THE

HI S TO RY O F RO M E

T H EODO R M OM MS EN

TR A N S LA TED

WI TH T H E S AN CT I ON O F T H E A U T H O R

BY

WI LLI AM PU R DI E DI C KS ON , D D
. .
, LL D
. .

P R O F ES S OR O F D I V l N l TY I N T H E U NI VERS I T Y OF G LA SGOW

A N EW ED I TI ON R EVI S ED T H R O U G H OUT AN D
E M B OD YI NG R EC EN T A D D I TI ON S

VOL . V

N EW Y OR K
CH A R L ES S CR I BN E R S S ON S
’
 CON TE NTS

B OO K F I F TH

T H E E S T AB LI S H M EN T OF TH E M ILI TA R Y M ON AR C H Y
Con tin u ed

CH A PTE R VII

TH E S U BJ U GA I ONT OF THE W ES T

C H APT ER VI I I
THE J OI NT R U LE OF P O M PE I U S AND CA ES A R

CH APTER IX

D E AT H OF CR A S S U S — R U PT U R E B ET W E E N T H E JOI NT R U LE R S I SO

CHAPTER X

BR U DI I U M
N S ,
I L E R DA , PH A R S A L U S, AND T H AP S SU

C H A P T E R XI

T H E OLD R EP U I
BL C A N D TH E N E W M ON A R C H Y

C H A P T E R XI I

REL I IO
G N, C U U
LT R E, L I T ER A T U R E, A ND A RT

I N D EX

CO L L A T IO N OF PA G I N G OF OT H E R E DI I O
T NS F OR I YI
V ER F NG

R E F E R E N CES
 B OOK F I F TH

T H E ESTABL I S H M E N T OF T H E M I LI TA R Y
MON AR C H Y

Continued

VOL V
.
 C H A P T E R VI I

TH E S U BJ U GAT ON I OF TH E WES T

WH EN the course of his tory turns from the m i s erable mono Th e

to ny of th e poli tic a l s elfish ness which fo ugh t its b a ttle s

,

in the se nate house a nd in the s tree ts of the c api ta l to th w

-

,
e est.

m atters of gre a ter i m p o ta nce th a n th e ques ti o n Whe ther

r

th e firs t m on a rch of R o m e sh o uld be ca lled G na eus G aius , ,

o r M a rcus we ,
m a y well be a ll o wed — o n th e threshold of

a n eve nt th e e ffec ts of which s till a t th e p e s e nt day infl u r

ence th e desti nies of th e worl d—to look round us for a

,

momen t a nd to indicate the poi nt of view under which

,

th e c o nques t of wh a t is now Fr a nce by th e R o m a ns a nd ,

their fir s t con ta c t wi th the inh a bi ta nt s of Ger m a ny a nd of

Great B ri ta in are to be apprehended in their bea ring o n

,

the ge ner a l his to y of th e world

r .

B y vir tue of th e la w th a t a people which ha s gro wn

,

into a s tate a bs o bs its neighbours who are in poli tical

r

non age a nd a civilized people a bsorbs its nei g hb o urs who

,

a re in i ntellec tu al n o na ge —by vi tue o f this la w which is a s

r ,

universally valid a nd a s m uch a law of n atu e a s the la w r

of gra vi ty—the I tali a n n ti o n (the o nly o ne in a ntiqui ty

a

w hich w as a ble to c o m bine a superior p o li tic l devel o p m e nt a

a nd a superior civiliz a t i o n th o ugh it p e se nted th e l a tter

,
r

o nly in a n i m pe fec t a nd ex te n al ma nne ) was e nti tled to

r r r

reduce to subjec ti o n the Greek s tate s o f th e e a s t which

we re ripe for des t uc ti o n a nd to disp o s ses s th e peoples o f
r ,
 TH E S U BJU GAT I ON OF T H E WES T KV
B OO

lower gra des of culture in the wes t — L ibyans I beri ans , ,

Cel ts Ge rma ns —by m e ans of its settlers ; ju st as England

,

with equ a l ight ha s in A si a reduced to subjec tio n a civil

r

iza tio n of rival s ta nding b ut p o li tic a lly i m p o te nt a nd in ,

A merica a nd A us tra li a h a s m a rked a nd en no bled and s till ,

c o ntinues to mark a nd enn o ble ,

exte nsive b arb ari a n
c oun t ies wi th th e i m press of its n a ti o na li ty
r The R o m a n
.

a ris tocra cy h a d a cco m plished the preli m i na ry co ndi tion

required for this ta sk —the union of I taly ; the ta sk i tself
it never solved but a lways rega rded the extra I tali a n co n
,
-

quests ei ther a s sim ply a necess ary evil or a s a fisc al

,

possession virtually beyond th e p ale of the s tate I t is .

the i mperish able glory of the R o man dem ocra cy or m o n

a rchy—for th e two coi ncide — to h a ve correc tly a pprehended

a nd vigorou s ly re a lized thi s its highes t des ti na tio n Wh a t

“

th e irresis tible force of circu m s ta nces ha d p aved th e wa y

fo r through th e sen ate e s ta blishi ng against its will the
,

founda tions of the fu ture R o ma n do m i nion in th e wes t a s

in th e e a s t ; wh at there a fter the R o ma n e m igr a tion to th e
provinces —which cam e a s a public ca la mi ty no doub t , ,

but a lso in th e wes tern regio ns at a ny r ate as a pi o neer of

a higher cul ture — pu sued as m a tter of i nst inc t
r the cre a tor
of the R oma n de mocra cy Ga ius Gra cchus g ra sped and
, ,

bega n to c arry o ut wi th s tates manlike clea rness a nd deci

s ion . Th e tw o fund amen tal ide a s o f the new policy—to
reuni te th e te rri tories under th e power of R o m e so far a s ,

they were H ellenic a nd to colonize the m so far as they

, ,

w ere no t H ellenic—h a d a lre a dy in the Gra ccha n a g e bee n

pra ctically rec o gnized by the annexa tion of th e ki ngdo m of
Atta lus a nd by the T r ans alpine co n ques ts o f F la ccus : but
th e preva ili n g re a c tion o nce m ore a rres ted their a pplic a ti o n .

T he R o ma n s tate re ma ined a ch a o tic ma ss of coun tries

w i thou t thorough occup a tion a nd wi th o u t pr o per li m i ts .

S p ain and the Gra e co A si a tic poss e ssio ns were sep arated
-

h o m the m o ther coun try by wide terri to ries o f which

gr ,
C H A P, V I I TH E S U BJU GA T I ON OF T H E WES T
b a rely borders al o ng th e coa s t were subjec t to th e
th e

R o ma ns ; o n th e nor th co a s t of A fric a the d o ma ins of

C ar tha ge a nd Cyre ne alone were o ccupied like o a ses ; l a ge r

tra c ts even of th e subjec t terri tory especi a lly in S p a in were

, ,

b ut nom in ally subjec t to th e R o m a ns A bs o lu tely n o thi ng

.

w as do ne on th e p a r t of th e go e nm en t to wa rds c o n e en
v r

trating a nd roundi ng o fi their d o m i n i o n a nd th e dec a y of

'

th e fl ee t see m ed a t le ng th t o diss o lve th e l a s t bo n d of

connection be tween th e dis tant p o ss essio ns The de m o .

cracy no doub t a ttemp ted so so o n a s it a ga i n ra ised its

,

he a d to sh ape its extern al policy in th e S piri t of Gra cchus

,

-
Marius in p articula r cherished such idea s— but as it did
no t fo r a ny leng th of ti m e a tta in th e hel m its pr o jec ts we e
,
r

left unfulfilled I t wa s no t till the de m ocracy pra ctica lly

.

took in h and the governmen t on the o verthrow of the

S ull a n c o ns ti tu tion in 6 8 4 th a t a revolu tion in thi s respec t 7 0
,
.

occurred Fi st of all their sovereignty on th e M e dite r

. r

ra ne a n wa s res tored —th e m o s t vi ta l ques tion for a st ate

like that of R o m e T owa rds the ea s t m oreover the

.
, ,

boundary of th e Euphrates wa s secured by the a nnexation

of th e pro vinces o f P o ntus a nd S yri a B ut there s till .

rema ined beyo nd the Alp s th e ta sk of a t once roun di ng off

th e R o ma n terri to ry tow a rds the n or th and wes t a nd of ,

g a i ni ng a fresh virgin soil there for H ellenic civilization and

for the ye t u nbroken vig o ur o f th e I talic ra ce .

T his ta sk G a ius C a es a r under took I t is m ore th a n a n H i t i l

. s or ca

e rror it is an ou tra ge up o n th e s a cred spirit domin a n t in $323

,

his tory to reg ard G a ul solely a s the p ar a de grou nd on f th

,
o e

which Ca esa r exercised hi m self a nd his legions for the fi g f ffi t

e

i mpending civil w ar T hough the subjug ation of th e west

.

was for C a es ar so far a m e a ns to a n e nd th at he l a id th e

foundations of his l ater heigh t of p o wer in th e T ra ns a lpine
wars it is the especia l privilege of a s tates m n of genius
, a

th a t his m ea n s the m selves a re ends in their turn

.
C a esa r .

needed no doubt for his p ar ty ai m s a milita ry power b ut ,

 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T B OO Kv
he did no t conquer Ga ul as a p a rtis an T here was a direct .

poli tic al necessity fo r R ome to m ee t the perpe tually thr e at

e ned inva si o n of the Ger ma ns thus e arly beyo nd the A lps ,

a nd to co n s truc t a r a m p a r t there which should secure th e

pea ce of th e R o ma n world B ut even this i mporta n t o bject

.

wa s no t th e highes t a nd ul ti ma te re a s o n fo r which Ga ul
was conquered by Ca es a r When the Old hom e ha d
.

beco m e to o na rrow for th e R o m a n burgesses a nd they were

in d anger of dec a y th e sen a te s policy o f I ta li a n c o nquest
,
’

s aved the m fr o m rui n N o w th e I tali a n h o m e h ad becom e

.

in its turn too n a row ; once m ore the s tate languished

r

under the s am e s o ci al evils repe ati ng the mselves in si m ila r

fa shion o nly on a greater sc ale I t w as a brilli a n t idea a
.
,

gra nd h o pe which led C a esa over th e A lps —th e ide a a nd

,
r

th e co n fide nt expec ta tio n t h a t he should g a i n there for

his fellow burgesses a ne w b o u ndless h o m e a nd regenerate

-

the s ta te a second ti m e by pl a ci ng it o n a br oa der b a sis .

T h e c a m p a ig n which C a e sa r unde to o k in 6 9 3 in Fur ther

r

S p a i n may be in s o m e se nse i ncluded am o ng th e e nterprises

,

which a i m ed at th e subjuga tion o f the wes t Long a s S p ain .

h a d obeyed th e R o m a n s its wes ter n sh o e h a d r e m a i ned sub

,
r

s ta ntially i n depe n de nt o f the m eve n a fte th e expedi tio n of r

D eci m us B ru tus a g a i ns t th e Calla e ci ( iii a nd they h a d .

no t eve n se t fo o t o n th e n o r thern co a s t while th e pred atory

ra id s to which th e subject provinces fou nd the m selve s
,

c o ntinually exp o sed from those qu ar te s did no s mall i njury r ,

to th e ci iliz a ti o n a nd R o m a nizi ng o f S p a in
v Ag a in s t these .

th e expedi tion o f C a es a r l o ng th e w e s t co a s t w a s di ec ted

a r .

H e cr o ssed th e ch a in o f th e H e m inia n m o u nta ins ( S ierra

r

de Estrella ) b o u ndi ng th e T a gus o n th e north a fter h avi ng

c o nquered their inh abi ta nts a nd t a nspl a nted the m in pa r t
r

to th e pl a i n he reduc e d th e c o u n try o n b o th side s o f th e

,

D ouro a nd a rrived a t th e no th wes t poi nt of th e pe ni nsul a

r -

where wi th the a id of a fl o till a b o ugh t up fro m G a des he

r

occupied B rig antium (Corunn a) By this m ea ns the

p
.
C H A P. v rr TH E S U B U J GATI ON OF TH E WES T
peoples a djoining th e A tl a ntic Oce a n L usi ta nia ns a nd Cal,

lae cians were fo rced to a cknowledge th e R o m an sup e m

,
r

a cy while the con q ueror w a s a t th e sa m e ti m e c a reful to

,

render th e posi tion of the subjec ts genera lly more tolera ble
by reduci ng th e tribu te to be p a id to R o m e and regula ti ng
th e fin a nci a l a ffa irs o f th e c o mm u ni tie s .

B ut al though in this m ili ta ry a nd a d ministra tive a éé ui

’

of the great ge nera l a nd s tates m a n the s am e ta lents and

th e s a m e le a ding ide a s a re discer nible which he a fte w a rds r

evinced on a gre ater s tage his a gency in the I beria n pe nin

,

sula was m uch too tra nsie nt to h ave a ny deep effec t ; the
more especially a s owi ng to its physical a nd n ation al
,

peculi ari ties nothing b ut a ction s tea dily con tinued for a
,

co nsidera ble ti m e could exert a ny dura ble in fl ue nce there .

A more i m p o r ta n t p ar t in th e R o m a n ic devel o p m en t of G l au .

the wes t w a s reserved by des ti ny for th e cou ntry which

s tre tches be tween the Pyrenees a nd th e R hi ne th e Medi ,

terr a ne a n a nd the A tl antic Oce a n a nd which since the ,

A ugus ta n a g e h a s been especi a lly design ated by th e n a m e

of the l a nd of th e Cel ts — Gallia— a l th o ugh s tric tly spe aking
th e l a nd of th e Cel ts w a s p ar tly na rrower p a r tly m uch ,

m ore ex tensive a nd th e country so c a lled never for m ed a

,

n ation a l uni ty and did no t for m a political uni ty before

,

A ugus tus For this very rea son it is not e a sy to presen t

.

a cle a r pic ture of the very heterogeneous s tate of things

which C a es a r encoun tered on his a rriva l there in 6 9 6 58 . .

I n the region on the Medi terr a ne a n which e m br a cing Th , ,

e

a pproxi m ately Languedoc on th e wes t of th e R hone o n th e

e as t D auphi ne and P rovence had been for sixty ye ars a

3 2 2 12 , 6 .

R o man province th e R o m a n a r ms ha d seldo m bee n a t res t

,

since the Ci mbria n inva sio n which ha d swep t over it I n .

6 6 4 G a ius Ca e lius h ad fo ugh t wi th the S a lye s a bout A qu a e W [90 a rs .

S e xtiae a nd in 6 7 4 G a ius F laccus (iv 9

,
on his ma rch to ffig fgé
.
l ‘ f e‘
e
s

S p a i n wi th o ther Cel tic n a tio ns

,
When in the Se rto rian
.

war th e governor Lucius M a nlius co mpelled to h a sten to,

 TH E S U B JU GATI ON OF T H E WES T 8 0 0 3: v
th e a id of his colle agues beyo nd the Pyrenees returne d ,

defe ated from I le rda (L erida ) a nd on his way hom e was

va nquished a second ti m e by the wes tern neighbours of the
R om an pr o vi nce the A qui ta ni (a bou t 6 7 6
,
iv 2 8 3f ) thi s .
,

see m s to h ave pro voked a ge ner a l rising of th e provinci als

be tween the P yre nees and th e R hone perh aps even o f ,

those be tween th e R hone a nd A lps P o m p e ius h a d to .

m ake his way wi th th e sword through th e insurgent G a ul to

S p a i n ( iv . a nd by wa y of pen a l ty for their rebelli o n g a v e

th e terri tories of the V olc a e Are co mI CI a nd th e H e lvii ( dep

-
.

Ga rd and Ar dé ch e ) over to the M a ssilio ts the governor

7 6 74
-
. M a nius F o nte ius ( 6 7 8 —6 8 ) c arried o ut these a rra nge men ts
0

a nd res tored tr a nquilli ty in th e province by subduing the

V o co ntii (dep D rOme ) protecting M a ssili a fro m the

.
,

insu gents a nd libe ti ng th e R oma n ca pi tal N arbo which

r ,
ra

they i nves ted D esp a ir however and the fina nci al em

.
, ,
~

b arra s s m e nt which th e p a rticip ati o n in th e sufl e ring s of th e

'

S p a ni s h w ar (iv 2 9 8 ) a nd ge nerally the o flicial and non

.

o ffi cial ex a c tions of th e R o m a ns br o ugh t upon th e G a llic

provinces did no t allow them to be tranquil ; a nd in

,

p ar ticular th e ca nton of the A ll o broges the mos t re m ote ,

fro m Na rbo w as in a perpe tual fer m e nt which was a ttes te d

, ,

by the pacifica tio n th at Ga ius Piso undertook there in

“ ”

6 8 8 a s well a s by th e b e h a viour of th e Allo brO g ia n e mb a ssy

in R o m e on occ a sion of the a na rchis t plo t in 6 9 1 ( iv .

a nd which soon a fterw a rds ( 6 9 3) broke in t o open revol t .

Catug natus the le a der o f the Allobroges in this war o f

d espa ir who had at firs t fo ugh t no t unsuccessfully wa s
, ,

conquered a t S olo nium a fter a glorious resis ta nce by the

governor Gaius P omptinus .

Bound s. N o twi ths ta ndi ng a ll these con flic ts th e bounds of the

R o man terri tory were n o t ma teri a lly a dva nced ; Lug udunum
Co nve narum where P o m p e ius h a d se ttled th e re m n a nt of
,

the S e rto ria n army (iv T olos a V ie nna a nd Ge na v a

.
,

we re still th e m os t remo te R o ma n townships towar d s the

C H A F . vrr TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF TH E WES T 9

wes t and n o rth B ut at the s ame ti m e th e i mp o ta nce of R l ti n

. r e a o s
R m“
these G a llic possessions for th e m o ther cou nt y w a s con r

tinually on th e i nc e a se T he glorio us cli m a te a kin to

r .
,

that of I ta ly the fa v o ur a ble na ture of the soil th e l a rge and

, ,

rich regio n lyi ng behind s o a dv an tageous for commerce

wi th its m erca n tile ro u tes re aching as far a s B ri ta in the ,

ea sy in tercourse by l a nd a nd se a wi th the m other country ,

rapidly g ve to sou thern Ga ul an econo m ic i m p o rta nce for

a

I t a ly which m uch older possessi o ns such a s those in S pa i n

, , ,

h ad no t a cquired in th e course of cen turies ; and a s the

R o ma ns who ha d su ffered poli tic a l S hipwreck a t this perio d
sough t an asylum especi ally in Ma ssili a and there fo un d ,

once m ore I tali an cul ture a nd I tali a n luxury volun tary ,

e migra n ts from I taly also were attra c ted more and more to
the R hone a nd the Ga ron ne T he provi nce of G aul it
“ ”
.
,

was sa id in a ske tch dr a wn te n ye a rs be fore C a es ar s

’

a rrival is full of merch a nts ; it swa r ms with R o m a n

“
,

burgesses N o native of Ga ul tra ns acts a piece of business

.

wi thout the interv en tio n of a R o ma n ; every penny th at ,

p a sses fro m one h a nd to a no ther in Gaul goes through the ,

a ccoun t books of th e R o ma n b urgesses From the s ame ”

.

descrip tion it appears that in a ddition to the colonists of

N ar bo there wer e R oma ns cul tiv a ting l a nd and re aring
c attle residen t in gre at nu mbers in G aul ; as to which
, ,

however it m ust not be overlooked th at most of the pro

,

vincial l a nd possessed by R o m a ns j ust like th e gre a ter p a rt

,

of the English possessions in the e arlies t times in Americ a ,

w a s in th e h a nds of th e high nobili ty living in I taly a nd ,

those far mers and graziers consisted for the most p art of
their s tew ards —sl a ves or freed men .

I t is ea sy to unders ta nd h o w under such circu m s tances I n ip i t c er

civilization and R o ma nizing ra pidly sprea d a mo ng th e

n atives T hese Cel ts were not fond o f a g icul ture ; but
. r

their new m a s ters co mpelled the m to exch a nge th e s wo d r

for th e plough a nd it is very credible th at the e m bi tte ed

,
r
10 TH E S U BJU GA T I ON OF T H E WES T B OO K v

res i s ta nce of the A ll o b oges was pro voked in par t by som e r

such i nju ncti o ns I n e a lie ti m es H elle ni sm h ad also to

. r r

a ce rta in deg ee do m i na ted th se re g i o n s ; th e ele m e nts of a

r o

higher cul ture th e s ti mulus to the cul tiva ti o n of the vine

,

a nd th e o live ( iii o t e use of wri ti ng

1
t h . a nd to the

coi ni ng of m o ney ca m e to the m f o m M a ssili a T he

,
r ~

H ellenic cul tu e w a s in this c a se far fro m bei ng s e t a side

r

by th e R o ma ns ; M a ssili a g a i ned thr o ugh the m mo re

i nflue nce th an it l o s t ; and even in th e R o m a n peri o d
Greek phy s ici ans a nd rhe to ricia n s were publicly e mployed
in th e G a llic c a n to n s B ut a s m a y re a dily be conceived
.
, ,

H elle nis m in s o u ther n G a ul a cquired through the agency

of the R o ma ns th e s a m e ch arac ter a s in I ta ly ; the dis
tinctive ly H elle nic civiliz atio n g a ve pl a ce to th e La tino
Greek m ixed cul ture which so o n ma de pr o selytes here in
,

gre at nu m bers T h e Ga uls in the breeches as the

.
“
,
”

i nh abi ta nts of sou thern G aul were c a lled by way of contra st

to th e Gauls in the toga of nor thern I taly were not
“ ”
,

i ndeed like th e l atte alre a dy c o m ple tely R oma nized but

r ,

they were eve n no w very percep tibly dis tinguished fro m

th e
“
l o ngh a ired Ga uls of the northern regions s till ”

u nsubdued T he se miculture bec o m i ng natura lized a mong

.

the m fu n ished d o ub tless ma teri a ls e no ugh fo r ridicule of

r , ,

their b a rb a r o us L a ti n a nd people did no t fa il to suggest to

,

a ny one suspec ted of Cel tic desce nt his relati o nship wi th

th e breeches but this ba d La ti n wa s ye t su fficient to
”

e na ble eve n the re mo te A ll o br o ges to trans ac t busi ness wi th

th e R o m a n a u th o i ties a nd even to give tes ti m o ny in the
r ,

R o ma n cour ts wi th o u t a n in terpre ter .

While the Cel tic a nd Ligu i a n popul a ti o n of these regions r

wa s thus in th e course o f losing its n ation a li ty a nd wa s ,

1 T h er e w as fo und for insta nce , a t V aiso n in the Vo co ntia n ca nto n a n

,

l
ins crip tio n w ritte n in th e C e tic la ngua ge w ith th e o r d nary Greek al p h a b e t
‘

I t r uns thu s : o e youa pos o vchh ove os T oovfl ovs wa y a ua an : ew pou finknd a
‘

ma ca w T h e as t wo rd mea ns l
ho y l .
CH A P . VI I TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T

la nguishing pining wi tha l under a p o li tica l a nd econom ic

a nd

oppression th e in tolera ble n ature of which is su fficie ntly

,

a ttes ted by their h o peless i nsurrec ti o n s th e decli n e of th e ,

n a tive popul a tion here W en t ha nd in h a nd wi th th e natural

izing of th e s a me higher cul ture which we fi nd a t this period
in I taly A qua e S ex tia e a nd still m o e N arbo were con
. r

side ra b le townships which m igh t prob a bly be n a m ed by th e

,

side of Be ne ve ntum a nd C apu a a nd M a ssili a th e bes t ,

orga nized m os t free m ost ca p a ble of self defence a nd m os t

, ,
-

p o werful of all th e Greek ci ties depe nde nt on R o me u nder ,

its rigorous a ris to cra tic g o vern ment to which th e R o ma n

con s ervatives prob ably poi nted as the model of a goo d urb an
c o ns ti tution in possession of an i mpor ta n t terri tory which
,

h ad been co n sider a bly e nl a rge d by th e R o ma ns and of a n

extensive tra de s to od by th e side of those Latin towns
,

as R hegiu m a nd N e a p o lis s tood in I ta ly by th e side of

B e ne ve ntum a nd C a pu a .

M atters w o re a difi e re nt a spect when one crossed th e F

’

, ree Ga ul
.

R o ma n fron tier The great Cel tic n a tion which in the

.
,

sou thern dis tric ts alrea dy beg an to be crushed by the I tali a n

imm igration s till moved to th e north of th e Cevenne s in its
,

ti m e h a llowed freed o m
-
I t is no t th e firs t ti me th at we
.

mee t it : the I tali a ns h a d a lrea dy fought wi th the o fl s e ts and '

a d a nced pos ts of this v a s t s tock on th e T iber a nd on th e

v

P0 in th e moun ta ins of C a s tile a nd C a rin thi a a nd even in

, ,

th e he a rt of A si a Minor ; b ut it w a s here th a t th e m a in

s tock w as firs t a ss a iled a t its very core by their a tta cks The .

Cel tic ra ce had on its settle men t in cen tral Eu o pe di ffu s ed r

itself chie fl y over th e rich river v alleys a nd th e ple a s a nt

-

hill co u ntry of the prese nt France i ncludi ng the wes tern

-
,

distric ts of Ger ma ny and S w i tzerl a nd a nd fro m the nce h a d ,

o ccupied at le s t th e sou ther n p ar t of Engl a nd perh a ps even

a
,

a t this time a ll Gre at B ri ta in a nd I rel a nd ; it for med here

1

1 l
An immigra tio n o f B e lgic C e ts to B rita in co ntinuin g for a co ns id era b e l
l
time see ms indica ted b y th e na mes of Eng ish trib es o n b o th b a nks o f the
 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF TH E WES T B OO K v

m ore h a n a nywhere el se a bro a d ge ographic ally comp a ct

t , ,

ma ss of pe o ple s I n spi te of th e differe nces in l a ngu age

.

a nd ma nn ers which n a tura lly were to b e found wi thin this

wide terri tory a cl o se m u tu al i ntercourse a n i nn te sen s e

, ,
a

of fellowship see m s to ha ve kni t to ge ther th e tribes fro m

,

th e R h o n e a nd Ga ro nne to the R hi ne a nd th e T h a mes ;

where a s a l though the s e d o ub tle ss were in a certa i n mea sure
,

l o ca lly co nnected wi th th e Cel ts in S pa in and in the modern

A us tri a the m igh ty m oun ta in b a rriers of th e P yre n ees a nd
,

th e A lps o n th e one h a nd and th e encro a ch m e nts o f th e ,

R o ma n s a nd th e Ger ma ns which al s o opera ted he e on the r

other in terrupted the i ntercourse a nd the i ntri nsic con nec

,

ti o n Of th e c o g na te pe o ples fa r o therwise th n th e na ow a rr

a r m of th e se a in te rup ted th e rel a tio n s of th e c o ntinen ta l

r

a nd th e B ri tish Cel ts Unh a ppily we are no t per m i tted to.

tr a ce s ta ge by s ta ge th e history o f the intern a l devel o pment

of this e ma rka ble pe o ple in the s e its chief se ats ; we m u st
r

be con ten t wi th pre s e nting a t lea st som e ou tli ne of its

his torical cul tu e and p o li tica l condi ti o n as it here m eets us
r ,

in the ti me of Ca es a r.

Po p ula tio n
. Ga ul w a s a ccording to the ep o r ts of the ancie nts co m
,
r
,

p ar a ti v e ly well pe o pled Cer ta in s ta te m e n t s le a d us to infe r

.

th at in the B elgic di s tric ts there were so me 2 0 0 per s on s to

th e squ a re m ile—a p op o ti o n such as ne arly h o lds a t presen t r r

for W ales a nd for L ivo ni a— in the H elve tic c anto n a b o u t

2 45 ;
1
it is prob a ble tha t in the districts which were m o re

Th m a b
es w d f m B lg
o rro te h
ro th A eb t h B lg
ic ca n o ns s uc as e tre a es , t e e ae,

an d th B i
e ve n i h m l
e r wh i h w d p p
ta nn t e t h b t
se ve s , c or a ea r s o a ve ee n ra ns

f
e rr e d f m th roB i t l de th S m m b l w A mi
r tto ne s se t e fi t t n on e o e e o e ns rs o a
E gl h
n is t d th
ca n o n a n t h wh l i l d Th E g li h g l d
en o t e i g o e s an . e n s o co na e
w l d i d f m th B l g d igi lly id ti l W h it
as a so e r ve ro e e ic a n or na en ca it .

Th fi t l y f th B l gi
1
e rs ev t o l i f th R mi th t i f
e e c ca n o ns e x c us ve o e e . a s. o
th e co u n rt y b tw th S e d th S h l d
een d
e tw d
e ine a n f th e c e t an eas ar as ar as e
i i ity f R h im
v c n o d A d e h f m 9 s an t n er na c
q mil i , ro 0 00 o s uar e es , s
rec k d
o ne b t at a m ; i
ou d wi h whi h if w en g d n a ccor a nce t c , e re a r
th pe p ti
ro f h fi t l y t th w h l m
or on o t e p bl
rs f b ev i g mo e o e e n ca a e o ea r n ar s
s p e crfi d f e th B ll or i h l di g g d g n
e e lly th mb f h
o va c as o n oo e er a , e nu er o t e
B lge p bl
a e ca f b i g
a m w ld m
e o t
ea r n ar d h wh l
s ou a o un to an t e o e

p p l
o u a tio n di g ly t t l
a cco r t n Th H l tii W th th
o a eas e e ve i e
 TH E S U BJU G AT I ON OF T H E WES T B OO Kv
Pa rticularly in
r hern Cel tic di s tric ts p a s to al
th e no t r

husb andry wa s th o o ughly pred o mi na n t Bri tta ny w a s in

r .

Caes ar s ti m e a c o u ntry p o o r in cor n I n th e no r th e a s t

’
.
-

dense fo es ts a tta chi ng the msel es to the h e ar t of the

r ,
v

Ar de nne s stre tched al m o st wi th o u t i nte rup ti o n f o m th e

,
r r

G er m a n Ocea n to th e R h i ne a nd o n the pl i ns of Fla nders a

a nd L orr a ine no w so fe tile th e M e na pia n a n d T r e v e ria n

,
r ,

herds ma n then fed his h alf wild swi ne in th e i mpe ne t able -

r

o ak fo re st
-
J us t a s in the v alley of th e P o the R o m ans
.

m a de the pro duc ti o n o f wool a nd the cul tur e o f c o n s uper r

sede th e Cel tic feeding of pigs o n a co ns so the re i ng of r ,

ar

sheep and th e a gricul ture in th e pl a i ns o f the S cheldt a nd

th e M aa s a re tra ce able to their i nflue nc e I n B i ta i n . r

even th e thresh i ng o f corn wa s no t y e t usu al ; and in

its m o re no r ther n di stric ts a g icul tu e w a s no t pr a c ti sed r r
,

a nd the re a i ng of c a ttle w as th e o nly k no w n mo de o f tur ning

r

th e s o il to a ccoun t T he cul tu e o f th e o li e a nd
. r v

vine which yielded rich produce to th e M a ss ilio ts wa s

, ,

no t y e t prosecu ted bey o nd th e Ceve nne s in th e t i m e

of Ca es ar .

Th e G a uls were fro m th e firs t di sp o s e d to se ttle in

g oups ; the e we e ope n vill ages everywh e e a nd th e
r r r r ,

H e l e tic c nto n a l o ne nu m bered in 6 9 6 fo ur hu nd ed of

v a r

these beside s a m ul ti tude o f si ngle ho m e ste a ds

, B ut there .

were no t wa nti ng a l so wa ll e d to w ns wh o se w alls o f al te n te , r a

l ayers surprised th e R o ma ns b o th by their sui table nes s a nd

by the elega nt i nterwe a vi ng of ti mber a nd sto nes in th e ir
co nstructi o n ; while it is true even in th e to w ns of th e
, ,

Allobr o ges th e buildi ngs were erec ted so l e ly o f w o o d Of .

such to wns th e H e l e tii h a d twelve nd th e S u e s si o nes a n

v a

equ al nu mbe ; wh e ea s at all eve nts in the mo re n o the n

r r r r

di st ic ts such as a m ong th e N e vii wh le th e re we e d o ub t

r , r ,
i r

less a l so towns the p o pul ati o n du ing w r so ug ht p o te c ti o n

,
r a r

in th e m o a s ses a nd fo es ts r a th e r th a n behi nd thei wa ll

r r r s,

a nd bey o nd th e T h a m es th e pri m i tive defence of the woo den

CH A P . VI I TH E S U BJ U GA TI ON OF T H E WES T ls

b ar ic a de a l to gether to ok th e pl ace of towns a nd was in war

r

th e o nly pl a ce o f efuge fo r m e n a nd herds r .

I n cl o se a s s oci a ti o n wi th th e co mp a a tively c o nsider r

a ble de el o p m e nt of urb a n life s ta nds th e a c tivi ty of i nter

v

c o u s e by la nd a nd by w a ter Everywhere there were

r .

r o a ds and b idges Th e river n avig a tio n which strea ms

r .
-

like the R hone Ga ro nne L oire a nd S eine of the mselves

, , , ,

invi ted w s c o nside a ble a nd lucr ative But far m ore

,
a r .

re m a k able wa s th e m a ri ti me n a vig atio n o f the Cel ts N o t

r .

only we e th e Cel ts to all a ppe arance th e n ation th at first

r , ,

regul arly na iga ted th e A tl a ntic o cea n but we fi nd th at the

v ,

a r t o f buildi ng a nd o f m a na gi ng vessels h ad atta ined a m o ng

the m a re ma k a ble devel o p m en t

r T h e n a vig a ti o n of the .

peoples of th e Medi ter a ne a n ha d a s may re a dily be r ,

co ncei ed from th e na ture of the wate s traversed by the m

v r
,

fo r a c o m p a atively l o ng period a dhered to th e o ar ; th e

r

war vessels of th e P hoe n ici a ns H elle nes a nd R o m an s were

-

, ,

at all ti m es o a ed g a ll e ys in which th e s a il wa s a pplie d

r ,

o nly a s an occa sion al a id to the o ar ; th e tra ding vessels

a l o n e were in th e epoch of developed a ncien t civiliz a ti o n
“
s iler pr perly s c lled
a s o
”
o a
1
On the o ther h a nd th e .

Ga uls d o ubtless em ployed in th e Ch annel in C a es ar s ti me ’

a s fo r lo ng a fterw a rds a species o f p o r ta ble le a thern skifi s

’

, ,

which see m to h a ve been in th e ma i n c o mm on oa red bo ats [

,

but on th e we st c o a s t o f Ga ul th e S a nto ne s th e P ic to nes , ,

a nd a b o ve all th e V ene ti s a iled in l a rge though clu m sily

buil t ships which were no t i mpelled by oars but were

,

provided wi th le a thern s ails and iron a nchor ch a i ns and -

they e mployed these not only for their traffic wi th B ri ta in ,

1
We l
le d to this co nc us io n b y th e des igna tio n o f the tra d ing or
a re
"
r o u nd
”
as co ntra ste d w ith th e
“
o ng l
o r w ar ve ss e , a nd th e S im i ar
"
l l
o are d s h ip s ( ér lxwrr ot mjes) a nd th e me rch antme n
'
co ntr a s t o f th e
“ "

( OAK dae s, Dio ny s iii . a nd m o r e o ver b y th e s m a ne ss o f th e cr e w in

. ll
l
th e tra din g v e s se s , wh ich in th e ve ry la r ge s t a m o unte d t o no t m ore th an
2 00 m e n ( R he in M u s N . xi . . F
w hi e in t h e o rdina ry ga e y of
. . l ll
k
th re e de c s th e r e w er e e mploy ed x7 0 ro wer s ( ii C o mp M o vers , . .

P koen ii 3, 1 6 7 M g
. . .
 TH E S U BJ U GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
b ut a ls o in nava l c o mb a t H ere the efo e we no t o nly . r r

A e e t for th e fir st ti m e wi th na ig a tion in th e Ope n o c e a n v ,

b ut we fi nd th a t he e th e s a ili ng ve s el fi s t fully to o k the

r s r

pl a ce of th e o red b o a t— a n i m pro e m e nt it is true which

a v , ,

th e declining a c tivi ty of th e Old w o ld did no t k no w how r

to turn to a ccoun t a nd th e i mme a sur a ble e s ul ts o f which

,
r

our o wn ep o ch of re newed cul ture is e mployed in gra du a lly

re a ping .

Wi th this regul ar mari ti m e i nte c o urse be twee n the r

Bri tish a nd G allic coa s ts th e very cl o s e poli tic a l c o n nec tion

,

be tween th e inh abi ta nts o n b o th sides o f th e Ch an nel is as

e a sily expl a i ned as th e fl o urishi ng o f tr a n s ma i ne comm e ce r r

and of fi s heries I t w as th e Cel ts o f B ri tta ny in p r ticul a r

. a ,

th a t brough t th e tin of th e m i nes Of C o r n w a ll fro m Engl a n d

a nd ca rried it by th e river and l a nd r o u tes o f G a ul to N a rb o

a nd M a ssili a T h e s ta te me nt th at in C a e sa r s ti m e cer ta in
’
.
,

tribes a t the m o u th of the R h ine sub sis ted on fish a nd

birds eggs may prob a bly refer to th e circu ms ta nce tha t
’
,

mari ne fishi ng a nd th e collecti o n o f the eggs of s e a birds -

we re prosecuted there on a n exte nsi e sca le When we v .

p u t toge ther a n d ende a vour to fill up th e isol t ed a nd a

sca n ty s tate m en ts which h ave rea ched us rega rding the

Celtic co mmerce and i ntercourse we co m e to see why the ,

tolls o f th e river a nd m ari ti m e p or ts pl a y a gre at p ar t in the

budgets of certa in ca ntons such a s th o se o f the H a e dui ,

and th e V ene ti a nd why th e chief g o d of th e n a tion w a s

,

regarded by the m as th e p o tecto o f the roa ds a nd of r r

co mm erce a nd a t th e s a m e ti m e as the inve nto r o f ma nu

,

fa c tu es
r . A cc o rdi ngly th e Cel tic indus try c a nn o t h a ve bee n
wholly u nde eloped ; i ndeed the s i ngula r dexteri ty of th e
v

Cel ts and their peculi a skill in i mi ta ting a ny m odel a nd

, r

execu ti ng a ny i nstruc ti o ns a re noticed by C a es ar I n mo st

, .

branches howeve thei h a ndic a ft d o es no t a ppea r to ha ve

,
r, r r

risen a b o e the o di na y le el th e m a nufa c tu e o f li nen a nd

v r r v r

wo o lle n stu ffs tha t sub seque ntly fl o uri shed in ce ntra l a nd
,
CH A P . V I I TH E S U BJ U G ATI ON OF T H E WES T
no tr hern G a ul was de m ons tra bly ca lled in to exis tence only
,

by the R oma ns T h e ela bo a ti o n o f me ta ls forms a n

. r

excep ti o n a nd so fa r as we k no w the o nly one T he

,
.

c o pper i m ple m e nts no t u nfreque ntly Of excellen t work

m a nship a nd eve n now m alle a ble which a re br o ugh t to light
,

in th e to m bs of G a ul a nd th e c a efully a dju sted A r ve rnia n

,
r

gold coins a re still a t th e prese nt day s triking wi tnesses of

,

the skill of th e Cel tic worker s in copper a nd gold ; a nd

wi th this the repor ts o f th e a ncie nts well accord that the ,

R o ma ns le arned the a rt of tinni ng fro m th e B iturig e s a nd

t h a t of silvering fro m th e A le s ini— i nven tions th e firs t of ,

which was n aturally sugges ted by th e tra ffic in tin a nd bo th ,

of which were proba bly ma de in th e period of Cel tic

freedo m .

H a nd in h a nd wi th dex teri ty in the el a b o ration of th e M ining .

me tals wen t th e art of pr o curing the m which h a d a tta ined , ,

more especi a lly in the iron mines o n the L oire such a degree ,

of professio nal skill th at the miners pla yed an i m por ta nt

p ar t in the sieges The opinion prev a len t am ong th e
.

R o ma ns of this period th a t Ga ul wa s one of th e riches t

,

gold coun tries in the world is no doub t refu ted by th e

,

well known n a ture of the soil and by the ch ara cter of th e

-

a r ticles fou n d in th e Cel tic to m bs in which gold a ppe a rs ,

b ut sp a ringly and wi th far le s s freque ncy th a n in the

si m ila r repo si tories of the true native regions of gold ; this
concep tion no doub t had its origin m erely from the
descriptions which Greek travellers a nd R o ma n soldiers ,

doub tless no t wi thou t s tr o ng ex aggerati o n ga ve to their ,

coun try men of the m ag nificence of the A rve rnia n ki ngs

( iii
. a nd of th e tre a sures of th e T ol o s a n te m ples iii
( .

B ut their s to ries were no t pure fic ti o ns I t m ay well .

be believed tha t in and ne ar th e rivers which fl ow fro m the

A lps and th e P yre nees g o ld wa shi ng a nd se a rche s for gold
-

which are u npr o fi ta ble a t the prese nt va lue of l a bour were ,

w orked with profi t a nd on a considera ble sca le in ru d er

VOL v . 1 35
 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF TH E WES T BOOK v
i es a nd wi th a sy ste m o f sl a very besides th e comm erci al
t m ,

rel ati o ns of G aul may as is no t u nfreque ntly the c ase wi th

,

h a lf civiliz ed people s h ave favoured the accumu lation of a

-

de a d s tock of th e p ecious m e tals r .

T h e lo w s ta t e o f the a r ts of design is re ma rk able and ,

is th e m o e s triki ng by the s ide o f this mech a nic al skill in

r

ha ndli ng the m e tals Th e fo nd nes s for p a rti c o l o ured a nd

.
-

brilli a nt orn amen ts sh o ws th e wa nt of a proper ta s te which ,

is s a dly confirmed by th e Gallic coi ns wi th their represe nta

tio n s so me ti m es exceedi ngly si mple so m e ti mes odd but, ,

a lw a ys childish in design a nd a l m os t wi thou t excep tion

,

rude beyond p arallel in their execution I t is perh aps .

u nexampled th a t a coin a ge pra ctised for cen turies wi th a

certa i n tech nic a l skill should ha ve esse nti ally li m i ted i tself
to a lwa ys i mi ta ti ng tw o or three Greek dies and a lways ,

wi th incre a si ng defo r m i ty On the o ther h a nd the art o f

.

p o e try wa s highly va lued by the Cel ts a nd in timately ,

ble nded wi th the religi o us a nd even wi th the poli tica l

ins ti tu tio ns of th e n ati o n we fi nd religious poe try a s well ,

a s th a t of th e cour t a nd Of the m endic a n t fl ourishi ng ,

( iii
. N a tura l science a nd phil o sophy a lso found ,

a l th o ugh subjec t to th e for m s a nd fe tte s of the theology of r

th e cou ntry a cer ta in a m o un t of a tte ntion a mong th e

,

Cel ts and H elle nic hu ma nis m m et wi th a rea dy reception

wherever a nd in wha tever sh a pe it appro ached them The .

k nowle dge of wri ti ng w a s ge nera l a t le a s t am ong the

prie s ts F o r th e m o s t p rt in free Ga ul the Greek writing
. a

w a s m a de u s e o f in C a e sa r s ti m e as w as d o ne a m ong o thers
’

by the H el e tii ; b ut in its m o s t s o u thern dis tric ts even

v

the n in c o n seque nce o f in te rcourse wi th th e R om a n ized

,

Cel ts th e Lati n atta i ned p ed o mi na nce—w e m eet wi th it

,
r ,

for i nsta nce o n th e Arve rnia n coi ns of this period

, .

T h e p o li tic al devel o p m e nt of th e Cel tic na tio n a lso

pre se nts very e ma rk ble phe no men a T h e cons ti tu tion o f
r a .

the s tate wa s b ased in this c a se a s everywhere on the clan

, ,
CH A P. VI I TH E S U BJ U G ATI ON OF TH E WES T 19

ca n ton wi th its prince its council of th e elders and its

, , ,

com m uni ty of free m en ca p a ble of be ari ng a rm s ; but the

peculi a ri ty in this ca se w as th at it never g o t beyon d th is
canton al cons ti tu tion Am ong th e Greeks a nd R oma ns C nt nal
. a o
“ m am
the c a nto n was very e arly superseded by the ring wa ll
“
-

a s th e b a sis o f poli tica l uni ty ; where two c a n tons found

the m selves toge ther wi thi n th e s a me w alls they amal ,

g a mate d i nto o ne co mm onwea l th ; where a body o f

burgesses a s signed to a p o rtion of their fellow burgesse s -

a new ring w all -

there regul arly a rose in this w ay a new
,

s ta te con nec ted wi th the m o ther co mmuni ty only by

tie s of pie ty a nd at m os t ,
of clientship Am ong the , .

Cel ts on the o ther h a nd the burgess body continue d at -

”

all ti m es to be th e cl a n prince and council presided over

th e c a n ton a nd not over any town a nd the ge ner al die t of ,

th e ca nton for m e d th e a u th o rity of l a s t resor t in th e sta t e .

Th e town h ad a s in the e a s t merely merca n tile and

, ,

s trategic not poli tical i mporta nce ; fo r which re ason the

,

Gallic to wnships even whe n walled and very considera bl e

,

such as Vienn a and Gen a va w ere in the view of the Greeks ,

a nd R o ma ns no thing b ut vill a ges I n the tim e of Ca es ar .

the origi nal cl a n co n s ti tu tion s till subsis ted substa ntial ly

-

u nal tered am o ng th e insul ar Cel ts and in the north ern

c antons of th e m ai nl and ; th e general a ssembly held the
supre m e au th o rity ; th e prince was in essen tial ques tion s
bound by its decrees ; the comm on council was nu merou s
-
it nu mbered in certa in cl a ns six hu n dred me mbers
but does no t appe ar to h ave had more i mporta nce th a n the
senate under th e R o ma n kings I n the more s tir ring sou thern
.

por tion of the l and agai n one or two gener ations before
, ,

C aes ar—the children of the la st kings were s till living in

h is time — there ha d occurred at le a s t a m ong the l arger ,

cl a ns th e Arverni H ae dui S equ ani H elve tii a re vol ution

, , , , ,

which set a side the royal do minion and gave the power into
th e h a n d s of th e nobili ty .
 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF TH E WE S T B OO Kv
is si m ply th e re erse side of the to ta l wa n t of urb a n
It v

c o mm o nwea l th s mo ng the Cel ts ju st n o ticed tha t the a ,

o ppo s i te p o le o f p o li tical devel o p me nt k nigh th o o d so , ,

th o o ughly pr p o nd e a tes in th e Cel tic cl a n co ns ti t uti o n

r e r -
.

T h e Cel tic ari s to c a cy w as to ll ppe a a nce a high n o bili ty r a a r ,

fo the m o s t p ar t perh a ps th e m e m bers of th e roy a l or

r

fo r merly r o y a l fa m ilies a s i ndeed it is re m a rk a ble th a t th e

h e a d s o f the Opposi te pa rties in the sam e cl a n very fre
que ntly bel o ng to the s a m e house T hese gre a t fa m ilies .

c o mbi ned in thei ha nds fin ancial warlike a nd p o li tica l r , ,

a sce nde ncy T hey m o n o p o lized th e le a s es o f the p o fi ta ble

. r

rights of the s ta te They c o m pelled the free co mm o ns .

,

who were oppre ssed by the burden of ta xation to borrow ,

fro m them a nd to s urre nder their freedo mfirs t de f cto as

,
a

deb to s the n 4 6 f un: a s b o nd me n T hey devel o ped the

r ,
7
.

sys te m o f re ta i ners th at is th e priv ilege of the nobili ty to , ,

s ur o u nd the m selves wi th a nu m ber o f hired m o u nted

r

— 1 —
ser a n ts the a mba a a s they were called a nd thereby
’
‘
v z

1 k l
Th is re m a r a b e w o r d m u s t h a ve b e e n in us e as ea r y as th e s ix th l
ce nt ury o f R o m e a m o ng th e C e ts in th e va e y o f th e P o for Ennius is l ll
a lr e a dy a cqua i nte d With i t, a nd it ca n o n y h a ve r e a ch e d th e I ta ia ns a t l l
l
s o e a r y a p e r io d fr o m th a t qu a rt er I t is no t m e r e y C e tic h o w e v e r . l l , ,

l
b u t a s o G e r m a n th e r o o t o f o ur A m t , as inde e d th e r e ta iner s y st e m
,
-

l
itse f is co m m o n to th e C e ts a nd th e G e r m a ns I t wo u d be o f g r e a tl . l
h is t o rica im p o r ta nce to a s ce r ta in w h e th e r th e w or d— a nd s o a so th e th ing
l l
— l
ca m e to th e C e ts fro m th e G e r m a ns , o r to t h e G e rma ns fro m t h e C e ts l .

l
I f as is us ua l y s up p o s e d th e w o r d is o r ig ina y G e r m a n a nd p rim ar i y
, , ll l
s ign ifi e d th e s e rva nt s ta ndin g in b a tt e a g a in s t th e b a c
(a n d z a g a inst l k .

ba k z b a ck ) o f his m as t e r th is is no t w h o y irre co nCI lea ble With t h e S i ng u

, ll
l
la rly ea r y o ccurre nce o f th is w o r d a m o ng th e C e ts A cco r ding t o al l l .

l
a n a o g y th e r igh t to e e p a m ba cf i th a t is 60 k
m h w fl or r ot ca n no t h a ve , , m ,

l l
b e o nge d to th e C e tic no b i ity fro m th e o uts e t, b ut m u s t o n y h a ve de l l
l ll
ve lo p e d its e f gr a dua y in a nta g o nis m t o t h e o de r m o na rchy an d to t h e l
l
eq u a ity o f th e fre e co m mo ns I f th us t h e sy s te m o f a m ba cti a m o n g th e .

l
C e ts w as no t a n a n cie nt a nd na tio na , b u t a co m p ara tive y re ce nt ins titu l l
t io n, it is —l k l
o o ing t o th e r e a tio n w h ich h a d s ub s is te d fo r ce nt ur ies b e tw een

l
th e Ce ts a nd G e rm a ns a nd w h ich is to b e e x p a ine d farth er o n , no t l -

l l
mere y p o s s ib e b ut e ve n p ro b a b e th a t th e C e ts in I taly as in G a u , l l , l
l
e m p o y e d Ge r m a ns ch ie fl y a s th o se h ire d s e rva n ts a t a r m s Th e S w iss - -
.

l
gu a rd w o u d ther e fo re in th a t cas e b e s o m e th o usa nds o f y ea r s o de r
"
l
th a n p eo p e s upp o s e l
S h o u d th e te rm b y wh ich th e R o m a ns p e rh a p s
. l
a fte r th e e x a m p e o f th e C e ts de s ig na te th e G er m ans as a na tio n—th e
,

l l ,
 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T BOO K V

circu ms tances there was agi ta tion in the several cl a ns much

in th e s am e way as there ha d been a gi tation in Latium fo r
cen turies after the expulsio n of the kings while the nobili ty
of the di fferen t communi ties combined to for m a sepa ra te
alli a nce hos tile to th e power of the c o m m u ni ty th e mul ti ,

tude ce a sed no t to desi e th e res tora ti o n of th e m o na rchy ;

r

a nd not unf equen tly a pr o minent noble m a n a tte m p ted as

r ,

S purius C a s s ius h a d done in R o m e wi th th e support of th e

,

mas s of th o se belongi ng to th e c a n to n to bre ak down the

power of his peers a nd to reins tate the crown in its rights
,

for his o wn speci al be nefi t .

