CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
AND STATISTIC
Prepared by : Prof Vanezza A. Villaroya
RCrim,MSCJ (i)
BASIC DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 In its broadest sense, research
includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge. When
a person has a question and he reads
a book to answer, it can be
considered as research. Surfing the
internet or watching the news is
also a type of research.
 In a strict sense, research is
performing a methodical study in
order to prove a hypothesis or
answer to a specific question.
Finding a definitive answer is the
central goal of any experimental
process.
 Research must be systematic and
follow a series of steps and a rigid
standard protocol. These rules are
broadly similar but may vary
slightly between the different fields
of science. Scientific research must
be organized and undergo planning,
including performing literature
reviews of past research and
evaluating what questions need to
be answered.
MOTIVATION IN RESEACH
 What makes people undertake
research? This question of
fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research
may be either one or more of the
following:
a) Desire to get a research
degree along with its
consequential benefits
b) Desire to face the challenge
in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e; concern over
practical problems initiates
research
c) Desire to get intellectual joy
of doing some creative
work
d) Desire to be of service of
society
e) Desire to get respectability
 However, this is not an exhaustive
list of factors motivating people to
undertake research studies. Many
more factors such as directives of
government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and
awakening and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel)
people to research operations
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
A. According to Purpose
 Predictive or Prognostic
Research – has the purpose of
determining the future operation of
the variables under investigation
with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better
 Directive Research – determines
what should be done based on the
findings this is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condition, if there is
any
 Illuminative Research – is
concerned with the interaction of
the components of the variable
being investigated, as for example,
“interaction of the components of
educational systems and aims to
show the connections among, for
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 example, students’ characteristics,
organizational pattern and policies,
and educational consequences
B. According to Goal
 Basic or pure Research – is done
for the development of theories and
Principles.
 Applied Research – is the
application of the results of pure
search. This is testing the efficacy
of theories and principles. aims to
test theories and concepts
developed for verification,
application, development and
support and their relationship to the
existing fund of knowledge
C. According to the Level of
Investigation
 Exploratory Research – the
researcher studies the variables
pertinent to a specific situation.
 Descriptive Research – the
researcher studies the relationships
of the variables.
 Experimental Research – the
experiment studies the effects of
the variables on each other.
D. According to the Type of Analysis
 Analytical Research – the
researcher attempts to identify and
is isolate the components of the
research situation.
 Holistic Research – begins with
the total situation. Focusing
attention on the system first and
then on its internal relationships.
E. According to Scope
 Under this category is Action
Research. This type of research is
done on a very limited scope to
solve a particular problem which is
not so big. It is almost problem
solving.
F. According to Choice of Answers to
Problems
 In Evaluation research, all
possible courses of action are
specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most
advantageous.
 In developmental research, the
focus is on finding or developing a
more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.
G. According to Statistical Content
 Quantitative or statistical
research – is one in which
inferential statistics are utilized to
determine the results of the study.
Inferential statistics such as
correlation, chi-square, analysis of
variance, etc. are used to test the
hypothesis. This type of research
usually includes comparison
studies, cause-and-effect
relationships, etc.
 Non-quantitative research – This
is research in which the use of the
quantity or statistics is practically
nil. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where
description is usually used.
Descriptive data are gathered rather
than quantitative data.
H. According to Time Element
 Historical research describes what
was.
 Descriptive research describes
what is.
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  Experimental research describes
what will be.
Steps in Scientific Method of Research
1. Identification of a problem
2. Formulation of hypotheses
3. Data collection
4. Data analysis
5. Drawing conclusion
ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD
RESEARCH PROBLEM
a) Systematic- it means that research
is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined
set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does
not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of
guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions
b) Logical- this implies that research
is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of
induction and deduction are of
great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that
very premise. In fact, logical
reasoning makes research more
meaningful in context of decision
making.
c) Empirical- It implies that research
is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals
with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to
research results.
d) Replicable- this characteristic
allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study
and thereby building a sound basis
for decisions.
Things to remember when selecting a
Research Problem
 First review relevant literature and
previous studies on the problem
 Examine current available
data/statistics
 Seek educated opinions from
person concerned with the problem
 Determine the probable reasons for
the existence of the problem from
social, economic or other theories
that may explain the existence of
the problem and the possible
connection between the problem
and other factors.
