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J Vector Borne Dis 58, March 2021, pp. 47–53

Investigation of multiple infections with zoonotic pathogens of rodents in

northern Vietnam
Le Thi Lan Anh1, Alexander E. Balakirev1, 2, Nguyen Van Chau3
Joint Russian–Vietnamese Tropical Research and Technological Centre, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam; 2A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and
1

Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; 3National Institute of Malariology, Parasitology and Entomology, Nam Tu Liem,
Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACT

Background & objectives: Rodents are important reservoir hosts for several zoonotic pathogens such as Rickettsia,
Leptospira and Bartonella. Studies on the prevalence of zoonotic pathogens in Vietnam are data deficient, and there
is a scarcity of data on multiple co-infections of zoonotic pathogens to date. This study examined the prevalence of
Rickettsia spp., Leptospira spp., and Bartonella spp. and the co-infection of these pathogens in rodents captured in
three provinces of northern Vietnam - Ha Giang, Lao Cai and Cao Bang.
Methods: In total, 133 rodents of 25 species were screened for pathogen prevalence by real-time PCR.
Results: Very high infection rates were found for each pathogen, with 42 of 133 rodents (31.6%) positive for Barton-
ella and 33 of 133 (24.8%) positive for Rickettsia (5.3% were positive for Rickettsia typhi, and 19.5% were infected
with Rickettsia spotted fever group). Additionally, 24 rodents (18%) were positive for Leptospira. Double infec-
tion among these three pathogens was found in 26 of 133 rodents (18.8%), with the highest dual infection rates for
Rickettsia and Bartonella co-infection (40%) and Leptospira and Bartonella co-infection (up to 40%), followed by
Rickettsia and Leptospira co-infection (20% of animals investigated). One case of triple infection was documented
for a house rat (Rattus cf. rattus species group) trapped in Ha Giang province.
Interpretation & conclusion: Our survey indicates that rodents in northern Vietnam may host multiple zoonotic
pathogens simultaneously; thus, rodents contribute significantly to the increased risk of transmission of multiple
zoonotic infections from animals to humans.

Key words zoonotic diseases; Rickettsia; Leptospira; Bartonella; natural foci diseases; Indochina

INTRODUCTION ing countries such as Laos, Cambodia and Thailand, with

Zoonotic disease refers to diseases that are transmitted
from animals to humans. Approximately 60% of all human
infectious disease agents are zoonotic diseases by origin1,
and the most important reservoir species for these diseases
include rodents2 and some other wild mammals. Four of the
most important tropical transmission zoonotic diseases in
the world are caused by Rickettsia, Leptospira, Bartonella
and Borrelia species. Rickettsial infections represent a ma-
jor source of non-malarial febrile illnesses among residents
of Southeast Asia and returning travellers from that region3.
Rickettsioses are zoonotic infections transmitted to hu-
mans via the bites of infected ticks, fleas, mites, and lice4. In
Vietnam, a low sero-prevalence of Rickettsia has been re-
ported4; however, rickettsial DNA has been found in ticks5
and rodents6. Leptospirosis, one of the important zoonotic
pathogens that can be transmitted to humans through ro-
dents7 via cuts in the skin or by drinking leptospirosis-con-
taminated water, was first reported in 1930. The infection
is believed to be endemic to Vietnam and other neighbour-
seasonal peaks of incidence during the rainy season and
outbreaks related to flooding events8. Leptospirosis is also
considered the most common cause of acute fever of un-
known origin in Vietnam, besides with rickettsial fever9.
Bartonella is transmitted from animal reservoirs (rats,
mice, cats, dogs, and bats) to humans through ectoparasite
vectors such as fleas, ticks and lice. Bartonella infection
has been reported in parts of eastern Asia such as China,
Japan, Korea, Far East of Russia, and Taiwan and in south
central Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, and Nepal)
and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand)10. Although no human cases of Bartonella spp.
infection have been reported to date in Vietnam, Bartonella
spp. have been identified in febrile humans elsewhere in
Southeast Asia11 and are commonly found in rats in south-
ern Vietnam12.