While the individu al c a n tons were thus irre mediably

declini ng th e sense of u ni ty was a t the s am e ti me power
,

fully stirri ng I n th e n ati o n a nd seeki ng in va rious ways to

take sh a pe and hold T h a t co mbin ation of th e whole
.

Cel tic nobili ty in con tradis ti nc tion to th e i ndividu al ca n to n

u nions while dis turbing the exi s ting o rder of things
, ,

a wa kened a nd fo s tered th e concep tio n o f th e c o llec tive uni ty

of th e n ation The a tta cks directed aga ins t the n ation fro m
.

withou t and the c o n tinued di m inution of its territo ry in

,

wa wi th its neighb o urs Oper a ted in th e

r ,
a m e di ec ti o n s r .

Like th e H elle nes in their wa rs wi th th e P ersi a n s a nd the ,

I ta li ans in their wa rs wi th the Cel ts th e T r a n sa lpi ne G a uls

,

see m to h ave becom e co nsci o us of th e exis tence a nd th e

power of their nati o na l u ni ty in th e w ars ag ain st R o m e .

A m ids t th e disse nsio n s of riva l cl a ns a nd a ll their feudal

qu a relli ng there migh t s till be he a rd the v o ices o f th o se
r

w h o were re a dy to purch a s e th e i ndepe nde nce of the n a tio n

a t th e cos t of th e i ndepe ndence of th e sever a l ca n to ns a nd ,

even a t th at o f th e seig nori a l igh ts o f the knigh ts The

r .

thorough p o pul a i ty of th e Opp o s i ti o n to a foreig n yoke wa s

r

sh ow n by the wa rs of Ca e sa wi th efere nce to whom th e

r, r

Cel tic p atri o t p ar ty occupied a p o si tion e ntirely si m ila r to

th at of th e Ger m a n p a trio ts towa rd s N a p o leo n ; its exte nt

a nd org a niz a ti o n are a ttes ted a m ong o ther thing s by the

, ,
CH A P . V ii TH E S U BJ U GATI ON OF T H E WES T 2 3

telegraphic rapidi ty wi th which news wa s comm unicate d

from one poi nt to a nother .

T h e un iver sa li ty a nd th e s treng th of the Cel tic n atio na l R ligi u e o s

ni n f
feeling woul d be inexplic a ble b ut for th e circu m s ta nce th a t
u o o
,

a m ids t th e gre a tes t poli tic a l disrup tion th e Cel tic n a ti o n

,

ha d for lo ng been cen tra lized in respect of religion a nd

even of the o logy Th e Cel tic pries thood or to use th e
.
,

n ative n am e th e corporation of th e D ruids certa i nly

, ,

e mbraced the B ritish isl a nds a nd all Ga ul and perh aps ,

a lso other Cel tic coun tries in a co mm on religious n a tio na l

,
-

bond I t possessed a speci al he a d elected by the pries ts

.

the m selves ; speci a l sch o ols in which its very com pre
,

h e nsive tra di tion wa s tr a ns mi tted ; speci a l privileges p ar ,

ticularly exemp tion fro m ta xa tio n a nd m ili ta ry service which ,

every cl a n respected ; a nnu al councils which were held ne ar ,

Cha rtres a t the cen tre of the Cel tic e a rth ; a nd above
“ ”

all , a believing people who in p ainful piety and blind

,

obedience to their pries ts seem to h ave been nowise i nferior

to th e I rish of m ode n ti m es r I t ma y re a dily be conceived
.

th at such a pries tho o d a tte mp ted to usurp a s it p a r ti a lly ,

did usurp th e secul ar gover nm e nt ; where the a n nu al

,

m on a rchy subsis ted it conduc ted th e elec tions in the event

,

of an in terregnu m it successfully l a id cl a im to the righ t of

excluding i ndividu als a nd whole co mm uni ties fro m religi o us ,

a nd co n sequen tly als o fr o m civil socie ty ; it w as c a reful to

,

dra w to i tself th e m ost i mporta n t civ il ca uses especi ally ,

processes a s to bound aries a nd inheri ta nce on the ground ,

a pp a ren tly of its righ t to exclude fro m th e co mm uni ty a nd

, ,

perha ps a lso of the n ation a l custom that cri m in als should

be by preference taken for the usua l hu man s acrifices it ,

developed an extensive pries tly cri mi na l jurisdictio n which ,

w as co ordin a te wi th th at of th e kings and vergobre ts

-
it
even cl a i m ed the righ t of decidi ng on wa r and peace T he .

Ga uls were not far re m oved fro m an ecclesi a s tical s ta te

w i th its pope and councils its im m unities in terdict s and
, , ,
 TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO K V

spiri tu a l co ur ts ; o nly thi s eccle si a st ic l state did no t like a ,

t h at o f rece nt ti m es s ta n d a l o o f f o m th e na tions b ut w a s
,
r ,

on the con t a y p e e m i ne ntly n ti o na l

r r i -
a .

B ut while th e se nse of m u tu a l rel a tio ns h ip wa s thus

v vi idly a wa ke ned am ong th e Celtic trib e s th e na ti o n wa s ,

s till p ecluded fro m a tta ining a b a sis o f p o li tic al ce ntra liz a

r

t i o n such as I ta ly fo und in th e R o m a n burgesses a n d th e ,

H ellenes a nd Ge m a ns in th e M a cedo ni a n a nd Fra nk ki ng s

r .

Th e Cel t ic p ie s tho o
r d a n d likewise th e nobili t y — al th o ugh

both in a ce t i n sense repre s e nted and co mbi ned the

r a

n ation—were ye t on th e one h a nd i nc a p able o f u ni ti ng it

, ,

in co nseque nce o f their p a r ticul a r cl a ss i ntere sts a nd o n -

, ,

the o ther h a nd s uflicie ntly powerful to allow no ki ng and

,

no canto n to a cc o mpli sh th e work of u ni o n Atte m pts at .

this work were no t w a nting ; they fo llowed a s th e c a nto n a l ,

c o ns ti tu ti o n sugges ted th e sys te m o f hege m o ny A p o werful

,
.

ca nto n i nduced a we aker to becom e subordin ate o n s uch ,

a fo o ti ng th a t th e le a di ng c a n to n a c ted fo r th e o the as r

well as fo r i tself in its extern al rel ations and s tipul ated for
it in sta te tre a ties while th e dependen t c a nto n b o u n d i tself
-

to render mili ta ry service a nd so m e ti m es a ls o to p ay a

tribu te . I n this w ay a series Of sep a a te le a gues a rose ; r

b ut there w a s no le a di ng c a nto n fo r all G a ul — no tie ,

h o wever l o o s e co mbi ning th e na tion as a whole

, .

I t ha s bee n alre a dy m e ntio ned ( iii 4 1 6 ) th a t th e R o m a ns .

a t the co mm e nce m e nt o f their T r a nsa lpi ne co nques ts fou n d

in the nor th a B ri ta n no B e lgic le ague u nder th e le a de ship

-
r

of the S ues si o nes a nd in ce nt a l a nd s o u ther n Ga ul the

,
r

co nfe de a ti o n o f the Ar ver ni wi th which l atter the H ae dui

r , ,

a l th o ugh h a vi ng a we a ker b o dy Of clie nts ca r ied o n a ,

r

rivalry I n C a e sa r s ti m e we fi nd the B elg e in no th e a s ter n

.
’
a r -

G a ul be tween the S e i ne a nd th e R hi ne s till fo mi ng such a n r

a s so ci a ti o n which however a pp a e n tly no l o nger ex te nds t o

, , ,
r

B i tain ; by their s ide there a pp e a r s in the m o de n N o m a ndy

r
,
r r

and B ri tta ny th e le a gue of the A re m o r ica n or th e ma ri ti m e

,
C H AP . V I I TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WES T
ca nto ns : in ce ntral or pr o pe Ga ul tw o p a rties as form erly
r

con tended fo r th e hege m o ny th e o ne he a ded by the H ae dui

, ,
con te nt
the o ther by th e S equ a ni a fte r th e A v e rnia ns we a kened by
.

th e w a rs wi th R o m e h a d re tired T hese di fferen t confed .

e racie s subsis ted i n depe nden tly s ide by side ; the le a ding

s ta tes of ce nt a l Ga ul a ppe a r never to h ave exten de d their

r

clien tship to th e nor th e a s t nor se iously perh ap s e v e n to

-

,
r ,

th e n o r th west o f G a ul
-
.

The i mpulse of th e n a ti o n tow a rds freedo m foun d doub t

less a cer ta i n gratification in thes e c a n to nal unions but they
were in every respect unsa tisfa c tory T h e u nion wa s of th e .

lo o sest kind co ns ta ntly fl uc tu a ting be tween a lli a nce a nd

,

hegem ony ; th e represen ta ti o n of th e whole bo dy in pe a ce

by the federal die ts in war by the ge neral was in the
,
1
,

highes t degree feeble T he B elgi a n c o nfederacy a lo ne see ms

.

to h a ve been bound to ge ther o mewh a t m ore firmly ; the s

n ati o n al e nthusi a s m fr o m which th e succe ssful repulse of the

,

Cimbri proceeded ( iii 4 30 f ) m ay h ave proved beneficia l

.
,

to it . T h e riva lries for th e hege m o ny ma de a bre a ch in

every lea gue which ti m e did not close but wide ned beca use
, ,

th e vic tory of o n e c o m pe ti to r s till left his opponen t in pos

ses sion o f poli tic a l exis te nce and it a lwa ys re m a i ned Open
,

to h im ,
even though he ha d sub m i tted to clie ntship ,

s ubseque ntly to renew th e s truggle T he riv a l y a m o ng th e . r

m ore powerful c a n to ns no t o nly se t these a t va ri a nce but ,

spre a d into every depe nden t cl a n in to every village o fte n , ,

i ndeed in to eve y h o use for e a ch indi idu a l ch o se his side

r ,
v

a ccordi ng to his person a l rel a tions A s H ell a s exh a us ted “

its s tre ng th no t so m uch in the s t uggle of A the n s ag a ins t r

S p a r ta a s in the in ter na l s trife of th e A the ni a n a nd La ce

d ae m o ni a n fac tio ns in every depe nden t co mm u ni ty a nd eve n ,

in A the n s i tself so th e riva lry of th e Ar verni a nd H a e dui

,

1 l
Th e p o s itio n w hich such a fe d era ge ne ra o ccu p ied w ith re fere nce to l
his tro o p s , 1 5 sh o wn b y the a ccusa tion o f h igh tr eas o n ra ise d a ga ins
Ver cinge to rix ( Ca e sar , B G Vi i
. . .
 TH E S U BJU GA T I ON OF T H E WES T BOO K v

wi th its repe ti tio ns o n a s ma ller a nd s maller sc ale des troyed

th e Cel tic pe o ple .

T h e mili ta ry ca p a bili ty of th e n a ti o n fel t th e re fl ex in

fl ue nce o f these poli tica l a nd s o ci al rel a ti o ns T he c a v alry .

wa s through o u t the pred o m in a nt arm ; a lo ngside of which

a m o ng th e B elga e a nd s till m o e in th e B ri tish isl a nds the
,
r
,

old n ation a l wa r ch a ri o ts app e ar in re marka ble perfec tion

-
.

T he s e equ a lly nu m erous a nd e ffi cie nt b a nds of c o mb a ta nts

on h o rseback and in ch ariots were form ed fro m the nobili ty
a nd its v a ss a ls ; fo r th e n obles ha d a genuine k nigh tly
deligh t in dog s a nd horse s a nd were at m uch expense to
,

procure no ble horses of foreign breed I t is ch ara cteristic .

of th e spiri t a nd th e m o de o f figh ti ng of these n o bles th at ,

when the levy was c a lled o ut whoever could keep his se at

,

o n h o rseb a ck even th e gr a y h a ired o ld m a n t ook the field

,
-

, ,

a nd th at when on th e p o i nt of begi nni ng a c o m b a t wi th a n

,

enemy o f wh o m they ma de li ttle a ccou nt they swo re man by ,

ma n th at they would keep aloof fro m house a nd h o m es te a d ,

unless their b a nd should ch arge at le a st twice through the

ene my s li ne Amo ng th e hired wa rri o rs th e fre e l a nce spirit
’
.
-

preva iled wi th all its de m ora lized a nd s tolid indi fference

towards their own life a nd th at o f o thers T his is app aren t .

fro m the s to ries— however a necdo tic their col o uring—o f the
Cel tic cus tom of til ti ng by w a y of sport arid now and then
figh ti ng for life o r de a th a t a b a nque t a nd of the usage ,

( which prev a iled a m o ng the Cel ts a n d ou t

,
did even the
R o ma n gl a di a t o ri a l g a m es ) of selling the m sel es to be ki lled v

fo r a se t s um of m oney or a nu m ber o f c a sks of wine a nd ,

volu nta ily a ccep ti ng th e fa ta l bl o w stre tched o n their shield

r

befo re the eyes of the whole m ul ti tude .

I nfa ntry . B y th e S ide of thes e m o u nted warri o rs th e infa n try fell

i nto the b a ckgro u nd I n the ma i n it e ss e nti lly rese m bled
. a

th e b a nds of Cel ts wi th who m th e R o m a n s h a d fough t in

,

I ta ly a nd S pa i n . T h e la rge shield w a s a s the n the prin , ,

ci a l we a on of defence a m ong the o ff ensive a rms on th e

p p ,
CH A P . V ii TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WE S T 2 7

other h and the lo ng thrus ti ng l a nce now pl a yed the chief

,

p art in roo m of the sword Whe e sever al ca nto ns wa ged

. r

w ar in le ague t hey nat u a lly enc a m ped a nd fough t cl a n

,
i

a g a ins t cl a n ; there is no tr a ce of their giving to th e levy of

ea ch c a n ton mili ta ry org aniza tion a nd fo r ming s m aller and

more reg ul a r tac tica l subdivisions A l o ng tr ain of wa ggo ns .

s till dragged the b agga ge of th e Cel tic ar my ; ins te a d of an

en trenched c amp such a s the R o m ans pi tched every nigh t
, ,

th e po o r substitu te of a b a rric a de of w a gg o ns s till su ffi ced .

I n the c a se of cer ta in ca n tons such as the N e rvii th e , ,

efficiency of their infa n try is noticed as excep tional ; it is

rem a rk able th at these ha d no c a v alry and perh a ps were ,

no t even a Cel tic but a n i mm igra nt Ger m a n tribe B ut in .

ge nera l the Cel tic infa n try of this perio d a ppe ars as a n
unwa rlike a nd unwieldy levy en masse ; m ost of all in the
more sou thern provinces where al o ng wi th b a rb a is m va lour
,
r

ha d a lso dis a ppe a red The Cel t s ays C a e sa ven tures no t

.
,
r,

to fa ce the G er ma n in b a ttle T h e R o m a n ge nera l p a s s ed

.

a censure s till m ore severe th a n this judg m e nt o n th e Cel tic

in fa ntry seeing th at a fter h aving beco me a cqu a in ted wi th

, ,

the m in his firs t c a m p a ign he never a gain e m ployed the m

,

in con nec ti o n wi th R o m a n i nfantry .

I f we survey th e wh o le condi tion of the Cel ts a s C a es a r S g f ta e o

found it in the Tra ns alpine regio ns there is a n unmistake ,

a ble a dva n ce in ci viliz a tio n as co m p a red wi th th e s ta ge o f th C l ti

, e e c
i m fim
cul ture at which the Cel ts c am e befo re us a cen tury a nd a C v za

h alf previously in the v a lley of th e P o T hen th e m ili tia .

,

excellen t of its kind thoro ughly p eponderated in their

,
r

a m ies i now e c a v a lry o ccupie s th e fi s t pl a ce

r
( . th r .

T hen th e Cel ts dwel t in ope n vill a ges no w well co ns tructed -

w alls surr o u nded their townships T he objec ts to o fou nd in .

th e tombs of L o mb ar d y are especi ally a s respec ts a r ticles ,

o f copper a nd gl a ss fa r inferi o r to th o se of n or thern G a ul

, .

P erh aps the mos t trus tworthy m e a sure of th e i nc e a se of r

cul ture is the sense of a co mmon rel ationship in the nation ;

 TH E S U B JU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T so ox v
so li ttle of it co mes to ligh t in th e Cel tic b attl e s fo ugh t
on th e s o il of wh a t is no w Lo m b a dy while it strikingly r ,

a ppe a rs in th e s t uggles a g a i ns t C a es a r
r T o all appe a ra nce .

th e Cel tic na ti o n whe n C a es a r e ncou nte ed it ha d a lre a dy

,
r ,

re a ched the m xi mum o f th e cu ltu e a ll o tted to it a nd was

a r ,

eve n no w o n th e decli ne Th e ci iliza ti o n of the T ran s. v

a lpi ne Cel ts ih C a es a s ti m e prese nts even fo r us who ar e

’
r ,

b ut very i m per fec tly i nfo rm ed reg a rdi ng it se er al a spec ts ,

v

th a t are es ti m a bl e a nd y e t mo e th a t a re in teres ti ng ; in
,
r

som e respec ts it is mo re a ki n to th e m oder n than to th e

H ellenic R o m a n cul ture wi th its sa ili ng ve ss els its knigh t
-

, ,

h o o d its ecclesi a s tica l c o ns ti tu tio n ab o ve a ll wi th its

, ,

a tte m p ts however i m pe fec t to build th e s ta te no t o n th e

,
r ,

ci ty but on th e t ib e a nd in a higher degr ee on the n ation

,
r .

B ut jus t bec a u s e we here m ee t th e Cel tic n atio n a t th e

cul m i nati ng poi nt of its develop m e nt its lesser degree of ,

m o r a l e nd o w m e nt or which is th e s am e thi ng its lesser

, ,

c ap aci ty of cul ture comes m o re dis ti nc tly i nto View I t

, .

wa s un a ble to produce f o m its own resources ei ther a r

n ation al art or a n ationa l s tate ; it a ttained at th e u tm os t

a na tion al the o l o gy a nd a peculi a type of no bili ty Th e r .

origin al si mple v al o ur w a s no m o re ; the m ili tary courage

ba sed on higher m orali ty a nd judici o u s o ganiz a tio n which r ,

co mes in the tra i n of increa sed civiliz a ti o n had only ma de ,

its appe ar a nce in a very s tun ted fo r m a mo ng th e knigh ts .

B a b a ris m in the s tric t se nse w a s doub tless ou tlived ; the

r

ti m es h a d gone by whe n in G a ul th e fa t h au nch was

,

a ssigned to th e br a ve s t of th e gues t s but e a ch of his ,

fell o w gues ts who though t hi ms elf o ffe nded thereby w a s at

-

liber ty to ch allenge th e receiver o n th a t sc o re to co m bat ,

a nd when th e m o s t fa i thful re t a i ners o f a dece a s ed chief

we e burnt al o ng wi th him B ut hu ma n s acrifices s till

r .

c o n ti nued and th e m a xi m of la w th a t tor ture w as in a d

, ,

m issible in th e c a se of th e free m a n b ut a llow a ble in th a t

of the free wo ma n as well as of sl aves throws a fa r fro m ,
 30 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF TH E WES T B OO Kv
A d va nce o f he e rec all
r fa c t th at it w as no t m erely the supe iori ty of
th e r
R o man
tra d e a n d th e R o m a n a r m s which p essed h a rd o n th e Cel ts but
r ,

co m mer ce qui te as much th at o f R o ma n cul ture wh ich l ike wise ,

in to free
G a ul.
re aped the ul ti ma te be nefi t of the respec table begi nni ngs of
H ell e nic ci iliz a tio n in G a ul
v H ere too a s s o Often
.
,

h ppe ns tra de a nd c o mmerce p aved the w ay for co nquest

a ,
.

T he Cel t a fte n o r the n fa shi o n w a s fo n d of fie ry drinks

r r ,

th e fa c t th a t like th e S cy thi a n he dr a nk th e generous wine

u nmi ngled a nd to i ntoxica tion exci ted the su prise and th e
,
r

di sgust of the te mperate sou thern ; but the tra der ha s no

o bjec tion to de a l wi th such cu s to m ers S oon th e tra de
.

wi th Gaul beca me a m i ne of gold for the I tali a n m e ch a n t ; r

it was n o thi ng u nusu a l there fo r a j ar of wine to be

exch a nged fo r a slave Other articles of luxury such as
.
,

I ta li a n horses fou n d a dva n ta geous s ale in Ga ul

,
T here .

were i ns tance s even alre ady of R o ma n burge sses acquiring

l a nded pro pe ty beyond the R o man fro ntier a nd turning
r ,

it to profi t a fter th e I tali a n fa shi o n ; there is m en tio n for ,

example of R o m an es ta tes in th e c anton of th e S eg usiavi

,

81 .
( ne a r L yo ns a s e a ly a s a b o u t 6 7 3
) r B eyond
. doub t it was

a consequence o f this th a t a s alre a dy m en tioned p

, ( 1 8) .

in free Ga ul i ts elf e g a m o ng th e Ar erni th e R o ma n

, . . v ,

la ngu age w a s not unkn o wn even befo re the co nques t ;

a l th o ugh this k nowledge wa s pr e su m a bly s till restric ted to

few and eve n the me n of ra nk in the a llied c a n ton of the

,

H a e dui had to be c o nversed wi th through i nterpre ters .

J u st as th e t a ffickers in fi re wate r a nd the squ atters led the

r -

w a y in th e o ccup a tio n o f N or th A m eric a so these R o ma n ,

wi ne tra ders a nd l andl o rds p a ved th e way for a nd beckoned

-

o nw rd the fu ture conquero r of Ga ul H o w vividly this

a , .

w a s fe l t even o n th e Opp o si te side is s hown by the pro,

h ib itio n which o ne o f th e m os t energe tic tribe s of G a ul the ,

c a nto n of the N ervii like s o me Ger ma n pe o ples is sued

, ,

ag a in s t tra flicking wi th th e R o m a n s .

S till m ore viole nt even th a n th e pressure of the R om ans

C H A P. V ii TH E S U BJ U G A TI ON OF T H E WES T 3x

fro m the Medi terra ne a n wa s th at of th e Ger mans downwa d C lt nd r e s a

fro m the Ba l tic a nd the N or th S e a— a fresh s tock fro m th e G m ns er a .

gre at cra dle o f peoples in th e e a s t which ma de roo m for ,

i tself by th e side of its elder bre thren wi th you thful vigour ,

a l th o ugh a lso wi th you thful rudeness T h o ugh th e tribes .

of t hi s s t ock dwelli n g ne a res t to th e R hi n e — th e U sipe tes ,

T enc teri S ug a m bri U bii —h a d begu n to be in so me degree

, ,

civilized and ha d a t le a s t ce a sed v o lu nta ily to ch ange their

,
r

a bode s all a cc o u nts y e t a gree t h at fa r ther i nl and a gr icul ture

,

w a s o f li ttle i mpor ta nce and th e seve a l tribes ha d h a dly

,
r r

e t a ttained fixed a b o des I t is signific a n t in this respect

y .

th a t their we stern neighb o urs a t this ti m e h ardly knew how

to na m e a ny one of th e peoples of th e in terior of Ger ma ny

by its c an ton al n ame these were only known to them under
th e genera l a ppell a tio ns of the S uebi th a t is the rovin g , ,

people or no ma ds and the M arco mani th at is the land

, , ,

1 —n m es which
g u a rd a were h a rdly c an to nal n a m es in
C aes ar s ti me al though they appe a red a s such to th e
’
,

R o ma ns a nd subsequently becam e In v a r ious ca ses n am es of

c an tons .

The m os t violen t onse t of this gre at n ation fell upo n Th ight e r

b k f an o
th e Cel ts T h e s truggles in which th e G erm a ns prob ab ly th R h in
.
, e e

engaged wi th th e Cel ts fo r th e possession of the regions to l t t the os o

C lts e
th e e a s t of th e R hine are wholly wi thdr a w n fro m our view
.

, .

We are only a ble to perceive th at a bou t the end of th e ,

seven th cen tury of R om e all the la nd as far as the R hin e

1 ’
l
Caes ar s S ue b i thus w ere p ro b a b y th e Ch a tti ; b ut th at des igna tion
l l
certa in y b e o ng e d in C a es a r s tim e a nd e ve n much a ter , a s o to e ver
’

,
y l l
o th e r G e r m a n s t o c k l
w h ich co u d b e de s cr ib e d a s a r e gu a r y w an de ring l l
o ne. A cc or d ing i
y ,f as l
i s n o t t o b e do ub t e d t h e
“
in o e S ue b i
”
, k g f th
l . l
in M e a ( iii 1 ) a nd P iny ( H N ii 6 7 , 1 7 0 ) w as A r io vis tus , it b y no
. . .

ll
m ea ns th e r e fo re fo o w s th a t Ario v is tus wa s a Ch a tta n Th e M a rco m a ni .

ca nno t b e de mo ns tra te d as a dist inct pe o p e b e fore M a rb o d it is ve r p o s s ib e

y l l
th a t t he w o r d up to th a t p o int indica t es no th in g b ut w h a t it e ty m o o gica l y l l
s ig nifi es — l
th e a nd , o r fro ntie r g ua r d W h e n C a e sa r ( i 5 1 ) m e ntio ns
, . .

l
M arco m a ni a m o ng th e pe o p e s fi gh ting in th e ar m y o f A rio vi s tus , h e m ay
in th is ins ta nce h a ve m is unde rs to o d a m er e y a p p e a tive des igna tion, l ll
l
j us t as h e h as d ecid e d y do ne in th e case o f the S ue b i .
 TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WES T B OO K v

w as alre a dy l o st to th e Cel ts tha t th e B o n who were prob ,

a bly o nce se ttled in B a v a i a a nd B o he m i a ( iii 4 2 r were .

h o m ele ss wa nderers a nd th at eve n the B la ck Fo e st fo r r

merly p o sse ss ed by th e H elve tii ( iii if no t ye t taken .

pos se s sio n of by the Germ an tribes dwelling in the vici ni ty ,

w as a t le a s t w a ste deb a te a ble borde l a nd a nd wa s pre sum r -

a bly even then wh a t it was a fterw a ds c a lled th e H el e ti a n

,
r ,
v

desert T h e b arb a ro us s tra tegy o f th e Ger ma ns— which

.

secured the m fro m hos tile a tta cks by la yi ng wa s te the

neighb o urho o d for m iles — see m s to h a ve bee n a pplied here
o n th e gre a te s t sc a le .

B ut th e Germa ns ha d no t re m a i ned s tation a ry a t th e

R hi ne T he ma ch of th e Ci mbri a n a nd T eu to nic hos t
. r ,

co mp o sed a s re spec ts its fl o we o f Ger m a n tribes which

,
r, ,

ha d s wep t wi th s uch fo rce fifty ye a rs b e fo e o ver Pa n n oni a r ,

G a ul I taly and S p ai n see med to h a ve bee n no thi ng but a

, , ,

grand r econn issa nce Alre a dy di fferen t Germa n tribes had

a .

fo r med per mane nt se ttle me nts to th e we t of the R hi ne s ,

especi ally of its lower c o urse ha vi ng i ntruded a s con querors ,

these se ttlers c o ntinued to de ma n d h o s ta ges a nd to levy

annu a l tribu t e fro m th e G a llic i nh a bi ta nts in their neigh

bou ho o d as if fro m subjects A mong these Germ an tribes

r , .

we e th e Adua tuci wh o from a fragm en t of th e Ci mb i a n

r ,
r

horde ( iii 4 4 5) had grown in to a c o nsiderabl e c a nto n a nd a

.
,

nu mber of o ther tribes a fterwa rds co m prehe nded under the

n a m e of the T ung ri o n the M aa s in the regi o n of Li ege ;
eve n th e Tre ve ri (a b o u t Treve s) a nd the N e rvii ( in
H a i na ul t) tw o of th e l a rg e s t a nd m os t powerful pe o ples of
,

this egio n a re di ec tly de sig na ted by respec ta ble a u th o r

r ,
r

i ties as Germa ns T he co mple te credibili ty of these a ccoun ts

.

m us t cer ta i nly re m a i n d o ub tful si nce a s Ta ci tus re m a ks in

, ,
r

refe e nce to th e two pe o ples la s t me nti o ned it w a s

r
,

subseque ntly a t le a st in these regi o n s reck o ned a n ho no ur

, ,

to be desce nded o f Ger ma n bl o o d a nd no t to belong to the

little e ste e me d Cel tic na tio n ; ye t th e popul a tion in th e

C H A P. V ii TH E S U BJU GAT I ON OF T H E WES T 33

regio n of the S cheld t M aa s a nd Moselle see m s cer ta i nly to

, ,

h a ve become in one w ay or a no ther l a gely m ingl e d wi th

, ,
r

Ger ma n ele m en ts or at any r ate to h ave c o m e under Germ a n

,

influences T he Ger man se ttle m e nts the m selves were

.

perh a ps s mall ; they were no t u ni m por ta nt for amids t the ,

ch a otic o b scuri ty through which we see the s tre am of

,

pe o ples on th e righ t b ank o f th e R hi ne ebbing and flowing

a bou t this period we ca n well percei e th a t la rger Germ a n
,
v

h o rdes were prep a ri ng to cross the R hi ne in the track of

these a dv anced pos ts T hre a tened on tw o sides by foreign
.

domin ation a nd torn by in tern a l di s se nsi o n it wa s sca rcely ,

to be expec ted th a t th e u nh a ppy Cel tic na tion would now

rally a nd s a ve i tself by its own vigour D is m e m ber men t .

,

a nd dec a y in vir tue of dis m e m ber m en t h a d hi thert o bee n ,

its his to ry how should a n a tio n which could n am e no day

,

like those of M a ra thon a nd S a l am is of Aricia a nd the ,

R a udine pl a in — a nati o n which even in its ti m e of vigour

, ,

h a d m a de no a tte m p t to des troy M a ssili a by a uni ted e fl o rt

'

— now when evening had co me defend i tself aga ins t so ,

form idable fo es ?
T he less th e Cel ts left to the m selves were a ma tch for Th
, ,
e
R m n
th e Germ a ns the m o re re a so n ha d th e R o ma ns ca refully to
o a

p li y with
,
o c

watch over the complications in which the two n atio ns f n re e re ce

t th
m igh t be involved Al though the m ove m en ts thence
o e
.

a risi ng ha d no t up to the presen t ti m e d irec tly a ffec ted the m in i n ,

vas o .

they and their m ost i m por ta n t in teres ts were y e t concer ned

in the issue o f those m ove m en ts As m ay rea dily be con .

ce ive d th e i ntern a l de m e a nour of th e Cel tic na ti o n h a d

,

beco me speedily a nd perm a ne ntly in fl uenced by its ou twa rd

rel ations A S in Greece the La ce da e m o ni an p arty com bi ne d
.

wi th Persi a agains t th e Atheni ans so the R o ma ns fro m their

,

first a ppe a r a nce beyond the Alps had fo u nd a support

ag a ins t th e A rverni who were then th e ruling power a m on
, g
th e sou thern Cel ts in their riv als for th e hege m ony the
, ,

H a e dui and with the aid of these new bro thers of the
:
“

VOL. v I 36
34 TH E S U B J U GATI ON OF TH E WES T B OO Kv
R o ma n n ati o n they h a d not m erely reduced to subjec ti o n
the Al lobroges a nd a g e at por ti o n o f th e i ndirec t te ri tory
r r

of the Ar verni but ha d a ls o in the Ga ul th at re ma ined free

, , ,

occa sioned by their i nflue nce the transference of the hege

m ony fro m th e A r er ni to these H ae dui
v B ut while the .

Greeks were thre ate ned wi th da nger to their n ation ali ty only
from one side the Cel ts found the m selves h a rd pre s sed
,

si m ul tane o usly by tw o nation al fo es a nd it was natura l th at

they sh o uld seek fr o m th e o ne pro tection a ga i ns t the o ther ,

a nd th a t ,
if the o ne Cel tic p a rty atta ched i tself to the
R o ma ns thei
,
o pp o n en ts
r sh o uld on the contra ry fo m r

a lli a nce wi th th e Ger m a ns T his course wa s m os t n a tura l

.

for the B elga e who were brough t by neighbourhood a nd

,

m anifo ld in ter m ix ture in to closer relation to the Germans

who had cros sed th e R hi ne a nd moreover wi th their less
, ,

developed cul tu e prob a bly fel t the mselves at lea st as much

r ,

a ki n to th e S ue bia n of a lie n ra ce a s to their cul tiv a ted

Allo b ro g ia n or H elve tic coun try m a n B ut the s o u thern .

Cel ts a lso a m ong who m no w as alrea dy me ntioned the

, , ,

co nsidera ble ca n ton of the S equ a ni (a bou t B e sa nco n) s too d

a t th e he a d o f th e p ar ty ho s tile to th e R o m a ns h a d every ,

rea s on at this very ti m e to c all in the Ger ma ns aga ins t th e

R o m a n s who i mm edi a tely thre a te ned the m ; the re m i s s
governmen t of th e sen ate a nd the signs o f th e revolu tion
prep a ring in R om e which h ad no t rem ained unknown to
,

th e Cel ts ma de this very m o m e nt see m sui table for riddi ng

,

the m selves of th e R o ma n influence a nd pri marily for

hu mbling th e R o ma n clie nts th e H ae dui A rup ture had, .

ta ken pl a ce be tw e e n th e tw o ca nt ons respec ti ng th e tolls

o n th e S a o ne which sep a r ted th e ter i to ry of the H ae dui

,
a r

f o m tha t o f the S equ a ni a nd a b o u t the ye a r 6 8 3 the

r ,

Ge ma n pri nce Ar i o vis tus wi th so m e

r a r m ed m e n

ha d crossed the R hi ne a s condottzer e of th e S equ a ni

’

The w ar wa s prol o nged for s o m e yea rs wi th va rying

success ; on th e whole the resul ts were unfavourable to th e
CH A P V I I . TH E S U BJU GA T I ON OF T H E WES T 35

H ae dui heir le ad er Epo re do ri at le ng th called o ut

. T x

their whole clien ts a nd ma ched fo rt h wi th a n en o r m o u ,

r s

supe iority o f fo rce a ga i ns t th e Ge m a ns T he se obs tin ately

r r .

refused b a ttle a nd kep t the m selves under c o ver of morasses

,

and fore sts I t w a s no t till th e cl an s we a ry of wa i ting

.
, ,

began to bre a k up and disperse th at the Ger mans appea red ,

in the open field a nd then Ar iovis tus co m pelled a b attle at

,

A dmag e to brig a in which th e fl ower o f th e c av alry of th e

,

H a e dui were left o n th e field T he H a e dui fo rce d by this .

,

de feat to conclude pe a ce o n th e term s which the victor

prop o s ed were obliged to re no unce th e hege mo ny and to
, ,

c o nse nt wi th thei whole a dheren ts to bec o me clients of the

r

S equ a ni they h ad to bind the m s elves to pay tribu te to th e

S equ a ni or r a ther to A rio vis tu s a nd to fur n ish the children ,

of their princip al nobles as h o s tages ; and l a s tly they had to

swe ar th at they would never de m a nd b ack these hostag es
nor invoke the interven tion of th e R oma ns .

T his pe a ce w a s concluded a pp a ren tly abou t 61 .

H onour a n d a d a n ta ge e njoined th e R o m a ns to co me v

forward in o pp o si ti o n to it ; th e n oble H a e dua n D ivitiacus R mans , o .

th e he a d of th e R o m an p art y in his cl an a nd for th at ,

rea son now b anished by his coun trymen we nt in person to ,

R om e to solici t their i nterve nti o n A s till more serious w ar n .

ing w as the insurrecti o n of the A llobroges in 6 9 3 ( p 8 ) 6 1 . .

th e neighb o urs of th e S equ a ni —which w as beyond doub t

conne cted with these even ts I n re ali ty orders were issued .

to the Ga llic g o ver nors to a s s i s t th e H a e dui they talked of

sending consuls and consul a r ar mies over th e Alps but the

se nate to wh o se decisi o n th ese afl airs pri ma ily fell at
,
'

r ,

length here also cro wned great words wi th li ttle deeds .

Th e insurrection of the A ll o br o ges was suppr e ssed by a rm s ,

pl di g t
1 Th i l ef A i it
a rr va i G l h b o d r o v s us n au as een a ce , a ccor n o
C i 36 i 6 8 3
a e sa r , . d/ th b ttl
, f Adm g t b ig ( f
n , h wan th 71 e a e o a e o r a o r su c as e
f th p l ll y in f l
,

n m
a e o n w e d aceW h io p i us u a , a cco r a nce it a a se ns cri t o n,
ca ll d M g t b ig )
e a d gt C
e o i 35
r d Ci
a , A d A it i 9
a ccor in o aes ar . an ce ro . . . 1 ,

in 6 9 3 .
36 TH E S U BJU G A TI ON OF T H E WES T B OOK v

b ut hi ng wa s d o ne fo r th e H a e dui o n the c o n trary

no t ,

A i o vi stus w a s eve n enr o lled in 6 9 5 in th e lis t Of ki ngs

r

f ie dly wi th t e R o a s
r n h m n 1
.

T h e Germa n w a r i o r p i nce na tu ally to ok this as a

r -
r r

r e n un ci ati o n by th e R o m a ns o f th e Cel tic l a nd which they

h d no t o ccupied ; h e a ccordi ngly to o k up his a b o de there

a ,

a nd b e g an to e st bli sh a G e r m a n pri ncip a li ty on G allic

a

s o il I t was h is i nte ntion th t the nu m ero u s b ands which

. a

he had bro ugh t wi th h im a nd th e still mo re nu m ero us ,

b a nds th at a fter w a ds fo llo w ed a t his call fro m hom e — it

r

w s recko ned th a t up to 6 9 6 s o m e
a Germ ans ha d
c o s sed the R hi ne — this wh o le m igh ty i mm ig a tion of th e
r r

Germa n n ati o n wh ich pou ed thr o ugh the o nce Ope ned
,
r

sluice s like a s t ea m o er th e be a u tiful wes t s h o uld bec o m e

r v ,

se ttled there a nd fo m a b a sis o n which he m igh t build his

r

d o mi ni o n o ver G a ul Th e exte nt o f the German se ttle

.

m e nts which he ca lled in to exi s te nce on th e left b a nk of

th e R hine c a nno t be de te m i ned ; beyond doub t it w a s r

g e at a nd h is pr ojec ts we e fa r g e ater s till T he Celts

r ,
r r .

were tre ated by him a s a wh o lly subjugated n a ti o n a nd ,

no di stinc tion wa s m a de be twee n the seve al ca nto ns r .

Eve n the S equ a ni a s whose hired c o mm a nder in—

,
chief he -

h a d cr o ssed the R hi ne were o bliged a s if they were va n , ,

is h e d ene m ie to cede to h im fo r his pe o ple a thi d o f

“

q u s, r

their terri to y — pre s u m a bly upper Als a ce a fterw a rds ln

r

h abi ted by the T rib o ci— where A riovis tus per ma ne ntly
s e ttled wi th his fo ll o wers na y as if this were n o t e no ugh , ,

a seco n d thi d w a a fte w a rd s d e m a nded o f the m for th e

r s r

H ar ude s w h o a rri e d subseque ntly v A ri o vi stus see m ed a s .

if he wished to ta ke up in G a ul the p a r t of Philip o f

M a cedo nia a nd to pla y th e ma ster o ver th e Cel ts who we e
,
r

T h a t w e ma y no t de e m th is co urse o f thin s incre dib e , o r e ve n im p ute

1
g l
g
to it de e p e r m o t ive s t ha n i no ra nce a nd az ine ss in s ta tes m e n, w e s h a do l ll
we ll l l
to r e a ize th e frivo o us to ne in w h ich a dis ting uis h e d se na to r i e lk
l
C icero e x p res se s h im s e f in h is co rr es p o nde nce res p e ctin th ese im po rta nt g
T ra nsa p ine a ffa irsl .
38 TH E S U BJ UG ATI ON OF T H E WES T B OO K v

been co mpelled by th e Ger mans to fo sa ke their homes r

a nd were no w u nse ttled w a nderers a nd o ther s ma ller tribes , ,

ma de co mm o n c a use w i th the H elve tii A s e a rly as 6 9 3 .

their flyi ng p a r ties c ame o ver th e J ura a nd eve n a s far a s

th e R o ma n pr o v ince ; th e ir dep ar ture i tself could no t be
much lo nge del a yed ; inevi t bly Ger m a n se ttlers would
r a

then a dva nce i nto th e i m p o r t nt regi o n be tween th e l a kes

a

of Cons tance a nd Ge ne a fors a ke n by its defenders From

v .

th e source s o f th e R hi ne to th e A tl a ntic Oce a n th e Ger ma n

tribes were in m o ti o n ; th e whole li ne of th e R hine wa s

thre a te ned by the m ; it w as a m o me nt like th t when th e a

A l ama nni a nd th e Fra nks threw the m selves on the fa lli ng

e m pi e of th e C a e sa rs a nd even now there see med on the
r

eve of bei ng c a ried in to e ffect aga i ns t th e Cel ts th a t very

r

m ove m en t which wa s successful five hundred ye ars a fter

wa rds aga ins t the R o m ans .

U nder these circu m s ta nces th e new governor Ga ius

C a es a r arrived in th e spring of 6 9 6 in N a rb o ne s e Gaul ,

which h ad been a dded by decree of the se na te to his

origi nal provi nce e mbr a ci ng Cis alpine Ga ul a l o ng wi th
I s tri a a nd D a l m a ti a H is o ffice which wa s c o mmitted to
.
,

h im firs t fo r five ye ars (to the e nd o f then in 6 9 9

for five m ore ( to th e e nd of g ave him th e righ t to

no m i nate te n lieu te na nts of pro pra e to ri an ra nk a nd (a t ,

le a st a ccordi ng to his own i nterpreta ti o n ) to fill up his

legion s or even to form new o nes a t his disc e tion o ut o f
,
r

th e burgess p o pul a tio n— who we e especi ally nu m erous in

-
r

Ci salpi ne G a ul — o f th e terri to ry u nder his swa y Th e .

a my which he received in th e tw o p o vi nces

r ,
consis ted r , ,

a s reg a rds i nfa n try o f th e li ne o f four legi o n s tr a i ned a nd

,

inure d to war the seve nth eigh th ni nth and ten th or at

, , , , ,

th e u tm os t m e n to which fell to be a dded a s

, ,

usu al th e c o nti nge nts o f the subjec ts T h e c a v al y a nd

, . r

light ar m ed t o o ps m o e o ve wer e represe nted by hors e

-
r ,
r r,

me n from S p ain and bv Nu m idi an Cre tan a nd Bale i c

, , ,
ar
C H A P. V I I TH E S U BJU G AT I ON OF T H E WE S T 39

a rchers and slingers T he sta ff of C a es ar—the élzte of th e '

de m ocra cy of th e c a pi tal—co nta ined al o ng wi th not a few

.

useless young men of rank s o m e a ble o flice rs such as , ,

P ublius Cra ssus th e younger son of th e o ld poli tic al a lly of

C aes a r a nd T i tus Labie nus who followed th e chief of the
, ,

de m ocracy a s a fa i thful a dju ta nt from the Foru m to the

b a ttle—fi e ld C a es ar ha d not received defini te ins tructions
.

to one who w a s discerni ng a nd coura geous these were

implied in the circu ms ta nces wi th which he ha d to de al .

H ere to o the negligence of th e sen a te h a d to be re trieved ,

and first of all th e s tre a m of m ig a tion of the Germ a n r

peoples ha d to be checked .

j us t a t this t i m e t h e H elve tic inv a sion which wa s ,

clo sely interwoven wi th the Ger ma n and had been in pre

a ra tio n for ye ar s beg an T h a t they m igh t no t m ake a
p ,
.

gr an t of their a ba n do ned hu ts to the Germ ans and migh t

re nder their o wn re turn i m p o ssible the H elvetii had burnt ,

their towns and V ill a ges ; a nd their long tra ins of wa ggons ,

l a de n with wom en children and the bes t p art of their

, ,

m o ve a ble s a rrived fro m all sides a t th e L e m a n l a ke ne a r

,

Gen a va ( Geneva) where they a nd their co mra des ha d

,

fixed their rendezvous for the 2 8 th of Ma rch of this ye ar 1

.

A ccording to their own recko ni ng th e whole body consis ted

of persons of who m a b o u t a fourth p art were a ble
,

to be a r a rm s A s the m oun ta in ch a in of the J ura s tre tch

.
,

ing f o m th e R hine to th e R hone a l m os t co mple tely closed

r ,

in the H el e tic coun try towa rds the wes t a nd its n a rrow
v ,

de file s were as ill a da p ted for the p a ss age o f such a c a ra va n

a s they were well a d a p ted for de fe nce th e le a ders h a d ,

resolved to go o und in a sou therly direc tio n and to open

r ,

up for the m s el es a way to th e wes t at th e poin t where

v
,

th e R ho ne h a s broken through th e m ou nta in ch a in be twee n -

1
A d g t th
cco r in t d
o l d
e A di g t th
u ncorre c e tca e n ar. ccor n o e curr e n

re c tifi i n whi h h w
ca t o ,
h c by om t
e ve r ffi i ntl y t
e re t no e a ns re s s o n su ce rus
w orth y d t thi d y
a a, p s d t th 6 th f Ap il f th J li
a co rr es on s o e 1 o r o e u an
40 TH E S U BJU G A T I ON OF T H E WE S T B OO KV
th e s o u th we ste n and highes t p a t of the J ura and the
-
r r

S a v o y m o u nta ins ne a th e m o de n Fo rt de l E clus e

’

,
r B ut r .

o n th e righ t b a nk h e re th e rocks a nd precipices co m e so

cl o se to th e river th a t ther e m i ne d o nly a n a rrow pa th r

e a

which c o uld e a sily b e block e d up a nd th e S equ a ni to , ,

w h o m this b a nk bel o nged could wi th e a se i ntercep t the

‘

r o u te of th e H elve tii T hey prefe red th e refo re to p a ss

. r

o erv ,
a bove th e p o i nt Where th e R ho ne bre aks through ,

to th e left A llo b o g ia n b a nk wi th th e view of reg a i n i ng th e

r ,

righ t b a nk fur ther d o w n th e s t e a m whe e th e R ho ne r r

en ters the pl a i n a nd th e n m a chi ng o n to wards the level

,
r

wes t o f Ga ul ; there th e fe tile ca nto n o f th e S anto ne s r

a in to nge h e v a lley of th e Ch a ren te ) on th e A tl a n tic

( S t ,

Oce a n w a s selec ted by th e w a nderers for their new a b o de .

T his m arch led where it touched th e left b a nk of the

,

R h o n e thro ugh R o m a n terri tory ; a nd C a es a r o therwi s e

, ,

no t disp o s ed to a cquiesce in th e es ta bli s h m en t of th e

H elve tii in wes te n Ga ul wa s fir mly re s olved no t to per mi t

r ,

their p a ss a ge B ut o f his fo u legio ns three were s ta tio ned

. r

far o ff at A quilei a ; al th o ugh he c a lled o ut in h a s te the

mili ti a of th e T ra n s alpi ne provi nce it see m ed sc a cely , r

possible wi th so s mall a fo rce to hi nder th e innu m era ble

Celtic hos t from cr o s si ng the R ho ne be tween its exi t fro m ,

th e L e ma n l ake a t Ge neva a nd th e poi nt of its bre a king

thr o ugh th e m ou nta i ns o ver a dis ta nce of m ore tha n

,

fo ur teen m iles C a e sa r howe er by nego ti a tio ns wi th the

.
,
v ,

H elve tii wh o would gl a dly h a ve e ff ec ted by pea ce a ble

,

m e a ns th e cros s i ng of th e ri er a nd th e m a ch through v r

th e Allo b ro g ia n terri t ory g a i ned a re s pi te o f fi fteen d ays

, ,

which was e m pl o yed in b e aki ng down the bridge over the r

R h o ne a t G e na va a nd b a rri ng th e s o u ther n b a nk of th e
,

R h o ne a ga i ns t the ene my by a n e ntrench m en t ne a rly

ni ne tee n m iles lo ng it was the fi s t a pplica ti o n o f the
: r

s y s te m —a fterw a ds c a rried o ut o n so i m m e n s e a sc a le by
r

th e R o m a ns — o f gu a rdi ng th e fron tier of the e mpire in a

C H AP. V i i THE S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WE S T
m ili tary poi nt o f vie w by a ch a in o f fo r ts pl a ced in c o nnec
ti o n wi th e a ch o the by ram p ar ts a nd di tches T he
r .

a te m p ts of th e H el e tii to g a i n th e o th e r b a nk a t difl e re nt
'

pla ces in bo ats or by m e a n s o f fo rds were succes sfully

frus tra ted by the R oma ns in these li nes and the H elve tii ,

we e c o m pell e d to desis t fr o m th e p a ss ge Of th e R hone

r a .

