

University of California (2008). Critical evaluation of resources. Retreived February 17, 2014, from
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/instruct/guides/evaluation.html

Yunkaporta, D. (2009). Aboriginal pedagogies at the cultural interface. (Unpublished doctoral thesis).
James Cook University, Australia.