Because the three zoonotic pathogens of Rickettsia,
Leptospira, and Bartonella share the same primary res-
ervoirs (rodents and other wild animals), the presence of
multiple co-infections of these diseases is assumed. In
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48 J Vector Borne Dis 58, March 2021
Vietnam, some data have been reported about Rickettsia,
Leptospira and Bartonella mono-infection in rodents5–6,
12–14
, but these findings are sparse and are primarily fo-
cused in southern Vietnam. Furthermore, co-infection
was not investigated or specifically mentioned. In this
study, we investigated rodents that were trapped in three
provinces of northern Vietnam. The prevalence of Rickett-
sia, Leptospira and Bartonella and multiple infections of
these pathogens were investigated using real-time PCR.
Our survey helps identify and warn of the risk of infec-
tions with these pathogens in humans in Vietnam and for
travellers visiting the country.
MATERIAL & METHODS
Study sites and animal sampling
This study was performed as a series of independent
expeditions in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2018 in three prov-
inces of northern Vietnam: Ha Giang province [Vi Xuyen
(in 2014 and 2018) and Quan Ba districts (in 2013) and
Ha Giang and Meo Vac towns (in 2010, 2014), with 88
animals collected]; Cao Bang [Trung Khanh and Thong
Nong districts (in 2013), with 37 animals collected]; and
Lao Cai [Sa Pa district (in 2013), with eight animals col-
lected]. In the Ha Giang and Lao Cai provinces, trapping
was performed with the help of the local people. Up to
150 living traps were placed per day; the captured animals
were collected and processed in the field laboratory. The
animals’ populations and densities in the study area were
not determined; the focus in catching many animals was
to maximise the number of examined rodents. Thus, the
main biotopes surveyed were places where garbage ac-
cumulated and synanthropic species were concentrated in
territory along rivers and streams, in addition to on/near
rice fields and vegetable gardens adjacent to settlements;
to a lesser extent, natural habitats were surveyed. In Cao
Bang province, trapping was performed directly by one
of the authors (AEB, up to 50 living traps were placed per
day) mainly in forest biotopes with a focus on the wild spe-
cies community; several other species (mainly squirrels)
were also captured in the neighbouring forests by local
residents and were acquired for examination. We followed
guidelines of the American Society of Mammalogists for
standard operating procedures (SOP) with wild rodents
during the collection and handling of the animals used in
this survey15. The animals were amalgamated by chloro-
form and sacrificed by cervical dislocation, bodies were
packed individually in white dense tissue bags to prevent
ectoparasites spread; after what they were weighed, meas-
ured and preliminarily classified based on morphology
followed by they were sampled for total DNA.
The kidneys and livers were collected and stored fresh
at -80oC (for some of the Ha Giang samples) or preserved
with 96% alcohol and stored at -20oC (for the remainder
of the Ha Giang samples and the Lao Cai and Cao Bang
samples) until processing.
Total DNA extraction
A total of 133 tissues (liver and kidney) were avail-
able for DNA extraction. Small pieces of liver or liver
and kidney tissues were sampled in the field and stored
in 96% alcohol for DNA extraction. Total genomic DNA
was extracted using a routine phenol/chloroform/protein-
ase K protocol16–17. The DNA was further purified either
by a DNA Purification Kit (Fermentas, Thermo Fisher
Scientific Inc., Pittsburgh, PA) or by direct ethanol pre-
cipitation.
Real-time PCR with SYBR green fluorescence detec-
tion was performed using a Rotor-Gene Q (Qiagen) ther-
mocycler with SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied
Biosystems) with target-specific primers. The threshold at
10 times the standard deviation of the fluorescence value
of the baseline was setup for positive samples separation.
The samples reached threshold value by 40 cycles con-
sidered as positive, all suspected positive results appeared
near 40 cycles (37–39) were run one times additionally
and treated as true-positive only if result was confirmed.
Appropriate positive and non-template controls were in-
cluded in each PCR reactions set (pair per 10 samples
investigated), and post-amplification melting-curve anal-
ysis was performed at the end of each run to confirm the
specificity of the reaction and checking for primer-dimer
artifacts. Absolute levels of target DNA were calculated
from a standard curve established using the DNA stan-
dards.
Detection of Rickettsia spotted fever group, Rickettsia
typhi and Bartonella spp.
Real-time PCR targeting OmpB, the hypothetical pro-
tein gene 01310, and ITS genes was used for the detection
of Rickettsia spotted fever group (SFG), Rickettsia typhi
and Bartonella spp., respectively (in-house real-time PCR
kits were made by the Research Institute of Epidemiology
of the Federal Service on Customers’ Rights Protection
and Human Well-being Surveillance, Moscow, Russia).