On th e o the h a nd th e p a r ty in Ga ul h o s tile to th e 1 1
r , 1°

R o m a ns which hoped to O b t i a powerful rei nfo rce m e nt

a n
H m “ e
,
m o ve
in th e H elve tii m o re especi ally th e H ae dua n D um no ri t w d
,
x o ar s
G ul
bro ther o f D i itia cus a nd at th e he a d o f th e n a ti o na l p a ty
v ,
r
a .

in his c a n t o n a s th e l a tter w a s a t th e he a d of th e R o m a ns ,

procured fo r the m a p a ss age thro ugh th e p a s ses of the J ura

a nd th e terri to ry of th e S equ a ni T he R o m n s h a d no
. a

leg al ti tle to fo rbid this ; but o ther a nd higher i nteres ts

were a t s take fo r the m in the H el e tic expedi ti o n th a n the v

ques tio n of th e fo rm al i ntegrity of th e R o m a n terri to ry

i nteres ts which could o nly be gu a rded if Ca es a r in s te a d of , ,

c o nfini ng hi m self a s all th e g o vern o s o f the sen a te a nd

,
r

even M arius ( iii 4 4 4 ) had d o ne to th e m o des t ta s k of

.
,

wa tchi ng th e f o n tier sh o uld cro ss wh at ha d hi ther to bee n

r ,

th e fro ntier at th e he a d o f a c o nsid e r a ble a r m y C a es a r .

w a s gener a l no t of th e s e n a te b ut o f th e s ta te ; he sh o wed
,

no hesi ta tio n H e had i m medi a tely proceeded f o m

. r

Gen ava in person to I taly a nd wi th ch a rac te i stic speed

, r

b o ugh t up the three legions ca nto ned th e re a s well as two

r

newly form ed legi o n s of recrui ts

-
.

T hese tr o ops b e uni ted wi th th e c o rps s ta tio ned a t Th e

H l ti n
Ge nava a nd cr o ssed the R ho ne wi th his whole fo rce H is w
, .
ar.
e ve a

u nexpec ted a ppe a rance in the terri tory of th e H ae dui

n atura lly at o nce resto ed th e R o ma n p ar ty there to power
r ,

which w as no t uni m p o tant a s reg rded upplies H er a s .

fo u nd the H elvetii e mployed in crossi ng th e S aone a nd ,

m o ing fro m th e terri to ry of th e S equ a ni i nto th at o f the

v

H a e dui those o f the m th at were s till o n th e left b a nk Of

th e S a one especially the corps of the T ig o rini were
, ,
 TH E S U BJ U G A TI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO KV
ca ugh t and des tr o yed by the R o ma ns a pidly a d a ncing r v .

T h e bulk of the expedi tio n howe er h a d a l e a dy cros s ed

,
v ,
r

to th e righ t b a nk of th e river ; C a es a r followed the m a nd in

twen ty four h o ur s e ffected th e p a s sage which th e u nwieldy

-
,

hos t of the H elvetii had no t bee n able to a cc o m plish in

twen ty days Th e H elve t i p even ted by this p a ss a ge o f the
. i ,
r

river on the p a r t of th e R o m an a r my fro m co ntinui ng their

march wes tw a d tur ned in a nor therly di ec ti o n d o ub tless
r ,
r ,

u nder th e supp o si tio n th at C a es ar would not ve nture to

follow the m fa r in to th e i nterior o f Ga ul and wi th the ,

in ten tion if he should d e sis t fr o m foll o wi ng the m of turning

, ,

a g a in tow ard their pr o per des tin a ti o n F o r fiftee n da ys .

the R o ma n a rmy m arch e d behi nd th at of th e ene my at a

dis ta nce of a b o u t fo ur miles clingi ng to its rea r and , ,

hoping for an a dva ntageous opp o r tuni ty of a ss a iling the

H elve tic hos t u nder condi ti o ns fa voura ble to vic to ry a nd ,

des troying it B ut this mo me nt cam e not : unwieldy as

.

was th e march of the H elve tic c a ra van th e le a der s k ne w ,

h o w to gu a rd a g a ins t a surprise a nd a ppe a red to be ,

copi o u sly provided wi th supplies as well a s m o s t a ccura tely

infor med by their spies of eve y eve nt in the R o ma n c amp r .

On th e o ther h a nd th e R o m a ns beg a n to su ffer fro m w a n t

of neces saries especi a lly whe n the H elve tii re mo ed from
, v

the S a o ne a nd th e m e a ns of river tr a ns p o r t ce a sed Th e

-
.

non arrival of the supplies pr o m ised by th e H a e dui from

-

which this e mb arra ss me nt pri ma rily arose exci ted the more ,

suspicion as bo th a rm ies we e s till mo ving a bou t in their

,
r

terri tory . Moreover the c o nsidera ble R o ma n c avalry ,

nu m be i ng al m o s t 4
r horse pro ed u tterly un trus two rthy
0 0 0 ,
v

-
which d o ub tless a d mi tted of expl a n ti o n for they c o nsi sted a ,

a l m o s t wholly o f Cel tic h o r s e m e n e s peci a lly o f th e m o u nte d

,

re ta i ne s of the H a e dui u nder the c o mma nd o f D um no rix

r ,

th e well k no wn e ne m y o f th e R o m a n s a nd C a e s a r hi m self
-

ha d ta ken the m ove s till m or e a s h o s tages th a n as s o ldiers

r .

T here was g ood re a son to believe th a t a defe at which they

CH A P . V I I TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T
su ffered at the ha nds of the far we aker H elve tic c a alry w as v

occ as ioned by the mselves a nd th a t the e ne my w a s in fo m ed

,
r

by them of all occurre nces in th e R o ma n c a mp T h e .

posi ti o n of C a es a r grew cri tic al ; it w a s beco mi ng di s agree

a bly evi den t how m uch the Cel tic p atriot p a r ty c o uld
,

e ff ect even wi th th e H a e dui in spi te of their o ffici a l a lli a nce

with R ome and of the di sti nc tive i nte es ts o f this ca n ton
,
r

i
ncli ning it to wa rd s th e R oma ns wh at w as to be the is sue ,

if they ventured deeper and deeper in to a cou ntry full of

exci tem en t and if they re moved d a ily fa rther f o m their
,
r

m e ans of co mm unic a tion T he a r m ies were ju st m archi ng

p as t Bib racte ( Au tu n) th e c a pi tal of the H a e dui a t a
, ,

m odera te dis tance C a es a r resolved to seize this i m por ta nt

pl ace by force before he c o n tinued his march in to the
i nterior ; and it is very possible th at he in tended to de sist
,

a l to ge ther fr o m fa r ther pur s ui t a nd to e s ta bli s h hi m self in

B ib racte .B ut whe n he ce a sed f o m th e pursui t a nd turned

r

a g a i ns t B ib racte the H elve tii though t th a t th e R o ma ns w ere

,

m aking prep ara tions for fl igh t a nd now atta cke d in their
,

turn .

Caes ar desired nothing be tter The two armies p o s te d . Ba ttle at

Bib ra cte.
the m selves on tw o p a a llel ch a i ns of hills ; th e Cel ts beg a n
r

the e ng agem en t broke up the R o m a n ca valry which h ad

,

a dva nced in to th e pl a i n a nd rushed on a g a inst th e R o m a n

,

legions pos ted on th e slope of the hill b ut we e there ,

r

obliged to give way befo re C a es ar s ve tera n s Whe n th e ’

.

R o m a ns thereupon followi ng up their a dv an ta ge descended

, ,

in their turn to the pla i n the Cel ts agai n a dva nced a ga i nst
,

them a nd a reserved Cel tic c o rps t o o k the m a t th e s a m e

,

t i m e in fl a nk T h e reserve of th e R o m a n a tta cki ng colu m n

.

wa s pushed fo rw a rd a g a in s t th e l a tter ; it fo rced it a w a y

from the ma in body tow a rds th e b aggage a nd th e b arrica de
of wa ggons where it was des tr o yed T he bulk o f the
,
.

—
H elve tic hos t w as a t le ng th br o ugh t t o give w ay a nd co m ,

p elle d to be at a re t e a t in a n ea sterl y di rec tion the

r
 TH E S U B U J G ATI ON OF TH E WE S T Kv
B OO

o pp o site of th a t towards which their expedi tion le d the m .

T his day ha d fru stra ted th e sche m e of the H elve tii to

es tablish for the m selves new settle men ts o n the A tl antic
Oce an and h a nded them over to the ple a sure of th e vic tor ;
,

b ut it ha d been a h o t day also for th e conquer o rs C ae sa r .

,

w h o h a d re a son for no t a l to ge ther trus ti ng his s ta ff of

o ffi cers h a d a t th e very ou tse t se nt a w a y all the o ffice rs ’

,

h o rses so a s to make the necessi ty of h o lding their ground

,

thoroughly cle a r to his troops ; in fa c t the b attle h ad th e ,

R o m a n s los t it would h a ve prob a bly brough t a bou t th e

,

a nnihil atio n of th e R o m a n a r m y T h e R o m a n troops were

.

to o much exh a us ted to pursue the co nquered wi th vigour ;

b ut in consequence of th e procla m a tion of C a es a r th at he

would treat all who sh o uld suppor t the H elve tii a s like the
H lve tii the m s el es en em ies o f th e R o m
e v a ns a ll suppor t ,

w as refused to th e be a ten a rm y w h i thersoever it we nt—in

th e firs t ins ta nce in th e c a n ton o f th e Ling o ne s ( a bou t

,

Langres ) a nd deprived of all su pplies a nd o f their b a gg a ge

-
,

a nd burdened by th e ma ss of c a m p followers inc ap able of -

figh ting they were under the necessi ty of submitti ng to the

,

R o ma n general .

T h e lot of the v anquished was a co m p aratively mild

one The H ae dui were directed to co ncede set tlements
.

in their terri tory to the homeless B oii a nd this se ttle ment

of th e conquered fo e in the mids t of the m o st powerful
Cel tic c anto ns rendered alm ost the services o f a R oma n
col o ny T he s ur ivo rs of the H elvetii a nd R auraci some
. v ,

th i ng m ore th a n a thi d of th e me n th at h a d marche d forth

r
,

were n atura lly sen t back to their former terri tory I t was .

inc o rpora ted wi th the R o ma n provi nce but the i nh a bi ta n ts ,

were a dm i tted to a lli a nce wi th R o me u nder favou ra ble

c o ndi tions in order to defend u nder R o man suprem acy
, , ,

th e fro ntier a long th e upper R hine a g a i ns t th e Ger ma ns .

Only the sou th wes te n poi nt of th e H elve tic c a n to n was

-
r

directly ta k en into the posses sion of the R o man s and there ,

 TH E S U B JU GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO K v

sou ther n Gaul to th e R o ma ns ; a nd th at a s he did not ,

hi n der th e R o m a ns fro m taki ng t ibu te fro m the A llobroges r ,

so they s h o uld no t pre e nt h im f o m ta xi ng his subjec ts

v r .

I n l a ter secre t o ve ture s it a pp e ed th a t th e prince w as

r ar

well a wa re of th e circu m s t nces o f th e R o m a ns ; he m e n

a

tio ne d th e i nvi ta ti o n s which h a d been a ddressed to him

from R o m e to put C a es a r o ut o f the wa y a nd o ffered if , ,

C a es ar would le ave to h im northern G a ul to a ssi st h im in ,

u
t n to
r ob ta i n th e sovereign ty of I ta ly — a s th e p a r ty qu a rrel s -

of the Cel tic n a ti o n h a d o pe ned up a n e ntra nce for him

i nto G a ul he see m ed to expe ct f om th e p arty qua rels of
,
r -
r

th e I tali n na ti o n th e c o nso lid a tio n o f his rule the re

a For .

ce ntu ies no such la ngu age of p o wer co m ple tely o n a fo o ting

r

o f equ a li ty a nd blu n tly a nd c a rele s s ly expres si ng its inde

e n d e nc e h a d b e en held in p esence o f th e R o ma ns r a s
p ,

w a s no w he a rd fr o m th e ki ng of th e Ger m a n hos t ; he

su m m arily refu sed to com e whe n the R o ma n general ,

sugge sted th a t he should appe a r per so na lly befo re him

a ccordi ng to th e usu a l p a c tice wi th clien t princes
r -
.

I t was th e m o re nece ss a ry no t to del a y ; C a es a r i m m e

dia te ly s e t o ut a g a i nst A ri o is tu sv A p a nic seized his tr o o p s
.
,

e s peci ally his o fficers whe n th ey were to m ea s ure their

,

s t eng th wi th th e fl o wer o f th e Ger m a n t oops th at for four

r r

te e n ye a rs h a d no t c o m e u nder shel ter o f a ro o f : it see m ed _

a s if th e deep dec ay of R o ma n m o ra l a nd m ili ta ry di scipli n e

wo uld a ssert i tself a nd pro v o ke deser ti o n a nd m u tiny even

in C a e sa r s c a m p B ut th e gene a l while decl a i ng th a t
’
. r ,
r

in c a se of need he would m a rch wi th th e ten th legio n a l o ne

a g a i ns t the e n e m y k new no t m erely h o w to i nflue nce the s e
,

by such an ppe al to ho no u but a ls o how to bi nd th e

a r,

o ther regi m e nts to their e agles by wa rlike e m ul ati o n a nd ,

to i nspire th e tr o o p s wi th so m e thi ng o f his o w n e ne gy r .

Wi th o u t le a vi ng the m time for refl e c ti o n he led the m ,

onwa rd in ra pid m a ches a nd fortu na tely a n ticipa ted

r ,

Ariovi stus in the occup a tion of V e s o ntio ( B es ancon ) th e ,

C R AP . V i i TH E S U BJU G A TI ON OF T H E WES T 47

c apital of th e S equa ni A perso na l conference b etween .

the two ge ner als which to ok pl ace a t th e reques t o f

,

A riovistus see med a s if s olely m e a nt to cover a n a ttem p t

,

a g a ins t the person of C a e sa r ; a r m s a l o ne could decide

be tween the two oppress o rs of G aul Th e w ar c m e . a

te mpor a rily to a s ta nd I n l o wer A ls a ce so m ewhere in the .

region of M iihlhause n five il s fro t e R hi ne th e two

m e m h 1
, ,

a r m ies la
y a t a li ttle dis ta nce fro m e a ch o ther till A riovis tus ,

wi th his very superi o r force succeeded in ma chi ng p a s t th e r

R o ma n ca m p pl a ci ng hi m s elf in its re a r a nd cu tting o f?

, ,

th e R om a ns fro m their b a s e a nd their supplies C a es ar .

a tte m p ted to free hi m s lf fr o m his p a i nful si tu a ti o n by a e

b a ttle but A io is tu s did no t a ccep t it N o thi ng re mained

r v .

for th e R o ma n g e ne al but in spi te o f his i nferior s trength r , ,

to i mi tate th e m ove m en t of th e Ger m a ns a nd to reco er ,

v

his co mm u nica tions by m aki ng tw o legio ns m a ch p a s t the r

e ne my a nd take up a p o si tion b eyo nd th e cam p o f the

G er ma ns while fo ur legi o ns re ma ined behi n d in the fo mer
,
r

cam p A ri o vis tus whe n he sa w the R om a ns divided

.
, ,

a tte m p ted a n as s a ul t on their lesser c a m p ; b ut th e R o m an s

G el
1
(C er g ll K i g p 4 5 aes a r st ) th i k a h t h h
. f d th
r e . . , e c. n s t a e as o un e

fi ld f b t l
e o t C a y t f
t e a f m M h lh e r na wh i h no h wh l ar ro u au se n, c , on t e o e,

wi h N p l f th b tt l fi ld i th
'
(P é p 35 ) p l m g
’

a g re e s t a o eon s r czs , . ac o e a e- e n e
d is tr ictf B lf o Th h y p th
e l h gh t
o r t. is th o e s is , a t ou no ce r ta in , s ui ts e
'
i
c r cum f h
s ta nce s o ; f h f h C
t e cas e q d d y
or t e a ct t at a e sa r re u ire se ve n a s

m h f
a rc h h t p
or f m B
t e s c or th t p m
s i
a ce p l i d by
ro e sa n o n to a o t, s ex a ne

h w
is o m k (i 4 ) h t h h d
n re ar k . i 1 f fif y m l
t a de a ta e n a c r cu it o t i es t o a vo r
th m e i p h ;
o u nta n d th w h l d at ip i s f th p
an it i e d o e e s cr t on o e urs u co nt nu e

as f h R hi
ar a s d
t e id ly t l i g f
ne , a n l d y b t di g n
ev e nt no a st n o r s e vera a s u en n o

h
t e ve r y d y f t h b la d do — h e h ty f d
a tt e , b g q lly
e ci es t e a ut o ri o tra it io n e in e ua

b l d—i f
a a nce f h i w th t th b
n a v o ur o l w f gh t fi
t e v e fif y a e a tt e as ou ve , no t t ,

m l f m th R h Th p p l f R w (E m l t g C ’

i es ro e ine . e ro o sa o us to ez u n zu a es a r s

C mm p
o 7)
. t . f h fi ld f b
1 1 to l h
ra ns e r t
pp S e e o a tt e to t e u er aa r r e s ts o n a

m isunde r s ta ndin g T h e corn ex p e cte d fr o m th e S e qua ni L e uci L ing o nes

. , ,

w a s no t to co m e to th e R o m a n army i n t h e co u r s e o f th e ir m arch a g aJ ns t
A rio v is tus , b ut t o b e de l
B e sa nco n b e fo r e th e ir de p a r ture a n d
ive r e d a t ,

k
ta e n b y t h e tro o p s a o n l g
w it h th e m ; a s is c e a r y a p p ar e nt fr o m th e l l
fa ct th a t Ca e s ar , w h ile p o m ting h is tr o o p s to th o se s up p ie s , co m for ts l
th e m a t th e s a m e ti m e W ith th e h o p e o f co rn to b e b r o u g h t in o n th e ro ute .

F r o m Be sa nco n C a e sa r co m ma nde d th e re io n o f L a n res a nd Ep ina . g g l

a n d, a s m a y b e w e co nce ive d, p r e fe rre d to ll
e vy h is re uis itio ns th ere
q l
ra th e r th a n in th e e xh a us te is tricts fr o m wh ich h e ca m e d d .
 TH E S U B JU GATI ON OF T H E WES T B oo x v
repul se d it U nder the i mpressi o n made by this success
. ,

the whole R o ma n army w a s brough t for wa rd to th e a tta ck ;

a nd th e Ger mans a ls o pl a ced the m s elves in b a ttle a rr a y in ,

a l o ng li ne e a ch tribe for i tself the c

,
s of the ar my wi th
,
ar

the bagg age a nd wo men being pla ced behind them to

render flight mo re di fficul t T he right wi ng of the R oma ns
.
,

led by C a es a r hi m self threw i tself ra pidly on the ene my

, ,

a nd drove the m before it ; th e igh t wing of the Germans

r

wa s in like ma n ner successful Th e b al a nce still s to o d

.

equ al ; but the ta c tics of th e reserve which ha d decided ,

s o m a ny o ther con fl ic ts wi th b a rb a ri a ns decided th e con fl ic t

,

w i th the Ger ma ns a lso in fa vour of th e R o m ns ; their a

third line which P ublius Cr a s s us s e a s o na bly sen t to render

,

help restored the b attle on the left wi ng a nd thereby

,

d ecided the vic tory T h e pur s ui t w as con ti nued to the

.

R hi ne ; o nly a few includi ng the king succeeded in

, ,

esc api ng to the o ther b ank

T hus brilli a ntly th e R o m a n rule a nnounced its a dven t
se ttle ments
to th e migh ty s tre a m which the I tali a n s o ldiers here s aw
,
o n th eleft
ba nk o f th e fo r th e fir st ti m e ; by a single for tun ate b attle th e li ne of
th e R hine was won The fa te of th e G er ma n se ttle men ts
.

o n th e left b a nk o f the R hine la y in th e h a nds of C a es a r ;

th e vic tor could des tr o y the m b ut he did no t do so Th e

neighbouring Cel tic ca n tons—the S equ a ni L e na Medio
.
,
-

, ,

m a trici— were nei ther ca p able of self defence nor trus t -

worthy ; the transpl an ted Germa ns pro m ised to becom e

no t m erely br a e gu a rdi a ns of the f on tier b ut a lso be tter
v r

subjec ts of R o m e fo r the ir natio na li ty severed them fro m

,

th e Cel ts a nd their o w n i ntere s t in th e p eserva tion o f

, r

their newly w o n se ttle m en ts severed th e m fro m their

-

coun t ry m en a cross th e R hine so th a t in their isola ted

,

po si tion they c o uld no t avoid a dheri ng to th e cen tra l

power . C aes ar here as eve ywhere p eferre d conquered
,
r ,
r

foes to doub tful frie nds ; he left the Germ a ns se ttled by

Ariovis tus along th e left b a nk of the R hine—the Trib o ci
C H A P. V I I TH E S U BJU G A T I ON OF T H E WES T
a bou t S t s sbu g the N e me te s a b o u t S pi e s th e V ang io nes
ra r ,
r ,

a bou t Worm s — in p o s ses s i o n o f their n e w a bodes and ,

e ntrus ted the m wi th the gu a rdi ng of the R hine fronti er -

a g a i n s t their c o un try m e n
1
.

T h e S uebi w h o thre a te ne d th e terri tory of the T re v eri

,

o n th e m iddle R hi ne o n receiving news of th e defe at o f ,

A ri o vis tus a ga i n re tre a ted i nto th e in terior o f Ge rm a n y ;

,

o n which occ a sion they su s ta i ned co nsidera ble loss by the

wa y at th e h a n ds o f th e a dj o ini ng tribes .

T h e c o nseque nces of this o ne ca m p aign were i m m ense ; Th e R hine

they were fel t for m a n y cen turies a fter T h e R hine h a d

m .
’

bec o m e the b o und a ry of the R om a n e mpire a gains t the

Germ ans I n G aul which was no longer able to govern
.
,

i tself the R o ma ns h ad hi ther to ruled o n the sou th coast

, ,

while lately the Germa n s h ad atte m p ted to es tablish them

selves farther up T he rece nt events ha d decided th a t
.

G a ul w as to succu mb no t m erely in p ar t b ut wholly to the

R o m a n supre ma cy a nd th a t th e natura l bound a ry presen ted
,

by the m igh ty river wa s also to beco m e th e p o litical

bound a y T he sen ate in its be tter ti mes h ad not rested
r .
,

till th e d o m i nion of R o m e h a d re a ched th e n atura l bounds

of I ta ly — th e A lp s a nd th e Medi terr a nea n — a nd its

a dj a cen t isl a nds T he enl arged e m pire also needed a
.

s i m il a r m ili ta ry roundi ng o ff ; but th e presen t govern m ent

left th e matter to a cciden t a nd sought at mos t to see not , ,

th at th e fron tiers were c a p able of defence b ut t h at they ,

sh o uld no t need to be defended directly by i tsel f People .

1
l
Th is s ee m s th e simp es t hy p o th es is re gar ding th e o rigin of th es e
G erma nic s e tt e m e nts l
Th a t Ar io vis tus s e tt e d t ho se p e o p es o n th e
. l l
l l
midd e R h ine is p ro b a b e , b eca us e th e y fi gh t in his a r my ( Cae s i 5 1 ) an d . .

l l
do no t a p p ea r e ar ie r ; th a t Ca e sar e ft t h e m in p o sse ss io n o f t h eir
l l
se tt e m e nts is p ro b a b e , b eca u se h e in p re s e nce o f Ar io vi s tu s de c are d l
l l l
h imse f r e a dy to to e r a te th e G e rm ans a r e a dy s e tt e d in Ga ul ( Cae s i 35 . l . .

a nd be ca use w e fi nd th e m afte rw ar ds in th e se a b o d e s C a es ar does .

no t me ntio n the dire ctio ns give n afte r th e b a tt e co nce rning th ese l

l k
G e r ma nic se tt e me nts , beca use h e e e p s S i e nce o n p rincip e r eg arding all l l
th e or g an ic arra n ge m e nts mad e b y him in Ga ul .

vo r. v 1 31
50 J G
TH E S U B U A T I ON o r TH E WES T BOOK v

felt that now a nother spirit and an o ther arm began to g ui d e

th e des ti nies of R o m e .

Th e fo u n d tio n s of th e fu ture edifice were l a id ; but in

a

o der to fi nish th e buildi ng a nd c o m ple tely to secure th e

r

rec o g ni tio n of the R om a n rule by the Ga uls and th at of ,

th e R hi ne fr o n tier by th e
-
Germa ns very m uch still ,

rem a ined to be do ne A ll cen tral G a ul indeed from the

.

R o ma n fro ntier as fa r up as Ch a r tres a nd T reves submi tted

wi thout o bjec t o n to the new ruler ; a nd on th e upper a nd
i

middle R hi n e a ls o no atta ck was for the presen t to be

a pp ehended
r fro m the Ger ma ns But the nor thern
p ovi nces — as well the A re mo rican c anto ns in B ri tta ny
.

a nd N or m a ndy as th e m ore powerful confeder a ti o n of th e

B elg a e— we e no t affec ted by the blows direc ted ag a i ns t

r

ce ntral Ga ul and fou nd no occ asio n to submi t to the

,

co nqueror of A ri o vis tus M o reover a s w a s alrea dy

.
,

rem arked very close relatio ns subsis ted be tween the

,

B elga e a nd th e Ger ma ns over th e R hi ne a nd a t the ,

m ou th of the R hi ne a ls o Ger ma nic tribes ma de them selves

rea dy to cross th e s tre a m I n co nsequence of this C a es ar
.

s e t o ut wi th his a r m y now incre a sed to eight legi o ns in

, ,

t h e sp i ng of 6 9 7 a g ins t th e B elgic c a ntons

r a Mindful of .

th e br a ve a nd succes s ful resis tance which fifty ye a rs before

they h a d wi th uni ted s treng th presen ted to the Cimbri on

th e borde s of their l a nd (iii
r a nd s ti m ul a ted by th e
.

p a t io ts who ha d fled to the m in nu mbers fro m cen tral

r

G a ul th e c o nfede a cy of the B elga e sen t their whole firs t

,
r

levy a r m ed m e n u nder th e le a dership of G alb a

the ki ng of the S ues s io nes—to their sou thern fron tier to

receive Ca es ar there A single c a nton alone th at of the
.
,

p o we ful R e m i (a bout R hei m s ) discerned in this inva sion

r

of th e foreign e s a n opp o r tuni ty to sh ake o fl the rule which

’

their neighbours th e S uessi o nes exerci se d over them and ,

prepa red to ta ke up in th e north the p ar t which the

H a e dui ha d pl ayed in cen tr al Gaul Th e R o man and the
.
CHAP . vn TH E S U BJ UGATI ON OF TH E WES T
Belgic a rm ies arrived in their terri tory al mo s t a t th e s am e
t i me
.

C aesa r did no t ve nture to give b attle to th e bra ve

ene m y six ti m es a s s trong ; to the n o rth of th e A is ne no t ,

fa r from th e m odern P o nta vert be tween R hei m s a nd L a o n ,

he pi tched his c a m p on a pl a te au rende ed a l m os t un a s r

sa il a ble o n all sides p a r tly by th e river a nd by m or a s s es ,

p a rtly by fo sses and redoub ts a nd con ten ted him self wi th

,

thwa r ti ng by de fensive m e a sures th e a tte m p ts of th e B elga e

to cross th e A isne a nd thereby to cut h im o ff fr o m his

co mmunic atio ns When he coun ted on th e likelihood
.

th at th e co a li tio n would speedily coll a pse under its own

weigh t he ha d reckoned righ tly K i ng Galb a was an

, .

h o nest m an held in u nivers al re s pec t ; but he was not

,

equ a l to the m an age m en t of a n ar m y of m e n on

hos tile s o il N o p ogress was m a de a nd pro visions beg a n
. r ,

to fa il ; discon ten t a nd disse nsion bega n to insinu a te

the m selves in to the c a m p of th e co nfedera tes The .

B ellova ci in p ar ticul a r equ a l to th e S ue s siones in power

, ,

a nd alre a dy diss a tisfied th a t th e supre m e co m m a nd of the

confedera te a rmy ha d no t fallen to the m could no longer ,

be de ta ined a fter news h a d a rrived th at th e H a e dui a s

a llies of th e R o m a n s were m a king prep a ra ti o ns to en ter

the B e llo va cic terri to ry T hey de ter m i ned to bre a k up

.

and g o ho m e though for honour s s a ke a ll th e c a n to ns a t

’

the s am e ti me bou nd the m selves to h a s ten wi th their uni ted

s tre ng th to the help of the o ne firs t atta cked the m isera ble ,

dispersion of the confedera cy wa s but m isera bly p alli ated

by such i m pra c tic a ble s ti p ul a tio ns I t wa s a c a ta strophe
.

which vividly re mi nds us o f that which o ccurred a l most on

the s am e spot in 1 7 9 2 a nd ju st a s wi th the camp a ign in
,

Ch a m p ag ne the defea t wa s all th e mo e severe tha t it took

,
r

pla ce wi th o u t a b attle Th e b a d lea dership of the retre at

.

ing a rmy a llowed the R o ma n general to pursue it a s if it

we re bea te n and to d es troy a portion of th e co ntingen ts
,
52 TH E S U B J U GATI ON o r TH E WES T BOO K v

h
t at ha drem a i ne d to the l a s t B ut the consequences of .

th e vic tory were not confi ned to this As C a es a r ad .

va nce d in to th e wes tern c a ntons of the B elg a e one a fter ,

a n o ther g a ve themselves up a s l o st a l m os t wi thout resis t

a nce th e powerful S uessio ne s (a bou t S oisso ns ) as well as ,

their riva ls th e
, B ellova ci (a bou t B e a uv ais ) and the
Amb ia ni ( a bou t Amiens) The tow n s opened their ga tes
.

when they saw the s tra nge besiegi ng ma chines the towers ,

ro lli ng up to their wa lls those who wo uld not sub m it to the

fo eign m a ste s sough t a refuge bey o nd th e se a in Bri tain
r r .

B ut in th e ea s ter n c a n tons th e na tion al feeling w as

m ore energe tica lly roused T he V iro m a ndui (a bou t A rra s)
.
,

th e A treb a tes ( a b o u t S t Quen tin ) th e Ge rm a n A dua tuci

.
,

a bou t N a m ur
( ) but a bove all the N e rvii (in H ain aul t) wi th
,

their no t incon s iderable body of clien ts li ttle inferior in ,

nu mber to the S uessiones and B ellova ci far superior to ,

them in va lour a nd vig o rous p a trio tic spiri t c o ncluded a ,

second and closer league a nd a sse m bled their forces on

,

the upper S a m bre Cel tic spies infor med the m m os t

.

a ccur a tely of the m ove me nt s of th e R o m a n a rmy ; thei r

own loca l knowledge and the high tree b a rric a des which
,
-

were formed everywhere in these dis tric t s to obs truct the

bands of m ou nted robbers w ho often visited the m a llowed ,

th e a llies to conce al their own Op e r a tio n s for th e mos t pa r t

fro m th e view o f th e R o ma ns When these arrived on th e

.

S a m bre no t fa r fro m B a v a y a nd th e legio ns were occupied

,

in pi tching their ca m p o n th e cres t of the left b a nk while ,

th e c a va lry a nd ligh t in fa n try were exploring th e opposi te

heights the la tter were all a t once a ss a iled by the whole
,

m a ss of th e ene m y s forces a nd drive n down the hill in to

’

the river .I n a m o m en t the ene m y had crossed this also ,

and s tor m ed the heigh t s of th e left ba nk wi th a de ter m i na

tion th a t br a ved de ath S ca rcely wa s there ti m e left fo r

.

th e e ntrenching legio na ries to exch a nge th e ma tto ck for the

s word ; the s oldiers many wi thou t hel me ts had to fi g h t

, ,
 54 TH E S U BJ U GA TI ON OF TH E WES T Bo o x v

t en th legion to the a id o f his ge nera l Th e N e rvu .

,

sepa rated fr o m their c o nfede a te s and si m ul ta neou sly r

as s a iled o n all sides now sh o wed when fo r tu ne tur ned

, , ,

th e s a m e he oic c o u a ge a s whe n they believed the m selves

r r

vic tors ; s till o e the pile o f c o rpses o f thei fa llen

v r r

comra des they fough t to the l a s t m a n A cc o rdi ng to their .

own s tate me nt of their six hundred senators only three

,

survived this da y .

A fter thi s a nnihil ati ng defe a t th e N ervu A treb a tes a nd , ,

o f th e
Viro m a n dui c o uld no t b ut ec o g nize th e R o m n sup e ma cy
r a r .

T he Adua tuci w h o a rrived to o l a te to ta ke p a r t in the

,

figh t o n the S a m bre a tte mp ted s till to hold their grou nd

,

in th e s tro nges t of thei to wns ( o n th e m o un t F alhize ne ar

r

the M aa s no t fa r fro m H uy) b ut they to o s o on sub m i tted

, .

A noc tu n a l a tta ck o n th e R o ma n c a m p in fro nt of the

r

to wn which they ve ntured a fte

,
th e sur e n der m isca ried ;
r r ,
r

a nd th e p e r fi dy wa s a ve nged by th e R o m a n s wi th fe a ful r

severi ty T he clie nts of the A dua tuci consis ti ng o f the

.
,

Eb uro ne s be tween the M aa s a nd R hi ne a nd o ther s m a ll

a djoi ning tribes were decl a red indepe nden t by th e R o m a ns
, ,

whil e the A duatuci ta ke n pris o ners we e sold u nder th e r

h a mm er en m ss fo r th e benefi t of the R o ma n tre a s u y

a e r .

I t see m ed a s if th e fate which ha d befa llen the Ci m bri s till

pursued even thi s la s t Ci m bri a n f ag me nt C a e s ar con r .

te nted hi m self wi th i m po s i ng on th e o the subdued tribes a r

ge neral dis ar ma m e nt a nd furnishi ng of hos tages The .

R e m i beca m e n tu lly th e le a di ng c a n to n in B elgic like

a ra ,

the H a e dui in ce ntra l Ga ul ; eve n in the l a tter severa l cl a ns

a t e nm i ty wi th th e H a e dui prefe red to r a nk a m o ng th e r

clie nts o f the R e m i Only the r e m o te m a ri ti me c a n tons o f

.

th e M o i ni (A r to i s ) a nd th e M e na p ii ( Fl a n der s a nd B r a ba nt)
r ,

a nd th e cou ntry b e twee n the S cheldt a nd the R hi ne

inha bi ted in gre at p a t by Ger ma ns re ma i ned s till for the
r ,

p ese nt exe m p t fro m R o man inva si o n a nd in possession o f

r

their heredi tary freedom .

CH A P . Vii TH E S U BJU G A TI ON OF T H E WES T 55

The urn of the A re m orica n c a nto ns cam e I n the E p di

t . x e

7
a u tu m n of 6 9 7 P ublius Cr a s s us w a s sen t thi ther with a
22 2 1 3
3 :
—
5

Ro m a n c o rps he induced t h e Vene ti who as m a s ters of m itim ar e

“ mm“
th e p o r ts o f th e m odern Morbih a n a nd of a respec ta ble fl ee t

o ccupied th e firs t pl a ce a m o ng all th e Cel tic c a ntons in

n a vig ation a nd co mm erce— and ge nerally th e co a st distric ts -

be twee n the Lo ire a nd S ei ne to sub m i t to the R om a ns and

,

give the m hos ta ges B ut they soo n repen ted Wh en in

. .

th e followi ng wi nter ( 6 9 7 —6 9 8 ) R o ma n o fficers c a m e to these 5 7 56 -

.

legions to levy requisi tions of gr ain there they were ,

de tained by th e Ve ne ti a s cou nter h o s tages T h e example -

.

thus set was quickly fo llowed no t o nly by th e Are m o r ica n

ca n tons but also by the m a i ti me c a n to ns of the B elgae
,
r

th a t s till re ma ined free ; where as in so m e c a ntons o f ,

N orma ndy th e co m m on cou ncil refu s ed to join th e

,

insurrec tion the m ul ti tude p ut the m to de ath a nd a tt a ched

,

itself wi th redoubled ze al to the n atio na l c a use Th e wh o le V ti n . e ne a

c o a s t from the m ou th of th e L oire to th at o f th e R hi ne

rose ag a i nst R om e ; th e m o st resolu te pa triots fro m a ll th e
Cel tic ca ntons h a ste ned thi ther to co operate in th e gre at -

work of libera tion they a l e a dy c alculated on th e rising of

r

th e whole B elgic co nfeder a cy on a id f o m B ri ta in on the ,

r ,

a rriv a l of Ger m a ns fro m beyo nd th e R hi n e .

Ca es a r se nt La bie nus wi th all th e c a va lry to the R hine ,

wi th a view to hold in check the a gi tatio n in the Belgic

province a nd in ca se of nee d to preven t th e Ger ma ns f om
,
r

crossing th e ri er ; a nother of his lieu te nants Qui ntus

v ,

Titurius S ab inus we nt wi th three legio n s to N o r ma n dy

, ,

w here th e m a in body of th e i ns urgen ts a s se m ble d B ut th e

p o werful and i ntellige nt Vene ti were th e true cen tre of the
i nsurrec ti o n the chief atta ck by l a nd a nd se a wa s direc ted
a g a i nst the m Ca es a s lieu te na nt D eci mus Bru tu s b o ugh t
’
. r ,
r
,

up th e fleet fo r m ed p r tly of the ships of th e subject Cel tic

a

c nto ns pa tly o f a nu m ber o f R o ma n ga lleys h a s tily buil t

a ,
r

o n th e L oire a nd m a nned wi th o we s f o m th e N a b o ne s e
r r r r
56 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF TH E WES T B OOK v
provi nce ; C aes a r hi m self a dvanced wi th the fl o wer of h is
infa n try in to the terri tory o f th e Vene ti B ut these were .

prepared b e fo reh and and h ad wi th e qu al skill and re so lu

,

tio n a v a iled the m sel es of th e fa vourable ci cu m st nc e s

v r a

which the n ature of the gr o und in B ri ttany a nd th e

possessio n o f a considera ble n a a l p o wer prese nted T h e
v .

coun try wa s m uch i ntersected and p o o rly fur nished wi th

gr a in the towns were si tu ated fo the m ost p a rt o n cli ffs
,
r

and to ngues of l a nd a nd were a cce s sible fr o m th e m a i nl a nd

,

only by sh allows which it wa s diflicult to cross th e provi

sion of supplies and th e c o nducti ng o f sieges were equ all y
diffi cul t for the a rmy atta cki ng by l and while th e Cel ts b y ,

means o f their vessels could fu ni sh th e towns e a sily wi th

r

e very thing needful a nd in the event of th e wors t c o uld

,

a cco mpli sh their eva cu a tion T h e legio n

. s exp e nded their
ti me and s tre ngth in the sieges of the Vene ti a n to wnships ,

only to see the subs ta n ti a l frui ts of victo ry ul ti mately c arrie d

0 3 in the vessels of th e e ne m y .

A ccordi ngly when th e R o m an fl eet long d e tai ned by ,

s tor m s a t th e m ou th of th e L oire a rrived a t le ng th o n th e

,

coa s t of B ritta ny it was left to decide the s truggle by a

,

n aval b attle T he Cel ts conscious of their superi o rity o n

.
,

this ele m en t brough t fo r th their fl ee t a ga i ns t th a t of th e

,

R o m a ns c o m ma nded by B ru tus N o t o nl y did it nu m b e

. r

2 2 0 s a il far m ore t h a n t h e R o m a ns ha d been a ble to b i ng

, r

up b ut their high decked s tro ng s a ili ng vessels wi th fl t

,
- -
a

bo ttom s were also far be tter a dapted fo r th e high ru nni ng -

waves of the Atla n tic Oce a n tha n the low ligh tly bui lt ,
-

oar ed galleys of the R omans wi th their sh arp keel s

N ei ther the mis siles no r th e bo a rdi ng bridges of the R o m a n s

-

could rea ch th e high deck of th e ene m y s ves sels and th e

’
,

iron be aks recoiled powerless fro m th e tro ng o a ke n pl a nk s s .

B ut th e R o m a n m a ri ne s cut the ropes by which th e ya r d

r , s

we re fa stened to th e ma s ts by m e a ns of sickles fa s t e ned t

, o

lo ng poles the ya rds and s a il s fe ll down a nd a s they d d , , i

ca n . vu TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WES T 57

not know how to repa ir the d ama ge speedily th e ship was ,

thus rende ed a wreck ju s t as it is a t th e pre s en t day by th e

r

falling of th e ma sts a nd the R o ma n boa ts e a s ily succeeded

,

by a join t atta ck in ma s teri ng th e ma i m e d ves sel of the

e ne m y When th e Ga uls perceived this m anoeuvr e they
.
,

a tte m p ted to m o ve fro m th e co a s t on which they h a d taken

up the comb at wi th th e R om ans and to g ain the high sea s

, ,

w hi ther th e R o m a n g lleys could no t foll o w the m ; but

a

unh a ppily for the m there suddenly se t in a dea d c al m a nd ,

th e i mm ens e fleet towa rds the equip m e nt of which th e

,

ma ri ti me ca n tons h a d a pplied all their e nergies w as a l m ost ,

wh olly des troyed by the R o m ans T hu s w as this naval

b a ttl e—so far as his torical knowledge re a ches th e e arliest
.

fo ugh t on the Atl an tic Oce an — jus t like th e e ngage m en t at

M ylae two hu n dred ye ars before (ii notwi ths tanding
.

th e m os t u n fa voura ble circu m s ta n ces decided in fa vour o f

,

th e R o ma ns by a lucky inven tion sugges ted by necessity .

T h e consequence of th e vic to ry a chieved by B ru tus wa s th e S ubmission

“ th
surrender of th e Vene ti and of all B ri ttany More wi th a .
e

view to i m press th e Cel tic n ation after so ma nifold ,

evidences of cle m ency towa rds the vanquished by a n exampl e ,

o f fe arful severi ty no w a ga ins t th o se whose resis ta nce h a d

been obstin ate th a n wi th th e view of punishi ng the brea ch

,

of tre aty and the a rrest of th e R oma n o flicers Ca esa r ,

c aused the whole co mm on c o uncil to be execu ted and the

people of th e Vene ti an c a n ton to the l a s t man to be sold
in to sl avery By this drea dful fa t e as well as by thei r
.
,

intelligence and their patrio tis m the Vene ti h a ve m ore

,

th a n a ny o ther Cel tic cl a n acquire d a ti tle to th e sy mp athy

of pos teri ty .

S a bin us m e a nwhile o pposed to the le y o f th e co ast v

states asse mbled on th e Ch annel the s am e ta c tics by which

C a e sar ha d in th e p evi o us ye a r conquered th e B elgic
r

general levy on the Aisn e he s to o d on th e defensive till

i mpatience and wa n t i nva ded the ranks of the ene my and ,
58 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WES T B OOK v

the n m an aged by deceivi ng the m as to th e te m per a nd

s tre ngth o f his tro o ps and a bove ll by m e ans o f their o wn
,
a

i m p a tie nce to allu e the m to an i m prud e nt a ss aul t upo n th e

,
r

R o ma n c a m p in w h ich they were defe a ted ; wher e up o n th e

,

mili ti a di sper s ed a n d th e c o u ntry as f r a s th e S eine sub mi tted

a

T h e M o ri n i nd M e na p ii a lone pe severed in wi thhold

a r

i ng their rec o g ni tio n o f th e R o m a n sup e m a cy T o c o mpel r .

the m to this C a e sa r a ppea red o n their borders ; but

, ,

re ndered wiser by th e experie nce s o f th eir coun try men ,

they a voided a ccep ti ng b a ttle o n th e b o ders o f their l a nd r

,

a nd re tired in to th e fores t s which then s tre tched a l mos t

wi thout i nterrupti o n f om th e Arde nnes to wa rd s th e Ger ma n

r

Oce a n . T he R o m ans a tte m p ted to ma ke a r o a d through

th e fo res t wi th th e ax e r a ngi ng the felled t ee s o n e a ch
,
r

side a s a b a rric a de aga i nst the enem y s a tta cks ; but eve n ’

C ae sa r d a ri ng as he wa s fo und it a dvis a ble a fter so me

, ,

d ay s of m o s t l a b o i o us m a rchi ng e speci ally a s it w a s ve rg

r ,

ing towa rds wi nte to order a re tre at a l th o ugh b ut a s mall

r,
,

por tion of th e M o ri ni h a d sub m i tted and the powerful

M e n pii h a d no t bee n re a ched a t a ll
a I n the followi ng .

ye ar while C a es a r hi m self w a s e mpl o yed in B ri ta i n ,

th e gre a te p a r t of th e a rm y w a s s e nt a f esh a ga i ns t the s e

r r

t bes ; b ut this expedi ti o n a lso re m a i ned in th e ma in un

ri

s ucces s ful . N eve thele s s th e e s ul t of th e l a s t c a m p a ig n s

r r

w a s th e a l m os t c o m ple te reduc ti o n o f G a ul u nder th e

d o m i nion o f th e R o m a ns While ce ntra l G a ul had sub

.

m itte d to it wi thou t resis ta nce du i ng th e c a m p aig n of 6 9 7

,
r

th e B elgic a nd du i ng th a t o f th e fo llowi ng ye r th e m a i
,
r a r

ti m e c a nto n s h a d bee n c o m pelled by force o f a r m s to

,

a ck n o w ledge th e R o m a n rule T h e lofty h opes wi th

.
,

w hich th e Cel tic p a tri o ts h a d begun th e la s t c a m p a ig n ,

h a d no where bee n fulfilled N ei ther G e m a ns no r B ri to ns

. r

h a d co m e to thei a id ; a n d in B elgi a th e pre s e nce o f

r c

Lab ie nus h a d S U ffi Cd to preven t th e renewa l of the con

C

flicts of th e previ o us e ar y .
C H A P. V I I TH E S U BJU G A TI ON OF T H E WE S T
While C a es a r w a s th us fo m i ng the R oma n d o ma in in E t b l i h
r s a s
m t f
the wes t by force of a rm s into a c o mp a ct wh o le he did mmuni ,
co
en o

no t neglec t to Open up for th e n ewly co n quered cou ntry -

ti ca o ns

with I t ly
which w as des ti ned in fa c t to fill up th e wide g ap in th at b y th e
a

do m a in between I tal y a nd S p ai n — com m unica tions both V l is aa

wi th the I tali a n ho me a nd wi th th e S p a nish provinces .

The co m m unic ati o n be twee n G a ul a nd I ta ly h a d cer ta i nly

be e n materially fa cili tated by th e m ili ta ry roa d la id o ut by
Po m pe ius in 6 7 7 ove Mon t Ge nevre ( iv
r b ut si n ce th e 77 .
.

whole of Gaul had bee n subdued by th e R om a ns there was ,

need of a ro u te crossi ng th e i dge of th e Alps fro m th e valley

r

of the Po no t in a wes terly but in a nor therly direc tion

, ,

a nd fur n ishing a shor ter c o m m u nic atio n be tween I ta ly a nd

ce ntral G aul T he w ay which le a ds over th e Gre at S t

. .

B er na rd in to th e Va l a is a nd al o ng th e l a ke of Geneva h a d
lo ng served th e merch ant for this purp o se to g e t thi s ro a d
i nto his power C a es ar a s e a rly a s th e a u tu m n o f 6 9 7 c a used 57
, .

Octo duru m ( M a rtigny) to be occupied by S e vius Ga lb a r ,

a nd the i nh a bi ta n ts o f th e Va l a is to be reduced to subje e

ti o n —a resul t which w a s of cou s e ,

m erely pos tpo ned
r , ,

no t preven ted by th e br a ve resis ta nce of these m oun ta in

,

peoples .

To ga in co mmunic a tion wi th S p a in m o eover P ublius nd w ith ,

r ,
a

S p in
Cra ssus wa s sen t in the foll o wing ye a r ( 6 9 8 ) to A qui ta ni a 5 6 a

.
.

wi th instructio ns to co mpel the I beri a n tribe s dwelling

there to a cknowledge th e R o man rule T h e ta sk wa s not .

wi th o ut difficul ty th e I beri a ns held to ge ther more co m

p a ctl
y th a n th e Cel ts a nd knew be tt er th a n these how to

le a rn fro m their e ne m ies T he tribes beyond the Pyrenees

.
,

especi ally the v ali a n t C a n ta bri sen t a c o n ti nge nt to their

,

thre a tened cou nt ry m e n ; wi th t his there c a m e expe ie nced r

o flic e r s tr a ined u nder th e le a de ship o f S er to rius in th e

r

R o ma n fashion wh o in tr o duced a s fa r a s p o sible th e

,
s

principles of th e R o ma n a rt of wa r and especi a lly of e n ,

c a m p m e nt a m o ng th e A qui ta ni a n levy a l e a dy respec ta ble

,
r
 TH E S U B JU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
fr o m its nu mbers and its valour But th e excellent offi cer
.

who led the R o ma ns k new how to surm oun t all diffi cul ties ,

a nd a fter so m e h a rdly con tes ted b ut successful b attles h e

-

induced the peoples fro m th e Garonne to the vicini ty of

the Pyrenees to sub m i t to the new m a s ters .

One of the objec ts which C a es ar h ad proposed to him

self—the subj ug ation o f Ga ul —had been in substance wi th ,

excep tions sca rcely wo th m en tioning atta ined so far as it

r ,

could be a tta ined at all by the swor d But the other h alf .

of th e work undertaken by C a esa r was s till far from bei ng

s ati s fa c to rily a cco m plished and the Germa ns had by no
,

me a ns as ye t been e verywhere co m pelled to recog nize the

5 6 55
-
. R hine as their limit E ven now in th e wi nter of 6 9 8 —
.
,
699 ,

a fresh crossing of the bound a ry ha d take n pla ce on the

lower course of th e river whi ther the R oma ns had no t

,

y e t penetr a t ed Th e Ger m a n tribes of th e U sipe tes a nd

.

T e nc teri whose a tte m p ts to cross th e R hine in the terri tory

of th e M e napii h ave been alrea dy men tioned (p ha d a t .

length eluding the vigil a nce of their opp o nen ts by a feig ned
,

re tre at crossed in the vessels belonging to th e M e na pii

,

a n enor m ous hos t which is s a id ,

includi ng women and
,

children to h ave amounted to 4

,
perso ns T hey s till .

la y a pp a ren tly in th e region of N ime g ue n a nd Cleves ; b ut

, ,

it w a s s a id th a t following th e invi tatio ns of the Cel tic p atriot

.

p arty they in te nded to a dva nce in to th e i nterior of Ga ul ;

,

a nd th e ru m our wa s co n firm ed by th e fa c t th at b a n d s o f

their horse m e n a lre a dy ro am ed as fa r a s th e borders o f the

T re ve ri . B ut when C a es a r wi th his legions a rrive d op po
si te to the m th e sorely ha ra ssed e mi g ra nts seemed not
,
-

desirous of fresh con fl icts but very re a dy to a ccept lan d

,

fro m the R o m a ns and to till it in pe ace un der th eir

supre m acy While nego ti ations as to this were going o n
.
,

a suspicion a rose in th e mind of th e R o ma n genera l that

th e Germ a ns only Sought to ga in tim e till the ba n ds of

horsem en sen t o ut by th em had re turned Whether this .
 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WES T B OOKv
ve nti ng th e a ppe a a nce of th e Germanic ar m s on th e sou th
r

of the R hine a t le a s t to show th e R o ma n ar m s beyo nd it

,
.