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS IN
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism
 Is an act of incorporating into one’s
work the work of another without
indicating the source
 The unacknowledged used of
somebody else’s words or ideas
 An act wherein the writer uses
passages, ideas, writings, and
statements of others without giving
due credit
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 Theoretical framework is the
foundation of the study.
 The theory should have a
relationship with the issues posted
in the study
Types of Theories
 Descriptive Theory = seeks to
describe a phenomenon
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  Prescriptive Theory = seeks to tell
how and sometimes why one
should or ought to behave in certain
ways
Guidelines in Choosing Theory
 Research must be well-founded on
universally accepted, known and
tested theory, principles or
concepts.
 Research may be anchored on
several theories available.
Conceptual Framework
 An illustration of how research
problems are generated from the
theoretical framework of the study
 It may be some sort of modification
of the theoretical framework or
personally conceptualized by the
researcher
Presentation of Conceptual
Framework/Paradigm
 The research paradigm must clearly
show the major impact of the cited
theory on the variables (dependent
and independent variables) of the
study.
 An existing theory may be
capsulized in a research paradigm
which may be adopted with some
modifications.
 There must be textual explanations
of the variables in the paradigm.
Textual explanations should come
before the figure or paradigm.
HYPOTHESIS
 Hypothesis
 Tentative conclusion or
answer to specific question
raised at the beginning of
the investigation. It is an
educated guess about the
answer to a specific
question.
 Researchers make educated
guess to tentatively answer
the research questions.
Usually they make many
tentative answers to the
research questions. From
these they select the more
logical and theoretical
sound guesses.
Types of Hypothesis
Null Form
 Always the first temporary solution
to a problem
 Basis of the action of acceptance or
rejection
 The word null in mathematics
means empty zero
 Asserts that there is no significant
difference or relationship between
the variable
 Stated in negative
Ex. There is no significant difference
between
2. Operational/Alternative (Ha)- Stated
in affirmative form
 Non-directional Hypothesis –
indicates that the researcher is not
interested on whether one variable
is greater or lesser than the other,
but only in the difference.
Ex. Drug A and Drug B have
significant effects on the cure of
fever.
Ha: A = B
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  Positive Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug A is more effective than
Drug B on the treatment of fever.
Ha: A > B
 Negative Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug B is more effective that
Drug A on the treatment of fever.
Ha: A < B
Formulating Hypothesis
 A hypothesis is formulated after the
problem has been stated and the
literature study has been concluded.
It is formulated when the researcher
is totally aware of the theoretical
and empirical background of the
problem.
techniques and procedures, and subject’s
condition?
Hypothesis:
The is no significant difference on the
assessment of the groups of respondents
with regards to the extent of application of
polygraph examination in the attainment of
accurate results to be presented as evidence
in court in terms of examiner’s competency,
facility and instrument, techniques and
procedures, and subject’s condition.

Guidelines in the Formulation of Explicit

Hypothesis
 In experimental investigations,
comparative and correlational
studies, hypothesis has to be
explicit or expressed.
 In descriptive and historical
investigations, hypothesis are
seldom expressed if not entirely
absent. The specific questions serve
as the hypothesis.
 Hypotheses are usually stated in the
null form because testing a null
hypothesis is easier than a
hypothesis in the operational form.
 Hypotheses are formulated from
the specific questions upon which
they are based.

Ex. of Statistical Hypothesis

Sub-problem:
Is there any significant difference on the
assessment of the groups of respondents
with regards to the extent of application of
polygraph examination in the attainment to
be accurate results to be presented as
evidence in court in terms of examiner’s
competency, facility and instrument,

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 RESEARCH DESIGNS/TYPES OF
RESEARCH
A. Qualitative Research Design =
involves in depth analysis of the problems.
Its focused is to provide accurate
description of problems w/o attempting to
treat or employ sophisticated statistical
tools or describe problems.
Types of Qualitative Research
 Historical = systematic and critical
inquiry of the whole truth of past
events using the critical method in
the understanding and the
interpretation of facts, which are
applicable to current issues and
problems.
 Ethnographic = aims to provide a
holistic view of the problem. Data
are gathered through observation,
interview and participation
 Case Study = intensive
investigation of a particular
individual, institution, community
or any group considered as a unit
which includes the development,
adjustment, remedial, or corrective
procedures that suitably follow
diagnosis of the causes of
maladjustment or of favorable
development.
B. Quantitative Research Design = its
focused is to describe problBems
descriptively and numerically. It utilizes
more statistical tests to explain the nature,
characteristics, relationships and
differences of variables.