Detection of Leptospira
The real-time PCR kit AmpliSens® Leptospira-FRT
(InterLabService Ltd.) (Research Institute of Epidemiol-
ogy of the Federal Service on Customers’ Rights Protec-
tion and Human Well-being Surveillance, Moscow, Rus-
sia) targeting the 16S rRNA was used to screen the DNA
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Anh et al: Zoonotic pathogens in northern Vietnam 49

samples for all Leptospira spp. The animals obtained in the field from 2010 to 2014
were specifically investigated in the laboratory as muse-
Ethical statement um materials; the prepared skulls were evaluated with a
This study was approved by Ethical Committee coded binocular microscope, and the animals were genotyped by
IRB-VN02017 which is certificated by Ministry of Health the Cyt b or COI genes and BLAST was run in the Gen-
of Vietnam Bank database; and taxonomical attribution was directly
assessed and followed the most recent taxonomy18 and
RESULTS species ranges19–21 in Indochina. The species attribution
Sample identifications and taxonomy used of rodents trapped in 2018 in Ha Giang province was un-
Table 1. General list of animals investigated and pathogens detected
No. Rodent species N (samples Infection positive Percentage
investigated) Rickettsia SFG Rickettsia typhi Leptospira Bartonella in sampling
(%)
Insectivora, Soricidae
1 Neotetracus sinensis (Trouessart, 1909) 2 0 0 0 0 1.5
Scandentia, Tupaiidae
2 Tupaia belangeri (Wagner, 1841) 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
Primates, Lorisidae
3 Lepilemur edwardsi (Forbes, 1894) 1 0 0 0 1 0.8
Carnivora, Mustelidae
4 Melogale moschata (Gray, 1831) 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
Rodentia, Sciuridae
5 Hylopetes sp. 1 1 0 0 0 0.8
6 Petaurista alborufus (Milne-Edwards, 1870) 2 1 0 0 0 1.5
7 Callosciurus inornatus (Gray, 1867) 3 2 0 0 2 2.3
8 Callosciurus erythraeus (Pallas, 1779) 4 0 0 1 0 3.0
9 Dremomys rufigenis (Blanfird, 1878) 3 1 0 0 0 2.3
Spalacidae
10 Rhizomys sinensis (Gray, 1831) 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
Muridae
11 Bandicota savilei (Thomas, 1916) 5 1 0 1 4 3.8
12 Leopoldamys revertens (Robinson, Kloss, 1922) 3 1 0 0 0 2.3
13 Berylmys bowersi (Anderson, 1879) 4 1 0 2 2 3.0
14 Mus musculus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
15 Mus sp. 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
16 Niviventer confucianus (Milne-Edwards, 1871) 1 0 0 0 1 0.8
17 Niviventer fulvescens (Gray, 1847) 13 3 1 1 6 9.8
18 Niviventer mekongis (Robinson and Kloss, 1922) 8 1 1 0 2 6.0
19 Niviventer lotipes (Allen, 1926) 5 0 0 0 2 3.8
20 Niviventer niviventer (Hodgson, 1836) 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
21 Rattus andamanensis (Blyth, 1860) 2 0 0 0 1 1.5
22 Rattus nitidus (Hodgson, 1845) 5 0 0 1 2 3.8
23 Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout, 1769) 4 1 0 0 2 3.0
24 Rattus cf. rattus (Linnaeus, 1758) * 16 2 1 7 4 12.0
25 Rattus tanezumi (Temminck, 1844) 44 9 6 11 13 33.1
26 Rattus sp. 1 0 0 0 0 0.8
Total 133 24 9 24 42 100
Percentage of positive (%) 18.0 6.8 18.0 31.6
*The name R. cf. rattus used in this paper should be recognised as a ‘member of the R. rattus species group’.
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50 J Vector Borne Dis 58, March 2021
fortunately examined based only on morphology without
molecular genetic attribution22. This creates known prob-
lems with the correct species attribution. Currently, R. rat-
tus (Linnaeus, 1758) proper does not inhabit Indochina;
however, until recently, this incorrect taxonomic attribu-
tion was widely used in the medical literature in the re-
gion. In fact, no individuals bearing the R1 mitochondrial
haplogroup haplotype (genetic label of this species) are
currently recorded in the GeneBank database from any-
where in continental Indochina out of several hundreds
of sequences stored. The rats morphologically similar to
this haplotype were usually called ‘Rattus haplogroupe
IV’ due to the lack of an appropriate taxonomic name;
these rats belong to the R. rattus species group but are not
identical to R. rattus proper or a few other members of this
group of species20, 23. Thus, the name R. cf. rattus used in
this paper should be recognised as a ‘member of the R.
rattus species group’.