T he pro tec tio n which th e fugi tive U sip e tes a nd T enc teri
h a d fo u nd a m ong th e S ug a mb i a ffo ded a sui ta ble occ a r r

sion I n the regio n app a en tly be tween Coblen tz and

.
,
r

A nder na ch C a es a r erec ted a b idge of piles over th e

,
r

R hi n e a nd led his legio ns a cross fr o m th e T re ve ria n to th e

U bi a n terri tory S o m e s ma ller c a n to ns ga ve in their sub
.

m i s sion but th e S ug a m b ri a g a i nst who m th e expedi tion

,

w as pri m arily direc ted wi thdrew o n th e a ppr o ach of th e

, ,

R o m a n ar m y wi th those under their protec tion in to th e

,

i nterior I n like manne th e powerful S ue bian c a n to n

. r

which o ppressed the U bii — presu ma bly th e s am e which

sub seque ntly a ppe ars u nder th e n a m e of th e Ch atti
c a used the dis tricts i m m edi a tely a djoi ni ng th e U bi an terri
tory to be eva cu ated a nd th e n o n c o m b a ta n t po tio n of the -
r

pe o ple to be pl a ced in s a fe ty while all the me n c a p a ble of

,

a r m s were direc ted to a sse m ble a t th e cen tre o f th e ca nto n .

T h e R o m a n ge ner al h a d nei ther occa si o n nor desire to

a ccep t this ch a llenge ; his o bj ec t— p a r tly to reconnoi tre ,

p ar tly to produce a n i mpressive e ff ect if possible upo n the

Germa ns o a t le a st o n th e Cel ts a nd his cou ntrym en at
,
r

h o m e by an expedi tion over the R hine— wa s subs ta n ti ally

,

a tta i ned ; a fter re m a ini ng eigh teen d a ys o n th e righ t b a nk

o f th e R hi ne he a g a in a rrived in Ga ul a nd broke down th e

R hi ne bridge behind h im
T here re ma ined th e insul a r Cel ts Fro m th e cl o s e .

c o n nec tio n be tween the m a nd th e Cel ts of the con ti nen t ,

especi ally th e ma ri ti m e cantons it m a y re a dily be co nc e ived,

th a t they h a d a t le a s t sy mp a thized wi th th e n a ti o na l resi s t

a nce a nd th at if they did no t g a nt a r m ed a ssis ta nce to th e

,
r

p atrio ts they gave a t a ny ra te a n honourable a sylum in

,

their se a pr o tec ted isle to eve y o ne w h o was no l o nger s a fe

-
r

in his native la nd T his certa inly invo lved a da nger if no t

.
,

for the present a t any rate for the fu ture ; it see me d j u di

,
C R AP . v u TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF TH E WES T 63

cions—if no t to u nder take th e conquest of th e isl a n d i tself

—a t any rate to conduc t there also defe nsive operations by
o fl e nsiv e me a n s a nd to S how th e isl a n d e rs by a l a nding on
'

th e coa st th a t th e arm of the R o ma ns re a ched even a cr o ss

th e Ch a nnel T he firs t R o ma n offi cer who en tered B ri tta ny

. ,

P ublius Cra ssus h a d a lrea dy ( 6 9 7 ) cr o s sed thence to th e 5 7

, .

tin isl a nds at the sou th wes t p o in t of E ngl a nd (S cilly

“ -
” -

isl a nds ) ; in the su mmer of 6 9 9 C a es a r hi m s elf wi th o nly 55 .

tw o legions crossed th e Ch a nnel a t its na rr o we s t p a r t

1
.

H e fou nd th e co a s t cov e red wi th ma sses of the e ne my s

’

tro o ps a nd sa iled onw a rd w i th his vessels ; but th e B riti s h

w a ch a io ts m oved on qui te a s fa s t by l a nd as th e R o m a n
r -
r

galleys by se a a nd it was o nly wi th th e u tm ost di ffi cul ty

,

th a t th e R o m a n soldiers succeeded in g a i ni ng th e shore in

th e fa ce o f the ene my p a r tly by w a di ng pa r tly in b o a ts , , ,

u nder th e p r o tec tion of the S h ip s of wa r which swep t the ,

be a ch wi th m issiles thro wn fr o m m a chi ne s a nd by the h and .

I n th e fi s t a l a r m th e ne a res t vill ages s ubmi tted ; but th e

r

i sl a nders s oon perceived how wea k the e ne m y was and ,

1 w ll
’
Th t f th
e na ur e Co p e t m t p
ca se as e as a e sar s e x r e ss s a te en r o ves

h t th p
t a g f C
e t B t i w
as s a es o m d f m p a e s ar f th t o ri a n e re a e ro or ts o e co as

b w
et C l
e en d B lg t h
a a is a n t f K A m
ou o t d t
ne o t e co as o e nt. o re e xa c e er

mi i
na t o n o f h l l iti h f b t e tt m p t d b t with
o ca es t as o te n e en a e e , u ou s ucces s.

All h d d
t a t is re co r e h t th fi t y g th i f t y m b k d t
is , t a on e rs vo a e e n an r e ar e a
o ne p t h or l y t th d
, t e ca va f m h f m
r a gh m l i n
a no er is ta n t ro t e or er ei t i es n a
e as te rl y d ti ( i 3
ir e c d th t th
on v. d2 2
y g w
, 2 m d . an a e s e co n vo a e as a e
f m h
ro f th
t a t o ne o w p t whi h C h df
o se dm t
t o t
or s c a e sa r a o un os co nve nie n

I t di t f m th B i h
,

th ( h w
e ot erf th m ti d) P t
is e no t ur er en o ne o r us i ns , s ta n ro e r tis
co as t 3 ( 0 di g so th M SS
a cco rf C n) 4 tomil e . o a es ar v . 2 or 0 es
s ta d d g
ia , a cco r S b 5 wh d b l
in to d w h
tr a t f m
o iv. , 2 , o ou t es s re is a cco un ro
'
C ) F mC
a e s ar . w d (i
ro ) th t h h d h
a e s ar s h h or t s v. 2 1 a e a c o se n
“
t e S o rte s
cro ss mg w m y d b tl
, e b ly i f
a th t h ou d h
e ss r e a s o na n er a e cr o ss e no t t e
Ch l b t h S it f C l i b by m
a nne u t e tra h s h o d h a a s, ut no e a ns t at e cro ss e t e
l tt b y th m h m i ll y h
a er e li
at It
e q i th im p l i i f i h f
a t ca s o r te s t ne . re u re s e c t a t o
l l t p g ph d h d m i ti f th l li y w i h h
i h d—
o ca o po ra e rs to r o ce e to t e e te r na on o e o ca t t s uc

d a ta n d f wh h h b
an i i lf b
a ta o m lm l f m
ic t e est n ts e e co es a o s t use e s s ro

th i i
e var a t o n o f h h ii t th mb ; b
t e a ut o r t e s a s m g h m y o e nu er ut a on t e an

p b il
o ss i m t m y p h p b
itie s id i f
os af h i w h t h I
er a s e sa n a vo ur o t e v e t a t e t ia n

p ort
(w h h S b i p b b ly igh i id
ic tra o fy i g w ith th s f m ro a r t n e nti n at ro

w hi h th i f t y
c e d i th fi t y g ) i t b
n an r cr os se gh t A mb l
n e rs vo a e s o e sou ne a r e

te ns e t h w o t f C p G i N e d h
e st o lyh b a e E l r s e z, a n t e ca va r -
ar o ur nea r ca e

( Wi )
ssa nt th f h to m p m e e a st oy d th t th l di g t k
t e sa e ro o nto r , an a e an n oo

pl a ce to t h t f D W lm C l
e eas o o ver near a er as t e .
 64 J G
TH E S U B U A T I ON OF TH E WES T BOO K v

how he d id not ven ture to move far from th e shore The .

n a tives dis appeared i nto the in terior and re turned only to

thre aten the c a m p ; a nd th e flee t which h a d been le ft in
,

the open ro a ds sufl ere d very considera ble da mage from th e

,
'

firs t te mpes t that burst upon it T h e R o m a ns had to

.

reckon themselves fortun ate in repelling the atta cks of the

b arbaria ns till they had be s towed th e necess a ry rep airs on
the ships a nd in rega ini ng wi th these th e G a llic co a s t
,

befo re th e bad se a so n of the ye ar c am e o n .

Ca es a r hi mself was so di ss atisfied wi th the resul ts of this

e xpedi tio n under taken inconsider a tely a nd wi th in a dequ a te

55 54
-
. me a ns tha t he i mm ediately (in the wi nter of 6 9 9 —7 0 0 )
,

ordered a transport flee t of 8 0 0 sa il to be fi tted o ut ,

a nd in th e spring of 7 0 0 s a iled a seco nd ti m e for the

K en tish coa st on this o cca si o n wi th five legions a nd 2 0 0 0
,

ca valry The fo rces of th e Bri tons a sse mbled this ti m e

.
,

a lso on th e shore re tired before th e m igh ty a rm a d a wi thou t

,

risking a b attle ; Ca es a r i mm ediately se t o ut on his m arch

in to the i nterior and a fter som e successful conflicts cros sed
,

the river S tour ; but he wa s obliged to h a l t very much aga ins t

his will beca use the flee t in the o pen roa ds h ad bee n aga i n
,

h alf des troyed by th e s to r ms of the Ch annel Before they .

g o t the ships dr a wn up up o n th e be a ch a nd th e ex tensive

a rr a nge m en ts m a de fo r their rep a ir precious time w a s los t
, ,

which th e Cel ts wisely turned to a ccoun t .

T h e br a ve a nd c a u tious prince Ca ssive llaunus who ,

ruled in wh at is now Middlesex and the su rroundi ng dis tric t

-
form erly th e terro r of th e Cel ts to th e sou th of th e
T h a m es b ut now th e pro tec tor a nd ch a m pion of th e whole
,

na tion —h a d he a ded th e defence of th e l a nd H e soon .

saw th a t no thi ng a t a ll could be done wi th th e Cel tic

infa ntry a g a i nst th e R oman and th at the ma ss of the

,

general levy —which it wa s diflicult to feed a nd di ffi cul t to

control—was o nly a hi ndra nce to the defence ; he therefore
d ismisse d it and re ta ined only the war cha rio ts of which -
,
CH A P. v u TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF TH E WES T 65

he collecte d 4 0 0 and in which the wa rriors a ccus tomed

0 , ,

to le a p dow n fro m their cha riots a nd figh t on foot coul d ,

be e mpl o yed in a tw o fold ma nner like the burgess c a va lry -

of the e a rlies t R o me When C a es a r was once more a ble

.

to con ti nue his m arch he me t wi th no in terrup tion to it ;

,

but the B ri tish war ch ari o ts move d always in fro nt and

-

a longside of the R o ma n a rmy induced th e ev a cu a tion of

,

th e co un try (which fro m th e a b s ence of towns prove d no

grea t di fficul ty) preven te d the sending o ut of de tach men ts
, ,

a nd thre atened th e co m m unic ations T he T h a m es was .

crosse d a ppa ren tly between K ingston and B ren tford

“

a bove L ondon —b y th e R o ma ns ; they m oved forwa rd but ,

ma de no re a l progress ; the general a chie ved no victory ,

th e soldiers m a de no boo ty a nd th e only a c tu a l resul t the

, ,

sub mission of the T rinob a n tes in the mo d ern Essex was ,

less the e ffect of a dre a d of th e R oma ns th a n of the deep

hos tili ty between this c a n ton and Cassive llaunus The .

danger incre a sed wi th every onwa rd step and the attack , ,

which the princes of K en t by the orders of Cassive llaunus

m a de on the R o ma n n ava l cam p al though it was repul se d , ,

was an urgent wa rning to turn b a ck T h e ta king by s to rm.

of a g re at B ri tish tree b a rric a de in which a multitude o f

-
,

c attle fell in to the ha nds of the R oma ns furnishe d a p a ss ,

a ble c o nclusion to th e a i mless a dva nce a nd a tolera ble

pre text fo r re turning Cassive llaunus w a s s aga cious enough

.

no t to drive the d a nger o u s ene m y to extre m i ties a nd pro ,

m ise d a s C a es a r desired him to a bst ain from dis turbing

, ,

th e Trinob a n tes to p ay tribute a nd to furnish hos ta ges ;

,

nothing was s a id of delivering up ar m s or le a vi ng behind a

R om a n ga rris o n and even those pro m ises were it may be
, ,

presumed so far a s they c o ncerned the fu ture nei ther given

, ,

nor received in e arnes t After receivi ng th e hos tages C aes ar

.

r e turned to the n a v a l c am p a nd thence to G a ul I f he a s .

,

it woul d certainly seem h ad hoped o n this occ a sion to

,

c o n quer B ri tain the scheme was tot ally thwarted pa rtly by

,

ve x
. v 1 38
66 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
th e wise d efe nsive sys te m of Ca ssive lla unus pa rtly a nd ,

chiefly by th e u nservice a bleness o f the I ta li a n o a red flee t

in th e w a ters o f th e N or th S e a ; for it is certa in th a t the

s tipul a ted tribu te w as never p a id B ut the i mm edi a te
.

object — o f rou s i ng th e isl a nders o ut of thei h aughty r

securi ty a nd i nduci ng the m in their own i nteres t no longer

to a ll o w their i s l a nd to be a re ndezv o us for con ti nen tal
e mig a n ts —s ee ms cer ta i nly to h ave been a tta ined ; at le a st
r

no co m pl a i nts are a fterw a rds he a rd a s to th e bes to wa l of

such pro tec tion .

T h e work of repelli ng th e Ger m anic inva sion a nd of

s ubdui ng th e co nti ne nta l Cel ts w a s c o m pleted B ut it is .

O fte n e a sier to subdue a free n a tion th a n to keep a subdued

o ne in subjec tion T he riva lry fo r the hege m o ny by which

.
,

m ore eve n th a n by th e a tta cks of R o m e th e Cel tic n a ti o n

h a d bee n rui ned wa s in so m e m e a su e se t a side by th e
,
r

c o nque s t in a sm uch as the c o nqueror to o k the hege mo ny

,

to hi m self S ep a ra te i nteres ts wer e sile nt ; under th e co m

.

mon oppression at any ra te they fel t the m selves a ga in as

o ne people ; a nd th e i nfini te v a lue of th a t which they had

wi th i ndifference g a m bled a way when they possessed it

freedo m a nd natio na li ty —wa s no w when it wa s too l ate
, ,

fully a ppreci a ted by their i n fini te lo ngi ng B ut was it

.
,

then to o l a te ?
,
Wi th i ndign a n t sh a m e they confessed to
the m selves th a t a n a ti o n which nu m bered at le a s t a m illion
,

of me n c ap able o f a m s a n ati o n o f a ncien t and well fo unded

r ,
-

w arlike renow n ha d allowed th e yoke to be i mposed upo n

,

it by a t th e m os t
, ,
R o man s T he sub mission of
.

th e c o nfeder a cy o f ce ntr a l G a ul wi th o u t h a vi ng s truck even

a bl o w ; th e s ub m i ss i o n Of the B elgic c o nfeder a cy wi th o u t

h a ing do ne more th a n m erely sh o wn a wish to s trike ih

v r

her o ic fa ll o n th e o ther h a nd of th e N e rvii a nd the Ve ne ti ,

t h e s a g ci o us a nd succe s sful resis ta nce of th e Morini a nd

a ,

o f th e B i to ns u n der C a ss ive lla unus— a ll th a t in e a ch c a se

r

h a d been done or neglec ted h a d fa iled or ha d succeeded

,
CR A P . V ii TH E S U BJ U G ATI ON OF T H E WES T
spurred the m i nds of th e p a tri o ts to new a tte m p ts if possible , ,

more u ni ted and m o re succe s sful E peci ally a mo ng the . s

Cel tic nobili ty there prev a il e d an exci te m e nt which see m ed ,

every mome nt a s if it m us t b e ak o ut i nto a ge nera l insur r

rection Eve n befo re th e sec o nd expedi tion to B ri ta in in

.

th e spri ng of 7 0 C a e sa r had fo u nd it necess ary to g o in 54

0 .

e rs o n to th e T re v e r i who si n ce they h a d co mpro m ised

p , ,

the m selves in th e N e rvia n co n flic t in 6 9 7 h a d no lo nger 5 7 , .

a ppe a red at th e gene a l die ts a nd h a d for m ed more th a n

r

s uspici o us co nnec ti o ns wi th th e Ger m a n s bey o n d th e R hine .

A t th a t ti m e C es a r h a d c o nte nted hi m self with c a rryi ng

a

th e m e n of mo s t no te a m o ng th e p atri o t p a r ty p a rticul a rly ,

I ndutio m arus along wi th h im to B ri ta in in th e ra nks of

,

th e T re ve ria n c a v alry co nti nge nt he did his u t m os t to o ver

-

look the co nspira cy th at he m igh t no t by s tric t m ea su es

,
r

ripen it into i nsurrec ti o n B ut when th e H ae duan D um .

no r ix who likewise w a s p ese nt in th e ar m y des ti ned

,
r

for B i tain no m i nally s a ca valry o fficer b ut re ally a s a

r ,
a ,

ho stage pere m p torily r e fused to e mb a k and rode h o m e

,
r

i ns te a d C a es a r could no t do otherwise th a n h ave him

,

pursued as a de s e ter ; h e w as a cc o rdingly overtaken by th e

r

divisi o n sen t after him a nd when he s to o d on his defe nce , ,

wa s cut down T h a t th e m o s t es tee m ed k nigh t o f the 5 4 .

mos t p o werful a nd s till th e le a s t depe nde nt of the Cel tic

c anto ns should h ave bee n put to de ath by th e R o m a ns w as ,

a thu nder cl a p fo r th e wh o le Cel tic n obili ty

-
every one who
w a s consci o us o f s i m il a r sen ti m e nt s—a nd they for med th e
grea t m aj o ri ty— saw in th at c a ta s tro phe the picture of wh at
w as in s tore fo r hi m self .

I f p atrio tis m a nd desp a ir h a d induced th e he a ds o f th e I nsurrec

ti n
Cel tic no bili ty to c o nspire fe ar a nd self de fe nce n o w d o ve ,
-
r
o .

th e co nspir a to s to s t ike I n th e wi nte of 7 0 0 7 0 1 wi th 5 4 53

r r . r -

,
-
.

t h e excep ti o n o f a legi o n s ta tio ned in B ri tta ny a nd a sec o n d

in th e very u n e ttled c nto n o f th e Ca n ute s ( ne

s a Ch a t es ) r ar r r ,

t h e wh o le R o m a n a rm y nu mbe i ng s i
. l e gi o ns wa s e n r x
68 TH E S U BJU G AT I ON OF T H E WES T B OO Kv
ca mpe d in the B elgic terri tory The sca ntiness of the .

supplies of gra i n ha d i nduced C a es ar to s ta tion his troops

fa r ther a p ar t th a n he wa s o therwise w o n t to do —ih six
di ff eren t c am ps cons truc ted in the c a ntons of the B ellovaci ,

Ambia ni Morini N ervii R e m i a nd E b uro ne s

, , T h e fixed
, , .

ca m p pl aced farth e s t to wa rds the ea s t in the te ri to ry of th e r

Eb uro ne s prob ably no t far fr o m th e l a ter A dua tuca ( the

,

modern T o ng e rn) th e stronges t of all co nsis ti ng of a

, ,

legion u nder one of the mos t respec ted of C ae sa r s le a ders ’

o f division Quin tus Titurius S a b inus besides di fferen t

, ,

de tachmen ts led by the brave Lucius A uruncule ius Cotta 1

and a m oun ting toge ther to th e s trength of h a lf a legion ,

found i tself all of a s udde n surrounded by the ge neral

levy of the Eburo ne s under the kings A mb io rix a nd Ca tu
vo lcus T he a tta ck c a m e so u n expec te dly th a t th e very
.
,

me n a bse nt fro m the c a mp could no t be reca lled a nd were

c ut of by th e e n e m y o therwis e the i mm edi ate d anger was
no t g e a t a s there w as no l a ck of p o i s i o n s a n d th e
r
“

, r v ,

a ss a ult which th e E b uro ne s atte mp ted rec o iled powerless

, ,

from th e R o m a n i ntre nch men ts But ki ng Ambio rix .

in fo r med th e R o m a n co mma nder that all the R o ma n

ca m ps in Ga ul were si m il arly a ssa iled o n th e s a m e da y ,

a nd th a t th e R o m a n s would undoub tedly be los t if th e

sever a l corps did no t quickly s e t o ut a nd e ffec t a j unc tion ;

tha t S ab inus ha d the more re a son to ma ke h a s te as th e ,

1 Th a t Co tta , al th o u gh no t l ie ute nant ge ne ral o f S a b inus b ut like h im

-
,

le g a to, was ye t the y o unge r a nd l e ss e s te e m e d ge ne ra l a nd w as p ro b a b ly

d ire cte d in th e diffe re nce to y ie d, ma y be infe rr e d b o th fro m
e ve nt o f a l
l
th e e a r ie r s e r vice s o f S a b inus a nd fro m th e fa ct th a t , w h e r e th e tw o ar e
g
na me d t o e th e r ( iv 2 2 , 38 ; v 2 4 , 2 6 . 5 2 ; vi 32 ; o th e rw is e in vi 37 )
. . . .

l l k l
S ab inus re g u a r y ta e s p r e ce de nce , as a s o fro m t h e nar ra tive o f th e ca ta
s tr o p h e its e f l l
B e s ide s w e ca nno t p o ssib y s u pp o s e th a t C a e sar s h o u d h a ve
. l
pl a ce d o ve r a ca m p tw o o fli ce r s With e qua a uth o rity , a nd h a v e m a de no l
g
ar ra n e m e nt a t a ll fo r th e ca se o f a diffe r e nce o f o p inio n T h e fi ve co h o rts .

l g
ar e no t co u nt e d as p a r t o f a e io n ( co m p vi 32 , 33) a ny m o r e th a n th e . .

l
N e ve co h o r ts a t th e R h ine b rid e ( vi 2 9 , co m p 32 g . a n d a ppe a r to . ,

d
ha ve co ns is te d o f e ta ch m e nts o f o th er p o r tio ns o f th e a r m y , w h ich h a d
b e e n ass i ne g d
to re info rce t h is ca mp S itua te d ne ar e s t t o th e G er m a ns .
70 TH E S U BJ U GATI ON OF TH E WES T B oo x v

s mall p o rti o n who ha d succeeded in rega i ni ng the a b a n

,

do ne d c a mp fl u ng the m selves o n their o w n swords duri ng

,

th e followi ng night Th e wh o le c o p s w as a nnihil ated

. r .

T his success such a s th e i nsurge nts the m selves h a d

,

h a rdly ven tured to h o pe for incre a sed th e fe men t among ,

r

th e Cel tic p atrio ts so gre atly th a t th e R o m a n s were no

lo nger sure of a si ngle distric t with th e excep tio n of the

H a e dui a nd R e m i a nd the insur ec tion br o ke o ut a t th e
,
r

m os t diverse poi nts F irs t of all th e Eburo ne s foll o wed

.

up their vic to ry R einforced by th e levy of th e A dua tuci

.
,

w ho gl a dly e mbra ced th e opp o r tu ni ty of requi ti ng the

i njury do ne to the m by C a es a r and o f th e powerful a nd ,

s till u nsubdued M e napii they a ppe a red in th e terri to ry o f

,

th e N ervii who i mm edi a tely joi ned th e m a nd th e whole

, ,

hos t thus swelled to m o ved fo ward to confron t r

th e R o m a n c a m p for m ed in th e N e r ian c a nto n Quin tus v .

Cicero who co m ma nded there ha d wi th his we ak corps

, ,

a di fficul t posi tio n especia lly a s the besiegers l e a rn ing

, ,

fro m the foe cons tructed ra mp arts and trenches testua znes
, ,
’
'

a nd m ove a ble towers a fter th e R o ma n fa shion a nd ,

showered fire b alls a nd burning spe ars over the s tra w

-

covered huts o f th e c amp T he only hope of th e besieged .

re sted on Caes a r who lay not so very fa r o ff wi th three

,

legi o ns in his win ter enca mp men t in the region of A m iens .

B ut — a sig nific a nt p oof of th e feeli ng th a t preva iled in

r

G a ul—fo r a co nsidera ble ti me no t th e sligh test hi nt rea ched

th e gener a l ei ther of th e dis a s ter of S ab inus or of th e peril

o us si tu ati o n o f Cicero .

At leng th a Cel tic h o rse m a n fro m Cicero s c a m p suc

’

ce e de d in s te a li ng through th e e ne m y to C a es a On r.

receivi ng the s ta tli ng news C a e sa r i mm edi ate ly se t o ut

r ,

a l th o ugh only wi th tw o we a k legi o ns to ge ther n u m be i ng ,

r

a bo ut 70 0 0 ,
a nd 4 0 0 ho se m e n nevertheless the a n r

no u nce m e nt th a t C a e s a r w a s a dv a ncing su fficed to i nduc e

th e insurge nts to r aise th e siege I t was ti m e ; no t o ne .

CH A P . vu TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T 7.

e h of the m en in Cicer o s c a m p re m a ined un w o u nded

t nt
'
.

C a es ar a ga ins t wh o m th e i nsurgen t a r my ha d tu ne d
,
r ,

deceived the e ne my in the way which he h a d a l e dy o n

, ’
r a

se eral occ a sions successfully a pplied a s to his s t ng th ;

v ,
re

u nder th e m os t u n fa v o ura ble ci cu m s ta nces they ve ntured r

a n a ss a ul t upon th e R o m a n c a mp a n d in d o i ng so suffere d

a defe at I t is si ngu la r b ut ch ar a c teris tic o f th e Cel tic

.
,

n a ti o n th at in co nseque nce o f thi s o ne lost b attle or

, ,

perh aps rather in c o nseque nce of C a e sa s a ppe a a nce in r

’
r

person o n th e sce ne o f c o nflic t th e insurrec tion which , ,

h a d co mm enced s o V ic tori o usly a n d ex tended so widely ,

s uddenly a nd pi ti a bly br o ke o ff th e w a r T h e N e vii . r ,

M e napii A duatuci E b u o ne s re tu ned to their hom es

, ,
r ,
r .

T he fo rces o f the m ari ti m e c a nto ns who h a d m a de pre ,

p a ra t io ns for a s sa ili ng t h e le g io n in B ri tta ny did th e ,

sa m e . T h e T r e ve ri thr o ugh whose le a der I ndutio m ar us

,

th e E b uro ne s th e clie nts o f th e p o werful neighbou i ng

,
r

c anton h ad bee n chiefly i n duced to th at so succes sful

,

a tta ck h a d take n a rm s o n th e news of th e di sa ste of

,
r

Adua tuca a n d a dva nced in to th e terri tory of th e R e m i

w i th th e view of a tta cki ng th e legi o n c a n to n ed there u n der

th e co m m a nd of L ab ie nus they to o de s i sted for th e p e s en t r

fro m c o ntinuing th e s truggle C a es ar no t unwilli ngly

.

pos tpo ned fa rther m e a sures a ga i ns t the revol ted dis tric ts
till th e spring in order no t to exp o s e his troops which
,

h ad su ffered m uch to th e wh o le severi ty of th e G a llic

win ter and wi th the View o f o nly re a ppe aring in the field
,

w hen th e fiftee n c o hort s de s tr o yed should h a ve been re

pl a ced in an i mposi ng m a nne by th e levy of thirty new r

cohorts which he h ad o de ed T h e in su rrec ti o n m ea n

r r .

while pursued its cour se a l th o ugh there wa s fo r the

,

m o m en t a s uspe nsi o n of a r m s I ts chief se a ts in ce ntra l

.

Ga ul were p a rtly th e dis t icts o f the Ca nute s and the

,
r r

neighbouring S eno nes ( b o u t S e ns) th e latter of who m

a ,

drove the kin g a ppointed by Ca esar o ut of their country ;

 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T B OOK V

p artly the region of th e Treve ri who invited the whole ,

Cel tic e m igrants a nd th e Ger ma ns beyond the R hine to

t ake p ar t in th e i m pendi ng nation al w ar and called out ,

their whole fo rce wi th a vie w to a dva nce in the spring a

,

second ti m e in to th e terri to ry of the R e m i to c apture the ,

c o rp s of Lab ie nus and to seek a com m u nic ation wi th the

,

i nsurgen ts on the S ei ne and L oire The depu ties of these .

three c an tons rema ined a bsen t fro m the diet convoked by

C a es ar in cen tral Ga ul and thereby decla red wa r j us t as
,

openly as a p art of th e B elgic c an tons ha d done by the

a tta cks on the c a m ps of S a b inus a nd Cicero .

a nd sup T he winter wa s dra wi ng to a close when C a es a r set out

w i th his a rm y which m e a n w hile h a d been consider a bly re
,

i nfo rced a ga ins t the insurgen ts The atte mp ts of the

,
.

T r e ve ri to conce ntr a te th e rev o l t h a d no t succeeded ; the

a gi ta ted dis tric ts were kep t in check by th e m a rching in of

R o m a n troops a nd th o s e in Open rebellio n were a tt acked

,

in de tail First the N ervii were rou ted by Caesa r in

“

person T he S eno nes and Carnute s me t the s ame fate

. .

T h e M e nap ii the only c a nton which h a d never sub m i tted

,

to the R om a ns were co mpelled by a gr a nd a tta ck si m ul

,

ta neo usly direc ted aga ins t the m from three sides to r e
no unce their lo ng preserved freedo m -
L abie nus m e a nwhile .

w a s prep a ring th e s am e fa te fo r the T re ve r i T heir first .

a t ta ck h a d been p a r a lyzed p artly by the refusal of the

,

a dj oining Ger m a n tribes to furnish the m wi th m ercen a ries ,

partly by the fac t th at I ndutio marus th e soul o f the whole ,

m ovemen t ha d fa llen in a s kir m ish wi th th e c a valry of

,

La bie nus .B ut they did no t on this accoun t a b a ndo n

their projects Wi th their whole levy they appeare d in
.

fron t of Lab ie nus a nd w a i ted for the Ger ma n b a nds th at

were to follow fo r their recrui ting agen ts found a be tter
,

recep ti o n th an they h ad me t wi th from the dwellers o n the

R hi n e a m o ng th e w a rlike t ibes of th e in terior of Ger ma ny
,
r
,

especi ally as it would appe ar among the Ch atti But

, , .
C H A P. V i i TH E S U BJ U GATI ON OF TH E WES T 73

when see med as if he wished to avoid these and

L ab ie nus
to m arch o ff in all h a s te th e Tr e ve ri a tta cke d th e R o ma n s
,

even before the G e rma ns a rrived a nd in a m os t unfa vour

a ble spo t a nd were c o m ple tely defe a ted
,
N o thi ng re maine d .

for th e Ger ma ns who ca m e up too l ate b ut to re turn ,

nothing for the Tre ve ria n c anton b ut to submit ; its

govern m en t reverted to the hea d of th e R om an p arty
Cing e to rix th e son in la w of I ndutio marus
,
- -
A fter these .

e xpedi tions of C a es a r a ga ins t th e M e na p ii a nd of La bie nus

a ga i ns t th e T re ve ri th e whole R om a n a rmy w as a g a in

uni ted in th e terri tory of th e l atter Wi th th e view of .

rendering th e Ger ma ns d isinclined to com e b a ck Ca es a r ,

once more crosse d the R hine in order if possible to s trike ,

a n e mph a tic blow a ga ins t th e troubleso m e neighbours ;

b ut as th e Ch at ti fa i thful to their tried t a ctics a sse m bled
, , ,

no t on their western bound a ry but far in th e interior

, ,

app a ren tly at th e H a rz m ount a ins for th e defence of th e ,

la nd he im m edi ately turned b a ck and con te nted himself

,

with leaving behind a garrison at the p a ss age of the R hi ne .

A ccoun ts ha d thus been se ttled wi th all th e tribes th a t R t li t y e a a or

took part in the rising ; th e Eburo ne s alone were pa ssed g t th p d iti n ex e o

a a ins e
ove r but no t forgotten S ince C a es ar had me t with the Eb n
‘

. ur o e
s .

dis a s ter of A duatuca he had worn m ourning and had

,

sworn tha t he would only lay it a side whe n he shoul d h ave

a venge d his soldier s who h ad not fallen in honourable
,

w ar but ha d been tre a cherously m urdered

, H elpless a nd .

p a ssive the Eburo ne s sa t in their huts a nd looked on a s ,

th e neighbouring c a n tons one a fter a no ther submit ted to

th e R o m a ns till th e R om a n c a v alry fro m th e T re ve ria n

,

terri to ry a d a nced through th e Ar den nes into thei l a nd

v r .

S o li ttle were they prep ared for the a ttack th at the c a v a lry ,

h a d al m os t seized the king A m b io rix in his house ; with

grea t di fficul ty while his atten dants s a crificed the mselves
,

on his beh alf he escaped into the neighbouring thicke t

, .

Te n R o m an leg ions soon followed the ca valry A t the

 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
s a m e ti m e a su mmo ns wa s issued to th e surro u ndi ng tribes
to hun t th e ou tl a wed Eb uro ne s a nd pill a ge their l nd in a

c o ncert wi th th e R o ma n soldiers ; no t a few co mplied

with th e c a ll including even a n a ud aci o u s ba nd of
,

S ug am bria n h o rse m en from the other side o f th e R hine ,

who for th a t m atter tre ated the R o m ans no be tter tha n

th e Eb ur o ne s a nd h a d a l m os t by a d a ring coup de ma in
,

s urpri sed th e R o m a n c a m p a t A dua tuca T h e fate of th e.

Eb uro ne s w a s d e a dful r H owever they m igh t hide the m

.

s elves in fores t s a nd m o r a sses there were m o re hu nte s

, r

th a n g a m e . Ma ny put the mselves to de ath like th e gra y

h a ired prince Catuvo lcus ; only a few s aved life a nd liberty ,

b ut a m ong these few w a s th e ma n who m th e R o m a ns

s o ugh t a bove all to seize th e prince A m bio rix wi th but
,

fo ur horse men he esc aped over the R hine T his execu ti o n .

a g a i nst th e c a n ton which h a d tra nsgre s sed a bove a ll th e

res t wa s followed in the o ther dis tric ts by pr o cesses of

high tre a son aga ins t i ndividu al s T he sea s o n for cle mency
.

w a s pa st . A t th e biddi ng of th e R o m a n pr o c o nsul th e
e m i ne nt Carnutic knigh t A cco was behe a ded by R om a n
lictors ( 7 0 1 ) and the rule of the f rce: wa s thus for mally a

in a ugurated Opp o si tion was silen t ; t a nquilli ty every

. r

whe e prev a iled Ca es a r we nt as he w as w o nt towa rds

r .

the end of th e ye a r ( 7 0 1 ) over th e A lps th a t th ough th e , r

wi nter he migh t ob s erve m ore closely the d a ily i ncre a sing -

complications in th e ca pi tal .

T h e s aga cious ca lcul a tor h a d on this occ a si o n m isca l

cula te d. T h e fire wa s s m o thered b ut no t exti nguished , .

T h e s troke under which the he a d of A cc o fell w a s fel t

, ,

by th e whole Cel tic n o bili ty A t this very m o m e nt th e

.

p o si tion of a ffa irs prese nted be tter prospec ts th an e e v r.

T he insurrec tion of th e l a s t wi nter ha d evide ntly fa iled

o nly through C a es a r hi mself appe a ri ng o n th e scene o f
a c tion ; now he wa s a t a di s ta nce de ta i ned on the Po by
,

the i mminence of civil war and the Gallic ar my which

, ,
CH A P . V ii TH E S U BJ U GATI ON OF T H E WE S T
wa s collected on the upper S ei ne was far sep a ra ted fr o m
,

its dre a d ed le a der I f a ge n er al i nsurrec ti o n no w broke

.

out in ce ntra l G a ul th e R o m a n a r m y m igh t be surrounded

, ,

and th e a l m os t u n defended old R o m a n pr o vince be over

run before C ae sa r e appe a red beyo nd th e A lps even if

,
r ,

th e I ta li a n co m plica ti o ns did no t a l to ge ther preven t h im

from further concerning hi m self abou t G a ul .

Con spirators from all th e ca nto ns of cen tra l Ga ul Th e

C ar nuteS.
a sse m bled ; th e C ar nute s as m os t directly a ffec ted by th e
,

execu tion of A cco Offered to ta ke the lea d On a se t

, .

da y in the win ter of 7 0 1 —7 0 2 th e Carnutic k nigh ts

G utruatus a nd Co nco nne to dum nus g ave a t Ce na bum

( O rle a ns ) the sig na l for th e risi ng a nd p ut to de a th in a

,

body the R o m a ns who h appened to be there T h e m o st .

vehe men t a gi ta tion s eized the le ngth and bre a dth of th e

gre at Celtic la nd ; the p atriots everywhere bes tirred the m
selves B ut nothing s tirred the nation so deeply as th e
.

insurrec tion of the A rverni T he gover nm en t of this Th

. e

co mm uni ty which ha d fo r m erly under its ki ng s been the

,

firs t in sou thern G a ul a nd ha d s till a fter th e fall of its

,

princip ali ty occa si o ned by the unfortu nate wars agains t

R o m e (iii 4 1 8 ) con tinued to be one of th e we a l thies t
.
,

m os t civilized a nd m os t powerful in all G a ul h a d hi ther to

, ,

in viol a bly a dhered to R o m e E ven now th e p atrio t p a r ty

.

in the governi ng co mm on cou ncil was in th e m inori ty ;

an atte m p t to induce it to j o in th e i n surrec tion w as in

vain T he attacks of th e p atrio ts were therefo re direc ted

.

a g a inst th e co m m on cou n cil a nd th e exis ti ng cons ti tu ti o n

i tself ; and the m ore so th at th e ch a nge of cons ti tu tion

,

which a m o ng the Ar ver ni ha d sub sti tu ted the c o m m o n

council fo r th e prince ( p 1 9 ) ha d take n pl a ce after the
.

V ic tories of th e R o m a ns a nd prob a bly u nder their i nflue n ce .

T h e le a der o f th e A rve rnia n p a t io ts V erci nge to ix o ne V

r r ,
er cing e

of those n o ble s whom we m ee t wi th a m o ng th e Cel ts o f t

,
°nx°

almos t reg al repu te in a nd beyond his c anto n and a ,

 76 TH E S U BJ U G A TI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
t ely brave sa g a cious man to boo t left the c api ta l a nd
s at , , ,

s u mm o ned th e cou ntr y pe o ple w h o were a s h o s tile to th e ,

ruli ng o ligarchy a s to the R o m ans at o nce to re e sta blish ,

th e A rv e nia n m o n a rchy a nd to go to w a r wi th R o m e
r .

T h e m ul ti tude quickly joi ned h im ; th e res to ration of the

thr o ne o f L ue ius a nd B e tuitus w a s a t th e s a m e ti m e th e
r

decla ra ti o n of a n ationa l war a ga i ns t R o m e T h e cen tre .

of uni ty fro m the want o f which a ll previous a tte m p ts of

,

th e n a ti o n to sh a ke o ff th e fo reign yoke h a d fa iled wa s ,

no w fo u n d in th e new self n o m i na ted ki ng o f th e A rver ni

-
.

Vercinge to ix beca m e fo r th e Cel ts of th e co nti nen t wh at

r

Ca ssiv e lla unus was for th e i nsul a r Cel ts ; the feeling

s tro ngly perva ded the m asses th a t he if any one wa s the , ,

ma n to s a ve th e n a ti o n .

S prea d of T he wes t f o m th e m ou th of th e G a ro n n e to th a t of the

r

S ei ne w a s ra pidly i nfec ted by th e i nsu ection a nd Ver rr ,

cing e to ri w a s rec o g nized by all th e c a nto ns there a s

x

c o m ma nder in chief ; where th e co mmo n c o uncil m ade

- -
~

a ny di fficul ty the m ul ti tude com pelled it to join th e

,

m o e m e nt ; only a few c a ntons such a s th a t o f th e

v ,

B iturig e s required c o m pulsi o n to joi n it a nd these per

, ,

h a ps o nly for appea a nce sa ke The i ns urrecti o n fou nd

r
’
.

a less fa voura ble s o il in th e regi o n s to the e a s t o f the

upper L oire Every thi ng here d e pe nded o n the H a e dui

.

a nd the s e w a vered T he p a t i o tic p a rty wa s ve y s tro ng

. r r

in this c anton ; b ut the o ld a nta go nis m to th e le ding o f a

th e A rver n i c o u nterb al a nced their infl ue nce — to th e m os t

serious de tri men t of the i nsurrec tion a s th e a ccessi o n o f ,

th e e a s tern c a nto ns p a rticula rly of th e S equ a ni a nd

,

H elve tii wa s co ndi tio nal o n th e a cce ssi o n of th e H a e dui

, ,

a nd gener a lly in this p a t o f G a ul th e deci s i o n re s t ed wi th

r

the m . While the i nsu ge nts were thus l bou i ng p artly to

r a r

i nduce th e ca nto ns th a t s till he si tated esp e ci a lly th e ,

H ae dui to j oi n the m p tly to g e t p o s e s si o n of N a bo

, ,
ar s r

o ne o f their le a ders th e d aring Lucte rius ha d a lrea dy

, ,
 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
v lry a nd o f the i nfa n try a rcher s who were a ccording to
ca a ,
-

the m ode of figh ti ng o f th a t ti m e regul arly a s s o ci ated wi th

it
. H e did no t se nd th e i m m e nse a n d self o bs truc ting -

m a sses of th e m ili ti a of th e li ne to their h o m es b ut he did ,

no t a llow the m to fa ce th e e ne m y a nd a tte m p ted to i m p a rt ,

to the m gr a du ally s o m e c a p a ci ty of in trenchi ng ma rchi ng , ,

a nd m a noeuvri ng a nd s o m e percep ti o n th a t th e soldier is

,

not de sti ned m erely fo r ha nd to ha nd c o mb at L earning - -

.

fro m the ene m y he a dopted in p a rticula r the R o ma n

,

sys te m of e nca m p m en t on which depe nded the whole ,

secre t of the t a c tic al superi o ri ty of th e R o m ans ; for in

c o nseque nce of it eve y R o ma n c o rps combi ned all the
r

a dv a n ta ges of th e g ison o f a fortress wi th all the

a rr

a dv a n ta ges of a n o ffe n s ive a r m y I t is true th at a sys te m

1
.

co m ple tely a d a p ted to B ri ta in which h a d few tow n s a nd to

its rude resolu te a nd o n th e whole u ni ted inh a bi ta nts wa s

, ,

no t a bsolu tely tr a nsfer a ble to th e rich regions on th e L o ire

a nd their indole nt i nh a bi ta n ts on th e eve o f u tter polit ic a l

dissolu tion Verci nge to rix at le a s t a cco mplished this much

.
,

th a t they did no t a tte m p t as hi ther to to h o ld every town

wi th th e result of h o ldi ng no ne they a greed to des troy the
townships no t ca pa ble of defe nce before atta ck rea ched
t he m b ut to defe n d wi th all their m igh t th e s tro ng
,

fo tres ses At th e s am e ti m e th e A rve rnia n king d id wh a t

r .

he could to bind to th e c a u s e o f thei c o untry th e cowardly

i

a nd b a ckw a rd by s ter n sever ty th e he s i ta ti ng by e ntre a ties i ,

a nd represen ta tio ns th e cove to us by g o ld

, th e decided ,

oppone nts by force a nd to co m pel or a llure the rabble

,

high o r lo w to som e ma nifes ta ti o n of patriotism .

E ve n befo re th e wi nter w a s a t a n e nd he threw hi mself ,

1 This it is true , w as
, ly p ib l
on l ng ff
o ss e , so o as o e ns ive w e a p o ns ch ie fl y

a im e d at cuttin g and t bb i g
s a I th m d n m
n . n e o er o de of w arfar e , as
N ap o l h as e x ce e n
eon ex ll tly p l n d th i y t m h b
ai e s s s e as e co m e ina p p ica b e .
, l l
be ca us e w ith o ur o ff e nsive w ea p o ns o p era ting fro m a d istance th e de p o y ed l
p o s itio n is m o r e a dva nta geo us th a n the co nce ntra te d
'
I n Ca e sar s tim e .

th e r e ve rse was th e cas e .

CH AP . V ii U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T
TH E S 79

on th e B O1 1 settled by C a es a r in th e terri tory of th e H ae dui ,

wi th th e view o f annihil a ting these al m os t th e sole trust,

wo rthy allies o f R om e befo re C a es a r c a m e up T he news

, .

of this attack i nduced C a es ar le a vi ng behi nd th e b aggage

,

a nd tw o legions in th e win ter qu a ters of Ag e dincum r

( S e n s ) to m a rch i mm edi ately a nd e a rlier th a n he would

,

d o ub tless o therwise h a ve done a ga ins t the insurgents H e

, .

re medied th e sorely fel t wa nt of cavalry a nd ligh t i nfa ntry in

-

som e m ea sure by gr a dually bri nging up Germa n m ercen aries ,

who i ns te a d o f u si ng their own s mall and we ak p o nies were

fur nished wi th I tali a n a nd S p a nish h o rses p a r tly b o ug ht p a rtly ,

procured by requisi ti o n of th e o flice rs C aes ar a fter h a vi ng.

,

by th e w a y c au sed Ce nab um th e ca pi tal of th e Carnute s

, ,

which h ad given th e sign a l for th e revol t to be pill aged ,

a nd l a id in a shes m oved over th e L oire i nto th e coun try of

,

the B iturig e s H e thereby induced Verci ngetorix to

.

ab a ndon th e siege of th e to wn of th e B oii a nd to res o rt ,

likewise to th e Biturig e s H ere th e ne w mode o f w arfare

.

wa s firs t to be tried B y o rder o f Vercinge torix m o re th a n

.

twe nty townships o f th e Biturig e s perished in the fl am es o n

o ne day ; th e ge ner al decreed a si m il a r sel f dev a s tation as -

to th e neighbour c a n tons s o far a s they could be reached

,

by the R oman for aging p a rties .

A ccordi ng to his i nte ntio n A va ricum ( B ou ges) th e

, r ,

rich a nd s trong c a pi ta l o f th e B iturig e s w as to m ee t th e ,

s am e fate but the m aj o ri ty of th e w a r council yielded to -

th e suppli a nt en tre a ties o f th e B iturig ian a u tho i ties a nd r ,

resolved ra ther to defe nd th at ci ty wi th all their ene gy r .

T hus th e w a r w as c o ncen tra ted in th e firs t ins ta nce a ound r

A va ricum Vercinge torix pl a ced h is infa ntry a m id st th e

.

mora sses a djoini ng th e town in a po sition so una pproach

a ble th at even wi thou t being c o vered by th e ca a l y they
,
v r

needed no t to fea r th e a tta ck of th e legio ns T he Cel tic .

cavalry covered all the r o a ds a nd o b structed the co mmunica

tio n. Th e to wn was s tro ngly g a r i s oned a nd th e con nec
r ,
 TH E S U BJU G AT I ON OF T H E WES T BOO Kv
o b etween it and the arm y befo e th e wa ll s w as kept
ti n r

open C aes ar s position wa s very a wkwa rd T h e a tte mp t

.
’

—
.

to induce th e Cel tic i nfa n try to figh t w a s un s ucces sful it

s tirred no t fro m its u na ss a il a ble li ne s B r a vely a s his .

soldiers in f o nt of th e to w n tre nched and fo ugh t the

r ,

besieged vied wi th the m in i nge nui ty a nd c o urage a nd they ,

had a l m o s t succeeded in se tti ng fire to th e s iege a pp a a tus r

of their o pp o ne nts The ta sk wi th al of supplyi ng a n r my

. a

of nea rly m e n wi th provisi o ns in a c o u ntry de a s ta te d v

far a nd wide a nd sc o ured by fa r supe i o r b o dies of c a va l y

r r

becam e d a ily m ore diflicult T he sle nder s to res of th e B o ii

.

were soo n used up ; th e supply pro m i sed by th e H a e dui

fa iled to a ppea r th e c o rn w a s a lre a dy c o n s u m ed a nd th e ,

soldier wa s pl aced exclu si ely o n fle sh a tions

v But th e
-
r .

mo m en t w as a ppro aching whe n th e town wi th wha tever ,

con te m p t o f de a th the ga rriso n fough t c o uld be held no ,

longer . S till it w a s no t imp oss ible to wi thd a w th e tr o op s

‘
r

secretly by nigh t and des troy th e town befo e th e ene m y ,

r

occupied it Verci nge torix m ade a rra nge m e nts for this
.

purpose but the cry of distress ra i ed a t th e m o m en t of

,
s

e va cu a tio n by th e wo m e n a nd childre n left behind a ttra c ted

the atte ntion of the R o m ans the dep arture m i s car ied r .

On th e foll o wing gloo my a nd r a i ny da y th e R o ma ns

s e a le d th e w a lls a nd ex a sper a ted by th e o b s ti na te defe nce
, , ,

sp ared nei ther ag e nor sex in the c o nque ed town Th e r .

am ple s tores which th e Cel ts h a d a ccu m ul a ted in it were

, ,

welcome to th e s ta rved soldiers of C a e sa r Wi th the c p tur e . a

of Avaricum ( spri ng o f a fi s t success r h a d bee n

a chieved over th e i nsur ec ti o n a nd a ccordi ng to fo m er ex
r , r

p e r ie nce C a es a r m ight well expec t th at it wo uld now diss o lve ,

a nd th a t it would o nly be requisi te to de a l wi th th e c a nto ns

individu ally After he ha d therefo re shown hi m self wi th

.

his wh o le a rmy in th e ca nto n of the H e dui a nd h d by a a

this i m p o si ng de mo ns tra ti o n co m pelled th e pa t i o t p a r ty in r

a fer men t there to keep quie t a t le a s t for the m o m en t he ,

CH A P . V ii TH E S U BJ U G A TI ON OF TH E WES T
divided his a my a nd se nt Lab ie nus b ack to A g e dincum
r ,

th a t in co m bi na ti o n wi th th e t o o p s left there he m igh t a t

r

th e he d o f fo ur legio ns suppre s in th e firs t ins ta nce th e

a s

m ove m en t in th e terri to y o f th e Ca r nute s a nd S enones

r ,

who o n this o cc as ion o nce m o re to o k th e le a d ; while he

hi m self wi th the six e m ai ning legio ns tur ned to the sou th
r

a nd prep a red to c a rry th e w ar i nto th e A r ve rnia n m ou nta ins ,

th e proper terri tory of Verci nge to rix .