Types of Quantitative Research
 Descriptive = describes and
interprets WHAT is. It is concerned
with conditions or relationship that
exist, practices that prevail, beliefs
and processes that are going on,
effects that are being felt or trends
that are developing.
Sub-types of Descriptive
Research
 Descriptive-Survey = involves
collection of information on
people, events and other topics of
interest to the researcher.
 Descriptive-Documentary =
involves content analysis because
the documentary technique
includes analysis of content. It is
used when data cannot be obtained
through questionnaire or
observation.
2. Correlational
 It measures the extent or magnitude
of association between two
variables.
 Measures the existing relationship
of variables
 Also known as Associational
Research
3. Experimental
 The researcher manipulates,
changes or alters the inputs or
independent variables to see the
effects on the dependent variables.
 Most commonly used methods to
advanced scientific knowledge
SAMPLING METHODS
A. Scientific Sampling = each member of
the population is given the chance of being
included in the sample.
 Population
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  specific aggregation of the
elements
 also known as universe
 Sample
 representative portion of a
whole
 subset of a population
Types of Scientific Sampling
 Restricted Random = applicable
only when the population being
investigated is homogenous.
 Unrestricted Random = the best
random sampling design because
no restriction is imposed and every
member of the population has an
equal chance of inclusion in the
sample
 Stratified Random = it divides
first the population into two or
more strata. For each stratum, the
sample items were drawn at
random
 Systematic = a design which all
individual in the population are
arranged in a methodical manner,
i.e. alphabetical or chronological
(age, experience) and the name may
be selected in the construction of
the sample
 Multistage = done in several stage,
it can be two-stage, three, four or
five stage, etc…, depending on the
number of stages of sampling to be
used.
 Cluster Sampling = population is
group into clusters or small units,
for instance, block or districts, and
are selected by random sampling or
systematic sampling. This is
advantageous when individuals in
the districts or blocks belong to the
heterogeneous group
B. Non-Scientific Sampling = in this
sampling there is subjectivity on the on the
part of the researcher because not all the
individual in a population are given an
equal chance of being included in the
sample
Types of Non-Scientific Sampling
 Purposive = based on choosing
individuals as sample according to the
purposes of the researcher
 Incidental = a design applied to those
samples which are take because they
are most valuable. The researcher
simply takes the nearest individual as
subjects of the study until the sample
reaches the desired size
 Quota Sampling = popular in the field
of opinion research due to the fact that
it is done by merely looking for
individuals with requisite
characteristics
RESEARCH METHODS
1. Survey Method
 The survey method obtains data to
determine specific characteristics
of a group.
 The purpose of a survey is to get a
general picture of the
characteristics of a study
population at a particular time.
 The use of a survey approach is
appropriate for most descriptive
and correlation studies.
Modalities in conducting Survey
Method:
a) Questionnaire
 Written or printed form
containing the questions to be
asked on the respondents.
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  Types of Questionnaire:
Open-Ended = respondents are forced to
answer the questions asked in the
questionnaire. It is best suited to a
qualitative research study
Closed-Ended = also referred as guided
response type, closed form or restricted.
Respondents are guided in answering
questions. Options may be provided like in
multiple choice test while answers are
based on the rating scales provided
Types of Survey Technique or Approach
1. Total Population Survey - The
entire population is involved in the
survey.
2. Sample Survey – Only a sample or
portion of the population is
involved.
3. Social Survey – The investigator
researches on the attitude and
behaviors of different group of
people with crime incidence.
4. School Survey- This is used to
gather data for and about schools
and to assess educational
achievements and education itself.
5. Public Opinion Survey – This is
used to gauge the reactions of the
people towards certain commission
and crime issues or person.
6. Poll Survey- This is a survey in
which the respondents are askes if
they are voting for the certain
candidate in an election.
7. Market Survey – This is aimed at
finding out what kinds of people
purchased which products, and how
packaging, advertising, and
displaying affect buying, prices and
so on.
8. Evaluation survey- The researcher
looks back to see what has been
accomplished and, with critical eye,
evaluates the results weather they
are satisfactory or not, with the end
view of making improvement.
9. Comparative Survey- The result
form two different groups,
techniques, or procedures are
compared.
10. Short – Term Survey – data are
collected over a period of weeks,
months, or even years.
11. Long – Term Survey- Any survey
conducted for more than five years.
12. Longitudinal Survey – This is
almost the same as the long term
survey . Data collected in the past
will be compared with the present
data.