The 133 small mammals investigated included 114
rats, 15 squirrels,one tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri),
two ferret-badgers (Melogale moschata), and one lemur
(Lepilemur edwardsi); 26 different species were identi-
fied. As shown in table 1, the most abundant species in this
study was Rattus tanezumi (33.1%, 44 of 133 rodents),
followed by R. cf. rattus (12%, 16 of 133 rodents) and
Niviventer fulvescens (9.8%, 13 of 133 rodents). The oth-
er 23 species were Rattus norvegicus, R. andamanensis,
R. sp., N. fulvescens, N. mekongis, N. niviventer, N. cf.
confucianus, N. lotipes, Berylmys bowersi, Leopoldamys
revertens, Mus musculus, M. sp., Rhizomys sinensis, Neo-
tetracus sinensis, Callosciurus erythraeus, C. inornatus,
Dremomys rufigenis, Petaurista alborufus, Hylopetes sp.,
T. belangeri, Melogale sp., Neotetracus sinensis, and L.
edwardsi, which each comprised between 0.8% and 6.0%
of the samples.
Detection of Rickettsia SFG and R. typhi in rodents
To examine the prevalence of two Rickettsia groups,
including Rickettsia SFG and R. typhi, 67 DNA samples
collected in Ha Giang province in 2018 and another 66
DNA samples of rodents trapped between 2010 and 2014
in Lao Cai and Cao Bang provinces were analysed by
real-time PCR. The results in table 1 show that among the
133 rodent tissue samples, 33 (24.8%) were positive for
Rickettsia, including Rickettsia SFG and R. typhi. Of these
samples, 26 (19.5%) were positive for Rickettsia SFG and
7 (5.3%) were positive for R. typhi. These samples com-
prised the following species: 14 rodents (42.4%) were R.
tanezumi, five rodents (15.2%) were N. fulvescens, three
rodents (9.1%) were R. cf. rattus, two rodents (6.1%) were
N. huang and C. inornatus each, and one rodent was found
for each species of P. alborufus, R. norvegicus, B. bowersi,
L. revertens, B. savilei, D. rufigenis, and Hylopetes sp. In
general, of the 33 samples positive for Rickettsia SFG and
R. typhi, 23 samples were obtained from Ha Giang prov-
ince, 8 samples were obtained from Cao Bang province,
and two samples were obtained from Lao Cai province.
According to the data presented here, we can confi-
dently argue that there is a significant level of infection
with Rickettsia in synanthropic species (genera Rattus
and Bandicota members). However, for several wild
non-synanthropic species represented in our sample set
by only a few or even single individuals (rats of the gen-
era Niviventer, Leopoldamys and Berylmys and various
species of squirrels, even flying squirrels), a higher level
of infection was also noted, primarily by Rickettsia SFG
strains. This suggests a wide distribution of natural foci
of this infection, not only in the agro-cultural landscape
but also in nature.
Multiple infection with Rickettsia, Leptospira and Bar-
tonella in rodents
To determine the co-infection rate of Rickettsia, Lep-
tospira and Bartonella in rodents collected in northern
Vietnam, and the multiple co-infections of these three
common tropical zoonotic diseases, our 133 rodent sam-
ples were examined by real-time PCR. The prevalence
of Rickettsia, Leptospira spp., and Bartonella spp. indi-
vidual, double and triple co-infections was investigated
simultaneously. The results indicated that Bartonella spp.
showed the highest prevalence (42 out of 133 rodents,
31.6%) in all the investigated areas, including Ha Giang,
Cao Bang and Lao Cai provinces. Most of the positive
Bartonella spp. samples (25/42) were collected in Ha
Giang province, whereas six positive samples were found
in Lao Cai province and 11 were obtained in Cao Bang
province (Fig. 1). Interestingly, similar to Rickettsia spe-
Fig. 1: Distribution of patogens by locations in northern Vietnam.