La bie nus m oved fro m A g e dincum up th e left b ank of L bi nu a e s

the S eine wi th a V iew to p o sse s s hi m self o f L u te ti a ( Pa ris)

iii;
)
,

th e town of th e P a risii si tu a ted on a n isl a nd in th e S ei ne ,

a nd fro m this well secured p o si tion in th e he a r t of the

-

insurgen t cou ntry to reduce it a ga i n to subj ec tion B ut .

behind M e lo dunum ( Melu n) he fou n d his rou te b a rred by

,

the whole ar my of th e insurgen t which h ad here ta ken

s.

up a posi tio n be twee n u na ss a il a ble m ora sses under th e

lea dership of the aged Camulo g e nus Labie nus re tre ated .

a cer ta in dis ta n ce crossed th e S eine a t M e lo dunum a nd

, ,

moved up its righ t ba nk unhi nde ed tow a rd s L ute tia r

Ca m ulo g e nus c a use d this town to be burnt a nd th e bridges

le a di ng to the left b a nk to be bro ke n dow n and took up a ,

po si tio n over aga i ns t L abie nus in which the l a tter could

,

nei ther bring him to b attle nor effect a pa ss age under the
eyes of the hos tile army .

T he R o m a n m a in a rm y in its t ur n a dva n ced a long the C a esar

Allier d o wn in to th e c a n ton of th e A rverni Vercingeto rix gigs“ .

a tte mp ted to preve nt it f o m cr o ssi ng to th e left b a n k o f

r

the Al lier but C aes ar overre a ched h im and a fter s o m e

,

days s to o d before th e Arve rni n c a pi ta l Ge rg o via Ver

a
l
.

1 l
This p ace has b ee n s o ugh t o n a r is ing gro un d w h ich is sti na m ed ll
l
G er g o ie , a ea gu e to th e so u th o f th e Ar ve r nia n ca p ita N e m e tum th e l ,

l
mo de rn C er m o nt a nd b o th th e r e m a ins o f ru d e fo rtre s s w a s b ro ugh t to -
ll
ligh t in e xca va tio ns th e re a nd th e tra ditio n o f th e na m e w h ich is tra ce d
,

l
in do cume nts up to th e te nth ce n tur y , e a ve no ro o m fo r do ub t as to th e
l
co rre ct ne s s o f th is d e te r m in a tio n o f th e o cal ity M o re o ve r it a cco r ds , a s
.

ll
with the o th er s ta te m e nts o f C a e sar , so e s p e cia y w ith t h e fa ct th a t b e
l l
pre tty c ea r y indica tes G er g ovia as th e ch ie f p la ce o f th e Ar ver ni (vii .

V OL. V I 39
 TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WES T BOO Kv
Cing e to rix, h o wever doub tless eve n while he was c o nfronting
,

C a es a r on th e A llier ha d ca used su fficient s tores to be

,

collec ted in G e rg o ia a nd a fixed ca m p provided wi th

v

s tr o ng s to n e r a m p a ts to be co ns truc ted for his troops in

r

f o nt of th e w alls o f the to wn which wa s si tu ated on the

r ,

su m m i t of a pre tty s teep hill ; a nd a s he had a su fficien t ,

star t he a r ived before C aes a r at Ge rg ovia a nd a wa i ted the

,
r

a tta ck in th e fo r tified c a m p under th e w all of th e for tress .

C a es ar wi th his c o m p a ratively we ak a m y coul d neither r

regul arly besiege the pl a ce nor even su fficie ntly blocka de

it ; he pitched his c a m p below th e risi ng ground occupied
by Verci nge to rix a nd was compelle d to pre serve an a tti tude
,

a s in a c tive a s his opponen t I t w a s a l m ost a victory for

.

the insurgen ts tha t C a esa r s career o f a dva nce from triumph

,
’

to triu m ph h a d bee n suddenly checked on th e S eine as on

th e A llier I n fa c t th e co nsequences of this check for
.

C a es ar were al m os t equivale nt to those of a defe at .

T h e H a e dui wh o h a d hi ther to con ti nued va cill ating

, ,

n o w m a de prep a r a tions in e a rnes t to join th e p a triotic

p a rty ; the body of m e n who m C a es a r had ordere d to ,

G e rg o via h a d o n th e ma rch bee n induced by its o flice rs to

,

decl are for th e in s urge nts ; a t th e s am e ti m e they had

begun in the c a nto n i tself to plunder a nd kill the R o ma ns
se ttled there C a esa r who h ad gone wi th two thirds of
.
,
-

th e block a di ng a r m y to m ee t th at corps of th e H a e dui

which w a s bei ng b o ugh t up to Ge rg ovia h a d by his
r ,

sudden a ppe a ance rec a lled it to no m i nal obedience ; b ut

r

it was m o re th a n ever a hollow a nd fr agile rel a tion th e ,

c o nti nu a nce of which h a d bee n a l m o s t to o de arly purch a sed

by th e gre at peril of th e two legions left behind in front o f

G e rg o via . For Verci nge to rix rapidly and resolutely ,

a v a iling hi m self of C a es ar s dep arture had during his ’

,

We Sha ll h a ve a cco r din gly to a s s ume , th a t th e Arver nians a fter the ir

d e fea t w e re co m p e ll e d to tra nsfe r th e ir l
s e tt e ment fr o m Gerg o via to the
ne ighb o uring l e ss s tr o ng N e me tum .
C H A P. V ii TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T 83

a bsence m a de an atta ck on the m which h a d well nigh ,

ended in their being overpowere d a nd th e R o ma n c a m p ,

bei ng take n by s tor m C a es a r s unriva lled cele i ty a l o ne

.
’
r

a ve ted
r a seco nd c at a s trophe like th at of A duatuca .

T hough th e H ae dui m a de once m ore fa ir pro m ises it ,

might be foreseen th at if the block a de sh o uld s till be

,

pro longed wi thou t resul t they would o pe nly range them

,

s elves on th e side of the insurgen ts a nd w o uld thereby

co m pel C aes ar to ra ise it ; for their a cce ss ion would

in terru pt the c o m munic ation between him and Labie nus ,

a nd expose th e l a tter especi a lly in his isol a ti o n to th e

gre ates t peril C a es a r was re s olved no t to let m atters

.

come to this p a ss but however p ainful and even dangerous

, ,

it was to re tire fr o m G e rg o via wi thout h aving a cc o m plished

his o bj ect never theless if it m us t be do ne r ather to set
, . ,

o ut im m edi a tely a nd by m arching in t o th e c a nton of th e

H a e dui to preven t at a ny cos t their form a l desertion .

B efore en teri ng however on this re tre a t which w as fa r ,

from agreea ble to his quick a nd confiden t te mperam e nt he ,

m a de yet a last at te m p t to free hi m self from his pa i nful

perplexity by a brilli a nt success While the bulk of th e .

ga rrison of G erg o via was occupied in in trenchi ng the side

on which the a ss a ul t wa s expected th e R oma n ge nera l ,

watched his opportunity to surprise another a ccess less

convenie ntly si tu ated but at th e m om en t left b a re I n .

reali ty the R om an s torming c o lu m ns sc aled th e c a m p wall -

and occupied th e ne a res t qu a r ters of th e c a m p but th e

whole ga rrison wa s a lre a dy a l ar m ed a nd o wing to th e ,

s mall dis ta nces C a es ar found it no t a dvi sable to risk the

second a ss a ul t on the ci ty w all H e g ave th e sign a l for
-
.

retrea t ; b ut the forem os t legions c a r ie d a wa y by the ,

r

impetuosi ty of vic tory he a rd no t or did no t wish to hea r

, ,

and pushed fo rw ard wi thout h a l ti ng up to th e ci ty w all ,

-

som e even in to th e ci ty B ut m a sses m o re a nd m re

.

de nse thre w themselves in front of the intruders ; the fore

 TH E S UB U A TI ON OF TH E J G WES T B OO K V

m os t fell the colu m ns s topped ; in va in cen turions a nd

,

legio na ies fough t wi th the mos t devo ted and hero ic

r

courage ; th e a ss a ila nts were cha sed wi th very c o nsider a ble

l o ss o ut of the town a nd down th e hill where th e tro o ps ,

s tatio ned by C a e sa r in the pl a in received the m a nd

preve nted grea ter m ischie f Th e expec ted c a p tu e o f . r

G e g o via ha d been conver ted i nto a defea t a nd the co n

r ,

s ide ra ble loss in killed a nd w o unded — there were c o un ted

7 0 0 s o ldiers th a t h a d fa lle n includi n g 4 6 cen turi o ns —

,was
t h e le a s t p a r t o f th e m i s fo rt u ne su ff ered .

T he i m posi ng posi tio n o f C a es ar in G a ul depe nded

e se nti ally on th e h a lo o f Vic to ry th at s urrou nded him ; a nd
s

this beg a n to g ow p a le rT h e conflic ts a round A va ricum

.
,

C a esa r s v a i n atte m p ts to c o mpel the e ne my to figh t th e

’
,

resolu te defe nce o f the ci ty a nd its a l mos t a ccide ntal

‘

c a p ture by s to m b o re a s ta mp di fferen t fro m th at o f th e

r

e a lier Cel tic wa rs a nd h a d stre ngthened ra ther th a n

r ,

i m p a i ed the confidence o f the Cel ts in the m sel es a nd

r v

their le a der M o re o ver th e ne w sys te m of w fa re— the

.
,
ar

m a king he a d a g a ins t th e ene m y in i ntrenched c a m p s

u nder th e protec ti o n of fo tre sses — h ad c o mple tely a ppro ved
r

i tself a t L u te ti a a s well as a t Ge g o via L a s tly this defe a t r .

, ,

th e firs t which C a es ar in pers o n h a d su ffered f o m th e r

Cel ts cr o w ned their success and it a ccordi ngly gave a s it

, ,

were th e s igna l for a second o u tbrea k o f the insurrec ti o n .

Th e H a e dui now br o ke for m ally wi th C a es a a nd e nte ed r r

i nto u ni o n wi th Verci nge to ix T heir c o n ti ngen t which r .

,

w a s s till wi th C a es a r s a r m y no t o nly deser ted f o m it b ut

’

,
r ,

a ls o to ok o cc a si o n to c a y o ff the de p Ots o f th e a m y o f
rr r

Ca es a r a t N o io dunu m o n the Lo i e w he eby the che s t

v r ,
r s

a nd m a g zi nes a a nu m ber o f
,
e m o un t h o rse s a nd a ll th e r -

ho stag e s fur ni hed to C a e sa r fell i nto th e h a nds o f the

s ,

i nsu gen ts I t was of at l e a s t equ a l i mp o r tance th at on

r .
,

this news th e B elga e who h a d hi the to kep t l o o f f o m th e

,
r a r

whole move me nt bega n to be stir the ms e lve s ,

Th e .
 TH E S U BJ U GAT I ON OF TH E WES T B OO KV
ins tructi o ns and fe a r of re spo nsibili ty H e conte nted .

hi m self wi th c alli ng the ge nera l levy o f the R o m ns se ttled a

in the pr o vi nce to a r m s a nd h avi ng th e fro ntiers gu a ded

,
r

by th at levy to the bes t of its a bili ty On the o ther h and .

he hi m self s e t o ut in th e Opp o si te direc tion a nd a d a nced v

by forced marches to Ag e dincum to which he orde ed ,

r

L a bie nus to re tre at in all h a s te T h e Cel ts n a turally

.

ende a voured to preve nt th e ju nc tion of th e two R o m a n

a r m ies . L a bie nus m igh t by cr o ssi ng th e M arne a nd
,

m a rching dow n th e righ t b a nk of the S ei ne h a ve re a ched

A g e dincum where he h a d left his rese ve a nd his b a gg age
,
r

but he preferred no t to a llow th e Cel ts a g a in to behold th e

re treat of R o ma n tr o o ps H e therefore i ns te a d of cr o ssi ng
.

the M a rne cro ssed the S eine under the eyes of the deluded
ene my a nd on its left b ank fo ught a b attle wi th the hostile
,

fo rces in which he conquered a nd a m o ng ma ny o thers

, ,

th e Cel tic ge n era l hi m s elf th e old Ca m ulo g e nus wa s left

, ,

on the field N o r were th e i nsurgen ts m o re successful in

.

de ta i ni ng C a esa r on the Loire C a es ar gave the m no ti m e

to a sse mble l arger ma sses there and wi thout difliculty ,

dispersed the m ili ti a of the H ae dui which alone he fou nd ,

a t th a t poi nt .

T hus th e junc tion of the two divisions of th e a rm y w as

h appily a ccom plished T he i nsurge nts m e a nwhile had con
.

s ulte d a s to th e fa r ther co nduc t of th e w a r a t B ibracte

( A u t u n th e c api ta l o f th e H a e dui ; th e soul of these con

)
s ulta tio ns w a s a g a i n V erci nge to rix t o wh o m the na tio n w a s
,

e nthusi a s tically a ttached a fter th e victory of Ge g o via r .

Pa rticul ar i nteres ts were n o t it is true even now silen t ;

, ,

th e H a e dui s till in t his de a th s truggle of th e na tio n a ssert ed

-

their cl a i m s t o th e hege m o ny a nd m a de a pr o p o s a l in th e
,

n ational as se m bly to subs ti tu te a le a der of their o w n for

Verci nge to rix B ut th e n ti o na l e p ese ntati es h ad no t
. a r r v

m erely decli ned this and co nfi m ed V erci nge to rix in the r

supreme comma nd but had a lso a dop ted his pla n o f war
,
CR AP. Vi i TH E S U BJ U G ATI ON OF T H E WE S T 87

wi thout al tera ti o n I t w as subs ta n ti ally the s a m e a s th at

.

on which he ha d Opera ted a t A varicum a nd at Ge rg o via .

A s th e b a se of the ne w po s i tio n there w a s selec ted th e

s tro ng ci ty of the M a ndubii Alesi a (Alise S a in te R eine
,

ne a r S e m ur in the dep a r m e COte d Or) a nd a nother

1 ’
t nt

en trenched ca m p w as cons t uc ted under its walls I m

r .

m ense s tores were here a ccu m ul a ted a nd th e a r m y w a s ,

ordered thi ther from Ge rg o via h aving its ca v alry r a ised

,

by resoluti o n of the n a ti o n al a s s em bly to horse .

C aes a r wi th the whole s tre ng th of his a rm y a fter it w as

reuni ted at Ag e dincum took th e direction o f B e sang o n ,

wi th the view of now approa chi ng th e a l ar m ed province

a nd pro tec ting it fro m a n i nva sion for in fact ba nds of ,

i nsurgen ts ha d alre a dy show n the m selves in the terri to ry

of the H elvii on the sou th sl o pe o f th e Cevennes Alesi a .

lay a l m os t o n his w a y ; th e c a va lry of th e Cel ts th e o nly ,

arm wi th which Vercinge torix ch o se to o pe a te a tta cked r ,

him on th e rou te b ut to th e surprise of all w a s wors ted

,

by th e new German squ a dro ns of C a es ar and the R om an

i nfa ntry drawn up in support of the m .

Verci nge torix h a s tened th e m o re to shut hi m s elf up in C a es ar

‘
Al esi a a nd if C a e sa r w a s no t disp o sed a l toge ther to
0

renounce the o ffe nsive no course was left to him but for
,

the third ti m e in this c a mp a ig n to proceed by w a y of a tta ck

with a fa r we aker force agai ns t an ar m y enc a m ped under a
well g arrisoned a nd well provisioned for tress a nd supplied
- -

wi th i mm e nse m a sses of c a v al y B ut while th e Cel ts h ad S i g e

r .
,
e of
Al m
hi therto bee n oppo sed by o nly a p a rt of the R o m an legions ,
e ‘

th e whole fo rces of C a es a r were u n i ted in th e li ne s round

Alesi a a nd Verci nge to rix did no t succeed a s he h a d suc

, ,

ce e de d a t Ava r icum a nd G e rg o via in pl a cing his infa ntry

,

u nder th e protection of th e wa lls of the fortress a nd keepi ng

1 l
Th e ques tio n so m uch d is cusse d o f a te w h e th er A le s ia is no t ra the r
,

l
to be id e ntifie d with A a is e ( 2 5 kl
i o me tre s to th e s o uth o f B e sa nco n , de p .

l
Do ub s ), has b e e n righ t y a ns w e re d in th e ne ga tive b y all j u dicio us inquirers .
88 TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF T H E WES T BOO KV
his ex ter na l co mm u nic ations ope n for his own be nefi t by
his c a a lry while he i nte rup ted those o f the e n e m y
v ,
r T he .

Cel tic c a a l y alre a dy di s c o ur ged by th a t defe at inflic ted

v r ,
a

o n them by their ligh tly e s tee m ed Opp o ne nts wa s bea ten ,

by C aes r s Ger ma n h o rse in every e nc o u nter T he li ne

a
’
.

o f circu m v a ll a tio n of th e besieger s ex te ndi ng a bou t ni ne

miles i nves ted th e wh o le town i ncludi ng the c a mp a ttached ,

to it . Vercinge torix ha d been prep a red fo r a s truggle

under the walls but no t for bei ng besieged in Alesi a ; in
,

th at poi nt of V iew th e a ccu m ul a ted s tores co nsider able a s ,

they were were y e t fa r f o m su ffi cien t fo r his a r m y— which

,
r

wa s s a id to a m oun t to i nfa n try a nd c a alry v

— a nd for th e nu m erous inh a bi ta nts o f th e to wn V e rcing e .

to rix could no t but perceive th at h is pl a n of wa rfa e ha d on r

this occ a s ion tur n ed to his o w n des truc tion a nd th a t he ,

was lo st u nles s th e wh o le n a ti o n h a s te n ed up to th e e s cue r

of its blocka ded genera l The exis ting p ovi s io ns were . r

s till when th e R o ma n circu mv ll a tion w a s cl o sed uflicie n

,
a ,
s

fo r a m o nth a nd perha p s so m e thi ng m ore ; a t th e l st a

m o men t when there w a s s till free p a s s a ge at l e a st for

,

h o rsemen Ve cinge to rix dis m issed his wh o le c a lry and

,
r va ,

se nt a t the s a m e ti m e to th e he a ds of th e natio n i ns tructi o ns

to c a ll o ut all thei fo rces a nd le a d the m to th e relief o f
r

A lesi a . H e hi m self re s o l ed to be a in pe s o n th e re
,
v r r

sp o nsibili ty fo r th e pl a n o f w a which he ha d projec ted r

a nd which ha d m i s c ried re ma i ned in the fo tress tO

ar ,
r ,

s h a re in g o o d or evil th e fa te o f his fo ll o wer s B ut C ae sa r .

m a de up his m i n d a t o nce to besiege a nd to be besieged .

H e prep a red his line o f circu mv a ll a ti o n fo r de fe nce al so

o n its ou ter side a nd fur ni s hed hi m s elf wi th pr o visi o ns fo r
,

a longer period T h e d a y s p a ssed ; they h a d no l o nge a

. r

b o ll of gra in in th e fo t e ss a nd they we e o bliged to drive

r r ,
r

o ut the unh appy i nh a bi ta n ts o f th e tow n to pe ish m iser a bly r

between the e ntre nch m e nts o f th e Cel ts a nd of the R o mans ,

p i til e ssly rejec ted by both .

CH A P . V ii TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF T H E WE S T
At the l a st h o u ther e a ppe a ed behi nd Ca e s a r s li nes Att mpt
r r
’
e

li fi
th e in ter mi na ble a rr a y o f th e Cel io B elgic relievi ng a r m y
t a re e
-

sa id to am ou nt to i nfa ntry a nd 8 0 c a a lry 0 0 v .

From the Ch a nnel to th e Ceven nes th e insurgen t ca n to ns

h a d s tr a i ned every nerve to rescue th e flower of their
p atrio ts a nd the ge ne ra l Of their ch o ice — th e B ell o va ci
a lone h ad a nswered th a t they were doub tless di s p o sed to

figh t ag a i ns t th e R o ma ns but no t beyon d their own

,

bo unds T he firs t a s s a ul t which th e besieged o f A les ia

.
,
b f e o re
a nd th e relieving tro o ps wi thout ma de o n the R om a n A l i es a.

double li ne wa s repulsed ; b ut whe n a fter a day s res t it

, ,
’

w a s repe a ted th e Cel ts succeeded — a t a sp o t where th e

,

line o f circu mv all a ti o n ra n over th e sl o pe of a hill and

could be a ss ailed fro m th e heigh t above —in filli ng up the
trenche s a nd hurli ng th e defe n ders down fro m th e ra m
p a rt T he n Lab ie nus se nt thi ther by C a es a r collec ted
.
, ,

th e ne a res t coho ts a nd threw hi m self wi th fo ur legions

r

on the foe U nder the eye s of th e ge neral who hi m self

.
,

a ppe a red a t th e m os t da n ger o us m o m en t th e a ss a il a n ts ,

were dri e n b a ck in a desperate h a nd to h a nd co nfl ict

v - -

a nd the s q u a drons of ca v a lry th a t c a m e wi th C a es a r ta king

th e fugi tives in re a r co m ple ted th e de fe a t .

I t w a s m ore th a n a gre a t vic tory ; th e fa te of A lesi a Al i ,

es a.

pitul t s
a nd indeed of th e Cel tic na tion w a s thereby i r e voc a bly
ca a e
,
r

decided Th e Cel tic a r my u tterly di s he a te ned disper sed

.
,
r ,

a t once fro m th e b a ttle fi e ld a nd wen t ho m e

-
V e rcing e .
‘

to rix migh t perh a ps h a ve even now ta ken to fligh t or a t ,

le a s t h ave s a ved hi m self by the l a s t me a ns o pe n to a free

m a n ; he did no t do so b ut decla red in a cou ncil of w a r
,

th t since he h a d no t succeeded in br e a ki ng o ff th e a lien

a ,

yoke he was re a dy to give hi m self up as a vic ti m a nd to

,

a ver t a s fa r a s p o ssible des truc ti o n fro m the n ation by

bringi ng it on h is o w n he a d T his wa s d o ne T h e Cel tic
. .

o ffi cers delivered their gener a l — th e sole m n ch o ice of the

w hole nation—ove r to th e ene my of th eir c ountry fo r s uch

 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WEST K
B OO t

p uni sh men t a s m ight be th o ught fit M o un ted on his .

s teed and in full a r m our th e ki ng o f th e Ar erni appe ared v

befo re the R oma n procon sul and ro de rou nd his tribun al

the n he surre n dered his h o s e a nd a r m s a nd sa t down in r ,

sile nce o n th e s teps a t C a e sa r s fee t ’

Five ye ars afterwards he wa s led in triu mph through

th e s tree ts of th e I ta li a n c a pi ta l a nd while h is co nquer o r , ,

wa s o ffe i ng s o le m n th a nks to th e g o ds o n th e su mm i t o f
r

th e C a pi tol Verci nge to rix wa s behe a ded at its fo ot as guil ty

,

o f high t e a so n a g a i ns t th e R o m a n na ti o n
r A s a fter a day .

of gl o o m the sun m ay perh a ps bre a k thr o ugh th e clouds at its

se tti ng so des ti ny m ay bes tow o n nati o ns in their decline
,

y e t a l a s t g e a t ma n r T hus H a nniba l s ta nds a t th e cl o se

.

of the P h o e nic a n his to ry a nd Verci nge to rix at th e cl o se

i ,

of the Cel tic T hey were no t a ble to s a ve the n ati o ns to

.

which they belo nged fro m a foreign yoke but they spa red ,

the m th e l a s t e ma i ni ng disg a ce — an ingl o rious fall

r r .

Verci nge torix jus t like the C a r th agi ni a n wa s obliged to

, ,

con te nd not m erely aga inst the public foe but also a nd ,

a bove all a g a i n s t th a t a nti na ti o na l opp o si tio n of wounded

-

eg o tists and s ta r tled cowa rds which regula rly a cc o m p anies ,

a degener a te civiliz a tion ; for him to o a pl a ce in his tory is

s ecured no t by his b a ttles a nd sieges b ut by th e fa c t th a t

, ,

he w as a ble to furnish in his o w n person a centre a nd

rallyi ng p o i nt to a na tio n dis tracted a nd ruined by the
-

rivalry o f individua l i ntere sts A nd ye t there ca n h a rdly .

be a m o re m a rked con tra s t th a n be tween th e s o ber tow ns

ma n of th e P hoenici a n merc a ntile ci ty whose pl ns were ,
a

direc ted towards o ne g e a t Object wi th u nch a ngi ng e ne gy

r r

through o u t fifty ye a r s a nd th e b o ld prince of th e Cel tic

,

l a nd wh o se m igh ty deed s a nd high m i nded self sacrifice

,
- -

fall wi thi n th e c o m p a ss o f o ne b ief su mm er Th e wh o le r .

a ncie nt w o ld p ese nts no m ore genuine k nigh t whe ther

r r ,

as r egards his e ss e nti al ch a rac ter or his o u twa rd a ppe ar

a nc e . But ma n o ugh t no t to be a mere k ni g h t a nd le as t ,
C H A P. V i i TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T 91

of all the s tates man I t wa s th e knight no t the h ero who

.
, ,

disda ined to esca pe from A le si a when for th e nati o n m ore ,

depended on him th a n on a hu nd ed th o us a nd ordin ary

!
r

brave m e n I t wa s the k nigh t not th e hero who g ave

.
, ,

hi m self up as a s a crifice when the o nly thi ng g a ined by

,

th at s a crifice was tha t th e n ation publicly dish o noure d

i tself and wi th equ al cowa rdice a nd a bsurdi ty e mploye d
its l a s t bre a th in pr o cl a i mi ng th at its gre a t his toric al de ath
s truggle was a c ri m e aga inst its oppressor H ow very .

diff eren t was the conduc t of H annib al in si mila r posi tions !

I t is impossible to p art fro m the noble king of the A rverni
without a feeling of his torical a nd hu ma n sy mp athy ; but
it is a signific a nt tr ai t of th e Cel tic n ation th a t its gre atest ,

m an was after all m erely a knigh t .

Th e fall of A lesi a a nd th e c api tul a tion of th e a rm y

encl o sed in it were fe arful blows for th e Cel tic insur ec tio n r

b ut blows qui te as he a vy ha d befa llen th e na ti o n a nd yet

the conflict had been renewed The loss of Verci nge torix .
,

however wa s irrep ara ble Wi th him uni ty ha d c o m e to

,
.

the n a tion ; wi th h im it see m ed a lso to h a ve dep a r ted .

We do no t find tha t the insurgen ts m a de a ny atte mp t to

con tinue their joint defence a nd to a ppoi nt a no ther ge neral
iss imo the le a gue of p atrio ts fell to pieces of i tself a nd ,

ever y cl an wa s left to fight or come to term s wi th the

R o ma ns as it ple a sed N a turally the d esire a fter rest
.

everywhere preva iled C a es ar to o had an interes t in bri ng

.

ing the war quickly to a n end Of th e ten ye ars of his

.

governorship seven ha d el apsed a nd the la s t wa s called in

,

question by his politica l Opp o nen ts in the ca pi ta l he could

only reckon wi th som e degree of cer ta in ty on two m ore
su mm ers a nd while his i nterest a s well a s his honour
, ,

required th at he S h o uld h a nd over th e newly a cquired -

regio ns to his successor in a co ndi ti o n of tolera ble pe ace

and tr a nquilli ty there was in tru th b ut sc a n ty ti m e to brin g
,

ab out s u ch a s tat e of thing s To exerc is e me rcy was in

.
92 TH E S U B U J GATI ON OF T H E WE S T no o x v
this case still more a necessi ty for the victo r th an fo r the
’

vanquished and he migh t tha nk his s tars that the i nte n al r

dissensio ns a nd tne e a sy te mpera men t of the Cel ts me t

him in this respect h alf way Where a s in the two m ost
.
-

e minen t c a n tons of centra l G aul those of the H ae dui a nd ,

A rverni —there exis ted a strong p a rty well disposed to

R o m e the c a n tons ob ta ined i mm edi ately after the fa ll of
,

Alesi a a co m ple te res toration of their former rel ations wi th

R o m e a nd eve n their ca ptives
,
in nu mber were
, ,

relea sed wi thou t r a nsom while those of the other cl ans

,

p a s s ed i nto th e h ard bondage of the vic torious legio naries .

T he gre ater portion of the Gallic distric ts sub m i tted like

th e H a e dui and Arver ni to their fate a nd a llowed their ,

i nevi table punish m en t to be in flicted wi thou t far ther resis t

a nce. B ut not a few clung in foolish frivoli ty or sullen
desp a ir to th e lost c a use till the R om an tr0 0 ps of execu tion
,

a ppe a red wi thin the ir borde rs S uch expedi tions were in

.

th e winter of 7 0 2 7 0 3 undert ake nag a ins t th e B iturig e s a nd

-

th e Carnute s .

More serious resistance was o fi e re d by the B ellovaci

'

who in the previous ye ar ha d kept aloof from th e relief of

A lesi a ; they s e em to h a ve wished to show th at their a bse nce
o n th a t dec isive day a t le a st did no t pr o ceed from w a n t of

courage or of love fo r freedom T he A treb ates Ambiani .

, ,

Ca le te s a nd o ther B elgic c a ntons took p ar t in this s truggle

,

th e b ra e ki ng of the A treb a tes C o m m i ns whose a ccession

v ,

to th e insurrec tion th e R o m a ns h a d le a st of all forgi e n v

,

a nd a g a i ns t who m rece ntly La b ie nus h a d even d ire c ted a n

a tro cious a tte m p t at a ss a ssin a tion b ought to the B ell o v a ci

,
r

0 0 Ger m a n ho se who s e v a lue th e c a m p a ign of th e pre

5 r .

vio us ye a r h a d sh o w n Th e resolu te a nd ta le nted B ell o

.

va cia n Correns to who m the chief c o nduc t of the w ar ha d

,

fa llen w aged w a rfare a s Verci nge torix ha d waged it a nd

, ,

wi th no s mall succes s Al th o ugh Ca esar ha d gra dua lly

.

b rough t up th e grea ter pa rt of his a rm y he co uld nei ther ,

 TH E S U BJU G ATI ON OF TH E WES T B OO Kv
am idst severe and fata l conflic ts they succeeded in suffi
cie ntly provisi o ni ng I n spi te of th e loss of their le a ders
.
,

of wh o m D rappe s h a d bee n t ke n pri soner a nd Lucte rius a ,

h ad been cut o ff f o m th e tow n th e g a rriso n resis ted to th e

r ,

u ttermos t ; it wa s no t till C aes ar appe ared in person and ,

under his orders the spri ng fro m which th e besieged derived

their wa ter was diver ted by m e a ns of sub terra nea n d a i ns r ,

tha t the for tress th e l a s t s tro ngh o l d of th e Cel tic n ation

, ,

fell To dis tinguish the la s t ch am pions of the c ause of

.

free d om C a esa r ordered th at the whole garris o n shoul d

,

h ave their h a nds cut o ff a nd sh o uld then be dis m issed e ach ,

one to his home C a e sa r who felt it all i mport a n t to put

.
,
-

a n end a t le a s t to open resi s ta nce thr o ugh o u t G a ul a llowed ,

ki ng Comm ins wh o s till held o ut in th e region of Arra s

,

a nd m ai nta ined de s ul tory w a rfa re wi th the R o ma n troops

5 1 50
‘
0 there down to th e win ter of 7 0 3— 7 0 4 to m ake his pe a ce , ,

a nd even a cquiesced when th e irri tated a nd jus tly dis trus tful

ma n h a ugh tily refused to a ppe a r in person in the R o ma n

ca mp I t is very prob a ble th at C a es ar in a si m ila r way
.

allowed hi mself to be s a tisfied wi th a m erely no m i na l su b

m ission perh a ps even wi th a de f a czo ar m is tice in th e less
,
’
,

a cc e ssible di s t ic ts of th re n o r th wes t a nd no r th e a s t of G a ul 1
- -
.

G a ul T hus wa s G a ul— o r in o ther words th e l a nd wes t of , ,

th e R hine a nd n o r th of th e P yrenees —rendered subject

sub d ue d .

5 8 s] '
. a fter only eigh t ye a rs of conflic t ( 6 9 6 7 0 3) to th e R o m ans -
.

H ardly a ye a r a fter th e full p acifi ca tio n of the l a nd a t th e ,

49 . begi nning of 7 0 5 the R oma n troops had to be wi thdra wn

,

over the Alp s in conse quence of th e civil war which h ad ,

no w at length b oke n o ut in I taly and there re m a i ned

r ,

nothi ng but a t th e m ost some wea k divisi o ns of recrui ts in

re ce nt ly d l d l
h imse f in fa vo ur o f Luzech to th e wes t o f C ah o rs . a s ite
e c ar e

wh ich h a d b e e n pr e vio us y sug g e s te d l .

1 l
T h is inde e d , as m a y r e a di y b e co nce ive d, is not r eco r d e d b y Ca esar
l ll l
h imse f b ut a n inte igib e hint o n th is s ubj e ct is g ive n b y S a us t (H is t ll .

l
I. 9 K ritz) , a th o ugh h e to o wr o te as a p ar tisa n o f Ca es ar urth er p ro o fs . F
are furnishe d b y the co ins .
C H A P. V ii TH E S U BJU GA T I ON OF T H E WES T 95

Ga ul N ever thele ss th e Cel ts did no t ag ai n rise against

.

th e fo eig n yoke
r a nd while in all th e o ld provin ces of the
,

e m pire there w as figh ti ng a ga i ns t C aes a r th e newly acquired ,

-

c o u ntry al o ne re m ined co nti nuou sly o bedien t to its con

a

q u e ro r E.ven th e Ger m a ns did no t duri ng those decisiv e

ye a s repe at their a tte m p ts to conquer new settlemen ts on

r

th e left b a nk of th e R hine A s li ttle did there occur in

.

G aul any n a ti o n a l insurrection or Ger m a n inv a sion during

th e cri s e s th a t foll o wed a l though the s e o ff ered th e m os t
,

fa voura ble Oppor tu n i ties I f dis turb a nces broke o ut a ny

.

where such as the rising Of the B ellova ci a ga inst the

,

R o m ans in 7 0 8 these m ove men ts were so isol a ted and so

,

unconnected wi th th e co mplic atio ns in I taly th a t they ,

were suppressed wi thout materi al di ffi cul ty by the R oman

go vernors Certai nly this s tate of peace was most prob a bly
.
,

jus t as was the pe a ce of S pa in for cen turies purch a sed by ,

provision a lly allowi ng th e egi o ns that were m o st re mote

r

and m o s t s trongly perv a ded by n a tion a l feeling —B ri tta ny ,

th e dis tric ts o n th e S cheld t th e region of th e P yre nees—to

,

wi thdra w them selves de f a a o in a more or less defi ni te

' ‘

m a nner from th e R o man allegi a n ce N evert heless th e build

.

ing of C a es ar—however sca nty the ti m e which he found for

it a mids t o ther and a t th e mo m en t s till more urgen t l a bours ,

however unfinished and but provision ally rounded o ff he

may h ave left it—in subs tance s tood the tes t of this fiery
tri al as respec ted b o th th e repelling of the Ger mans and
,

th e subjug a tio n o f th e Cel ts .

As to a dm i nis t a ti o n in chief the terri tories newly O g ni

r ,
r a za
ti n
acquired by th e g o er nor of N a rbo nese G a ul re m ained for
o .
v

the ti m e bei ng u ni ted wi th th e provi nce of N arbo it w as

not till C a esar ga ve up this o ffice ( 7 1 0 ) that two new 44 .

g o v e m o r sh ip s — G a ul proper a n d B elgic a —were for m ed o ut

of th e terri tory which he conquered Th at the individual .

ca ntons lost their p o li tical indepe ndence w a s i mplied in the ,

very na ture of con q ue st T hey bec a m e throughou t tribut ary

.
96 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WES T BOO Kv
o n co mm u ni ty Their sys te m of tribu te howeve
to th e R m a . r

was of c o urse no t th a t by m e a n s of which th e nobles a nd

, ,

fi na ncial aris tOC a cy tur ned Asi a to profi table account ; but
i ,

a s wa s th e c a se in S p a i n a tribu te fixed o nce for all w as

,

i mposed on e ach individual co m mu ni ty a nd the levying ,

of it w as left to i tsel f I n this way fo r ty m illion ses terces

.

flowed a nnu ally fro m Ga ul in to th e che sts of

the R o ma n gove nm en t ; which no d o ub t under took in
r , ,

r e turn th e cos t of defendi ng th e fro ntier o f th e R hi ne .

Moreover the ma sses of gold a ccu m ul ated in th e te mple s

,

of the gods and th e tre a suries o f th e gra ndees found their

w ay a s a ma tter o f course to R o m e ; whe n C a es a r o ffered
, ,

his Gallic g o ld thro ughou t th e R o ma n e m pire and brough t

such masses Of it at once in to the m o ney ma rke t th a t gold
a s co m p a red wi th silver fell a bou t 2 5 per cen t we may ,

guess what su ms G a ul los t thro ugh the war .

The for mer c a n to na l co ns ti tu ti o ns wi th their heredi ta ry

ki ngs or their presiding feud al oligarchie s co nti nued in the
,
-

m ain to subsis t a fter the conques t a nd eve n th e sys te m o f ,

clie ntship which m a de cer ta in ca nto ns depende nt on o thers

,

m ore p o werful wa s not a boli s hed a l though no do ub t wi th

, ,

the loss of poli tical independence its edge was ta ken o ff .

T he sole object of C a es a r wa s while ma king us e of the ,

exis ting dyn a s tic feu dalist a nd hege m onic divi s i o ns to

, , ,

a rr a nge ma tters in th e in teres t of R o m e a nd to bri ng ,

everywhere in to power the me n fa voura bly disposed to the

foreign rule C a es a r sp a red no p a ins to form a R om a n
.

p a rty in Ga ul ; extensive rewa rds in m o ne y and speci ally in

c o nfiscated es ta tes were bes towed on his a dheren ts a nd ,

places in the co mmon cou ncil a nd the first o ffice s of s ta te

in their c a ntons were pro cured for the m by Ca es a r s
’

in fl uence T h o se ca n tons in which a su ffi cie ntly s trong and

.

trus twor thy R o ma n p a r ty exis ted such a s those of th e R e mi

, ,

the L ing o ne s the H a e dui were fa voured by th e bes tow al o f

, ,

a freer co m mun al cons ti tu tion —th e righ t of a lli a nce as it ,

 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T BOO KV
e mployed in a ccord ce wi th orders ; but these barb aris ms
an 1

were pregn a nt wi th a gre ater fu ture tha n th e correct La ti n

of the c api tal P erh aps too if th e c anto na l c o ns ti tu tion in
.
,

Ga ul a fterwards a ppe ars m ore cl o sely approxi mated to the

I ta li a n urb an cons ti tu tio n a nd th e chief pl a ces of th e
,

ca n ton as well as the co mm on councils attain a m o re

m arked pro m inence in it th a n w a s prob a bly th e c a se in the
origin al Cel tic org aniz ation th e ch ange may be re ferred to
,

C aesa r N o one prob a bly fel t m ore th a n the poli tica l heir
.

of Ga ius Gra cchus and of M a rius how desirable in a ,

m ili ta ry as well as in a p o li tic a l poin t of V iew it would h a ve

been to es tablish a series of T rans alpine colonies as b a ses
of support for th e new rule and s ta rting— poi nts of th e ne w
civilization I f nevertheless b e confi ned hi mself to the
.

settle m en t of his Cel tic or Ge ma n horse m en in N o vio dunum

r

( p .
4 5) a nd to th at of the B oii in th e c a n ton of th e

H ae dui ( p 4 4 ) —which l atter se ttle m e nt a lre a dy rendered

.

quite th e services of a R o ma n colony in th e war with

Vercinge torix (p 7 9 ) th e re a son w a s m erely th at his
.

fa rther pl a ns did no t perm i t h im to p ut the pl o ugh inste a d

of th e sword in to the h a nds of his legi o ns Wh at he did in .

l ater ye ars fo r the old R o ma n province in this respect will ,

be expl ained in its o w n pl a ce it is probable th at the wa nt

of tim e alone preve nted him fro m exte nding the s ame sys tem
to the regions which he had rece ntly subdu ed .

A ll w as over wi th th e Cel tic n ation I ts poli tica l .

diss o lu tio n h ad been co m ple ted by C aes ar ; its n ational

dissolu tion w as begun a nd in course of regul a r progress .

T his w a s no a ccide ntal des truc ti o n such a s des tiny so m e ,

ti m es prep a e s even fo r pe o ple s c a p a ble of develop men t

r ,

but a self incurred a nd in so m e m e asure his torica lly necess ary

-

Th us w e r e a d o n a se m is w h ich a V e rg o b re tu s o f th e L e xo v u ( L is ie ux ,
1

l
de p Ca va do s ) ca u se d to b e s tru c k ll
t h e fo o wing inscr ip tio n : Cis za m bos
,
’

l
.

Ca ttos v er cobr eto ; sim issos ( S ic ) p u bl icas s ov io T h e o fte n s ca rce y

.

l l l
e gib e wr iting a nd th e incre dib y w r e tch e d s ta mp ing o f th ese co ins ar e in
excell ent h armo ny w ith th e ir S ta mmer ing La tin .
CH AP. Vi i TH E S U B JU G ATI ON OF T H E WE S T
ca tastr ophe The very course of the l a st w ar proves this
.
,

whe ther we View it as a whole or in de tail When th e .

e sta blish m en t of th e foreign rule w a s in con t e m pl a tion only ,

s ingle dis tric ts —m os tly m oreover Ger m a n or h a lf Ger m a n

, ,
-

—o ffered e nergetic resis tance When th e foreign rule was

.

a c tua lly es ta blished th e a tte m p ts to sh a ke it o ff were ei ther

,

under taken al together withou t j udgm e nt or they were to ,

a n undue exten t th e work o f cer ta in pro m inent nobles a nd ,

were therefore i mmedi ately a nd en tirely brough t to a n e nd

with the de a th or c ap ture of a n I ndutio marus Camulog e nus , ,

Vercinge torix or Corre ns T h e sieges a nd guerill a warfare

, .
,

in which elsewhere th e wh o le mora l dep th of n ation al

s truggles displ ays i tself were throughout this Cel tic s truggle
,

of a peculi arly pi ti a ble ch a r acter Every pa ge of Cel tic

.

history confirms the severe s a yi ng of one o f th e few R omans

who had the judgmen t no t to despise the so c alled bar -

b arians—th a t th e Cel ts boldly ch a llenge d a nger while fu ture ,

but lose their courage before its presence I n th e mighty .

vortex of th e world s his tory which i nexorably crushes all

’
,

peoples that are not as h a rd and a s fl exible as s teel such a ,

n ation could not per ma nently m ain ta i n i tself ; wi th re a son

the Cel ts of th e con ti ne nt su ffered th e s am e fa te at th e
h ands of th e R o m a ns as their kins m en in I rel a nd su ff er
,

down to our own day at the h ands of th e S axons— the fate

of becomi ng m erged a s a le aven of fu ture develop m en t in a
poli tically superior n ationali ty On th e eve of p a rting fro m T it
.
ra s

this re ma rk a ble n a tion we m a y be a llowed to ca ll a tten ti o n

552 352
1

to the fa c t th at in the a ccoun ts of th e ancien ts as to the d I i h

, an r s .

Celts on th e L oire a nd S ei ne we fi nd al m os t every o ne of

th e ch ar a c teris tic tr a i ts which we a r e a ccus to m ed to ec o g nize r

a s m arking th e I rish . E very fe a ture re appe a rs th e l a zi ness

in th e cul ture of th e fields ; th e delight in tippli ng a nd
brawli ng ; the o s tenta ti o n — we may rec a ll th at swo d of r

C aesar hung up in th e s a cred grove o f th e Arver ni a fter

the victory of Ge rg o via whi ch its a lleg ed fo rm er owner
,
 TH E S U BJU G A T I ON OF TH E WES T BOO K v

vi ewed wi th a s m ile a t the co nsecra ted S p o t a nd o rdered

th e s a cred p o per t y to be ca refully sp a red ; th e l a ngu age
r

full of com p a i o n s a nd hype b o les o f allusi o ns a nd qu ai nt

r s r ,

tur ns ; th e droll hu mo ur an excelle nt ex a m ple of which

- m

w a s th e rule th a t if a n o ne i nterrup ted a pe so n spe a king

, y r

in public a subs ta n ti a l a nd ery visible hole should be cut

, v ,

a s a m e a su e of p o lice in th e c o a t o f th e dis tu ber of th e

r ,
r

pe ace ; th e he a r ty deligh t in singi ng a nd reci ting th e deeds

o f p a s t a ges a nd th e m o s t decided gifts of rhe to ric a nd
,

p o e try ; th e cu i o si ty—no tra der wa s allowed to p as s before

r ,

he had to ld in th e Op e n street wha t he kne w or did no t ,

know in the sh a pe o f news — a nd the extrav ag a nt creduli ty

,

which a c ted on such a cc o u nts for which re a son in th e ,

\
be tte regul a ted ca n to ns t a velle rs were prohibi ted o n p ain
r r

of se ere pu nish m e nt fro m c o m m u nica ting u nau the ntica ted

v

repo ts to others th a n th e public magis trates th e childlike

r

pi e ty which sees in th e p ies t a father and a sks for his

,
r

c o u nsel in all things ; the un surpas sed fervour of n at ion a l

feeli ng and the close ness wi th which th o s e who are fellow
,

cou ntry men cli ng to ge ther a l m ost like one fa mily in

oppo s i tion to s tra nge s ; the i ncli na tion to rise in revolt
r

u nder the firs t ch a nce le a der that prese nts hi mself a nd to

-

fo m b a nds b ut a t th e s a m e ti m e th e u tter i nca p a ci ty to

r ,

preserve a self relia n t c o ur age equ ally re mote —from pre s um p

-

tion a nd fr o m pusill a ni m i ty to perceive th e righ t ti m e for,

w a i ti ng and for s triki ng a blow to a tta i n or even b a rely to ,

to lera te a ny org a n iz a tio n an

y s or t of fixed m ili tary or
,

political di scipli ne I t is a nd re ma ins a t all ti m es a nd a ll

.
, ,

pla ce s the same indole nt a nd p o e tical irres o lu te a nd fe vid ,

r
,

inquisi tive credul

,
o u s a m i a ble cleve,
but — in a p o litica l ,
r,

poin t of view— th o ro ughly useless nati o n and therefore its

fa te h as b en alwa y a nd everywhere th e s ame
e s .

B ut th e fa c t th a t this gre a t people w as m i ned by th e

T ra nsa lpi ne wa rs of C a es a r w a s no t th e mo s t i m p o r ta n t
,

resul t of th at gr a nd e nte prise ; far mo r e momen tous th anr

 TH E S U BJ U GATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OOK V

letters and m ess ages from Ga ul are an no u nci ng n am es of

peoples ca n to ns a nd regio ns hi therto u nknown to us
, , .
”

T his enl a rge m en t o f th e his torica l horizon by the expedi

tio n s of C a es a r beyo nd the A lp s wa s as significa nt a n
eve nt in th e world s hi sto ry as th e expl o ri ng of A meric a by
’

Europea n b a nds . T o the n arrow circle of th e M e dite r

ra ne a n s ta tes were a dded th e peoples o f cen tr a l a nd

n o r thern Europe th e dwellers on th e Bal tic a nd N orth

,

sea s to the old wo ld wa s a dded a ne w o ne which thence

r ,

forth was i nfl uenced by the old and influe nced it in turn .

Wh at the Gothic T heodoric a fterwa rds succeeded in c am e ,

very ne ar to bei ng a lre a dy c arried o ut by Ariovis tus .

H ad it so h a ppened our civiliz a ti o n would h a ve ha dly

,
r

s tood in any m ore i nti m ate rel ation to th e R o mano Greek -

th an to the I ndia n a nd A ssyria n cul ture T h at there is a

.

bridge connec ting th e p a s t glory of H ell a s a nd R ome wi th

the pro uder fa bric o f m o dern history th at Western Europe
is R o m a nic a nd G er m a nic Euro pe classic ; th at the n am es
,

o f T he m i s tocles a nd S cipi o h a ve to us a very di ffe ent r

sound from those of A s o k a and S almana ssa th at H o mer r

a nd S ophocle s a r e no t m e ely like th e Ved a s a nd K a lid a s a

r

a ttra c tive to th e li te a ry bo ta nis t but bl o o m for us in our

r ,

own g a rd en — all this is th e work of Ca es a r ; and while ,

th e cre a tion of his gre at predecessor in th e e a s t h as been

a l m o s t wh o lly reduced to ruin by th e te m pes ts of th e

Middle A ge s th e s truc ture of C a es ar h as outla s ted those

,

thous a nds of ye ars which h a ve ch a nged religio n a nd poli ty

for the hu m a n race a nd even shifted fo r it the cen tre o f
civiliz ati o n itself and it sta nds e rect for wh at we may
,

desig nate as e terni ty .

To co m ple te th e ske tch of th e rel a tions of R o m e to th e

pe o ples of th e n o rth a t this period it rem ai ns th at we
,

ca st a gla nce at the cou ntries which s tre tch to the north
of the I tali a n and Greek peni nsul a s from the sources of
,

th e R hine to the B l a ck S e a I t is true tha t the torch o f

.
C H A P. V i i TH E S U BJU GA TI ON OF TH E WE S T 10 3

h is tory does not illumine th e m ighty s tir a nd tur m oil of

peoples which prob ably preva iled at th a t ti m e there a nd ,

the soli ta ry gle a ms of light th at fa ll on this region a re like ,

a fa i nt gli m mer a m ids t d eep d a rkness m ore fi tte d to b e,

w il d er th a n to e nligh ten B ut it is the duty of th e

.

his tori a n to indic ate also the g aps in th e recor d of the

his tory of n ations ; he may no t deem it bene ath him to
men tion by the side of C a e sa r s m a gnificen t sys tem of
,
’

defence the p al try a rra nge m e nts by which the generals of

,

the senate professed to protect on this side the frontier o f

the empire .