13. Cross Sectional Survey - In this
type of survey , several group in
various stages of involvement are
studied simultaneously.
14. Job Analysis Survey- This
provides information on the
generation duties and
responsibilities of workers, their
education , training experience ,
salaries, types of knowledge
15. Community Survey – This survey
provides information on the
various aspects of the community.
16. Correlation Study – This is a
survey that’s shows the
relationship between two or more
variables, that is, how a variable
varies with another.
2. Interview
 involves face to face contact
between the interviewee and the
interviewer
 Types of Interview:
Structured Interview- there is a set of
carefully prepared questions and their
expected answers are provided
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Unstructured Interview = respondents
are free to express their opinions also
termed as non-directive or informal
3. Historical Method
 The survey method obtains data to
determine specific characteristics
of a group. the purpose of a survey
is to get a general picture of the
characteristics of a study
population at a particular time. The
use of a survey approach is
appropriate for most descriptive
and correlation studies.
 The description is based on the
information about some past
aspects of the group, organization
or institution. Most of the data used
in this method are collected from
secondary sources, such as records,
documents, written materials and
accounts etc.
4. Content Analysis
 Content analysis is usually used
when the intention of the researcher
is to Vascertain the quality of the
message or information found in a
document or in mass media.
 This method is also used to test the
level of readability of certain
books, e.g: textbooks for
elementary pupils, before they are
printed for distributions. Content
analysis is also used in determining
authenticity of documents and in
literary research.
5. Experimental Method
 Among different research methods,
the experimental method yields the
most conclusive research findings.
It is used to determine the
effectiveness of a treatment or an
intervention or the “cause and
effect” relationship of a certain
phenomenon under controlled
condition.
 The subjects of the study are
randomly assigned to the
experimental group and to the
control groups and both groups are
exposed to similar conditions
except for the
intervention/treatment
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
METHOD
1. Validity- the degree to which a
measuring instrument measures what it
intends to measure
Types of Validity
 Content-Related Validity = refers to
content and format of the instrument
which must answer the following
criteria: appropriateness; logical;
adequate; and, proper format
 Criterion-Related Validity = refers to
the relationship between scores
obtained using one or more instruments
or measures
 Construct-Related Validity = refers
to the nature of psychological
construction or characteristics being
measured by the instrument
2. Reliability
 Extent to which the instrument is
dependable, self-consistent and
stable
 Consistency of responses from
moment to moment
 Even a person takes the same test
twice, the test yields the same
results
 Reliable test may not always be
valid
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3. Usability
 Otherwise known as Practicability
 Degree to which the research
instrument can be satisfactorily
used. It may be determined thru:
a. ease of administration
b. ease of scoring
c. ease of interpretation
d. low cost
e. proper mechanical make up
SALIENT CONCEPTS IN
STATISTICS
Statistics- A branch of mathematics which
deals with the systematic process of
collecting, organizing, classifying,
presenting, interpreting and analyzing data.
Types of Statistics
A. Descriptive Statistics- it is used to
determine the nature of variables without
any attempt to critically compare the extent
of relationships or differences with other
variables
Tools of Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency Counting/Distribution
2. Percentage
3. Ranking
4. Measures of Centralities
a. Mean
b. Median
c. Mode
d. Measures of Variability
B. Correlational Statistics
 Used to determine the degree or
magnitude of association between
two variables.
 Treats bivariate and multivariate
problems
Specific Measures of Correlational
1. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
(Pearson r)
2. Spearman Rank-Order Coefficient of
Correlation (Spearman rho)
3. Kendall’s Tau Coefficient of Correlation
4. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W
5. Point Biserial Coefficient of Correlation
6. Phi Coefficient of Correlation
C. Inferential Statistics = used when in
making inferences on the magnitude of
differences of the samples from a large
universe.