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Anh et al: Zoonotic pathogens in northern Vietnam
Table 2. Detection of multiple infections in northern Vietnam rodents and small animals
Multiple infections Rickettsia + Leptospira Leptospira + Bartonella Rickettsia + Bartonella Rickettsia + Leptospira + Bartonella
Number of positive samples 5 10
Percentage (%) 20 (5/25) 40 (10/25)
cies, the positive cases for Bartonella spp. were primar-
ily found in four species: R. tanezumi, N. fulvescens, R.
rattus, and B. savilei. Of the 44 R. tanezumi trapped in
Ha Giang province, 13 were positive for Bartonella. Of
the 13 trapped N. fulvescens rodents, six were positive
for Bartonella. Additionally, 4/16 trapped R. rattus were
Bartonella positive, and 4/5 B. savilei were positive for
Bartonella (Table 1). As noted above, three of the spe-
cies, namely, representatives of the genera Rattus and
Bandicota, belong to the synanthropic fauna; however,
N. fulvescens is one of the most abundant ‘background
species’ and is widely distributed in a variety of natural
forest ecosystems in northern Vietnam.
The real-time PCR results for Leptospira spp. pre-
sented in (Table 1) indicated that 24 of 133 rodents (18%)
were positive for Leptospira, which included 22 rodents
collected in Ha Giang province and only two rodents
trapped in Cao Bang province. These positive samples be-
long to seven genera: R. rattus (7/24), R. tanezumi (11/24),
B. bowersi (2/24), B. savilei (1/24), N. fulvescens (1/24),
R. nitidus (1/24), and C. erythraeus (1/24).
The result of screening for double infections indicated
that approximately 18.8% (25/133) of the samples were
positive for two of the three pathogens. Of these samples,
dual infection with Rickettsia and Bartonella and with
Leptospira and Bartonella was found in 40% (10/25), fol-
lowed by dual infection with Rickettsia and Leptospira,
accounting for 20% (5/25) (Table 2). After analysing the
host reservoirs in these dual infection cases, a higher rate
Fig. 2: Multiple infections of Rickettsia, Leptospira and Bartonella
and host reservoirs in northern Vietnam.
51
10 1
40 (10/25) 0.75 (1/133)
of dual infection was found in three synanthropic species:
R. tanezumi, followed by R. cf. rattus and B. savilei. How-
ever, three cases of Rickettsia and Bartonella dual infec-
tion were detected in N. fulvescens, and one case each was
detected in C. inornatus and N. huang (Fig. 2).
This pattern of distribution of cases of joint co-infes-
tation between synanthropic and non-synanthropic spe-
cies may indicate a specific distribution of Rickettsia and
Bartonella foci among species of wild fauna in the natural
environment. The lack of material available does not al-
low us to analyse this phenomenon in detail. Obviously,
more profound and extensive research should be aimed
at screening not only the synanthropic but also the wild
forest fauna of small mammals in the region of Southeast
Asia. This becomes even more relevant because of the
customs of Vietnam, where various species of rats and
squirrels are a common object of hunting for human food
consumption. Therefore, it is likely that the number of
direct contacts with rodents and the contribution of wild
species to cases of human infection of the agents investi-
gated here are much greater when compared with regions
where there are no such traditions. Conversely, the wide-
spread co-infection among synanthropic species is quite
obvious.
One single triple infection (0.75%) of Rickettsia,
Leptospira and Bartonella was found in R. cf. rattus that
was trapped in Ha Giang province. After analysing the
results of the 25 dual infection samples, 20 cases were
obtained from Ha Giang province, 3 cases were obtained
from Cao Bang province, and two cases were obtained
from Lao Cai province. These observations indicate that
a high risk of pathogen infection was found in Ha Giang
province, and synanthropic rodents are the main reser-
voirs for the spread of infections.
DISCUSSION
Although multiple co-infections of zoonotic patho-
gens have not been specifically investigated and reported
in Vietnam, this area of study is very popular around the
world. Leptospira, Rickettsia, and Bartonella infections
are among the most frequent causes of undifferentiated
fever in tropical regions, including Vietnam. Rodents and
small mammals are the main host reservoirs of several
zoonotic pathogens.
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52 J Vector Borne Dis 58, March 2021
The prevalence of Bartonella in rodents and other
small mammals varies significantly in East and Southeast
Asia, and the distribution of zoonotic agents may vary
between countries and between regions in one country.
For example, prevalence values of 6% have been reported
in Jakarta24, 8.7%–41.5% in Thailand25–26, 10.3% in Tai-
wan27, and 25.5% in Laos28. Our data for the Rickettsia and
Leptospira infection rate showed that 24.8% (33 of 133
rodents) were positive for Rickettsia, of which 5.3% was
R. typhi and 19.5% was Rickettsia SFG; additionally, 24
rodents (18.1%) were positive for Leptospira. Some stud-
ies on Rickettsia, Leptospira and Bartonella have been
reported previously in Vietnam, but they were sparse and
mostly focused on the southern part of the country5–6, 12–14.