N or th e a stern I ta ly wa s still a s before (iii 4 2 4 ) left ex Alp in

-
. e

p w pl
posed to the atta cks of th e A lpine tribes The strong .
e s'

R o m a n a r my enca mpe d a t A quilei a in 6 9 5 and the 5 9 , .

triu m ph o f the govern o r of Cis alpine Ga ul Lucius Afranius , ,

le a d us to i nfer that a bout this ti m e an expedi tion to the

,

A lps took pl a ce and it m ay h ave been in conse q uence of

,

this th at we find the R o m a ns s o on a fterw a rds in closer

connec tion wi th a king of the N oricans But th at even .

subsequen tly I taly w a s not at all secure on this side is ,

shown by the sudden ass a ult of th e Alpine b arb a ri an s on

th e fl ourishing town of T erges te in 7 0 2 when the Tra ns 52 , .

a lpi ne insurrec tion ha d co m pelled C a es a r to divest upper

I ta ly wholly of troops .

Th e turbulen t people s a lso who ha d possession of th e I lly i

, r a.

dis tric t along the I llyri an coa s t g a ve their R om a n m as ters

,

consta nt e mploy m en t The Da l mati a ns even at an e arlier

.
,

period the m ost considera ble people of this region e n ,

larg e d their power so much by a d m i tting their neighbours

in to their union th a t th e nu mber of their townships ros e
,

from twen ty to eigh ty When they refuse d to g ive up

.

once m ore the town of Pro mo na ( not far from th e river

K erka) which they had wres ted fro m th e Liburnia ns
, ,

C a es ar after the b a ttle o f P h a rs a li a g ave orders to ma rch

a ga ins t them ; but th e R o ma ns were in the first inst a nce
 TH E S U BJU G AT I ON OF TH E WES T B OOK v

w o ste d a nd in con s eque nce of this D al m ati a became fo r

r ,

so m e ti m e a re ndezvous o f th e p a ty h o s tile to C a es ar and r ,

th e i nh a bi ta n ts in c o ncer t w i th th e P o m pei a ns a nd wi th
th e pi a te s o ffered a n e ne ge tic re s is ta nce to th e gener l s
r r a

of C a e sa both by l a nd an d by wa te
r r.

L a s tly M a cedoni a alo ng wi th E pirus and H ella s lay in

g e a ter de s ol ti o n a nd dec ay th a n al mos t a ny other p a rt o f
r a

th e R o ma n e m pire D yrrh ach ium T hess lo nic a a nd B y

.
,
a ,

za ntium h ad s till s o me tr a de a nd co mm erce ; A the ns

a tt a c ted tr a vellers a nd s tude nts by its n a m e a nd its phil o
r

S ophic a l sch o ol ; but on th e whole there lay ove the r

fo r merly populou s li ttle to w ns Of H ella s a nd her seap o r ts ,

o n ce sw a m i ng wi th m e n th e c a l m o f th e gr a ve
r ,
B ut if .

th e Greek s s tirred no t the i nh a bi ta n ts of the h a rdly

,

a ccessible Ma ced o ni a n m o u nta in s on th e o ther h a nd co n

t i nned a fter th e old fa s hi o n their pred a tory r a ids a nd feuds

fo r i nst a nce a b o u t 6 9 7 —6 9 8 A g ra e a ns a nd D OI Op ia ns o er
,

r a n the A e toli a n to w n s a n d in 7 6 th e P irusta e dwelli ng

‘

,
0

in th e v a lleys o f th e D ri n ove a n sou ther n I llyri a rr T he .

neighbouring pe o ples did likewise T h e D a rd a ni on th e .

n o r thern fro ntier a s well a s th e T hra ci a ns in th e e as t ha d

no doub t been hu mbled by th e R o m a ns in the eight ye a s r
’

conflic ts fro m 6 7 6 to 6 8 3 the m os t p o werful o f the

T hra ci a n princes C o tys the ruler of th e old Od ys ia n
, ,
-
c r

ki ngdom was thencefo rth nu mbered a mo ng th e clie nt

,

ki ngs of R ome N ever theless the p acified la nd ha d still

.

a s before to su ffer i n a si o ns from th e north a nd e a s t

v The .

go e no r Ga i us A ntonius was severely h a ndled bo th by

v r

t h e Da rd a ni a nd by th e tribes se ttled in th e m o de n r

D ob udsch a who wi th th e help of th e dre a ded B a starna e

r , ,

b o ugh t up fro m th e left b ank of th e D anube inflic ted

r ,

62 6 1
-
. o n him a n i m po ta n t defe a t ( 6 9 2 —
r 6 9 3) a t I strOpo lis ( I s te re ,

no t far fr o m K uste ndj i) G a ius Octaviu s fo ugh t wi th be tte

. r

fo tu ne a ga inst th e B es si a nd T h a cia ns
r M a cu s r r

P iso a ga in ( 6 9 7 — 6 9 8 ) a s general in chief wre tchedly mis - -

106 TH E S U BJU GATI ON OF T H E WE S T B OO Kv
or a ppe ared to proceed T his peculi a r cons ti tution in
.
,

which the the o cratic idea had becom e subservien t to the

a pp aren tly a bsolu te power of the ki ng prob a bly gave to
,

th e kings of th e Ge ta e some such posi tio n wi th respec t to

their subjects as th e caliphs ha d wi th respec t to the Ar abs
a nd one resul t o f it was th e ma rvell o us religi o us poli tic a l
-

refo r m of th e na tion which was c a ried o ut a bout this

,
r

ti m e by the king o f the Ge ta e B ure bistas and the god

, ,

D eka e ne o s . Th e people which h ad mora lly a nd poli tic ally

,

fa llen into u tter dec a y through unexa m pled dru nkenness ,

wa s a s it were m e ta morpho s ed by the new gospel of

te mpera nce a nd va l o ur ; wi th his b a nds under th e infl u
ence so to spe a k of puri ta nic discipline and en thusi a s m
, ,

ki ng B ure b ista s founded wi thi n a few ye a rs a migh ty

kingdo m which extended along both b a nks of the D a nube
,

a nd re a ched sou thward fa r in to T hra ce I llyri a and

, ,

N oricu m . N o direc t co nta c t wi th the R o ma ns ha d ye t

ta ken pl a ce and no o ne could tell W
,
h at migh t co m e o ut of
this S i ngul a r s tate which re m i nds us of th e e a rly ti m es of
,

I sl a m but this much it needed no prophe tic gift to fore tell ,

tha t proco n suls like A n tonius a nd P iso were not c alle d to

co n tend with go d s .
 CH APTER VI I I
I L
TH E J O N T R U E o r P OM PEI US AND CAESA R

A M ON G the d e m ocratic chie fs who fro m the ti m e of th e P mp ius

,
o e
nd C
consulate of C a es a r were recog nized o fficially so to spe ak in j u t , ,
a a esar

x a

a s the j oin t rulers of the co m m o nwe a l th a s th e gover ni ng p

,
iti n os o .

triu mvirs ,P o m pe ius a cco r di ng to public opini o n occupied

decidedly the firs t pla ce I t wa s he w h o wa s c a lled by the
.

Op ti mates th e priva te dic ta to r ; it wa s before h im th a t

“ ”

Cicero pr o s tra ted hi m self in v a in agai nst him were direc ted
th e sh a rpes t sa rca s m s in th e w a ll pl a c a rds of B ibulus a nd
-

th e m ost enveno m ed a rrows of th e ta lk in th e s al o o ns of th e

opposi tion T his was only to be expec ted Acc o rdi ng to
. .

th e fa c ts before th e public P o mp e ius w as indispu ta bly th e

firs t genera l of his ti me ; C a es a r was a dexterous p arty
leader and pa rty ora tor of undenia ble ta len ts b ut a s
-
, ,

no toriously of unwa rlike and indee d of effe min a te te mpera

men t S uch opinions had been l o ng curre nt ; it could
.

no t be expec ted of the ra bble of qu ali ty th a t it should

trouble i tself abou t the re al s tate of things a nd a b a ndon

once esta blished platitudes beca use of obscure fe ats o f
heroism on the Tagus C a es ar evide ntly pla yed in th e
.

league the m ere p art of th e a dju ta n t who execu ted for his
chief the work which Fl a viu s A franius and o ther les s
, ,

ca pa ble ins trumen ts h a d a tte m p ted a nd no t perfo r m ed .

Even his govern orship see m ed no t to a l ter this s ta te o f

thing s Afranius ha d but recen tly o ccupie d a very si milar
.
 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF BOO Kv
posi tion w i thou t thereby acquiring any S pecial i mp o rtance ;
,

several pro vi nces at once had been of l ate ye a rs repe atedly

pl a ced under o ne governor and ofte n far more th an fo ur
,

leg ions had been uni ted in one h a nd as m a tters were

a g a in quie t beyond th e A lps a nd pr i nce A riovis tus w a s

rec o gnized by the R o mans a s a friend a nd neighbour there ,

wa s no prospec t of conduc ting a w ar of a ny m o m en t there .

I t was natura l to co mp a re th e p o si ti o n which P o m pe ius

h ad ob ta ined by th e Gab inio M a nilia n law wi th th a t which
-

C aes ar had obtained by the V atinia n b ut th e c o m pa ri son

did not turn out to C aes ar s a dva ntage Po mpe ius ruled
’
.

over nea rly the whole R o ma n e m pire ; Ca es a r over two

provinces P o mp e ius had the s o ldiers a nd the tre a sures
.

o f t he s tate a l m os t a bsolu tely a t his dispos a l ; C a es a r h a d

only the su m s a ssigned to him and an a rmy o f

men . I t wa s left to P o m pe ius hi m self to fix th e poi nt o f
ti m e fo r his re tire m en t C a esa r s com ma nd was secured to
’

him for a long period no doub t but ye t only for a li m ited ,

ter m. P o mp e ius in fine h a d been en trus ted wi th th e

, ,

m o s t i m porta n t underta kings by s e a a nd l a nd C a es a r wa s

sen t to the north to wa tch o er the c a pital from upper
,
v

I taly a nd to ta ke ca re th at P o m p e ius should rule it undis

turb e d .

B ut when Pompe ius was a ppointed by the coali tion to

be ruler of the c api tal he u nderto ok a task far exceedi ng
,

his powers Pomp e ius unders to od n o thi ng further o f

.

ruli ng th a n may be su mm ed up in the word of comma nd .

Th e w a ves of a gi tation in the c a pi tal were swelled a t o nce

by p ast and by fu ture revolu ti o ns ; th e proble m o f ruling
this ci ty—which in eve y respec t m igh t be c o m p a red to
r

th e Pa ris of the ni n e tee nth ce ntu ry— wi th o u t a n a r med

fo rce wa s infi ni tely diffi cul t a nd for th at sti ff and s tately
,

p attern s o ldier a l together i ns o luble Very s oo n matters

-
.

re a ched such a pi tch th a t f ie nds and foes bo th equ ally

r ,

inc o nvenient to him could so far as he was concerned do

, , ,
 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF B OO K V

be tter days n e ver found a m errier are na T he nu mber

,
.

o f li ttle gre a t m e n w a s l e gi o n D e m ag o gi sm bec m e qui te

. a

a tr a de which accordi ngly did no t l a ck its profes s i o na l

,

insigni a— th e thre a db e m a ntle th e sh a ggy he ard the

ar , ,

lo ng s tre am ing h a ir the deep b a s s oice ; a nd no t seld o m

,
v

it was a tra de wi th golden soil F o r th e s ta ndi ng decl a m a

.

tions the tried g argle s of th e the at ica l s taff were a n a rticle r

in m uch reques t ; 1 Greeks a nd J ew s freed m en a nd sl a ves , ,

were the m ost regul a r atte nde s a nd th e l o udes t criers in r

th e public a sse m blies ; frequen tly eve n w hen it ca m e to a ,

vote o nly a m i nori ty o f those vo ti ng c o nsis ted of burges s es

,

consti tution a lly e nti tled to do so N ext ti m e it is s a id .

“
,

in a le tter o f thi s pe i o d we may expec t o u l a ckeys to

r ,
“
r

outv ote th e e ma ncipati o n ta T h e re al powers of th e da y

-
x.
”

were the c o m p a c t and a r med b a nd s th e b atta li o ns of ,

a narchy r a is ed by a dve nturers of r a nk o ut of gl a di a to i a l r

sl a ves and bla ckgu ards T heir p o s ses s o rs h a d from the

.

ou tse t been m o stly nu m b e ed a mong th e p o pul a r p arty ; r

b ut since th e dep a r ture o f C a es a r wh o a l o ne under sto o d ,

how to i m press th e de m ocra cy and alo ne k new h o w to ,

ma na ge it all di s cipli ne ha d dep a r ted f o m the m and

,
r

every p arti sa n pr ac ti s ed poli tics at his o w n hand Eve n .

now no d o ub t these m e n fo ugh t wi th m os t plea su e

, ,
r

under th e b ann er of f eedom ; bu t s tric tly spe a ki ng they

r , ,

were nei ther of d e m o c a tic no r of a nti de mo cratic V iews

r -

t hey inscribed on th e — in i ts elf i n di s pe n s a ble — b a nner ,

a s it h a ppened no w the n a m e o f th e people a no n th a t

, ,

of the sen a te or th at of a p a rty chief ; Clo dius fo r -

instance fo ught o r profess e d to figh t in succe s sion for the

ruling de m oc acy for th e s na te a nd fo r Cra ssus T he
r ,
e ,
.

le a ders of the se b a nd s kep t to thei c o l o urs o nly so far as r

they i nex o r a bly per s ecu te d thei p e s o n l e ne m ie s as in r r a -

th e c a se o f Clo dius ag a i n s t Cicero a nd Mil o a g a i ns t

g
'
1 T his is th e me a nin o f ca n tor u m con w t io cantw n es ce lebr a re
( C ic
f ro S a t. 55 ,
CH A P. v m PO M P EI U S A N D CA E S A R

Clo dius— while heir pa rti sa n po s i tio n served the m merely

t

as a h a n dle in these p e rs o na l feuds We migh t as well .

seek to se t a ch a iv ari to m u s ic a s to wri te the his tory

r

of this p o litic al wi tches revel ; no r is it of any m o me nt

’

to enu m er a te all th e deeds of m urder besiegings o f ,

houses a c ts of ince ndi aris m a nd o ther scenes of violence

,

wi thin a gre at c api tal and to recko n up h o w ofte n the

,

gamu t wa s tra versed from hissing a nd shou ting to spi tting

on and tram pli ng down o ppo ne nt a nd thence to throwing s,

s tones and dr a wi ng swords .

T h e pri ncip a l perfo rm er in this the a tre of poli tic a l Cl diua o .

ra scali ty wa s th at P ublius Clo dius of whose services a s , ,

a lre a dy m en ti o ned ( iv th e rege nts a v a iled the m selves

.

a g a ins t C a to a nd Cicer o L eft to hi m self this in fl ue nti a l

.
, ,

ta lented energe tic a nd— in his tr a de — re a lly exe m pl y

, ar

partisa n pursued duri ng his t ibu na te o f the pe o ple ( 6 9 6 ) 58

r .

an ul tra de m o cra tic p o licy

-
g a v th e ci tizens co n gratis
,
e r ,

restricted th e igh t of th e ce nsors to stigm a tize i m mo al

r r

burgesses prohibi ted th e m agis tra tes from obs truc ti ng th e

,

course of th e co m i ti a l m a chinery by religi o us fo m ali tie s r

,

se t a side th e li m i ts which h d sh o r tly befo e a for th e 6 4 r .

purpose of checking th e sy ste m o f b a nd s been i m po sed o n ,

the righ t of a ss o ci a tion of th e lower cl a s ses an d re ,

es tablished the s tree t clubs ( coll g i l -

at th a t
e a

tim e a bolished which were nothi ng el se tha n a fo rm al

,

organiza tion —subdivided a ccordi ng to the s tree ts a nd wi th ,

a n a l m os t m ili ta y a rr a nge m en t— o f th e wh o le f ee o r sl a ve
r r

prole tari ate of th e c a pi ta l I f in a ddi tion the further la w

.
,

which Clo dius ha d likewise a l e a dy pr ojected and purp o sedr

to i ntroduce when pra e t or in 7 0 2 s h o uld give to freed m e n 5 2

,
.

a nd to sl a ves living in de f a cto p o s s e s si o n of freedo m th e

sa me poli tic a l righ ts wi th th e freeb o r n the a u thor o f a ll ,

the se bra ve i m pr o ve m en ts of th e c o ns ti tu ti o n m ight decl a re

his wo rk c o m ple te a nd a s a sec o nd N u m a of f eedom a nd

,
r

e q ua li ty mig h t invi te th e swee t ra bble of th e ca pi ta l to se e

 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF BOOK v
him celebra te high ma ss in honour of the a rrival of the
d emocratic millennium in the te mple of Liberty wh ich he
ha d erec ted on the si te of o ne of his burni ngs at the
Pa la tine .Of course these exe ti o ns in be ha lf of freedom r

did not exclude a traffic in decrees of the burgesses like

C a es ar him self C a es ar s a pe kep t governorships and other
,
’

pos ts gre at and s mall on s ale fo r the be nefit of his fellow

ci tizens and sold th e sovereig n righ ts of the s tate for the
,

benefi t of subjec t kings and ci ties .

A t all these things P o mp e ius l o oked o n wi thout s tirring .

I f he did not perceive how seriously he thus co mpro m ised

hi m self his opponen t perceived it Clo dius ha d the
, .

h ardihood to eng a ge in a dispu te wi th the regent of R o m e

on a ques tion o f li ttle m om e nt as to the sending b a ck of ,

a c a p tive A r m e ni a n prince a nd th e v a ri a nce soon bec a me

a for m a l feud in which th e u tter helplessness of P o m p e ius

,

was displ a yed T he he a d of th e s ta te knew no t how to

.

meet the p ar tis an o therwise th a n wi th his own we apons ,

only wiel d ed wi th far le s s dexteri ty I f he had been .

tricked by Clo dius respec ti ng the Armeni a n prince b e ,

o ffended him in turn by rele a sing Cicer o who was pre ,

e minen tly obnoxious to Clo dius fro m th e exile in to which ,

C lo dius had sent him ; a nd he atta ined his objec t so

thoroughly th at he co nverted his opp onent into an
,

i mpl aca ble fo e I f Clo dius m ade th e s tree ts insecure wi th

.

his ba nds th e V ic torious general likewise set slaves a nd

,

p ugilis ts t o work ; in th e fr a ys which ensued th e gener al

na tura lly w as wors ted by th e de ma gogue a nd defe a ted in

the s tree t a nd G a ius C ato was kep t al m os t cons ta ntly
,

under siege in his g arden by Clo dius and his co mra des .

I t is no t th e le a s t re ma rk a ble fe a ture in this re m a rka ble

spec ta cle th at th e rege nt a nd th e rogue a mids t their
,

qua rrel vied in cour ti ng the fa v o ur of the fallen g o vern

me nt ; P o mp e ius p a tly to ple a se th e sen ate perm i tted
,
r ,

C icero s rec all Clo dius o n th e o ther h a nd decla red the

’
,
1 14 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF noo n v
Clo dia ns, which had a m ate i al s ha re in de te m in ing
a nd r r

his fa rther s teps .

L i ttle a s P o m p e ius liked and understoo d t aking th e

i ni ti a tive he wa s ye t o n this occa si o n compelled by the
,

ch nge o f h is po s i ti o n to wa rd s bo th Clo dius a nd Ca e sar to

a

dep a rt from his p evious i na c tio n The irkso me and

r .

disgr a ceful si tu ation to which Clo dius h a d reduced him ,

could not but a t leng th a rouse even h is sluggi sh n a tu e to r

h atred a nd anger But far m o re i mporta n t was the ch ange

.

which to o k p la ce in his rel a ti o n to C a es ar While o f the .

,

tw o confede a te regen ts P o mp e ius h a d u tterly fa iled in

r ,

th e func tions which he h ad unde ta ken C a es a r h a d th e r ,

skill to tur n his o flicial p o si tion to an accou nt which le ft

a ll c a lcul a tions a nd a ll fe a rs far behind Wi thou t much .

i nquiry as to per missi o n C a es ar h ad d o ubled his ar my by

,

levies in his s o u the n pro vi nce i nh a bi ted in g rea t m e a sure

r

by R o ma n burge s se s h a d wi th this a m y cr o ssed th e Alps r

i nstea d of keepi ng watch o ver R o m e fr o m N orthern I taly ;

h a d crushed in th e bud a new Ci m bri a n inv a si o n a nd ,

wi thin tw o ye a rs ( 6 9 6 6 9 7 ) had carried the R o ma n a r ms

,

to th e R hi ne a nd th e Ch a nnel I n presence of such fa c ts

.

eve n the aris tocratic ta c tics of ignoring and disp arag ing
were b affled H e who ha d often been scoffed a t as
.

e ff e min a te wa s now the idol of the ar my the celebrate d ,

Vic tory crow ned

-
hero whose fresh l aurel s ou tshon e the
,

f ded l a urels of P o m pe ius and to whom even th e sen ate

a ,

as e a rly a s 6 9 7 a ccorded the de m ons trations of honour

usu a l a fter successful cam p a igns in richer mea sure th a n
h a d ever fa llen to th e sh a re of Po mp e ius P o mp e ius .

s to o d towa rds his fo rmer a dju ta n t precisely as a fter the

G a b inio M a nilian l a ws the l atter h a d s tood tow ards him

-
.

C a es ar was now the hero of the day and the ma s ter o f

th e m os t powerful R o m a n a rmy P o mp e ius was a n ex
ge nera l who had o nce been fa m ous I t is true that no .

collisi o n had ye t occurred be tween fa ther in la w and so n - -

CH A P . Viii POM PE I U S A N D CA ES A R i ts

in la w,
-
rel a ti o n was ex te nally u ndi sturbed ; but
a nd th e r

every p o li tic al alli a nce is i nw a rdly broke n up w hen the ,

rela tive p o p o ti o ns o f th e power o f th e p a ties a re materi

r r r

a lly a l te e d Wh ile th e qu a rrel wi th Clo dius was merely

r .

a nn o yi ng th e ch a nge in th e posi tio n of C a e sa

,
i n o lved a r v

very seriou s da nger fo r P o mp e ius jus t as C a es and his ar

confedera tes ha d formerly s o ugh t a m ili ta ry supp o rt aga i ns t

him he fo und hi m self no w c o m pelled to s eek a m ili ta ry
,

support a ga i ns t C a es a r a nd la ying a side his h a ughty , ,

priva cy to c o m e forwa rd as a c a ndid ate for so m e extra

,

o rdin a ry m a gis tr a cy which w o uld en a ble him t o hold his

,

pl a ce by th e side of the governor of th e tw o G a uls wi th

equ al and if p o ssible wi th superior p o wer H is ta ctics like
, , .
,

his p o si tion were exa ctly tho s e of C a e sa r duri ng th e Mi th a

,
r

d a ti e war To b al a nce the m ili ta ry power of a superi o r

.

but s till re m o te a dvers a y by the o b ta i ni ng of a si m il a r

r

comm and P o mpe ius required in the fi s t i ns ta nce the

,
r

o flic ia l m a chinery of g o vern m e nt A ye a r a n d a h alf ag o.

this h a d been a bsolu tely a t his di sp o s al T h e rege nts .

then ruled the s ta te bo th by th e co m i ti a which a bsolu tely ,

o beyed the m a s th e m a s ters o f th e s treet a nd by the ,

s e nate which w as e nerge tic ally overa wed by Caesa r ; a s

,

represen tative of th e coa liti o n in R o m e a nd a s its ac

kno w ledged he a d P o m p e ius w o uld h ave d o ub tless o b
,

ta ine d f o m th e s e na t e a nd fr o m th e bu ge s ses any dec ee

r r r

which he wished eve n if it were a g a i ns t Ca es a r s i nte es t

’
,
r .

B ut by th e a wkw a rd qu a r e l wi th C lo dius P o mp e ius h ad r ,

los t the c o mm a nd o f the s tree ts and could no t expec t to ,

c a ry a pr o pos al in his fa vour in th e popula r a sse m bly

r .

T hings were no t qui te so u n f v o ura ble for him in th e a

se na te ; but even there it w a s doub tful whe ther Po mpe ius

a fter tha t lo ng a n d fa ta l i na c ti o n s till held th e rei ns of th e

m ajori ty fir mly en o ugh in h a nd to pr o cure such a decree

as he needed .

The posi tion of the se nate a lso or r a ther of the nobili ty ,

 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF B OO Kv
ge nerally ha d me a nwhile undergone a ch ange From the
, .

very fa ct of its co mplete a b a se men t it drew fre sh e nergy .

I n the c o ali ti o n of 6 9 4 v a ri o us thi ngs h a d c o m e to ligh t ,

which were by no m e a ns a s y e t ripe for it The b a nish .

m e nt of C a to a nd Cice o — which public o pini o n however

r ,

much th e regents kep t them selves in th e b ackground and

e ven professed to l a m e nt it referred wi th u nerri ng ta ct to
,

its re al a u thors — and th e marri a ge rel atio nship fo r m ed -

be tween C a es ar a nd Po mpe ius suggested to men s mi nds ’

wi th dis agree able cle a rness m on archic al decrees of b a nish

m ent a nd fam ily a lli a nces T he l a rger public to o which
.
,

stood m ore alo o f from poli tic al even ts o bserved the ,

fou n d a tions of th e fu ture m on a rchy c o ming more and

m ore dis tinctly i nto view From the m omen t when the
.

public perceived th at C a e sar s o bjec t was no t a modific ation

’

of th e republica n cons ti tu tio n but tha t the question at ,

s take w as the exis tence or non exis tence of th e republic -

m a ny of th e bes t me n who ha d h itherto reckoned the m

,

selves o f the popular p arty and honoured in C a es ar its

he a d mus t infallibly h ave p a ssed over to the opposi te side
, .

I t w as no longer in the s aloo n s a nd th e c o u ntry houses

of the governi ng nobili ty alone th at m e n talked of the
“
three dyn as ts of the three he a ded m ons ter
,
” “
The -
.

dense crowds of people lis te ned to the consul a r orations of

C aesar withou t a sound of a ccl a ma tion or a pproval no t a
h and s tirred to a ppl a ud when the democratic co nsul
en tered the theatre But they hissed whe n one of the
.

tools of the regen ts showed hi m self in public and even ,

sta id men appl a uded when an a ctor u ttered an a n ti

monarchic sen tence or an allusion a gains t Po mp e ius .

N a y when Cicero was to be b ani shed a gre at nu mber of

, ,

burge s ses—it is s a id twe nty thous and— mos tly of the m iddle
cl a s s es p ut o n m ourni ng a fter th e exa m ple of th e sen a te
, .

N o thing is now m ore p o pul a it is sa id in a le tter o f

“ ”
r,

this period th an h atred o f th e p o pul a p a ty

,
“
r r .
”
 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF BOO Kv
disco nten t of th e bu ge ss es w o uld h ave found its n atural
r

expressi o n in th e elec ti o ns a nd h a ve i nc e a sed by so ex

,
r

pressi ng i ts elf ; u nder th e exi sti ng circu m sta nces n o thi ng

w a s left for th o se true to the c o ns ti tu ti o n but to pl a ce

the m selves u nde th e sen a te which deg a ded a s it w a s

r
, ,
r ,

s till a ppe a red the epre se nta tive a nd ch ampio n of the

r

legi ti ma te republic T hus it h a ppened th a t the se na te

.
,

now whe n it ha d been o ve thro wn sudde nly fo und at its r ,

disp o s a l an a rm y far m o re co nsidera ble and far m ore

e ar nes tly fa i thful th a n when in its power and sple ndo ur
,

it over threw th e Gr c hi a nd under the p o tec ti o n of S ull a s

’
a c r

swo rd re stored th e st a te The a ris tocra cy fel t this ; it

.

bega n to bes tir i ts elf a f e sh J u st a t this ti m e M a rcus Cicero

r .
,

a fter h a i ng bound hi m self to joi n th e obsequi o us p a r ty in

v

th e sen a te a nd no t o nly to o ffe no oppo s i tion b ut tor ,

work wi th all h is m igh t for the rege nts ha d o b ta ined from ,

the m per mi s s i o n t o re turn A l tho ugh P o mp e ius in thi s

.

m atter o nly m a de a n i ncide nta l co nces s io n to th e o lig a rchy ,

a nd in tended fir st of all to pl a y a t ick o n Clo dius a nd r ,

s eco ndly to a cquire in th e fluen t c o n ul a a to ol rendered s r

plia nt by su ffi cie nt blow s th e opp o tu ni ty a ff orded by the

,
r

re turn o f Cicero w s e mbra ced fo r republic a n de mo ns tra

a

t i o ns ju s t a s his b a ni s h m en t h a d been a de m o ns tra ti o n

,

ag a ins t th e se na te Wi th a ll p o ssible sole mni ty protected

.
,

m oreover ag a i ns t th e Clo dia ns by the b a nd o f T i tus A nnius

Mil o the tw o c o ns uls fo ll o wi ng o ut a resolu tio n of the
, ,

se na te sub m i tted a pro p o sal to th e burgesses to pe mi t the

,
r

re turn o f th e c o nsul ar Cicero a nd th e se na te c alled o n all ,

bu ges se s true to the c o ns ti tution no t to be a bse nt fro m

r

th e vo te . A n u n u s u a l n u m ber of w o r thy m e n especi a lly ,

fr o m th e c o unt y to wns a c tu ally a sse m bled in R o m e on

r ,

th e da y of v o ting ( 4 A ug T h e journey of th e co n
.

sular from Bru ndisiu m to th e c api ta l ga ve occa sion to a

s eries of si m il a r but no t le s s brilli ant m ani fes ta tio ns o f
,

public feeli ng T h e new alli a nce be tween the sen ate and
.
CH AP . V1 1 1 POM PE I US AN D CA ES AR

the burgesses fa i thful to the co nsti tu tion was on thi s

occasion a s it were publicly procl a i m ed and a sor t of ,

revie w of the l atter was held the si ngul a rly favoura ble ,

result of w hich co ntribu te d not a li ttle to revive the sunken

cou age of the a ris tocra cy
r .

T h e helplessness of P o mp e ius in prese nce of these d a ri ng H l pl e ess

de m ons tr ations as well as the undig nifi e d a nd a l m os t P m iu

,
n f e ss o

o e s.
p
ridicul o us p o s i ti o n in to which he ha d fallen wi th refere nce
to Clo dius deprive d him and th e co a li ti o n of their credi t ;
,

a nd th e sec tion o f the se nate which a dhe ed to th e r

rege nts de m o ralized by th e si ngul ar in ap ti tude of P o m p e ius

,

and helples sly left to i ts elf c o uld no t p e v e n t th e republic a n

,
r

a ri s to cr a tic p a r ty fr o m reg a i ni ng c o m p le tely th e a sce ndency

in th e c o rp o a tion T h e ga m e of this pa rty re ally a t th at

r .

ti m e ( 6 9 7 ) w a s s till by no m e ns despera te fo a cou age o us 57

a r r .

a nd dex terou s pl a yer I t h a d n o w — wh a t it h a d not

.

pos sessed for a ce ntu y p a s t—a fi rm s uppor t in th e people

r

if it trus ted the pe o ple a nd i tself it m ight attain its object ,

in th e sho tes t and m os t h o noura ble w ay Why no t atta ck

r .

th e regen ts Openly a nd a vowedly ? Wh y sh o uld not a

res o lu te a nd e m i ne nt m a n at th e hea d of th e s e na te c ancel
th e ex trao rdi na y p o we s a s uncons ti tu tion al a nd su mm on
r r ,

a ll th e republic a ns of I ta ly to a rm s a g ain s t th e ty a n ts a nd r

their fo llowi ng ? I t w a s p o ssible perh a ps in thi s w a y o nce

m ore to res tore th e rule of th e sen a te Cer ta i nly th e .

republic ans would thus pl ay a bold g am e ; but pe h aps in r

this c a se a s often th e m o s t cour a geous res o lu ti o n m igh t

, ,

h ave be e n a t th e s am e ti me th e m os t prude nt Only it is .

,

true the i n d o le nt a ris to cr a cy of this pe i o d w a s sc a cely

,
r r

c a pa ble of s o s i m ple a nd bold a resolu tio n T here w as .

h o w ever a nother w ay perh aps m ore sure a t a ny ra te be tter ,

a d p te d
a to th e ch a a c ter a nd n a ture of these co nstitu
r

tio na lists ; they m igh t l a b o ur to se t th e tw o regen ts a t

v a ria nce and th o ugh thi a ri a nce to attain ul ti ma tely to

r s v

th e hel m the m s e lves T h e rel a ti o ns be twe e n the tw o m e n

.
 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF 8 0 0 1: v

ruling the st ate ha d bec o m e al tered and rel a xed now th at , .

C a esa r had a cquired a s tandi ng of prepo ndera n t power by the

side of Po mpe ius a nd ha d co m pelled th e l atter to canva ss
for a new posi tion of co mmand ; it was p ro b able th at if he ,

ob tained it there would a rise in o ne way or o ther a rup ture

,

a nd s truggle be tween them I f P o mp e ius re m a i ned un

.

suppor ted in this his defeat wa s sca rcely doub tful and the
, ,

cons ti tu tion al p arty would in th at even t find the mselves

a fter th e close of the conflic t under th e rule of one m a s ter

ins te a d of two B ut if the nobili ty e mployed ag ains t

.

C a esar the s a m e m e a ns by which the latte r had won his

previous victories and en tered i nto alli ance wi th the we aker
,

co m pe ti tor Vic tory w o uld pr o b ably wi th a genera l like

, ,

P o mp e ius a nd wi th a n a r my such a s th at of th e co nstitu

,

tio nalists fall to the co a li tion ; a nd to settle m a tters wi th

,

P o mp e ius a fter th e vic tory could no t — judgi ng fr o m th e

proofs of poli tic al i nca p a ci ty which he h ad alre a dy gi en v

appe a r a speci a lly di ffi cul t ta sk .

T hings ha d ta ken such a tu n as n aturally to sugges t a n

r

understa ndi ng be tween Po mpe ius a nd th e republica n p ar ty .

Whe ther such a n a ppro xi mati o n wa s to take pl a ce a nd wh at ,

sh a pe the m u tu al el ati o ns of the two regen ts a nd of the

r

a ris to cr a cy which h ad beco me u tterly e nig ma tical were

, ,

next to a ssu me fell neces sa rily to be deci ded when in the

, ,

a u tu m n of 6 9 7 P o m p e ius c a m e to the sen ate wi th th e

prop o sal to en tru s t h im with extra ordin a ry o ffi ci a l power .

H e b a sed his pr o p o s a l o nce m ore o n th a t by which he had

eleven years befo re la id the fou ndati o ns of his power the ,

price of bre a d in the c a pi tal which ha d j us t the n— as

,

previously to the G b inia n la w — re a ched an opp e s sive

a r

heigh t Whether it ha d bee n fo ced up by S peci a l

. r

m a chin ations such as Clo dius i m pu ted s o m e ti m e s to

,

P o mp e ius so m e ti m es to Cicer o a n d the s e in thei turn

, ,
r

charged on Clo dius c anno t be de te mi ned ; the c o nti nu a nce

,
r

of piracy the emp tiness of th e public chest and the

, ,
 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF B O OK v

t hi s decree confirm ed by th e bu ges ses T here were many r .

di fferen t r ea sons which le d to thi s a l te a tion a l m os t r ,

equi a len t to a rej ection of th e o igi na l pl an : a regard to

v
,
r

C a e a wi th refe ence to who m th e m o s t tim id c o uld not

s r, r

b ut h a ve th e gre te st scruple s in i n e sting h is c o lle ague

a v

no t m erely wi th equ a l b ut wi th superi o r a u th o ri ty in G a ul

i tself ; the c o nce aled Opp o si ti o n of Po mp e ius heredi ta ry ’

e ne m y and re lucta n t ally C ass us to wh o m P o mpe ius r ,

hi m self a tt ibu ted or p o fe ssed to a ttribu te p i marily th e

r r r

failure of his pl n ; th e antip athy o f th e epublica n opp o si

a r

t io n in th e s e na te to a ny decree which re a lly o r no m i na lly

e nl a ged the a uth o ri ty of th e rege nts ; l a s tly and m a i nly

r ,

th e inc a p a ci ty of P o m p e ius hi m self who even a fte h a vi ng ,

r

bee n com pelled to a ct could not p eva il o n hi m self to r

a ck no wledge his own a ctio n b ut ch o s e lw a ys to bri ng

,
a

fo wa rd his re al de sign a s it were in i nc ogni to by m e ns o f

r a

his friends while he hi m self in his well k no w n m o de sty

,
-

decla red his willingness to be conte nt wi th eve n le s s N o .

wo nder tha t they took him a t his wo rd a nd ga ve h im the ,

le ss .

P o m p e ius w a s nevertheless gl a d to h a ve fo und a t a ny

r a te a serious e m ploy m en t a nd a b o e ll a fi tti ng pre tex t
,
v a

fo r le a vi n g th e c a pi ta l H e succeeded m o e o ve in pro
.
,
r r,

v iding it wi th a m pler a nd che a per supplies a l though no t ,

wi th o ut the provi nces severely feeli ng th e reflex e ffec t .

B ut he ha d m i sed his re a l obj ec t ; th e proc o nsul ar ti tle

s ,

which he ha d a righ t to be ar in all th e pr o i nc e s re m i ned v ,

a

a n e m p ty n a m e so l o ng a s he h a d no t tr o o ps of h is o w n a t
,

his dispos al A ccordi ngly he s o on fterwa rds g o t a seco nd

. a

pro p o si tio n ma de to th e s e nate th at it sh o uld confer o n ,

h im th e ch ge o f co nduc ting b a ck th e expelled king o f

ar

E gyp t if n e cess a ry by force of a ms to his ho m e

,
B ut r ,
.

th e m o re th a t his urgen t need of th e s e n ate bec a m e evide nt ,

th e sen a to r s eceived his wi shes wi th a les s pli a nt a nd le ss

r

re spectful s pi i t I t was i m medi a tely di s covered in th e

r .
C R A P. v m POM P EI U S A N D CA E S A R

S ibylline oracles th a t it w as i mpious to send a R om a n

a rmy to Egyp t ; whereupon th e pious sen a te a l m o st
un a ni m ously resolved to a bs ta in from a rm ed in terventi o n .

Po mp e ius was a lre ad y so humble d th at he wo uld h a ve ,

a ccep ted the mission even without an a rmy ; but in his

incorrigibl e dissi m ulation he le ft this also to be decl a red
m erely by his frien d s a nd spoke a nd v o ted for th e desp atch
,

of a nother sen ator Of course the se nate rejec ted a pro

.

p o s a l which wa ntonly riske d a life so precious to his

c o u ntry ; a nd the ul ti mate iss ue of th e endless discussions
w as the res o lu tion no t to in terfere in Egyp t a t all ( Ja n 56 . .

T hese repe a ted repulses which P o m p e ius m e t wi th in Att mpt e

th e sen a te a nd wh a t was worse ha d to a cquiesce in wi th

t a an
, ,
it ti
o ut re ta li a tion were n atur ally reg a rded— co m e from wh a t
a r s o cra c

, t ti n res ora o .

si de they woul d — by the public at l arge as so m a ny

vic tories of the republica ns and de fe ats of the reg e nts
genera lly ; the tide of republica n opp o s i tion wa s a cco d r

ing ly a lways on the incre a se Al re a dy the elec tio n s fo r

.

6 9 8 h a d gone b ut p a rti ally a ccording to the m inds o f 5 6 .

th e dy na s ts ; Ca e sar s c a ndid ate s for the pra e to rship

’
,

P ublius V atinius a nd G a ius Al fius h a d fa iled while tw o

, ,

decided a dhere nts of the fa llen gove nm e nt Gn a eus r ,

L en tulus M a rcellinus a nd Gn a eus D o m i tius Calvinus h a d ,

been elec ted the for m er as consul th e l a tter as pra e tor

, , .

B ut for 6 9 9 there even a ppe a red as c a n did a te for the 5 5 .

consulship L ucius D om i tius A h e no b a rbus wh o se elec tion ,

it was d ifficul t to preven t owing to his in fl uence in th e

c a pital a nd his colossa l wea l th and who it w as su ffi cie ntly
, ,

well known would not be con te nt wi th a co nce aled opposi

,

tion . T he co m i ti a thus rebelled ; a nd th e sen a te chi m ed

in. I t sole m nly delibera ted over an Opini o n which ,

E trusca n soo ths a yers of a ck no wledged wisdom ha d fur

nish e d respec ting certa i n signs a nd wo nders a t its speci al

request The celes tial revela tion annou nced th a t thro ugh
.

the dissension o f the upper cl a sses the whole p o wer over

1 2 4 TH E J OI N T R U LE OF BOOK v

the a r my and trea sure th e ate ned to pa ss to o ne ruler a nd

r ,

the s ta te to incur loss of freed o m— it see m ed th a t th e gods

poi nted pri m arily at th e prop o s al o f Gaius M e s ius T he t e s .

public a ns s o o n desce nded fro m heaven to e a th The law as r .

to th e d o ma in o f C a pu a and the o ther l a ws issued by C a e sar

a s c o nsul h a d bee n c o n s ta ntly described by them a s null

and v o id a nd a n o pi ni o n ha d bee n expressed in th e se na te

,

a s e a rly a s D e c 6 9 7 th at it was necess a ry to c a ncel them

.

on a cc o u nt of their i nfo rmali ties On the 6 th A pril 6 9 8 .

the co nsul a r Cicer o proposed in a full se nate to p ut th e

consider a tion of th e C a m p a ni a n l a nd dis tribu tio n in the

order of th e day for the 1 sth M ay I t w as the formal .

decl ara tion of war 5 and it was the more signific a n t tha t ,

it c am e fro m th e m ou th of o ne of those m e n who only

show their colours when they think th at they can do so
wi th safety Eviden tly th e a ris tocra cy held th at th e
.

m om ent ha d co m e fo r beginning the struggle no t wi th

Pomp e ius ag ains t C a es ar b ut a ga inst the ty r a nnis gener
,

ally Wh at would further follow migh t e a sily be seen

. .

D o mitius ma de no secre t th at he in tended a s consul to

propose to the burgesses the i mmediate recall of C a es a r
fro m Ga ul A n aris tocr a tic res tora tion wa s a t work ; a nd
.

wi th th e atta ck o n the colony of C apu a th e nobili ty threw

down th e ga u ntlet to the regen ts .

C a es ar al though receivi ng from day to day de tailed

,

a ccou nts of th e eve nts in th e c a pi tal and whenever m ili ta ry ,

considerations allo wed watching their progress from as

,

near a poin t of his southern province as possible had not ,

hi therto visibly at lea st i nterfered in them B ut now war

, ,
.

had bee n decl ared aga ins t him as well a s his colle ague in ,

fact a g a i nst him e speci ally ; he wa s co m pelled to a ct a nd ,

he ac ted quickly H e h a ppened to be in th e very neigh

.

bo urh o o d the a ris tocr a cy ha d no t eve n fou nd it a dvis a ble

to de lay th e rup ture till he sh o uld h ave a ga in crossed the
,

Al p s I n the beginning o f A pril 6 9 8 Crass us le ft the

.
 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF B OO K v

l e gi o ns o f C a e s ar o rigin ally des ti ned for this purpose could

no t now be wi thdr a w n fr o m T ra n s alpi ne G a ul w a s to be ,

fo u nd in new l e gions which they w ere to r aise fo r th e

,

S p a ni s h a nd S y i a n a m ies a nd were no t to de p a tch f o m

r r s r

I ta ly to their severa l de s tina ti o ns u ntil it should see m to

th e m se l es c o nve n ien t to do so
v T h e m a in que stions we e
. r

thu s se ttled ; subordin ate m a tters such as th e se ttle m en t ,

of the ta c tics to be fo ll o wed a g i ns t th e opp o si ti o n in the a

c a pi tal the egul a ti o n Of the c a ndida ture s fo r th e ensui ng

,
r

ye a rs a nd th e like did not l o ng deta i n the m Th e grea t

, ,
.

m a s ter of m edi a tio n co m p o sed th e pe s o na l di ffere nces r

which s tood in th e w ay of an agre e m e nt wi th his won ted

e a se and co m pelled th e m o s t ref a c to ry ele m en ts to act in
,
r

co ncert An u nder tanding befi tti ng colle agues w as t e

. s

e s ta blished ex te nally at lea st be tween P o mp e ius and

,
r ,

Crassus Even P ublius Clo dius w as i nduced to keep

.

hi m self and his pack quie t a nd to give no fa rther a n noy ,

a nce to P o m pe ius — no t the le a st m a rvellous fe a t of th e

m igh ty ma gici a n .

T h a t this whole se ttle m en t of th e pe n ding ques tio ns

pr o ceeded no t from a com pr o m ise a m o ng indepe nde nt
,

a nd riv a l regen ts m ee ti ng o n equ a l te m s b ut solely f o m r ,

r

th e g o od will of C a es a r is eviden t fro m th e ci cu m s ta nces

,
r .

Po mp e ius a ppe a red a t Luc a in th e p a i n ful posi ti o n o f a

powerles s refugee who c o m es to ask a id fro m his Opp o ne nt
, .

Whe ther C a esa r chose to dis m iss him a nd to decl a re the

c o a li tio n di s s o lved or to receive him and to le t th e le a gue
,

c o ntinue jus t a s it s tood — Po mpe ius w as in ei ther ie w v

p o li tic ally a nnihil ted I f he did not in this ca se bre a k

a .

wi th C a es ar he bec am e th e p o we les s clie nt Of his co n

,
r

federa te I f on the o ther h a nd he did b e a k wi th C e sa r

. r a

a nd which w a s no t
,
ery prob a ble e ffec ted e e n no w a
v ,
v

coa lition wi th the a ris to cra cy thi s alli ance betwee n o p ,

p o n e n ts c o ncluded u n der pressure o f nece ss i ty a nd a t th e

,

l as t mom ent was so li ttle formida ble th at it was h ardly for

,
ca n . v m POM PEI U S AN D CA E S A R

th e s ake of aver ti ng it th at Caes a r ag eed to those co nces

r

sions A serious rivalry on the p a rt of Cra ssus wi th C ae s ar

.

w a s u tterly i m possible I t is di ffi cul t to s ay wh a t m o tives

.

induced C aesar to surrender wi th o u t necessi ty his superi o r

position and now volun tarily to co ncede — what he h a d
,

refused to his riva l even on the conclusi o n of the le gue a

of 6 9 4 a nd what the l atter ha d since wi th the evi de nt

, ,
6 0.

design of being a rm ed ag ainst C a es a r vainly striven in ,

di fferen t wa ys to a tta i n wi thout nay aga ins t C a esa r s will ’

—th e seco nd consul ate a nd m ili tary power Certa inly it

, ,

was no t Po m p e ius a lone tha t was pl a ced at th e he a d of a n

a r m y but a lso his Old ene m y a nd C a es a r s a lly throughou t
’
,

m a ny ye ars Cra ssus and u ndoub tedly Cra ssus Ob ta ined

,

his respec table m ili tary posi tion m erely a s a coun terpoise
to th e new power of P o m p e ius N ever theless C a es ar was
.

a gre a t loser when his riv a l exch a nged his former power
,

lessness for a n i m portant com m a nd I t is possible th at

.

C a es ar did no t yet feel hi m self suffi cien tly ma s ter of his

soldiers to le a d the m wi th confidence to a warfare aga ins t
th e for ma l a u thori ties of th e l a nd a nd wa s therefore a nxi o us
,

not to be fo rced to civil war now by bei ng rec alled from

G aul but whe ther civil war shoul d co m e o r no t depended ,

a t th e m o m e nt fa r m ore on the a ris tocr a cy of the c a pi ta l

th a n o n Po mp e ius a nd this would h a ve been a t mos t a

,

rea son for C a es ar no t brea king openly wi th Po mp e ius so ,

th at th e Opp o si tion might no t be e m boldened by this

bre ach but no t a re a s o n for concedi ng to him wh at he

,

did concede P urely person a l m o tives m ay h ave co n

.

t ribu ted to th e re s ul t ; it ma y be th t C a es a r recollec ted

a

how he had o nce sto o d in a p o s i ti o n of s i m il a r p o werless

ness in pres e nce of P o m p e ius a nd ha d bee n sa ed fr o m
,
v

de structi o n o nly by his — pusill a ni mo u s it is true a ther , ,

r

t h a n m a g na ni m o u s — re ti e m e nt it is p o b ble th at C a es a r
r r a

hesi tated to b e k th e he ar t o f his bel o ved da ugh ter who

r a

was s ince rely atta che d to her husb a nd —in his soul the e r
 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF B OO Kv
was room for m uch besides the s tates man B ut th e .

decisive re a son was doubtless th e c o nsideration of Gaul .

C aes ar— diffe ing from his biographers— ega rded the sub
r r

j uga tion of G aul not as an inciden ta l e nterprise u seful to

h im for the ga in ing of th e cr o wn but as o ne o n which ,

depended th e extern a l securi ty and th e in te na l reorg aniz a r

tion in a word the fu ture of his coun try T h a t he migh t

, , .

b e en a bled to co m ple te thi s c o nques t u ndis turbed a nd

m igh t no t be obliged to ta ke in h a n d jus t a t once th e
e xt ic a ti o n of I tali a n a ffa irs he u nhesi ta ti ngly g a ve up his
r ,

s uperiori ty over his riv als a nd gr a nted to P o m p e ius su fh

c ien t power to se ttle ma tters wi th the sen ate and its

a dheren ts T his w as a gra ve poli tic a l blunder if C a es ar
.
,

h a d no o ther obj ec t th a n to beco m e a s quickly a s possible

king of R o m e ; but th e ambi tion Of th at ra re m a n was no t
confined to the vulg a r a im o f a crown H e ha d th e bold
.

ness to prosecu te side by side a nd to c o mple te tw o l a bours

‘

, ,

e qu ally v a s t —th e a rra nging of the i nte na l a ffa irs of I ta ly r

,

and th e a cquisi tion a nd securi ng of a ne w a nd fresh soil

for I tali a n civiliz ation T hese ta sks of cour se in terfered

.

w ith e a ch o ther ; his G allic conques ts hi ndered m uch m o re

th a n helped him on his w a y to th e throne I t wa s fra ugh t .

to h im wi th bi tter frui t th at ins te a d of se ttling th e I tali a n

,

56 . 48. revolu ti o n in 6 9 8 he pos tponed it to 7 0 6 B ut as a s tates

, .

ma n as wel l as a ge nera l C a e sa r w as a peculi a rly d a ring

pl ayer who co nfiding in hi m self a nd despising his o p
, ,

p o ne nts gave them a lwa ys gre a t a nd som e ti m es ex travaga nt

,

odd s
I t was now therefore th e turn of the a ristocracy to ma ke
good their high g age a nd to wage war a s b o ldly as they
,

h a d boldly decl a red it B ut there is no m o re pi ti able

.

spectacle th a n when cowa rdly m e n h ave th e m isfo tune to r

ta ke a bold resolu ti o n T hey h a d si mply exercised no

.

fore sight at all I t see med to h ave occurred to n o body

.

that C ae sa r would possibly s ta nd on his defence or th at ,

1 30 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF BOO Kv
t hey refused nobody p ardon for there was nobody who was ,

worth the trouble of m aking him a n excepti o n Th at we .

ma y see how suddenly th e to ne in a ris to cra tic circles ch a nged

a fter the resolu tio n s of L uc a bec a m e known it is worth while ,

to co mp a re th e p a m phle ts given fo th by Cicero shor tly r

before wi th the p ali node which h e ca used to be issued to

evi nce publicly his repe nta nce a nd his good i nten tions 1 .