= used in testing hypothesis like differences
bet. two or more variables
= treats bivariate and multivariate problems
Types of Inferential Statistics
1. Parametric Test = applicable when the
data measured is in interval or ratio scales
Types of Parametric
 T-Test and Z-Test = used to determine
two variable means which differ
significantly
 F-test = (Analysis of Variance –
ANNOVA) used to determine
significant differences between three
or more variables
2. Non-Parametric = used in ordinal or
rank or nominal data
Types of Non-parametric
a. Chi-Square Test (X2) = used to compare
the frequencies obtained in categorized
variables
= used to determine the difference between
three or more variables
b. Mann-Whitney U-Test
c. Sign Test
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d. Lambda
e. Kruskall-Wallis
f. Friedman Analysis of Variance
g. McNemar Test
Data Analysis = an examination of data or
facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute,
trait, pattern, trend, relationship among
others so as to answer research questions
which involve statistical techniques and
procedures
Types of Data Analysis
 Univariate = tests a single variable
to determine whether the sample is
similar to the population from
which it has been drawn
 Bivariate = it tests two variables on
how they differ from each other
 Multivariate = it tests three or
more independent variables at a
time on the degree of relationship
with dependent variables
 Normative = the results of the
study is compared with the norm
 Status = stresses real facts relating
to current conditions in a group of
subjects chosen for study
 Descriptive = describes the
characteristics, compositions,
structures that occur as units within
the larger structure
 Classification = analysis which is
usually employed in natural science
subjects
 Evaluative = it appraises carefully
the worthiness of the current study
 Comparative = the researcher
considers at least two entities and
establishes a formal procedure for
obtaining criterion data on the basis
of which he can compare and
conclude which of the two is better
 Cost-Effective = applicable in
comparing the cost between two or
more variables and to determine
which of the variable is most
effective
Interpretation of Data
 An act or instance of interpreting an
explanation. This is done to give
meaning to data generated from the
instrument to answer the problems
raised in the study
Levels of Interpretation
 Table Reading
 Implications or Meaning of Data
 Cross referencing or corroboration
wherein the results are to be
compared with the existing
knowledge or finished studies
THESIS FORMAT
(American Psychological Association
template)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
 Presents the problem. What
the problem is all about
 Rational or reasons for
conducting the study
Setting of the Study
 Locality of the study. Place
where the study is to be
conducted
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
 Theoretical / conceptual
foundation of the study
Significance of the Study
 Contribution of the result of
the study to individuals,
institutions, administrators,
society, etc…
Scope and Limitation of the Study
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  Boundaries in terms of  Brief description and
time, sample, location justification of the research
(Scope) method used in the study
 Weakness of the study
beyond the control of the Locale
researcher (Limitation)  Place where the research
Definition of Terms method is to be
 It can be lexical or administered
operational definition or a
combination thereof of Population and Sampling Scheme
different terms used in the  Brief presentation of the
study which are arranged entire population of the
alphabetically study and the type of
Review of Related Literature sampling techniques used in
 Published articles from selecting sample
foreign countries respondents
 Locally published articles Description of the Respondents
 Foreign unpublished  Contains detailed
articles description of the
 Locally unpublished respondents as to age, sex,
articles marital status, nature of
employment, etc…
CHAPTER 2 Research Instrument
STATEMENT OF THE  Explanation on how the
PROBLEM/RESEARCH instrument used in
OBJECTIVES gathering data was develop
as well as its detailed
Statement of the Problem description.
 General and specific Validation of Instrument
statement of the problem  States brief discussion on
determined in the study how the instrument was
Assumption or Hypothesis validated
 Self-evident truth based  Instrument is tested on
upon known fact or individuals who are
phenomenon knowledgeable of the
(Assumption) subject matter but are not
 Tentative conclusion or part of the respondents of
answer to specific questions the study
(Hypothesis)
Procedures in Gathering Data
 Contains the step by step
CHAPTER 3 procedures used by the
RESEARCH METHODS AND researcher in reaching the
PROCEDURES respondents in order to
gather data
Research Method Statistical Treatment

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  Contains discussion on the
statistics used in
consonance with the
specific problem and
hypothesis to be tested
Setting of the Study
 Locality of the study. Place
where the study is to be
conducted
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 Contains the answers to all the sub-
problems of the study
 Answers to the problems are stated
one by one according to the
arrangement of sub-problems for
clarity and understanding
 Answers are presented in textual
and tabular forms. Textual
explanations come after the tables
 Should not contain any
numerals from the findings
 Organized and categorized
according to the sub-
problems
Recommendations
 An appeal to people or
institutions concerned to
solve the problems
discovered in the study
 No recommendations that
will be made for problems
that were not discovered in
the study
 Practical and attainable
End-

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS,
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The introductory paragraph should
contain the summary of statement of the
problem, hypothesis as well as research
design.

Summary of Findings
 Contains the specific
findings/results of the study
 Presented as they were
organized and categorized
in the sub-problems of the
study
 Written in past tense
Conclusions
 Written in present tense
 Should be based on the
findings of the study
 Logical and valid
outgrowth of the findings
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