Furthermore, multiple infections of these pathogens have
not yet been reported in Vietnam. This study shows that
there is a higher risk of infection by Bartonella, Lepto-
spira and Rickettsia from rodents in northern Vietnam.
This may be due to differences in natural conditions and
the composition of the fauna of north and south of Viet-
nam. The climate of southern Vietnam is typically tropi-
cal, while in the northern part of the country the climate is
warm monsoon similar to that of the southern coastal re-
gions of China. The rodents’ fauna also varies significant-
ly, where the Indochinese fauna complex is widespread in
the south, and the oriental fauna dominates in the north-
ern regions. Till date there are no special studies on the
prevalence of pathogens among the faunal geographical
complexes of rodents in the region. In our study, 31.6% of
rodents were positive for Bartonella (mostly among rats).
If we compare this with the Bartonella infection rate for
rats in southern Vietnam (14.9%), the level of infection is
approximately two times lower than that of our study14.
Conversely, in southern Vietnam, a higher level of Bar-
tonella infection was found in bats (35%)13, which were
not evaluated in our study.
Of the 42 samples positive for Bartonella in this study,
25 were collected in Ha Giang province, 6 were collected
in Lao Cai province, and 11 were collected in Cao Bang
province. Thus, all three investigated areas showed a high
prevalence of Bartonella in rodents, particularly Lao Cai
province. Although only eight samples were collected in
Lao Cai province, six of the eight (75%) were positive for
Bartonella, with two (25%) showing dual infection with
Rickettsia and Bartonella. The investigation of multiple
infections of Leptospira, Bartonella, and Rickettsia in ro-
dents collected in northern Vietnam identified 25 (18.8%)
cases of dual infection of the three investigated patho-
gens. The most frequent combinations of dual infection
were found for Rickettsia and Bartonella (40%) and for
Leptospira and Bartonella (40%), followed by Rickettsia
and Leptospira (20%). Only one triple infection (0.75% of
the rodent population screened) of Rickettsia, Leptospira
and Bartonella was found in the house rat R. cf. rattus. A
molecular survey of multiple infections of Borrelia, Rick-
ettsia, Bartonella, Babesia, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Fran-
cisella tularensis and Coxiella burnetiid in rodents and
small mammals in Croatia indicated comparable levels
of infection, with 21.5% of rodents infected with Lepto-
spira and 12% infected with Bartonella. The dual and
triple infection rates were reported as 10.7% and 2.9%,
respectively29. In Peru, there was a higher prevalence
of Bartonella infection than of Leptospira in rodents22.
Conversely, a study of multiple infections of zoonotic
pathogens, including three different hantavirus species,
lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, orthopox virus,
Leptospira spp., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonel-
la spp., C. burnetii, and Toxoplasma gondii in rodents in
Austria, reported double and triple infection rates of only
6.4% and 1.8%30.
Herein, our observations indicate that rodents in
northern Vietnam, particularly in Ha Giang and Cao Bang
provinces, may host multiple zoonotic pathogens such as
Leptospira, Rickettsia, including Rickettsia SFG and R.
typhi, and Bartonella. Therefore, exposure to rodents con-
tributes to an increased risk of zoonotic disease infection
transmission from animals to humans.
CONCLUSION
In summary, we collected 133 rodents and small ani-
mals from three provinces of northern Vietnam: Ha Giang,
Cao Bang and Lao Cai. Three common zoonotic diseases
(Rickettsia, Leptospira, and Bartonella) were found in
Vietnam, and multiple infections of these pathogens were
also reported. Among the three investigated pathogens,
Bartonella had the highest infection rate and was primar-
ily found in Ha Giang and Lao Cai provinces. Thus, our
data indicate that synanthropic and wild rodents are the
main reservoirs of zoonotic diseases in northern Vietnam.
Further studies on these pathogens in nature and among
the local people living in these areas should be performed.
Conflict of interest: None
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Correspondence to: Le Thi Lan Anh, Joint Russian–Vietnamese Tropical Research and Technological Centre, No. 63, Nguyen Van Huyen,
Nghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Email: leanhbio@gmail.com
Revceived: 03 September 2019 Accepted in revised form: 16 January 2020
53
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