Th e regen ts could thu s a rra nge I ta li a n a ffairs a t their

ple a sure and m ore th o ro ughly th a n before I ta ly and th e .

c a pi ta l o bta ined pra ctically a garriso n al though no t as

se m bled in a rms a nd one o f th e regen ts a s co mma ndant
, .

Of th e troops levied for S yri a a nd S p a in by Cra ssus a nd

Po mp e ius those des ti ned for the e a s t no d o ub t took their
,

d ep a rt ure but P o mp e ius c a used the tw o S p a ni sh pro i nces v

to be a d m i nis tered by his lieu ten a n ts wi th th e g a rris o n

hi ther to s ta tio ned there while he dis m issed th e o ffice s a nd
,
r

soldiers o f the legions which we e newly ra ised— nom in ally r

for desp a tch to S p a in — o n furlo ug h a nd re ma ined hi m self ,

‘

with the m in I taly .

D oub tless th e ta ci t resi s ta nce of public Opi nio n i ncre a s ed ,

the more cle arly a nd genera lly me n perceived that the

reg e n ts we e worki ng to p ut a n e nd to th e old c o ns ti tu ti o n
r

a n d wi th a s m uch ge ntle ness a s p o s s ible to a cco m mo d a te

th e exis ti ng co ndi tio n of th e g o ver nm e nt a nd a d mi nis tr a tio n

to th e for m s of th e m o na rchy b ut they sub m i tted bec a use ,

they were o bliged to s ub m i t Firs t o f all all the m o re .

,

i mportant a ffa irs a nd p a rticul a rly all th at rel ated to m ili ta ry

,

ma tters a nd ex terna l rel atio ns were disp o sed of wi thout ,

l
Th is p a ino de is th e s ti ll Pr ovince s to b e a ss ig ne d
e x ta n t o ra tio n o n th e

l
to th e co nsu s o f 6 9 9 . l
I t w a s de ive re d in th e e nd o f M a y 6 9 8 T he .

g
p ie ce s co ntra s tin With it a re th e o r a tio ns fo r S e st ius a nd a a ins t V a tinius g
a nd t h a t up o n th e o p inio n o f th e E tr us ca n s o o th sa y e r s da tin fro m th e , g
l
m onth s o f M ar ch a nd A p ri , in w h ich th e a ris to cra tic re im e is o r ifi e d to g gl
l l
th e be s t o f h is a b i ity a nd C a e s ar in p ar ticu ar is tr ea te d I n a ve ry ca v al ie r
to ne . l
I t w a s b ut r e a s o na b e th a t C ice r o sh o u d, as h e h im s e f co nfe ss e s l l
( A d A ft. iv. 5 , b e a s h a m e d to tra ns mit e ven to intim a te fn e nds th a t
a tte s ta tio n o f h is r esum e d a ll e giance .
CH AP . v m PO M PE I U S A N D CA E S A R

consul ti ng the se nate up o n the m s o m e ti me s by decree of ,

the p e o ple so m e ti m es by the m ere g o o d ple a sure o f th e

,

rulers T he arra nge m e nts a g e ed o n at L uc a re spec ting

. r

the m ili ta y co m m n d o f G a ul we e s ub m i tted direc tly to

r a r

th e burge s es by C a ss u s a nd P o m p e ius th o s e rel a ti ng to

s r ,

S p a i n a nd S y i a by th e tribu ne o f the pe o ple G a ius Tre

r

b o nius an d in o ther i n s tance s th e m o e i m p o ta n t gover nor

,
r r

ships were frequen tly filled up by dec ee of th e pe o ple r .

T h a t th e regen ts did no t need th e c o nse nt of the a u thori ties

to i ncre a se their tro o ps a t ple a su e C a e s a r h a d a lre a dy r ,

su ffi cien tly sh o wn : a s li ttle did they hesi tate m u tua lly to

b o rr o w tro o ps ; Ca es ar fo r i nsta nce received such col
le g ia te supp o rt fro m P o m p e ius for th e G llic a nd Cra ssus a ,

from C a es a r fo r th e Pa rthia n war T he Tra nspadane s , .

,

who p o ssessed a cc o rdi ng to th e exis ti ng cons ti tu tio n only

L a tin righ ts were t e a t ed by C a es a r duri ng his a d mi ni stra
,
r

t ion pr a c t ic a lly a s full bu gesses o f R o m e 1

While fo rm erly r .

1
Th i i t s d by
s no h iti
s t a te B t th i w th t Co u r a utl id or es . u e v e a a e sar ev e

no s o ldi t ll f m th L ti m m i i th t i t y f m b y f
er s a a ro e a n co un t e s , a s o sa ro ar
th g t p
e rea e r f h p m
art o it l f ly i d b l
is rov d i ce , is in se utter ncre i e, an s
di tly
re c f d b y th f t h
re u te th pp i p ty l gh i gl y d ig t
e ac t at e o os tio n -
ar s i t n es na e s
th f e l i d by C
o rce ev e f th m p t ti
a e s ar as f h T p d or e o st ar na ve s o t e r a ns a a ne
l
co o nies (C
"
B C ii a es f . h .h L t . l i . f S b or e re t e a in co o nie s o tr a o

(A i Pi
s co n. p 3; S
n t C
ro n . 8) . d ly m t Y t h ue o n. a es. are e vi e nt ean . e t e re
f L ti h t i C G ll i my ; n th
’

i s no t r a ce o a n co or s t n
y a e sar s a c ar o e co n r a r

a cco r d g t hi in p o m t ll th
s ex it l
re ss s ta te d b y h m i Ci en s a e r e cr u s e vie i n s
a l pi G l w ne dd d t th l gi
au ere a di ib t d i t l gi
e o It i
e e o ns o r s tr u e n o e o ns . s

1 1 1 th
30 5 5 1 3 6 C m b i d wi h th l y th b t w l f th f
at a e sar co ne hi ; t e ev e es o a o e ra nc se

b utm p b b ly h
ore dh
ro d ah m t te th a dp i t f hi
e re in t is a t er o e s ta n o n O s

p ty w h i h did
ar , t
c m h kt p no f so th T p d
uc thse e o ro cu re or e ra ns a a ne s e
R m o f an hi ra nc h g d d t
s e as ra t l dy l g ll y b l g g t th m
e r re ar e i a s a re a e a e on in o e

(i v. O l y th ld h p p d h C
n us co u h d t dt e re d ort s re a , t at a e s ar a in r o uce
o f hi ws o h ity th R m
n a ut o r m i ip l it ti e m g th T
o an un c a co ns t u on a on e ra ns

p d a mm
a ne ii
co (C A d A rt un t es 3 ; Ad F m ii
ic . Th i . v. , 2 a . v i . r, s
h y p th o t pl
e s is w hy H i t
o o ex d g t a ins h T p d w r iu s e si na e s t e ra n s a a ne to ns a s
l i fR m b g
co o n es o (B G ii
o an d w hy C
ur e ss e s t d . . v i. an a e sar tre a e

th l y f C m m f d d b y h im
e co o n o o u b g l y (S
o un e C as a ur es s co o n -
ue t o n. a es .

2 8 ; St b ra p 3 ; Pl t
o , v. r , h C . w h il
2 1 h m d p ty
u ar c , a es . e t e o e r a te ar

o f th ite a r s ocra c
y d d t it ly th m igh t
co nce e h h
o on e sa e r s as to t e ot er
T p d
r a ns a m m it
a ne co i L igh un d h l
ie s , d l
v z. d a t in r ts , a n t e u tra s e ve n e c are

th eC i igh t iv c r f d th s l co n e rre l g h ll don e s e tt e r s as a to et er nu , an co ns e

q tl y did
ue n t d no h C m co nce h p l g tt h d t th
e to t e o e nse s t e riv i e es a ac e o e
h ld g f
o in L t m o a i ip l m g t
a in y (Ci A d A tt
un c n a Ap pi a is ra c c. . v. . 2 a n,
B . C ii.
. Co m p H e r m es . , x vi.
30 .
r32 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF B OO Kv
the org aniz a tion of newly a cquired terri tories had been -

ma n aged by a sen a to ri a l co mmission C a es a r o rg anized his ,

extensive Gallic c o nques ts al toge ther a ccording to his o wn

judg m en t a nd fou nded for i ns ta nce wi thou t havi ng received
, , ,

a ny fa r ther full powers bu gess c o l o nies p a r ticul a rly N ovu m

r -

Co mum ( Co m o) wi th five thousa nd colonis ts Piso con .

ducted the T hr a cia n Gab inius th e Egyp tian Cra ssus the
, ,

Pa rthi a n war wi thou t consul ti ng the sen a te a nd wi thou t

, ,

even repor ti ng as wa s usual to that body ; in like m a n ner

, ,

triu mphs a nd o ther ma rks of honour were a ccorded a nd

c arried o ut wi thou t the se nate being a sked a bou t the m

, .

Obviously this did no t a ise fro m a m ere neglec t of fo rms

r ,

which would be the less in telligible seeing th at in the gre at ,

m ajori ty of ca ses no o pp o si tion fro m the se nate was to be

expec ted On th e contra ry it was a well c alcul a ted design
.
,
-

to di slodge the se nate fro m th e do ma in of mili tary a rr a nge

m en t s a nd of high e r poli tics a nd to es tric t its sh are of ,
r

a d m inis tr a tion to fi na nci a l ques tio n s a n d i ntern a l a ffa irs ;

a nd even oppo ne nts pl a inly discerned this a nd pro tes ted ,

so far as they could a g a in st this conduc t of the rege nts by

,

me a ns of sen a to ia l decrees and cri m in al a c ti o ns While

r .

th e regen ts thus in th e m a in se t a side th e se nate t hey s till ,

m a de s o m e use o f th e less da ngero us popul ar a sse mblie s

c are wa s ta ken th a t in these th e lords o f the s tree t should
put no farther diflficulty in th e way of th e lords of th e s ta te ;
in m a ny c a ses h o wever they dispensed eve n wi th this e mp ty
sh a dow and e m ployed wi thou t disguise a u tocra tic fo rm s
, .

T h e hu m bled se na te h a d to sub m i t to its posi tion

whe ther it would or no t Th e le a der of the c o mplia n t .

m aj ori ty c o nti nued to be M arcus Cicero H e wa s u s eful .

on a ccou nt o f his l awye s ta len t of finding rea s o ns or at

r
’
,

a ny r a te w o ds fo r every thing ; a nd there w a s a ge nuine

r ,

C a es a ri a n ir o ny in e m pl o yi ng the m a n by m e a ns of who m ,

mai nly th e a is to cr a cy h a d c o nduc ted their de m o ns tr a ti o ns

r

ag a i ns t th e rege nts a s th e m ou thpiece of servili ty

, A ccord .
1 34 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF B OO Kv
the c o mpli ant he obta i ned even a certa in political i mp o rt
,
.

a nce . T hey de al t wi th th e o ther m e m bers of the gover ni ng

corp o ratio n a ccessible to fe ar fla ttery or gold in the s a me
, ,

w ay a s they h a d de a l t wi th Cicero a nd succeeded in keeping ,

it o n th e whole in subjec tion .

Ce ta inly there e ma i ned a sec tion of their opp o nen ts

r r ,

who a t lea s t kep t to their col o urs a nd were nei ther to be

terrified nor to be won T h e rege nts h a d beco me con
.

vince d th a t excep tio na l me a sures such as those ag a i ns t ,

C ato a nd Cicero did their ca use m o re harm tha n goo d

, ,

a nd th a t it w a s a lesser evil to tolera te a n i nc o n e nien t v

republic a n o pp o si tion th a n to co nver t their o pp o nen ts

in to m a tyrs for the republic T herefore they a llowed
r .

C a to to re turn ( end of 6 9 8 ) a nd thenceforwa rd in the

se nate and in th e Fo ru m often a t the peril of his life
, ,

to o ffer a co ntinued opposi tion to the rege nts which ,

w as doub tless worthy of honour b ut unh a ppily wa s a t ,

the s a m e ti m e ridiculous T hey a llOwe d him on occ a sion

.

of the proposa ls of T rebonius to push m a tters once more

to a h a nd to h a nd co nflic t in the Foru m a nd to sub mi t
- -

to th e sen a te a prop o s a l th at th e proconsul Ca es a r should

be given over to the U sipe tes a nd T e nc teri on a ccoun t
o f his p e r fidio us c o nduc t tow a rd th o s e b a rb a ri a ns p
( .

T hey were p a tien t when M a rcus Fa vonius C a to s S a ncho

’

, ,

a fter the se na te h a d a dop ted th e res o lu tion to ch a rge the

legion s o f C aes a r o n the state ches t spra ng to th e door -

of th e se na te house a nd procl a i m ed to the s treets the

-

danger of th e cou ntry ; when the s a me person in his

scurrilous fa shion c a lled the white ba ndage which P orn ,

peius wore ro u nd his we a k leg a di spl a ced dia de i when ,

'

th e consul a r L en tulus M a cellinus o n being a ppl a uded

r , ,

c alled o ut to th e as se m bly to m ake dilige nt use of this

p ivilege of expressi ng their opinio n now while they were
r

s till a llo wed to do so when th e t ibune o f the people r

Gaius Ateius C ap i to consig ned Cra ssus on his depart ure

CH AP . v m P OM PEI U S A N D CA E S A R i 3s

fo r S yri a, wi th all the fo r ma li ties of the the o log y of th e

day publicly to th e evil spiri ts
,
T hese were o n th e .
,

wh o le v a in de mons tratio ns of an irritated m inori ty ; yet

,

th e li ttle p a r ty fro m which they issued was so far of

i mporta nce th at it o n the o ne h a nd fos tered and gave
,

the w atchw o rd to the republic a n o pp o si ti o n ferm en ting

in secre t a nd on th e o ther h a nd now and then dragged
,

th e maj o ri ty of th e sen a te which wi th al cheri s hed a t

,

bo ttom qui te th e s a me s en ti m en ts wi th refere nce to the

regents into an isola ted decree di ected aga i nst them
,
r .

F o r even th e m aj ori ty fel t th e need o f giving ven t at le a s t ,

s o me times a nd in subordi na te m a tters to their suppressed

indign ation a nd especi ally— a fter th e m a nner of those who

,

a re servile wi th reluc ta nce —o f exhibi ti ng their resen tm en t

towa rds th e great foes in r age a g a ins t th e s ma ll Wherever .

it w a s p o ssible a gen tle blow w a s a d m i nis tered to th e

,

ins t u men ts of the rege nts thus Ga binius was refuse d the
r

th a nksgiving fes tiv a l th a t he a sked

-
thus P iso was
reca lled from his province ; thus m ourning was put o n
by the sen ate whe n th e tribune of the people Ga ius C ato
,

hindered the elec tions for 6 9 9 a s l o ng as th e co nsul M ar

ce llinus belo nging to th e co n s ti tu tion a l p a rty w a s in o ffi ce .

Even Cicero however hu m bly he a lwa ys bowed before

,

the regen ts issued an equ ally e nve no m ed and i nsipid

,

pa m phle t a ga ins t C aes a r s fa ther in law B ut both these’ - -

.

feeble signs of o pposi tion by the m aj ori ty of the sen ate

a nd th e ine ffec tu a l resis ta nce of th e m inori ty show o nly

th e m ore cle arly th a t th e gover nm en t h a d now p a ssed

,

from th e sen ate to th e regen ts a s it fo r m erly p a ssed fro m

th e burgesses to th e sen a te ; a nd th a t the sen a te w a s

a lre a dy no t m uch m ore th a n a m o na rchic a l c o u nci l of s ta te

e m ployed also to a bs o rb the a nti m onarchical ele m e nts -

.

N o man the a dhere nt s of th e f llen govern m e n t co m

“ ”
,
a

pla ined is of the sligh tes t a ccoun t except the thre e ; the
,
“

reg ents are all powerful and they take ca re th at no one

-

,
! 36 TH E J OI N T R U L E OF B OO Kv
sh all re ma in in d oub t abou t it the whole sen ate is virtu
ally tra nsfor m ed a nd obeys th e dic ta tors ; our gener ation

will no t live to see a ch ange of things T hey were .

”

living in fact no longer under the republic but un der ,

mon a rchy .

B ut if the guid a nce of the s tate was a t th e a bsolu te dis

pos al of the regen ts there re ma ined s till a poli tical dom ain
,

sep a rate d in som e m e asure from the g o ver nment proper ,

which it was m ore e a sy to defend a nd more di ffi cult to con

quer the fiel d of th e ordin ary electio ns of m agis trates a nd ,

th a t of the j ury cour ts T ha t the l atter do not fa ll directly

-
.

u nder poli tics but everywhere a nd a bove all in R o me

, , ,

co me p a rtly under th e co ntrol of the spirit do min ati ng

s ta te a ffairs is of i tself cle ar T he elections of m agis trates
-

, .

cer tainly belonged by righ t to th e governmen t proper of

the s ta te b ut a s a t this period th e state wa s a d m i nis tered

,

subs tan tia lly by extrao rdi na ry magis trates or by m e n wholly

wi thou t ti tle and even th e supre m e ordin ary magis tra tes
, ,

if they bel o nged to th e an ti m on archic al p ar ty were not

-

a ble in a ny ta ngible w ay to in fl uence th e s ta te m achinery -

th e or d in a ry ma gis tra tes s a nk m ore and m ore in to mere

p uppets — as in fa c t eve n th o se of the m who were m os t

, ,

d ispose d to opp o si tio n described the m selves fra nkly and

with en tire j ustice as powerless ciphers — a nd their elec tions
therefore s a nk into m ere de m o ns trations T hus a fter the .
,

opposi tio n had alre a dy been wholly dislodged fro m the

proper field of b a ttle hos tilities m igh t nevertheless be
,

co ntinued in the field of elec tions and of processes T he .

regents sp ared no p a i ns to re ma in victors also in this field .

A s to th e elec ti o n s they h a d alre a dy at L uc a set tl e d

,

be tween the m selves the lis ts of ca ndid ates fo r the next

ye ars a nd they left no m eans u ntrie d to carry the can
,

dida te s ag eed upo n there

r T hey expe nded their gold
.

pri m arily fo r th e purpo se of i nflue nci ng the elec tio ns A .

g re at nu m ber of soldiers were dis misse d a nnu ally on fur

1 38 J OI N T R U L E OF
TH E OOK v B

grudge it worked and vo ted here —in secret and secure

,

fro m all recko ning— a bsolu tely a ga i n s t th e rege nts T ha t .

the in fl uence of the n o bili ty in this field w a s by no m e a n s

broken by the s trict pe nal law a g a i ns t th e elec ti o neeri ng
i ntrigues of the clubs which Cra ssus whe n c o n sul in 6 9 9
,

c a used to be c o nfir m ed by th e burgesses is self evide nt ,

-

a nd is shown by th e elec tions o f th e succeeding ye a rs .

T he j ury courts occ asioned equ a lly gre a t difliculty to

-
‘

th e rege nts A s they were then c o m p o sed while the

.
,

sen a toria l nobili ty wa s here also in fl ue nti l th e decisive a ,

v o ice lay chiefly with th e middle cl a ss T he fixi ng of a .

high rated ce ns us fo r jury m en by a la w prop o sed by

-

P o m p e ius in 6 9 9 is a re m a k able proof th a t th e o pp o si ti o n

r

to th e regen t s h a d its chief se a t in the m iddle cl a ss

properly so called and th a t th e gre at capi talis ts showed

,

the mselves here as everywhere m ore co m pli a nt tha n the

, ,

l a tter N ever thele s s th e republica n p arty was no t y e t

.

deprived of all h o ld in the c o urts; a nd it wa s never we ary

of direc ting p o li tic al i m pe a ch men ts no t indeed aga inst ,

the regen ts the mselves but ag ains t their pro m inen t instru
,

m en ts T his w a rfa re of prosecu tions w as w a ged th e m ore

.

kee nly th a t a ccording to us age the du ty of a ccusati o n

,

belo nged to the se natoria l you th a nd a s may rea dily be , ,

c o nceive d there w a s m ore o f republican p assion fresh

, ,

tale nt a nd bold deligh t in a tta ck to be fo u nd a mo ng these

,

youth s th a n a m o ng the o lder m e m bers of their order .

Certa i nly th e c o urts were no t free ; if th e rege nts w ere in

e a r nes t th e cour ts ven tu ed a s li ttle as the sen ate to refuse
,
r

obedience N o ne of their antag o nis ts were pr o secu ted by

.

th e opp o s i t i o n wi th such h a tred — s o furious th a t it a l m o st

—
p a ssed in to a pr o verb a s V a tinius by far th e mo s t ,

a ud a cious a nd unscrupulou s o f th e cl o ser a dher e n ts of

C a e sa r ; b ut his ma s ter gave th e c o m ma nd and he wa s ,

a cqui tted in all th e proces s es ra ised a g a i ns t h im B ut .

i mpea chmen ts by me n who knew how to wield the s word

CH A P. V iir P OM P EI U S AN D CA E S AR

of di alec tics and the l a sh of s arc a s m as did Ga ius L icinius

Calvus a nd Ga ius A sinius P o llio did not m iss their m ark ,

even when they failed ; nor were is o lated successes w an ting .

T hey were m os tly no doub t ob ta ined over subordin ate

, ,

individu als but even one of the m o st high pl a ced a nd

,
-

m ost h ate d a dherents of the dyn a s ts th e consul a r Gabinius , ,

wa s overthrown in this way Certa inly in his c ase the .

i m pla c able h atred of the aris tocra cy which as li ttle forgave ,

him fo r the law reg arding the conducting of the war with
th e pir ates a s for his disp a r aging tre a tment of th e sen a te
during his S yri a n governorship was com bined wi th th e ,

rage of the gre a t c api talis ts ag ainst whom he ha d when ,

governor of S yri a ven tured to de fend the in terests of the

provinci als and even with the resen tmen t of Crassus with
, ,

who m he h a d s tood on ceremony in h a ndin g over to him

t he province H is only protection aga ins t a ll these foes
.

w a s Po m p e ius and the l a t ter had every re a son to de fend

,

his a bles t boldes t a nd mos t fa i th ful a dju ta n t at any price ;

, ,

but here as everywhere he knew not how to use his power

, ,

a nd to defend his clien ts as C a es a r defende d his, in the

end of 7 0 0 the j urym en found Gab inius guilty o f extortions
a nd sent him in to b a nishmen t .

On the whole therefore in the S phere of the popular

, ,

elections a nd of the ju ry courts it was the regen ts th at fa red

-

worst The fa ctors which ruled in these were less ta ngible

.
,

a nd there fore more di ffi cul t to be terrified or corrup ted

th a n the d irect org ans of govern men t a nd a dminis tr ati o n .

T he hol d ers of power encoun tered here especi a lly in the ,

popul a r elections the tough energy of a close olig archy

,

grouped in coteries —which is by no mea ns fi na lly disposed

of when its rule is overthrown a nd which is th e more ,

diflicult to va nquish th e m ore cover t its a ction T hey .

encountered here to o especi a lly in the jury courts the

,
-
,

repugn a nce of the m iddle cl a sses towards the ne w mo n ~

arch i cal rul e which with all the perplexi ties springin out
,
g
 1 40 TH E J OI N T R U LE OF 10 0K v
of it they were as li ttle a ble to re move T hey su ffered in .

both qu a rters a series of defe ats Th e elec tio n vic tories of .

-

th e opp o si ti o n h a d it is true m erely th e v alue of de m on

, ,

s tratio ns si nce th e regen ts posse s sed and e m pl o yed the

,

m e ans o f pra c tic ally a nnulli ng a ny ma gi stra te whom they

di sliked ; but th e cri m i nal tri als in which the o pposi tion
c a r ied co nde m na ti o ns deprived the m in a way keenly
r ,

fel t of useful a uxili a ies A s things s too d the regen ts

,
r .
,

could nei ther se t a side nor adequ ately co ntrol the popul ar
electi o ns a nd the jury c o urts and the o pposi tio n h o wever
-

, ,

m uch it fel t i tself s trai te ned even here m a i nta i ned to a ,

cer ta in extent the field of b attle .

I t pr o ved however ye t a m ore di ffi cult ta sk to e n

, ,

cou nter the opposi tion in a field to which it tu ned wi th ,

r

the gre a ter ze a l th e m ore it was disl o dged fro m direc t

p o li tic a l a cti o n T his w as li ter ture Even the judici a l
. a .

oppo si tion wa s at th e s am e ti m e a li te ary one a nd indeed r ,

p e e m inen tly so fo r th e ora tions were regul a rly published

r -

a nd served a s poli tic al p a m phle ts The a rrows of poe try .

h it their m a rk s till m ore r apidly a nd sh a rply T he lively .

y o u th of the high a ris tocr a cy and still m ore energetic ally ,

perh ap s th e cul tiva ted m iddle cla ss in the I ta lia n cou ntry
to w ns wa ged th e w a r of p a m phle ts a nd epigra m s wi th ze a l
,

a nd success T here fo ugh t side by side on this field th e

genteel sen a to r s so n Ga ius L icinius C alvus ( 6 7 2 —7 0 6 )
.

’
82 48
-
.

wh o w as as m uch fe a red in th e ch a ra c ter of a n or a tor a nd

p am phle teer a s o f a versatile poe t a nd the m u nicipa ls o f ,

Cre mo n a a nd Veron a M arcus F urius B ibaculus ( 6 5 2 —6 9 ) 1

a n d Qui ntus Va lerius C a tullus wh o s e elega n t

( 6 6 7 4 7 0 0
) .

a nd punge nt epigr a m s flew swiftly like a rrows th o ugh I ta ly r

a nd were su e to h it thei r m a rk An opposi tio nal to ne

r .

preva ils through o u t th e li tera ture o f these yea rs I t is full .

o f indign a n t s a rc a s m gains t the g re at C aes ar “ ” “

a t he .

unique ge neral a ga i ns t th e a ffection a te father in law and

,
”
- -

son in law who rui n the whol e globe in order to g ive their
- -

,
1 42 TH E J OI N T R U LE OF B OO Kv
which se t for th before th e public wi th h appily a ssumed ,

n aive te the necessi ty a nd cons titu tional pr o p ie ty of his

''

,
r

m ili ta ry opera ti o ns B ut it is freed o m a lo ne th a t is a bs o

.

lute ly and exclusively poe tica l a nd cre a tive it a nd it al o ne

is a ble even in its m o st wre tched c aricature even wi th its ,

la test breath to inspire fresh en thu s i asm A ll th e s o u nd

, .

ele ments of li tera ture were a nd e ma ined a nti m o n archica l r -

a nd if C a es ar hi m self could ve nture on this do m a in wi th

,

o ut pr o ving a fa ilure the re a so n w as m erely th a t even now ,

he s till cherished at he ar t th e m gnifice nt dre am of a free a

co mmonwe al th a lthough he wa s un a ble to tra nsfer it ei ther

,

to his a dvers a ries o r to his a dhere nts P r a c tica l politics .

w as no t m ore a bsolu tely con trolled by the regen ts th a n

li tera ture by the republica ns 1

.

1
T he w e ll k-
no w n p oe m of l
Ca tu lus ( num b ere d as xx ix ) w as w ritte n .

Brita nnic e x p e d itio n and b e fo re th e d ea th o f

'
in 6 9 9 or 70 0 a fter Ca es ar s

Julia ’

Qu is [w e p otest w de r e , qu is p otent p a t i,
'

N isi imp udzcus et v ar ax et a lg a,

M a m u r r a m fi a ber e g nod cant a ta Ga l lic
H a beba t a nte e t u ltim a B r ita n n ia etc.

F o r mia e , C a e s ar s fa vo ur ite a nd fo r a time during the

'
M a murra of

G ll
a ic w a rs a n o fiice r in h is a r m y , h a d p re su m a b y a s h o r t time b e fo re , l
th e co mp os itio n o f th is p o e m , re tu r ne d to th e ca p ita a nd w as in a ll i e l lk
lih o o d th e n o ccup ie d w ith th e b ui din g o f h is m uch tal e d o f m ar b e l -
k -
l
l l
p a a ce fur nis h e d With a vis h m a gn ifi ce nce o n th e C a e ia n h i T he l ll .

I b e ria n b o o ty m e ntio ne d in th e p o e m m u st h a ve r e fe re nce to C a e s ar s

‘

F
go ver no rs hip o f ur th e r S p a in a n d M a m urra m ust e ve n th e n, as ce r ta in y
, l
a fte r ward s in G a u l '
h a ve b e e n fo u nd a t Ca e s a r s h e a dqua r te rs ; t he
,

l
P o ntic b o o ty p r e su m a b y h as r e fe re nce to th e w ar o f Po m p e ius a ga ins t
ll
M ith ra da te s es p e cia y as acco r ding to th e h int o f th e p o e t it was no t
,

l
me re y Ca e sa r th a t e nr ich e d M a m urra .

M o re inno ce nt th a n this viru e nt inve ctive w hich w as bitte rly fe t b y l , l

Ca e sa r ( S ue t Ca e s .is a no th er ne ar y co nte m p o ra ry p o e m o f the
. l
s a me a uth or ( x i ) to w hich w e m a y h e re r e fe r b e ca use W ith its p a th e tic
.
,

intro ductio n to a n a ny th ing b ut p a th e tic co m m is s io n it v ery c e ve r y quizze s l l

th e ge ne ra s ta ff o f th e ne w r e ge nts — th e G a b ini use s , A nto niu s e s a nd
l ,

s uch lk l
i e , s udd e n y a dva nce d fr o m th e o w e s t h a unts to h e a dqua r te rs l .

L e t it b e re m e m b e re d th a t it w a s w r itte n a t a tim e wh e n Ca es a r w as
fi g h t ing o n th e R h ine a nd o n th e T h a me s a nd w h e n th e e x p e ditio ns o f ,

C ras su s to Part h ia an d o f G a b inius to Eg yp t w e re in p re p ar a tio n T he .

p o e t as if h e too e x p e cte d o ne o f th e va ca nt p o s ts fro m o ne o f th e re ge nts

, ,

l
gives to two o f his c ie nts th e ir a st instructio ns b e fo re de par ture l
'

comite:
'

F u r t et A nr eli, Ca tull z, e tc.

C H A P. V i n P OM PEI US AN D CAES A R 1 43

It bec am e necess ary to take serious s teps ag a ins t this N w e ex

Oppo s i tion which wa s powerless indeed b ut w a s a lw a ys b e

5352 3 2 2;
1
, , 5

co ming m o re troubles o m e a nd a ud a ci o us The co nde mna .

l d r eso ve

tion of Ga binius a pp are ntly turned th e sc a le ( end of

, , 52 :
T h e rege nts agreed to in troduce a dic ta to rship though o nly ,

a te m por a ry one a nd by m e a ns of this to c a rry new coercive

,

mea sures especi a lly respecting the elec tions a nd the j ury
courts P o mpe ius a s the rege nt on whom pri marily devolved
.
,

th e gover nm e nt of R o m e a nd I ta ly w a s cha rged with the

,

execu tion of this resolve ; which a ccordingly bore the

i mpress of th e a wk wa rdness in res o lution a nd a ction th a t
ch ara c terized him a nd o f his si ngul a r i nca p a city of speak
,

ing o ut fra nkly even where he would a nd could comma nd

,
.

A lre a dy a t the close of 7 0 0 th e de m a nd for a dictatorship 54 .

wa s brough t forwa d in the se nate in th e fo rm of hin ts

r ,

and th a t no t by P o m p e ius hi m self T here served a s its

.

oste nsible ground th e c o n tinu a nce of the system of clubs

a nd b a nds in th e c a pi ta l which by a c ts of bribery a nd
,

violence ce rta i nly exercised th e m os t p e r nicious pressu e r

o n th e elec tions as well a s on th e jury cour t s a nd kept it-

in a perpetu a l s tate of dis turb ance ; we m us t all o w th at

this rendered it e a sy for th e ege nts to jus tify their ex
r

ce p tio nal m e a sures B ut a s m ay well be co nceived even

.
, ,

th e servile m aj o ri ty shr a n k fro m g a n ti ng wh a t th e fu ture

r

dic tator hi m self see m ed to shrink fro m ope nly a sking .

When the u np ara lleled agi ta tion reg arding the elec tions
for the consulship of 7 0 1 led to th e m o s t sca ndal o u s sce nes 5 3 , .

s o th a t th e elec ti o ns were p o s tp o ned a full ye a r beyond

th e fixed ti m e a nd o nly to o k pl a ce a fter a seven m o nths

’

in terregnu m in J uly 7 0 1 P o mp e ius found in this s ta te 53

, .

of things th e de sired o cc a sion f r i ndica ti ng no w dis tinctly

o

to th e se na te th at th e dic ta to ship w a s th e o nly m e a ns

r

of cu tti ng if no t o f l o o si ng th e kn o t ; b ut the decisive

,

word of c o mm a nd w a s no t eve n y e t sp o ken Perh aps it .

would h a ve s till re ma i ned for l o ng unu ttered h ad not ,

 1 44 TH E J OI NT R U LE OF BOO Kv
th e mos t a uda ci o us p artis an of the republican o pp o si tion
T i tus Annius Milo s tepped in to the field a t th e co nsul a r
elec tions for 7 2 a s a c a ndida te in opposition to the
0 .

c a ndid ates of th e regen ts Quin tus Metellus S cipio a nd

,

P ublius Pla u tius H yp sa e us b o th m e n closely co nnec ted

,

wi th P o mp e ius pers o na lly a nd thoroughly devo ted to h im .

Milo end o wed wi th physic a l coura ge wi th a ce ta i n

, ,
r

talent for in trigue a nd for co ntrac ti ng debt a nd a bove a ll ,

wi th a n ample a m o u nt of na tive a ssura nce which ha d been

ca refully cul tiva ted ha d m a de hi mself a n a me a m o ng th e
,

politica l a dven turers of the ti me and was the greate st ,

bully in his tra de nex t to Clo dius a nd n aturally the efo re ,

r

through riv a lry a t th e m os t de a dly feud wi th th e l a tter .

A s this A chilles of the s tree ts h a d been a cquired by the

regen ts a nd wi th their permissio n wa s aga i n pl aying the
ul tra de m ocra t the H ec tor of th e stree ts beca m e as a
-

ma tter of course a n a ris to crat ! a nd th e republic a n opposi

tio n which no w would h a ve concluded a n a lli a nce wi th
,

C atili na in perso n h ad he presen ted hi mself to the m

, ,

re a dily a cknowledged Mil o as thei legi ti ma te ch ampion r

in all riots I n fa c t th e few succe sses which they c arried

.
,

o ff in this field of b a ttle were th e work of Milo a nd o f

,

his well trained ba nd o f gl a di ato rs S o C ato a nd his

-
.

frie nds in retur n supp o rted the ca ndidature of Milo for

th e co nsulship even Cicero could no t a vo id recom mend
ing one who ha d been his e ne my s ene my a nd his own ’

pro tec tor duri ng m a ny ye ars ; and a s Mil o hi mself sp a e d r

nei ther m oney nor viole nce to ca rry his electio n it seem ed ,

secured F o r th e rege nts it would h ave been no t o nly

.

a ne w a nd keenly fel t defe a t bu t a l s o a re a l d a nger ; for

-
,

it wa s to be foreseen th at th e b o ld p a rtis a n would no t

a ll o w hi m self a s c o nsul to be reduced to insig nifica nce s o

eas ily as D o m i tiu s a nd o the m e n of the respec ta ble r

K illing o pp o s i ti o n I t h a ppe ned tha t A chilles

. nd H ec to a r

a ccide n tally encou ntered e a ch other no t fa r from the

 TH E J OI NT R U L E OF BOO Kv
D cta to r B ut th e instigators of these sc a nd alous scenes had over
a c ted their p ar t Cer tai nly their lord and m aster was
.

resolved to e mploy this favoura ble episode in order not

m erely to se t a side Mil o but also to seize the dictatorship ; ,

he wished however to receive it not from a mob o f

, ,

bludgeon me n but fro m the sen ate Pomp e ius brought

-

, .

up troops to p ut down the an archy which preva iled in the

c a pi tal and which had in re ali ty become in tolerable to
,

everybody ; at the s am e ti m e he now enjoined what he

h ad hi ther to reques ted and the sen a te co mplied , I t wa s .

merely an empty subterfuge th at on the propos al of C ato ,

a nd B ibulus the proconsul P o mpei a s ret a i ni ng his fo r m er ,

o ffices wa s nom in a ted as co nsul wi thout colle ague

,
“ ”

instea d of dictator (on th e 2 5th of the in te cal ary mo n th 1

r

0 2 —
7 ) a sub terfuge which a d mi tted an a ppell ation l a bour
,

ing under a double incongrui ty for the m ere purpose of

2

a voiding one which expressed th e si m ple fa c t a nd which ,

vividly reminds us of th e s ag a cious resolu tion of th e w a ning

p atricia te to concede to th e plebei a ns no t the consulship ,

but o nly the co nsul a r power ( i .

T hus in lega l p o ssession of full power Po mp e ius se t ,

to work a nd proceeded wi th energy a g a ins t th e republica n

pa rty which wa s p o we ful in th e clubs and th e ju ry c o urts
r -
.

T h e existi ng en a c tme nt s as to elec tions were repe ated

a nd enforced by a peci a l la w ; and by a nother aga i ns t
s

electioneeri ng in t igu e s which ob ta i ned re trospective force

r ,

for all offe nces of this so t com m itted si nce 6 8 4 the r ,

pen alties hi therto i mp o sed were a ugmen ted S till m ore .

i mportant wa s the e nac tm e nt th at th e gover norships which , ,

were by far th e m ore i mp o tan t and especi ally by far th e r

m ore lucra tive h a lf of o ffici a l life sh o uld be con ferred on ,

the consuls and p a e to s not i mm edi ately on their retire

r r

I n th i y sh J eary w itht e 9 d th F b
a nua r y w ith 3 d y 2 an e e rua r 2 a s
wer e f ll w d b y h i t
o o e l y m th w ith 8 d th by M h
t e n erca ar on 2 , an en ar c .

ll g (i
"
C ons ul g fi Si ni e s
“
co d l wh i
ea t th
ue . an a co ns u o s a e

sa m tim p
e e li t
ro co nsu t l
s a l nd n l b tit t
o nce a n ac ua co nsu a a co
'
s u s su s u e.
C H AP . V i i i POM PE I U S A N D CA ES A R 1 47

me nt fr o m the consul a te or pra e tor ship but only a fter th e

,

expiry of o ther five ye ars a n arra nge ment which of course

c ould o nly come in to e ffec t a fter four ye a rs a nd therefore ,

m a de th e filling up of th e governorships fo r th e nex t few

years subs ta n ti ally d ependen t on dec e es of sen ate which
r

were to be issued for the regul a tion o f this in terv al and ,

thus pra ctic a lly on the person or sec tion ruling the sen ate
a t th e m ome nt T h e jury com m issions were le ft in
.

exis tence but li m i ts were put to th e right of coun ter pl e a -

a nd— wh a t w as perh a ps s till m ore i m por ta n t—th e liber ty

, ,

of speech in th e court s was done a wa y ; for both the

nu mber of th e a dvoc ates and th e ti m e of spe a king appor
tio ne d to e a ch were restric ted by fixing a m axi m um a nd ,

th e b a d h a bi t which h a d prev a iled of a dduci ng in a ddi tion ,

to the Witnesses a s to fa c ts wi tn esses to ch a ra cter or la uda

,

tor es as they were c a lled in fa vour of th e a ccused wa s

, ,

prohibi ted The obse quious se nate further decreed on the

.

suggestion of Po mpe ius th at th e coun tr y ha d been pl aced

in peril by the qu arrel on the A ppi a n Way ; a ccordingly
a speci a l co m m ission w as a ppoin t ed by an excep tion a l

la w fo r all crim es connec ted wi th it th e me m bers of ,

which were direc tly no m i nated by P o mp e ius An a ttemp t .

w as also m a de to give once m ore a serious i m porta nce to

the office of the censors and by th at a ge ncy to purge the
,

deeply d isordered burgess body of th e worst ra bble

-
.

All these m e a sures were a dop ted under the pressure of

the sword I n consequence of th e decl a r ation of th e sen ate
.

th a t the coun try was in d a nger P o m pe ius ca lled the m e n

,

c ap a ble of service throughou t I ta ly to a r m s a nd ma de them

swe ar allegia nce for all c o n ti ngencies ; an a dequ ate and
trus twor thy corps w a s te mpor a rily s tati o ned a t th e C a pi tol ;
a t every s tirring of Opposi tion P o m p e ius thre a tened a r m ed

in terven tio n and during the pro ceedi ngs a t the trial re
,

specting the m urder of Clo dius s tationed contrary to all ,

p r e ce de nt a g ua rd over the pl a ce o f tri a l i tsel f

, .
 TH E J OI N T R U LE OF B OO K v

Th e schem e fo r the revival of the cen s or ship fa iled ,

beca use a m o ng th e s e vile maj o i ty o f the se nate no one

r r

p o ssessed su fficie nt m o ra l co ura ge and a u thori ty eve n to ‘

bec o m e a ca ndida te for such a n Office On the other h a n d .

Mil o was co nde mned by th e jurym e n ( 8 A p il 7 ) a nd r 0 2

C a to s c a ndid ature fo r the c o nsulship o f 7 0 3 w a s f us tra ted

’
r .

T h e o pposi tio n o f speeche s a nd p a m phle ts received th o ugh r

th e new judici a l o rdi na nce a bl o w fro m which it never t e

co ered the dre a de d fo re nsic el o que nc e w a s thereby d riven

v

f om the field of poli tics a nd the nce fo th fel t the res t a in ts

r
,
r r

of m o n archy Opp o si ti o n o f course h ad not di sa ppe a red

.

ei ther f om the m i nds o f the gre at m aj o rity of th e nati o n

r

or eve n wh o lly from public life — to e ffect th at end th e

p o pul a r elec tio ns th e jury c o u ts a nd li terature m us t h ave
,
-
r ,

bee n no t m erely re st ic ted b ut a nnihila ted I ndeed in

r , .
,

these very tr a nsa c tions the m selves P o m p e ius by his u n ,

skilfulnes s and perve si ty helped th e epublic a n s to g a i n

r r

eve n u nder his dic tato ship s ever al triu m phs which he
r

severely felt T h e speci l m e a su es which the rulers to ok

. a r ,

to s tre ngthe n their p o wer were of c o urse o ffici ally ch a ra c

,

te i e d as en a c tm e nts m a de in th e i nter est of public tr a n

r z

quilli ty a nd o der a nd e ery bu ge ss who did no t de sire

r ,
v r ,

ana rchy w a s described a s subs ta nti a lly c o n cur i ng in the m

,
r .

B ut Po mp e ius pushed this tra n s p a en t fic tion so f r th a t r a ,

i ns tea d o f pu tti ng s a fe i ns t u men ts i nto th e speci a l co m r

m ission for th e i nve stig a ti o n o f th e l a st tu m ul t he cho se th e ,

m o st respec t ble m e n o f all p a tie s includi ng eve n C a to

a r , ,

a nd a pplied h is i nflue nce o er th e c o u t esse ntia lly to v r

m a i nta in o rder and to re nder it i m po ss ible fo his a dhere nts

,
r

a s Well a s for his oppo ne nts to i ndulge in th e scene s of

disturb a nce custo ma ry in the c o urts of this period T his .

neu trali ty o f th e ege nt wa s discernible in th e judg me nts of

r

th e speci a l cou t T h e ju y m e n did no t ven ture to a cqui t

r . r

Milo hi m s elf ; b ut m os t of th e subordi nate pers o ns a ccused

belongi ng to th e p ar ty of th e epublica n oppo s i ti o n were r
 C H A PT ER IX

DEATH OF CR AS S U S —R U PTU R E B ETWEEN TH E J OI NT

R U L ER S

MAR CU S C R A S S U S ha d for ye ars been reck o ned am ong the

hea d s of th e three he a ded m o ns ter wi th o u t any proper
“ -

,
”

ti tle to be so i ncluded H e served as a m akeweigh t to

.

tri m the bal a nce be tween the rea l regen ts P o m pe ius a nd

C aes a r or to spe ak m ore a ccura tely his weigh t fell in to
, , ,

th e sca le of C a e sa r a ga ins t P o mp eius . T his p a r t is no t a

to o repu ta ble one b ut Cra ssus w as never hindered by a ny
keen sense of h o n o ur from pursuing his own a dva ntage .

H e w as a m erch a nt a nd wa s Open to be de al t wi th . Wh at
was o ffered to h im w as no t m uch b ut when m o re w as no t
,

to be g o t he a ccepted it a nd sough t to forge t th e a m bi tion

, ,

th a t fre tted h im a nd his ch a grin a t occupying a p o si tion so

,

ne ar to p o wer a nd ye t so p o werle ss am ids t his always

,

a ccu m ul a ti ng piles of g o ld B ut th e conference at L uca

.

ch anged the state of m a tters a lso for h im ; wi th th e view

of s till retaining th e prepondera nce a s comp a ed wi th r

P o mpe ius a fter co nce s sions so ex te nsive C a es ar g a ve to his

,

old confedera te Cras su s an Oppor tuni ty of a ttai ni ng in S yria

through th e P a r thi a n w ar th e s a m e p o si tion to which Ca es ar
h a d a tta ined by th e Cel tic w ar in G a ul I t w a s di ffi cul t to
.

s ay whe ther these ne w prospec ts proved m ore a ttra c tive to

the arde nt thirs t fo g o ld which ha d no w bec o m e a t the ag e

r

o f six ty a seco nd n a ture and grew o nly th e m o re in tense

C R AP. 1 x R U PT URE B ETWE EN TH E J OI N T R U LER S 1 51

wi th every newly won m illi o n or to the am bi tion which ha d

-

bee n long repressed wi th difliculty in th e o ld m an s bre a st ’

a nd no w gl o wed in it wi th res tless fire H e a rrived in .

S yri a a s e a rly a s th e begi nning of 7 0 0 he h a d no t even 54 .

wa i ted for the expiry o f his consulship to dep ar t F ull of .

i mp atien t a rd o ur he see m ed desirous to redee m every

m i nu te wi th the view of ma king up for wh a t he h a d lost of ,

gathering in th e tre asures of th e ea s t in a ddi tio n to those

of the wes t of a chieving the power a nd glory of a general
,

as r a pidly a s C a es a r a nd wi th a s li ttle trouble a s P o m p e ius

, .

H e fo und the Pa r thi a n war alre a dy co mm e nced T h e E p diti n . x e o

fa ithless conduct of P o mpe ius towa rds th e P a rthi a ns ha s g m’ “

’ a a 1°

bee n alrea dy m en tioned ( iv 4 34) he ha d no t re spec ted

. l d reso ve

th e s tipul a ted fron tier of th e E uphr a tes a nd h a d wres ted

several provinces fro m the Parthi a n e m pire for th e benefi t
of Ar m eni a which w a s now a clien t s tate of R ome K ing
, .

P hraa te s h ad sub m i tted to this tre atm en t ; but a fter he

h ad been murdered by his two so n s M ithra date s a nd
Oro de s th e new king M ithra date s i mm edi a tely decl ared
,

w ar on th e king of A m eni a A rtava s de s son of th e recen tly

r , ,

decea se d T igra nes (a b o u t T his w a s a t th e s a me 5 3

ti m e a decl a ra tion of wa r a ga ins t R o m e ; a s s oon therefore

as th e revol t of th e J ews w as suppressed G a binius th e , ,

a ble a nd spiri ted governor of S yri a led the legions over ,

th e Euphr a tes Me a nwhile h owever a revolu tion ha d

.
, ,

occurred in the Pa rthi a n e m pire ; the gr andees of the

kingdo m wi th th e y oung bold a nd tale nted gra nd vizier
, , ,

a t their he a d h a d overthrow n king M ith ra da te s a nd pl a ced

,

his bro ther Oro de s on th e throne M ithra da te s therefore .

m a de co m m o n c a use wi th th e R o ma ns a nd res o r ted to the

c am p of Gab inius Every thing pro mised th e bes t resul ts
.

to th e enterprise of th e R o m a n governor when he uh ,

1 T igra nes was s till living in Fb e r ua ry 6 9 8 ( Cic pr o S erf

. . 2 7, on 56
( Jus tin
.

th e o th er h a nd Arta vas des was alr ea d g

y re i ning b
efo re 7 0 0 , x l ii
.
54 .

l
2 , 4 ; P ut Cram.
 D EA T H OF CR A S S US Kv
B OO

expec tedly received o rders to co nduc t the king of Egyp t

b ack by force of a m s to Alexa ndri a ( iv
r H e was .

o bliged to o bey ; b ut in th e expec ta tion of so o n co m i ng

,

b a ck he i nduced the de thro ned P a r thi a n pri nce who

,

s o lici ted a id fro m h im to co mm ence th e w a r in th e m e a n

while a r his own ha nd M ithra da te s did so ; a nd S eleucia

.

a nd B a bylon decl a red for him ; but the vizier c a p tured

S eleucia by a ss a ul t h a vi ng been in person th e firs t to
,

m oun t th e b a ttle m e nts a nd in B a bylon M ithra date s h im

,

self wa s fo rced by fa m i ne to surrender whereupo n he was ,

by his bro ther s o rders put to de ath H is dea th w as a

’
.

p alp a ble loss to the R o ma ns ; but it by no m e a ns put an

e nd to th e fer me n t in th e Pa rthia n e mpire nd the ,
a

A r m e ni a n w a c o nti nued
r Gabinius a fter en di ng the
.
,

E gyp ti a n c a m p a ign wa s jus t on th e eve of tur ni ng to

,

a cc o u nt th e s till f v o ura ble o ppor tuni ty a nd resu m i ng

a

th e i nterrup ted P a r thi a n wa r when Cr a ssus a rrived in ,

S yri a a nd alo ng wi th th e co m m a nd took up a lso th e pl a ns

of his predecesso Full of high fl o w n h o pes b e e sti mated
r. -

th e di fficul tie s of th e m a rch as sligh t a nd th e powe r o f ,

resis tance in the a m ies o f the ene m y a s ye t sligh ter ; he

r

no t o nly sp o ke c o n fiden tly of th e s ubjuga tio n of the

Pa r thi a ns b ut w as a l e a dy in i ma gi na tion th e conqueror
,
r

o f th e ki ngdo m s of B a c tri a a nd I ndi a .

T h e ne w Alex a nder h o wever was in n o h a s te

,
B efore
, .

he c a rried i nto e ffect these gre a t pl a ns he fo und leisure ,

fo very tedious a nd very lucra tive coll a tera l t a ns a c tions

r r .

T h e te mple s o f D e rce to a t H iera p o lis B a mbyce a nd of

J eh o va h a t J eru sale m a nd o ther rich shri nes o f the S yria n
pr o vi nce were by o der o f Cra ssus desp o iled of their
,
r

tre a u es ; a nd c o ntingen t s o r s till be tter su m s of m o ney

s r , ,

i ns te a d were le ied fro m a ll th e subjects T he m ilita ry

v .

operations of th e firs t su m me were li mi ted to a n e x te nsive

r

reco nn aiss ance in Mesopo tami a ; the Euphra tes wa s

crosse d the Pa r thian sa trap was defeated at I ch uac ( on
,
 DEA TH OF CRA S S U S B OOKv
O pposi te S eleuci a on th e other b a nk of the T igris ; sever al
weig hty voices were ra i sed in fav o ur of this rou te in the
R o ma n cou ncil of war ; in p ticul ar th e qu a e stor G a ius
ar

C a ssiu s p o in ted to the di ffi cultie s o f th e ma rch in the

de s e t a nd to the suspici o u s rep o rts a rriving from th e
r ,

R o m a n g a rrisons o n th e left b a nk of th e E uphrates a s to

th e P ar thi a n w arlike prep a r a tions . B ut in opposi tion to
thi s th e A r a b prince A bg ar us a nn o u nced th a t the Pa r thi a ns

were employed in ev a cu ating their wes tern provinces .

T hey ha d a lre a dy p a cked up their tre a sures a nd put

the m selves in m o tio n to fl ee to th e H yrc a ni a ns and
S cy thi a ns only through a fo rced m a rch by the hortes t s

rou te was it a t all p o ssible s till to re a ch them ; but by

such a march th e R o ma ns would pr o b a bly succeed in
overtaki ng a nd cu tti ng up a t le a st th e r ea r gu a rd o f the -

gre a t a rm y under S illa ce s a nd the vizier and o b ta ining ,

e no r m ous spoil T he se repor ts of th e friendly B edoui ns

.

decided the direc tion of th e m a rch ; the R o ma n a rmy ,

co nsis ting of seve n legions 4 0 0 c a alry and 4 0 0 0 slingers

,
0 v ,

a nd a rchers tu ned o ff fr o m th e E uphr a tes a nd a wa y in to

,
r

th e i nho s pi ta ble pl a i ns of nor thern Mes o po tam i a .

F r a nd wid e no t an e ne my showed hi m self ; only

a

hu nger a nd thi st a nd the endless s a ndy dese t seem ed

r ,
r ,

to keep w a tch a t th e g a tes of th e e a s t A t leng th a fter

.
\
,

m a ny d a ys of toils o m e m a rchi ng no t far fr o m th e firs t

,

river which the R oma n army ha d to cross the B a lissus ,

( B elik ) th
, e firs t h o r s e m en of th e ene m y were descried .

A bg a rus wi th his A r a bs w as sen t o ut to rec o nno i tre the

P a r thi a n squ a d o n s re tired up to a nd o ver th e ri ver a nd
r

v a ni shed in the dis ta nce pu sued by A bg a us a nd his

,
r r

followers Wi th i mp a tie nce the R o m a ns wa i ted for his

.

re tur n and fo r m ore exact i nfo m tio n The ge nera l

r a .

hoped here at length to com e up o n th e co ns ta n tly re

tre ating foe ; his you ng a nd br a ve s o n P ublius wh o h ad ,

fought wi th the g reat est distinc tion in G aul under C aes ar

CH AP . ix R U PT URE B ET W EEN T H E J OI N T R U L E R S 1 55

( p .
39 ,
bee n sen
a ndt by h
had
t e l tte r a t th e h e a d a

of a Cel tic squ a dr o n o f horse to t ake p a r t in th e P a r thi a n

war w a s i nfl a m ed wi th a vehe m e nt desi e for th e fight

,
r .

When no tidi ngs cam e they resolved to a dvance at a ,

ven ture ; th e signa l for s ta r ti ng w as given th e B aliss us w as ,

cross ed the army a fter a brief insu fficie nt re st at noon was

,

le d on wi thout del a y a t a ra pid p a ce T he n sudde nly the .

ke ttledru m s of th e Pa rthi a ns sou nded all around on every

side their silke n gold e mbroidered b a n ners we re seen -

wavi ng and their iron hel m ets and co ats of m ail gli ttering
,

in the bla ze of the h ot no o nd ay sun ; and by the side of

the vizier s tood prince Abg arus wi th his B edouins .

T h e R o mans sa w to o l a te th e net in to which they had R m n o a

allowed the mselves to be ens na red Wi th sure gl a nce the ifimi n

.

vizier ha d thoroughly seen both the d anger and the m e a n s y t m r s s e s o

w f
of mee ting it N othi ng c o uld be a cc o m plished a ga inst th e
.
ar are ’

R o ma n infa n try of th e line wi th Orien ta l i nf n try ; so he a

h ad rid hi m self of it a nd by sendi ng a m a s s which was

, ,

useless in the m ain field of b attle unde r the person al ,

le a dership of ki ng Oro de s to A rm e ni a he had preven ted ,

ki ng A rta va sde s from allowi ng th e prom ised heavy

c ava lry to j o in th e a rm y of Cra ssus who now p a i nfully fel t ,

th e w a n t of the m On the o ther h a nd th e vizier m e t th e

.

R o m a n t a c tics unsurp a ssed of their kind wi th a sys te m

, ,

en tirely di ffere nt H is ar my consis ted exclu sively of

.

c a valry ; th e line w as formed of th e he avy horse m en

a r med wi th lo ng thru s ting l a nces a nd p o tec ted m a n a nd
-

,
r ,

horse by a co at of m a il of m e ta llic plates o r a lea thern

, .
'

double t a nd by si m il a r gre a ves ; th e m a ss o f the tro o ps

c o nsis ted of m oun ted a rchers A s c o mp a red wi th these .
,

t h e R o m a n s we e tho o ughly i n feri o r in th e co rrespo ndi ng

r r

a m s b o t h a s to nu m ber and excelle n ce

r T hei i nfa ntry of . r

th e li ne excelle nt as they were in cl o s e c o m b a t whe ther a t

, ,

a s h o r t dis ta nce wi th th e he a vy j a velin o r in h a nd to h a n d - -

co m b a t wi th the sword could no t com pel a n a rm y c o nsist

,
1 56 D EAT H OF C RA S S U S Kv
B OO

ing m erely c a va lry to c o m e to a n engage m en t wi th the m ;

of

a nd they fo u n d eve n whe n they did co m e to a h a nd to

,
-

h a nd co nflict a n equ al if not superior a dvers a ry in th e

,

iro n cla d hos ts o f l a ncer s As co mp a red wi th an a rmy like

-
.

this P r thi a n o ne th e R o m a n a r m y w a s a t a dis a dva n ta ge

a ,

strategic ally beca u s e th e c a val y c o mma nded th e com m uni

,
r

c atio ns ; and at a di sa dva nta ge ta ctic ally beca use every ,

we a p o n of close co mb at mus t succu mb to th at which is

wielded fro m a di sta nce unless th e s truggle beco m es a n
,

i ndividu al o ne ma n ag a inst ma n T he co ncen tra ted posi

, .

tion o n which th e whole R o ma n me th o d of w a r w as b a sed

, ,

i ncrea sed the da nger in presence of such a n a tta ck ; th e

closer the ra nks of the R o m a n colu mn th e more irresistible ,

certa i nly was its on se t but th e less al s o could the m issiles

,

fa il to hit their m a rk U nder ordin ary circu ms tances

.
,

where towns h a ve to be defended a nd di ffi cul ties of the

ground h ave to be considered such ta c tics operating merely ,

wi th ca va lry aga ins t infa ntry could never be com ple tely
c a rrie d out but in the Mes o potam i an desert where the ,

a r my a l m os t like a ship on th e high se a s

,
nei ther e h ,

cou ntered an obst acle nor m e t wi th a b a sis for strategic

disposi tions duri ng m any days ma rch this m ode of war ’
,

fa e wa s irresis tible fo r the very re a son th at circu ms tances

r

a llowed it to be developed there in a ll its puri ty a nd there

fo re in all its power T here everything combined to put

.

th e fo reig n i nfa ntry a t a dis a dva nta ge a g a inst the n ative

c ava lry Where th e he avy l a den R o ma n foot sol dier
.
- -

dragged h im self toilsomely thr o ugh the s and or the steppe ,

a nd perished fr o m hunger or s till m ore fro m thirs t a m id the

p a thless rou te m arked only by water springs th at were far -

a pa r t a nd di ffi cul t to find th e P a r thi a n h o rse ma n a ccus

, ,

to me d fro m childh o od to s it o n his flee t s teed or c a m el ,

na y a l mos t to spe nd his life in th e s a ddle e a sily tra versed ,

th e deser t whose ha rdships he h a d lo ng le arned how to

lighten or in c a se of need to e ndure T here no ra in fell .
 D EAT H OF CR A S S US B OOKv
in the e as t a nd wa s h a ndled wi th m a s terly skill in the
P ersi a n provinces g a ve him a n e ffec tive we a pon for dis ta nt
comb a t ; a nd la s tly the peculi a ri ties of the c o u ntry and the
people en a bled h im freely to re a lize his brilli a n t ide a .

H ere where th e R o ma n we pons of close co m b a t a nd the

, a

R o ma n sys te m of conce ntra ti o n yielded for th e firs t ti m e

befo re the weapons of m ore dis ta n t wa rfare a nd the sys te m
of deployi ng was initi a ted th at m ili ta y revolution which
, r

only rea che d its comple tion wi th the in tro d uction of

fire ar m s .

U nder s uch circu m s ta nces the firs t b attle between th e

R o m a ns a nd Pa rthi a ns wa s fo ugh t a m ids t the s a ndy deser t
thir ty m iles to the s o u th o f Car h ae ( H a rr a n ) where there
r

w a s a R o ma n g a rris o n a nd a t a so m ewh a t less dis ta nce to

,

the nor th of I ch na e The R o ma n a rchers were sen t

.

forwa rd but re tired i mm edi ately before the enor m ous

,

nu m erica l superio i ty and the far grea ter el a s tici ty a nd

r

range of the P ar thi a n bows T h e legi o ns which in spi te

.
‘

, ,

of the a dvice of the m ore sa ga cious officers th a t they

should be deployed a s much as possible a ga ins t the ene my ,

h ad been dra w n up in a dense squ a re of twelve c o h o rts on

e a ch si de were soon o utfl a nke d and overwhel med wi th the
,

for mida ble arrows which under such circu m s ta nces hit
,

their m an even wi thou t speci a l a im a nd a g a ins t which th e

,

soldiers ha d no me ans of re ta li a tio n T he hope th a t the .

ene my m ight expend his missile s va nished wi th a gla nce at

the endless r a nge of c a mels l a den wi th a rr o ws T he .

Pa rthi a ns were s till extendi ng their li ne T h a t th e o ut .

fla nking m igh t not end in surroundi ng Publius Cra ssus ,

a dv a nced to th e a tta ck wi th a selec t corps of c ava lry ,

a rchers a nd i nfa ntry of th e li ne

,
T h e ene m y in fa c t
.

a b a ndo ned th e a tte m p t to close th e circle a nd e tre a ted ,

r ,

hotly pursued by the i m pe tuous le a der of th e R o m a n s .

B ut when the corps of P ublius h a d to ta lly lo st sigh t of th e

,

main army the he avy cavalry ma de a s tand ag ainst it and

, ,
cm » . [ X R U PT U R E B ET WE EN TH E J OI N T R U L ER S 1 59

the Pa tr hia n host h a s tening up fr o m all sides closed in like

a n e t round it P ublius who sa w his tr o ops falli ng thickly
.
,

a nd v a i nly a r o und h im u nder th e a rr o ws o f th e m ou nted

a rchers threw hi m self in de s pe a ti o n wi t h his Cel tic c av a lry

,
r

u npro tec ted by a ny coats o f ma il o n the iron cl a d l a ncers -

o f th e e ne m y ; b u t th e de a th despi s ing v alour of his Cel ts

-

who seized th e l a nces with their h a nds or spra ng from

t hei r horses to s tab th e e nemy perfo med its m arvels in ,
r

v a in T he re ma ins of the corps i ncluding their le a der

.
,

wou nded in the swo rd arm were driven to a slight -

e mi nence where they only served fo r a n e asier ma rk to

,

th e e ne m y s a rcher s Mesop o tam i an Greeks who were

’
.
,

a ccur a tely a cqu a i nted wi th th e cou ntry a djured Cra ssus to ,

ride o ff wi th the m a nd m a ke a n atte m p t to esca pe ; but he

refused to sep arate his fa te fro m th at of the brave men
whom his to o d ari ng c o ur a ge h ad led to death a nd b e
-
,

c a u s ed him self to be s ta bbed by th e h a nd of his shield

be a er F o llowi ng his exa m ple m os t of the still surviving
r .
,

o ffi cers p ut the m s elves to de a th Of the wh o le divisio n .

,
.

ab o ut 6 0 0 0 s trong no t m ore , th a n 5 0 0 were ta ken

prisoners ; no one was a ble to esc a pe Me a nwhile the .

a tta ck on the m a in a r m y h a d sl a ckened and th e R o mans

‘

we e but to o gla d to res t Whe n at le ng th th e a bsence of

r .

a ny tidi ngs fro m th e corps sen t o ut s ta tled them o ut o f r

th e decei tful ca l m a nd they drew ne a r to th e scene of th e

,

b attle for th e pu p o se of le ar ni ng its fate th e hea d of the

r ,

s o n w a s displ a yed o n a p o le befo re his fa ther s eyes ; a nd

’

th e terrible o nsl a ugh t beg a n o nce m o re a g a in st th e ma in

a r m y wi th th e sa m e fu y a n d th e s a m e h o pele s s unifor m i ty
r .

T hey could n e i ther bre a k th e a nks of th e l a ncers nor r

re ach th e archers nigh t al o ne p ut a n end to th e sl a ugh ter .

H a d th e Pa r thi a n s bi o u a cked on th e b a ttl e field h a rdly a

v
,

m a n o f th e R o m a n a r m y w o uld h a ve esc aped B ut no t .

tr a i ne d to figh t o therwi s e t h a n o n h o r s eb a ck a nd therefo re ,

afra id of a surprise they we e w o nt never to e nc a m p clo s e

,
r
 DEA TH OF CRA S S U S BOO Kv
to the enemy ; jeeringly they sh o u ted to the R o mans th a t
they would give th e gene a l a nigh t to bewa il his so n a nd
r
,

gall o ped o ff to re turn nex t m o rning and despatch the game

th a t lay bleedi ng on th e ground .

R etr ea t to Of course th e R o ma ns did no t w a i t for th e mo rning .

Th e li e u ten a n t gener als C a ssius a nd Oc ta vius — Cra ssus

-

hi m self ha d co mpletely los t his judg men t— o dered the r

men s till c ap a ble o f marching to se t o ut i mm edi ately a nd

wi th the u tm os t sile nce (while the wh o le s a id to a m ount -

to 4 0 0 0 —o f th e woun d ed a nd s tr agglers were left) wi th ,

th e view of seeki ng pro tec tio n wi thin th e wa lls of Ca rrha e .

T h e fa c t th a t th e Pa r thia n s when they re tur ned on th e

,

foll o wing day a pplied the m selves firs t of all to seek o ut

,

a nd ma ss acre th e sc a ttered R o m a ns left behind a nd th e ,

further fa c t th at the ga rison a nd i nh a bi ta n ts of Ca rrha e

r ,

ea rly infor m ed o f th e di sa ster by fugi tives ha d ma ched ,

r

forth in a ll h a s te to m ee t th e be a te n a r my sa ved th e ,

remn an ts of it fro m wh a t see m ed ine i ta ble des truc tion v .

Th e squ a dr o ns of P a r thi a n hor s e m e n c o uld no t thi nk of

u ndertaki ng a siege of Carrhae B ut the R o ma ns s o on .

volu nta ily depa rted whe ther c o mpelled by wa n t of

r ,

pro visi o ns or in consequence of th e despo ndi ng precipi ta

,

t io n of their co mm a nder — in chief wh o m the s oldiers ha d

-

vainly atte mp ted to re m ove fr o m the c o m mand a nd to

repl ace by C assius T hey m o ed in the di ec ti o n of th e
. v r

A r m eni a n m oun ta ins ; ma rchi ng by nigh t a nd res ti ng by

da y Octa vius with a b a nd of 5 0 me n re a ched the
0 0

fo r tres s of S innaca which w a s o nly a da y s ma rch dis tan t

,
’

fro m the heigh ts th a t w o uld give shel te and liberated r,

even at th e peril o f his o w n life th e c o mm a nder in chief -

w hom th e guide h ad led a s tra y a nd given up to th e e ne m y .

T hen th e vizie rode in f on t of th e R o ma n c a m p to o ffer

r r ,

in the n am e of his ki ng pe a ce a nd friend ship to the

,

R o ma ns a nd to pr o p o se a person a l co nfere nce be tween

,

the two ge ner als T he R o ma n a r my de m o aliz e d as it

.
,
r
1 62 D EATH OF C RA S S US BOO Kv
the legions they ha d beco me in the s ame yea r trophies of
,

victory in th e h a nds of foreig n n a tions a l m os t c o nte mp o r ,

ane o usly of a Ger ma n tribe in th e west

( p 6 9 ) a nd of .

the P a rthians in th e e a s t A s to the i mpression which the

.

de feat of the R o ma ns pr o duced in th e e a s t unfo rtu nately ,

no a de q u ate infor m a tio n h a s re a ched us but it m ust h ave

bee n deep a nd l a s ting K ing Oro de s wa s j us t celebrating
.

the m arri age of his so n P aco rus wi th the sis ter of his new
a lly A r tava sde s the ki ng of Ar m en ia when th e a nnounce
, ,

m en t o f th e victory of his vizier a rrived a nd alo ng wi th it , ,

a ccording to Orien ta l us a ge th e c ut o ff he a d o f Cra ssus

,
-
.

Th e ta bles were a lre a dy re m oved ; one of th e w a ndering

co mp a nies of a c tors fro m A si a Minor numbers of which at ,

th at ti me exis ted a nd c arried H ellenic poe try a nd the

H ellenic dram a far i nto th e e a s t w a s j us t perfor ming ,

be fore the a ssembled court the B a cclza e of Euripides .

T he a c tor pl a ying th e p a rt of Ag a ve who in her D ionysi a c ,

frenzy h as t o rn in pieces her son a nd returns fro m

Ci th aeron c a rrying his he a d on th e thyrsus exch anged this ,

fo r the bloody he a d of Cr a ssus a nd to th e i nfi ni te deligh t,

of his a udience of h alf H elle nized b arb ari a ns bega n afresh

-

the well known song

-
:

¢épo,uev éf 6peos
.

mm 11 6 67 0 l é 1rl uéka opa

aa r a p fa v Gfip a v .

since th e ti mes of the A ch ae m enids the first

I t wa s, ,

s erious vic to ry which th e Orien ta ls h a d a hieved over th e c

west ; a nd there was a deep sig nificance in the fact tha t ,

by w ay o f celeb ating this vic to ry th e fa i res t product of the

r

wes tern wo rld —Greek tragedy— p arodied i tself th ough its

,

dege ne a te repre s e nta tives in th at hide o us burle s que T h e

r .

civic spiri t of R om e a nd the ge nius of H ella s bega n si mul

tane o usly to a cco mm o d a te the m selves to th e ch a ins of sul

ta nism .

The dis as ter terrible in i tself see m ed a lso

, , as hough
t i
CR A P . i x R U PT UR E B ET WE EN TH E J OI N T R U LER S 1 63

was to be drea dful in its conseque nce s a nd to sh ake th e C n ,

o se

fou nda tio ns of th e R o m a n p o wer in the e a s t I t w as .

a m o ng th e le a s t of its re s ul t s th a t th e P a r thi a ns no w h a d d f t
, e ea .

a bs o lu te sw a y bey o nd th e E uphr a tes ; th a t A r m e ni a a fter ,

h a ving falle n a wa y f o m th e R oman a lli a nce even befo re

r

th e di s a s ter of C a s su s wa s reduced by it i nto en tire

r ,

dependence on P a rthi a ; that th e fa i thful ci tize ns of Ca rhae r

were bitterly punished for their a dherence to th e Occiden tals

by th e new ma s ter appoi nted o ver them by the Pa rthi a ns ,

one o f the trea cherous guides of th e R om ans n am ed ,

A ndro m achus T he P a r thi a n s no w prep a red in a ll e arnest

.

to cr o ss th e Euphrates in their turn a nd in union wi th the

A r meni a ns a nd Ar abs to di slodge th e R o m
, ,

,
a ns fro m S yri a .

T h e J ews a nd v a rious o ther Occiden tals a wa i ted e m a ncipa

tion from the R o m a n rule there no less i mp a tien tly th an ,

th e H ellenes bey o n d th e E uphr ates a w a i ted relief fro m the

Pa rthi a n ; in R o m e ci il w ar wa s at th e door ; an a ttack at

v

this p a r ticul a r pl a ce a nd ti m e w as a gra ve peril B ut .

fortun a tely for R o m e th e le a ders on e a ch side had

ch a nged S ul tan Oro de s w a s to o much indebted to th e
‘

heroic pri nce who h a d firs t pl a ced the crown on his hea d
,

a nd then cle a red th e l a n d fro m th e ene m y no t to

g e t rid ,

of him a s s o on as possible by th e execu tio ner H is pla ce .

as comm a nder in— chief of the i nva ding a r my des tined for
-

S yri a w as filled by a prince th e king s son Paco rus with

’
, ,

whom on a ccount of his you th and i nexperience th e pr nce i

Osace s ha d to be a ssoci ated a s m ili ta ry a dviser On th e .

other side the inte im com m and in S yri a in room of Cra ssus
r

w as ta ken up by th e prude nt a nd resolu te qu a es tor Ga ius

C a ssius .

Th e Parthi a ns were just like Cra ssus for merly in no R p l

, , e u se

h aste to atta ck b ut during the ye ars 7 0 1 a nd 7 0 2 sen t o nly P

,
iiiii n ia e
we a k fl yi ng b ands who were ea sily epulsed across th e 53 52
, r , , .

Euphra tes so th at C a ssius ob ta i ned ti m e to re o rg nize the a

army in so m e m e a s ure a nd with th e help of th e fa i thful

,
 1 64 D EA T H OF CRA S S US B OOK v

a dhere nt o f the R o man s H erodes A ntip ater to reduce to

, ,

obedi e nce the J ews who m ese ntm e nt at th e spoli ation o f

,
r

th e te m pl e p e pe t a te d by Cr a ss us h a d a lre a dy drive n to
i r

a msr Th e R o ma n gove nme nt w o uld thus h a ve ha d full

. r

ti m e to se nd fresh troop s for th e defence o f th e thre a te ned

f o nti r ; but this was left u ndo ne a mid st th e c o nvulsions of
r e

51 . th e i ncipie nt rev o lu tio n a nd whe n a t le ng th in 7 0 3 th e

, ,

g e at Pa rthi a n inv adi ng a rm y a ppe ared on the Euphr te s

r a ,

C a ssius had s till no thi ng to o pp o se to it b ut the two wea k

legions fo rm ed from the re ma i ns of the ar my of Crassu s .

Of c o urse w i th these he c o uld nei ther pre e nt th e crossing v

nor defe nd th e province S y ia w as overrun by th e . r

Pa r thi a ns a nd a ll We s ter n A si a t e m bled

,
B ut th e Pa r thi a ns r .

did no t unders ta nd th e besiegi ng o f towns T h e y not o nly .

re t e ated fro m A n ti o ch i nto which C a s s ius h a d th o w n

r ,
r

hi m self wi th his tr o op s wi thou t h avi ng a cco mpli shed their

,

o bjec t bu t they we e o n their e tre a t a long th e Oron tes

,
r r

a llured i nto a n a m bu s h by Ca s s ius c a va lry a nd there severely

’

h a ndled by th e R o m a n infa ntry ; prince Osace s was hi mself

a m o ng th e sl a i n Friend and foe thus perceived th at the
.

P a r thi a n a r m y under a n o rdi na ry gene a l a nd o n o rdi na ry r

grou nd w as no t ca p a ble o f m uch m o e th a n a ny o ther r

Orie nta l ar m y H o wever the a tta ck wa s no t a b a nd o ned

.
, .

51 5 0
-
. S till duri ng th e win t e of 0 —
7 3 7 0 4 P a co rus la y enc a mped in
r

Cy h e s tica on thi s s ide o f the E uphra te s a nd the new

rr

governor o f S yria M arcus B ibulus a s wre tched a genera l

, ,

a s he w a s a n i n c a p a ble s ta tes m a n knew no b e tter course of ,

a c tion th a n to shu t hi m self up in his for tresses I t wa s .

50 . ge nerally expected that th e war would b e a k o ut in 7 4 r 0

with re newed fu y B ut ins te a d o f tu ni ng his a m s agai nst

r . r r

th e R o m a ns P a co rus t ur ned a ga i ns t his own fa ther a nd

, ,

a ccordi ngly eve n en tered in to a n unders ta ndi ng wi th the

R o m a n govern o r T hus th e sta i n w a s no t wiped from the

.

s hield of R o ma n ho no ur nor w as th e repu ta tio n o f R o m e

,

res tored in the e a st ; b ut the Pa rthi a n i nva sion of Wes tern

 D EATH OF CRA S S U S B OOKv
c onquest of G a ul at the price of equ aliz ation wi th Po mpe ius ,

has been alre a dy se t for th B ut Po m pe ius was h ardly

.

ever even pr o vi s i o n a lly in e a rne st with the collegi ate

, ,

sche m e H is w as one of th o se petty and m e a n natures

.
,

t owa rds which it is d a nger o us to pr a c tise m agn a ni m i ty ; to

his p al try spiri t it appe a red ce tai nly a dic tate of p rudence
r

to suppl a nt at th e firs t opportuni ty his reluc tantly a cknow

ledged riv a l a nd his mea n s o ul thirs ted a fter a possibili ty

,

of re taliating on C a esa r for the hu m iliation which he had

su ffered thr o ugh C a esar s indulgence B ut while it is
’
.

prob a ble that Po mp e ius in accord ance wi th his dull and

sluggish n ature never pr o pe ly consen ted to le t C a e sar hold
r

a posi tion of equ a li ty by his side y e t th e desig n o f bre aking

,

up th e alli a nce doub tless ca m e only by degrees to be

dis tinc tly en ter ta ined by h im At a ny ra te th e public
.
,

which usu a lly saw be tter through th e iews a nd intentions v

of P ompe i a s th a n he did himself could no t be m istaken

,

in thinki ng th at at le a s t wi th the de ath of the beau tiful

J uli a — who died in the bloo m of wo ma nhood in the
a u tumn of 7 0 0 and wa s soon followed by her only child

to the to mb — the persona l rel ation be tween her father

and her husb a nd w as broken up C aes ar a tte mpted to
.

t e es ta blish th e ties o f a ffi ni ty which fa te ha d severed ; he

-

a sked for hi m self th e h a nd of th e only da ugh ter of

P o mp e ius a nd o ffered Oc ta vi a his sis te r s gra nd da ugh ter
’
-

, , ,

who was now his ne a res t rel ative in ma rri a ge to his fellow
,

rege nt ; b ut P o mp e ius left his d a ugh ter to her exis ti ng

husba nd Fa u stus S ull a the son of th e regent and he him ,

self m ar ied th e d a ugh ter o f Quintus Me tellus S cipio

r .

Th e person al brea ch ha d un m is ta ke a bly begun a nd it wa s ,

P o mpe ius w h o drew b a ck h is h a nd I t wa s expec ted th a t

.

a poli tic al bre a ch would a t o nce foll o w ; b ut in this people

were m is taken in public a ffa irs a c o llegi ate u nde s ta ndi ng r

con tinued for a ti m e to subsis t T he rea son was that

.
,

Ca esar did not wish publicly to dissolve the rel ation before
C H A P. ix R U PTU R E BET WE EN TH E J OI N T R U LER S 1 67

the subjugation of Ga ul was a cc o mplished a nd Po mpe ius ,

did no t wi s h to dissolve it befo re th e governi ng a u th o rities

and I ta ly should be wholly reduced u n der his power by

his inves ti ture wi th the dicta torship I t is singular b ut

.
,

yet rea dily admi ts of expl a n ation tha t the regen ts under
,

these circu m s ta nces supported e a ch o ther ; P o mp e ius a fter

the d is a ster o f Aduatuca in the win ter o f 7 0 0 h anded over
one of his I ta li an legio ns that were dis m issed on furlough
by way of loa n to C aes a r ; on the other han d C aes ar
granted his consen t a nd his m oral support to Pompe ius in
the repressive me a sures which th e l a tter took a gainst the

s tubborn republica n o pposi tion .

I t wa s only a fter Po mp e ius h ad in this way procured

fo r himself a t th e beginning of 7 0 2 th e undivided consul
ship and a n in fl uence in the ca pi ta l thoroughly outweighing
’
th a t of Ca e s ar a nd a fter all the men ca p able of a rms in
,

I tal y h ad tendered their m ili ta ry o a th to himself person ally

a nd in his na m e th a t he formed th e resolu tion to b re a k
,

a s soon a s pos s ible fo rm ally wi th C a es a r ; and th e design

bec a m e dis ti nctly enough apparent T hat th e j udicia l.

prosecu tion which took pl a ce after th e tu m ult on the

A ppi a n Wa y lighted wi th unsp aring severi ty precisely on
th e old de m ocra tic p a r tis a ns of C a es ar ( p m igh t .

perhaps p a ss a s a m ere awkw ardness T hat the ne w law .

a g a ins t elec tioneering intrigues which had re tro spec tive

,

e ff ec t a s far as 6 8 4 included a lso the dubious proceedi ngs

,

a t C a es ar s c a ndid ature for th e consulship p m igh

’

( t .

likewi se be nothing m ore al though not a few C a es ari ans

,

thought that they perceived in it a defini te desig n B ut .

people could no lo nger shu t their eyes however willing ,

t hey migh t be to do so when P o mp e ius did no t select for

,

his colle a gu e in the con sulship his for m er father ih law - -

C a e sar a s wa s fi tti ng in the circu m s tances o f the c a se a nd

,

w as in ma ny qu a r ters de ma nded b ut a ssocia ted wi th

,

hi mself a puppe t wholly dependen t on him in his ne w

 D EAT H OF CR A S S US B OO K v

fa ther in la w S cipio ( p 1 4 9 ) a nd s till less when Po mpe ius

- -
.
,

a t th e sa m e ti m e g o t th e g ver no ship of th e two S p a ins o r

c o nti nued to him for five ye ars m ore th at is to 7 0 9 a nd , ,

a c o n s ider a ble fixed sum a ppr o pri a ted fr o m th e s ta te ches t -

fo r th e p a y m e nt of his t oops no t o nly wi th o u t stipu r ,

l a ting for a like prolonga tion of co mma nd a nd a like

gra n t of m oney to C a es a r but e en while l a bouri ng ,
v

ul teriorly to effect th e rec a ll of C aesar befo re the ter m

formerly agreed on through th e new regul ati o ns which
were issued a t th e s a m e ti me regarding the holdi ng of the
gover no rships T hese encroa ch men ts were unmis take a bly
.

ca lcula ted to underm i ne C a e sa s posi tion a nd eve ntua lly r

’

to over thr o w him T he m o m e nt could no t be m ore

.

fa v o ura ble C a es a r ha d c o nceded so much to Po mp e ius

.

a t L uc a o nly bec a use Cr a s sus a nd his S y ri a n a rmy would

,

necessarily in th e event of a ny rup ture with Po mp e ius be

, ,

thr o wn in to C a es a r s s c ale for up o n Cra ssus— who si nce

’

the ti m es of S ull a h a d bee n a t th e deepes t e nm i ty wi th

“

Po m p e ius and a l m os t as lo ng p o li tic a lly and person ally

a llie d wi th C ae sa r a nd who fro m his peculi ar ch a ra c ter a t
,

a ll even ts if he could no t hi m self be king of R o m e would

, ,

h ave been conte nt wi th bei ng the ne w king s ba nker ’

C aesar could a lwa ys reckon and c o uld h a e no a ppre ,

v

he nsio n a t a ll of seei ng Cra s s us confr o n ti ng h im a s a n a lly

of his ene mies T he ca ta str o phe of J u ne 7 0 1 by which
.
,

a r my a nd gener al in S yri a perished w s therefo re a terribly ,

a

seve e bl o w a ls o for C a e sa r A few m o nth s la ter th e

r .

na tio na l i nsurrec tio n bl a zed up m o re violen tly th a n ever

in Ga ul ju st whe n it h ad see m ed co mple tely subdued and

, ,

for the fi s t ti m e C a es a here e nc o u ntered a n equa l

r r

opponen t in the A rve nia n ki ng Verci ngeto rix Once r .

more fate had been worki ng for Po mpe ius Cra ssus was
dea d all G a ul was in revol t P o m pe ius wa s pra ctica lly
, ,

dic t to r of R o m e a nd m aster of th e se na te Wha t migh t

a .

ha ve h a ppe ned if he h a d now in stea d of re motely in

, ,
1 70 D EATH OF CRA S S US Kv
B OO

b a ttle cry brought to him was trifli ng ; it w as confined

-

ma i nly to th e circu m s ta nce th a t he wa s thereby relieved

fro m th e inc o nvenience of direc tly na m i ng th e ki ngly office ,

a nd s o a l a r mi ng th e m a ss of th e lukew a m a nd his own r

a dhere nts by th a t de tes ted word T h e de m ocr a tic b a nner

.

h ardly yielded far ther posi tive g a in si nce the ideals of ,

Gra cchu s ha d been rendered infa mo us and ridicul o us by

Clo dius for wh e re wa s there no w — l a yi ng a side perh aps
th e T ra n sp a d n e s — a ny cl a ss of a ny s o r t of i m p o r ta nce
a
,

which would h ave been i nduced by th e b attle cries of the -

de m ocracy to take p a rt in th e s truggle ?

T his state of thi ngs would h a ve decided th e p art of
P o mp e ius in th e i m p e ndi ng s truggle even if a p ar t f o m this , r

it ha d no t bee n self e iden t th a t he could o nly e nter in to it

-
v

a s th e genera l o f th e legi ti m a te republ ic N a ture ha d .

des tined him if ever a ny one to be a m e m ber of an aristo

, ,

cra cy a nd nothi ng b ut very accide nta l a nd very selfish

m o tives h ad c a ied h im o ver as a dese ter fro m the a ris to
rr r

cra tic to the de mo cra tic ca m p T h at he should now rever t

.

to his S ull a n tr a di ti o ns w a s no t m erely befi tti ng in the

,

c a se b ut in every re spec t of es sen ti al a dv antage E ffe te

,
.

as w a s th e de m o cr a tic cry th e conse v a tive cry could no t

,
r

b ut h a ve th e m ore p o te nt e ff ec t if it proceeded fro m the ,

righ t ma n P erh aps th e m aj o ri ty at any rate th e flower of

.
,

th e burgesse s bel o nged to th e c o ns ti tu tio n a l p a r ty ; a nd a s

,

respec ted its nu me ica l and moral s tre ng th m igh t well be

r

c alled to interfere powerfully perh aps decisively in the , ,

i mpe nding struggle o f th e prete nders I t wa n ted n o thing .

but a le a der M a rcus C ato its prese nt he a d did the du ty

.
, , ,

a s he unde s to o d it o f its le a der a m ids t d a ily peril to his

r ,

life and p e h a ps wi th o u t hope o f success ; his fidelity to

r

du ty deserve s respec t but to be th e l a s t a t a forlorn po st is

,

c o m me nda ble in th e s o ldier no t in th e ge nera l H e h ad

,
.

no t th e skill ei ther to orga nize or to b i ng i nto a c ti o n a t r

th e proper time the p o werful reserve which ha d sprung up ,

C H AP. i x R U PT U R E WEEN
BET TH E J OI N T R U LER S 1 71

as it were spon taneously in I taly fo r th e p ar ty of the o ver

thrown govern m en t ; a nd he h a d for g o o d re a sons n ever
m ade any pre tension to the m ili tary le a der ship o n which ,

everything ul ti mately depe nded I f i ns te a d of this m an .

,

wh o knew no t how to a ct ei ther as p a r ty chief or a s ge ner a l -

a ma n of the poli tic a l a n d mili ta y m a rk of P o m p e ius r

should r aise the ba nner of the exi sti ng cons ti tu tion th e ,

m unicip als of I taly would necess a rily flock tow ards it in

crowds th at un der it they migh t help to figh t if no t indeed
, ,

for the kingship of P o mpe ius at any rate ag ains t th e king ,

ship o f C a es ar .

T o this w a s a dd e d a nother considera tion at le a s t as

i mporta nt I t was ch a a cteris tic of P o mpe ius even when
. r ,

he had form ed a resolve not to be able to find his way to

,

its execu tio n While he k new pe h aps how to conduct

. r

war b ut cert a i nly no t how to decl a re it th e C a to ni a n p a r ty , ,

a l though a ssuredly un a ble to conduc t it was very a ble a nd ,

a bove all very re a dy to supply gro u n ds for the w a r a g a i ns t

th e m on a rchy on th e p o in t of bei ng founded A ccordi ng to .

th e in ten tion of P o mp e ius while he kep t hi m self al o o f a nd

,

in his peculiar w ay now talk e d a s th o ugh he would i m me

diate ly d ep art for his S p a nish provinces now ma de prep a ra ,

ti o ns as though he would se t o ut to take over th e co m m a nd

on the Euphrates the legi ti mate governing boa rd n a m ely
, ,

the se na te were to bre a k wi th C a es a r to decl a re w a r a g a i ns t

, ,

him and to en trus t the c o nduct o f it to P o mp e ius wh o

, ,

then yielding to the general desire was to com e forwa rd a s

, ,

the protec tor of th e cons ti tu tion a g a i ns t dem a gogic o m o n -

a rchica l plo ts a s a n uprigh t m a n a n d ch a m pi o n o f th e

,

exis ting order o f thi ngs a ga i n s t the pro fl ig ate s a nd a na rchis ts ,

a s the duly ins ta lled general of th e se na te a ga i nst the

-

I mpera tor o f the s tree t a nd so once m ore to s a ve his

,

coun try T hus Po mp e ius ga ined by th e alli a nce wi th the

.

conservatives b o th a second a r m y in a ddi tion to his perso nal

a d here nts and a s ui table war m a nifes to— adva nta es which
g
-

,
 D EATH OF CRA S S U S BOO K v

certa inly were purch a sed at the high price of coalesci ng

wi th those w ho were in principle Opposed to h im Of the .

coun tle ss evils i nvolved in this coali ti o n there was de eloped

,
v

in the me an ti m e only one—but th at alrea dy a very gra ve

o ne —th a t Po m p e ius surrendered th e p o wer of co mm encin g

h o stili ties ag a i ns t C aesar whe n and how he plea sed and in ,

this decisive poi nt ma de hi m self depe n den t on all the

accide nts a nd c a prices of a n a ris to c a tic corp o r a ti o n
r .

T hus the republic a n o pp o si ti o n a fter h a ving been for

,

ye ars obliged to rest con ten t wi th th e p a t Of a m ere spec

r

ta tor a nd h a ving h ardly ve ntured to whi s per w as no w ,

brought b a ck once m ore to the politic a l sta ge by the

impending rupture be tween th e regen ts I t c o nsisted .

pri marily of th e circle which rallied round Ca to — those

republica ns who were res olved to ve nture on the s truggle
fo r th e republic and ag a ins t th e m o narchy u n der all ci cu m r

s tances and th e soo ner th e be tter T he pi tiful i s sue of

,
.

the a tte mp t ma de in 6 9 8 ( p 1 2 8 f ) had taugh t thein th a t

.

they by the m s elves alo n e were no t in a posi tion ei ther to

conduct w ar or eve n to call it fo rth ; it wa s known to every
one th at even in th e sen ate while the whole corpora ti o n
,

wi th a few is o l ated excep tions was averse to m on archy the ,

m ajority would s till only res to re the oligarchic govern m en t

if it m igh t be res to red wi th o ut d anger — ih which c a se ,

doub tless it had a good while to wait I n prese nce of the

, .

reg ents on th e one h a nd and on the other h a nd of this

,

indolen t m ajori ty which desired pe ace a bove all thi ngs

,

and a t any price a nd w a s a verse to a ny decided a c tio n a nd

,

m o s t o f all to a decided rupture wi th one o r o ther o f the

regen ts the only possible course for the C ato nia n p a rty to
,

ob tain a res toration of th e old rule lay in a coali ti o n wi th

th e less d angerou s of th e rulers I f P o mp e ius a ck no wle dged
.

th e olig archic co ns ti tu tion a nd o ffered to fight for it a ga ins t

C a es a r th e republica n o pp o si tio n might a nd mus t recog nize
,

him as its g eneral and in allia nce wi th him co mpel th e

,
 D EATH OF C R A S S US B OO Kv
7 0 3t here w a s elec ted no t C a t o hi m self i n deed b ut— a long

wi th a n i nsig nifica nt m an bel o ngi ng to th e m aj o ri ty o f th e

se nate—o ne o f th e mos t decided a dhe e nts of C a to M arcus r ,

Cla udius M a rcellu s M arcellus w a s no fu i o us ze al o t and

. r

still less a genius but a s te a dfa s t a nd s tric t a i s tocrat just

,
r ,

th e righ t ma n to decl a re w ar if w a r w a s to be begu n wi th

C a es a r A s the ca se s to o d this electio n so surprisi ng a fter
.
, ,

th e repressive m e a su es a dop ted i mm e di a tely befo re a g a ins t

r

the republic an opposi ti o n ca n h a rdly h a ve occurred o ther

,

wise th a n wi th th e c o nse nt o r a t le a s t u nder th e ta ci t per

,

missi o n o f th e regen t of R o m e fo r the ti m e bei ng S lowly

, .

a nd clu m sily as was his won t but s te a dily P o mp e ius m oved

, ,

o nw a rd to th e rup tu e r .

I t wa s no t th e i nte ntion of C a esa r on th e o ther h a nd to

fa ll o ut a t this m o m e nt wi th Po mp e ius H e could no t .

i ndeed desi e se i o usly and per ma ne ntly to s h a e th e ruli ng

r r r

power wi th any c o ll e a gue le a s t o f all wi th o ne of so seco nd

,

my a sort a s w a s P o m p e ius ; a nd bey o n d do ub t h e ha d

long resolved a fte r ter m i na ti ng th e co nques t o f G aul to take
th e sole power for hi m self a n d in c a se o f need to ex tor t it
,

by force o f a rm s B ut a ma n like C a es a r in wh o m the

.
,

o fficer was th o ro ughly sub o rdi na te to th e s ta te sm a n c o uld ,

no t fa il to pe ceiv e th a t th e
r egul a tion o f th e p o li tica l
r

orga ni sm by fo rce of arm s d o e s in its c o nseque nce s deeply

a nd often per m a nen tly dis o rg a nize it a nd therefo e he r

could not b ut seek to solve the di fficul ty if a t a ll pos sible , ,

by pe a ceful m e a ns or a t le a t wi th o u t o pe n civil w ar B ut
s .

eve n if civil wa w as no t to b e a v o ided he could no t desire

r ,

to be drive n to it at a ti m e whe n in G ul th e risi ng of ,

a

Ve cinge torix i m pe illed a f e sh all th at h a d bee n o b ta i ned

r r r

a n d o ccupied him wi th o u t i nterrup ti o n f o m th e wi nter of r

70 1 — 7 0 2 to t h e wi n te of 7 2 — 7 0 3 a nd whe n P o m e iu s a nd
r 0
p ,

th e c o ns ti tu ti o na l p a r ty o pp o sed to h im o n pri nciple were

d o mi na nt in I ta ly A cc o di ngly he s ough t to p e se ve the
. r r r

rel ation wi th Po mp e ius and thereby the pea ce unbroken ,

C H A P. i x R U PT U R E B ET WEEN TH E J OI N T R U LER S 1 75

a nd to a tta n,i if p o ss ible by pe aceful mea ns to the

at a ll ,

c o nsul ship fo r 7 6 a l e a dy as ured to him at Luc a I f he 48

0 r s .
.

sh o uld the n a fter a conclusive se ttle me nt of Cel tic a ffa ir s

be pl a ced in a regul a r m a nne a t th e he a d of th e s tate he
r
, ,

w h o w a s s till m o re decid e dly superior to P o m p e ius as a

s ta tes m a n th a n as a gene al m igh t well reck o n on out

r ,

ma noeu ri ng th e l atter in th e se na te h o use a nd in the

v -

Fo ru m wi thou t speci al di fficul ty Perh aps it wa s possible .

to fi nd o ut for h is a wkw a rd v a cill a ting a nd a rrog a n t riva l

, ,

so m e s o rt of hon o ur a ble a nd in fl ue nti a l posi tio n in which ,

th e l a tter m igh t be con ten t to si nk in to a nulli ty ; the

repe a ted atte m p ts of C aes ar to keep hi mself rela ted by

ma r i age to P o m p e ius may h ave been designed to p av e
r ,

th e w a y for such a solu ti o n a nd to bring a bou t a fin al

se ttle m e nt o f the o ld qu arrel through the successi o n of o ff
spring inheri ti ng the blood o f bo th compe ti tors T he .

republic an oppo s i tion w o uld then rem ain withou t a lea der
a nd therefore pr o b a bly q uie t a nd pe a ce would be preserved
, .

I f this should no t be successful and if there should be as , ,

w a s cert a inly p o ssible a necessi ty fo r ul ti mately esor ting

,
r

to th e decisi o n of a rms C a es ar would then as consul in

,

R ome dispose of th e c o m pli a n t m aj ori ty of th e se nate ;

a nd he could i m pede or perh a ps fru s trate th e co a li tion of

th e P o mpei a n s and th e republic a ns and conduct th e w ar ,

far more sui ta bly a nd more a dv an ta geously th an if he now ,

as proconsul of G a ul gave orders to m a rch a g a ins t th e

se nate a nd its genera l C e rt ainly the s uccess of this pl a n

.

depended on P o m pe ius being good n atured enough to le t -

C a esa r s till ob ta in th e consulship for 7 0 6 assured to him at 4&

L uc a ; but eve n if it fa iled it would be a lw a ys of a dva n ta ge
, ,

for C a es ar to ha ve given pra c tica l and repeated evidence of

th e mos t yieldi ng disposi tion On th e one h and ti m e .

would thus be ga ined for a ttai ning his object m e anwhil e in

G a ul ; o n the other h and his opp o nents would be l e ft with
th e odium of ini ti atin g th e rup tu e and consequently th e r
 D EAT H OF CRA S S US B OO K v

civil war— which was of the u tm os t m om e nt fo r Ca esa r wi th

refere nce to the m ajori ty of th e sen ate a nd the p ar ty o f
m a teri a l in teres ts a nd m ore especi a ll y wi th reference to his
,

own soldiers .

On these views he a cted H e ar m ed cer ta inly ; th e

.

nu m ber of his legions was raised through new levies in

52 51 .
- th e wi nter of 7 0 2 — 7 0 3 to eleven i ncluding th a t borrowed ,

from Pom p e ius B ut at th e s am e ti m e he expressly a nd

.

openly appr o ved of Po mp e ius conduct duri ng the dic tator

’

ship and the res toration of order in th e c api tal which he

h a d e ffec ted rejecte d th e w arnings of Offi cio us friends a s
,

ca lu m nies recko ned every day by which he s ucceeded in

,

pos tpo ning the c ata s trophe a gai n overlooked wha tever ,

could be overlo o ked a nd bore wh atever could be b o rne

m ove ably a dhering only to th e o ne decisive de ma nd
th at when his governorship of G aul ca m e to an end
,

wi th 7 0 5 the seco nd consulship a dmissible by republica n

, ,

state law and pro m ised to him according to agree men t by

-

his colleague should be gran ted to him for the ye ar 7 0 6

, .

T his very de m and bec a m e th e b a ttle fi e ld of the -

diplom atic w ar which no w bega n I f C a esar were c o mpelled

.

ei ther to resign his o flice of governor before the l as t day

of D ece m ber 7 0 5 or to pos tp o ne the a ssu mp tion of the
,

ma gistr a cy in th e c api tal beyond th e r s t J a nu a ry 7 0 6 so ,

th at he should re m ai n for a ti m e be twee n th e governorship

a nd th e co n sul a te wi thou t o ffi ce a nd consequen tly li a ble

,

to cri minal i mpe ach m en t— which accordi ng to R om a n law

was only allowa ble a ga ins t one who w a s no t in o ffi ce
the public ha d good re as on to prophesy fo r him in thi s

ca se the fate of Milo bec ause C a to h a d for long been

,

r e a dy to i m pe a ch him a nd P o m p e ius wa s a m ore th a n

doub tful pro tec tor .

N o w to atta i n th at o bjec t C a es ar s Opp o nen ts ha d a

’
, ,

very si mple m eans A cc o rding to th e exis ting ordi na nce

.

as to el e c tions every ca ndidate for the consulship was

,
 1 78 D EATH OF C R A S S US BOO Kv
Cra s su s ran acc o di ng to the usu al m ode of reck o ni ng
,
r

49 . from 1 Ma rch 6 9 5 to the l a s t day of Febru ary 7 0 5 As .

,

h o wever a cc o rdi ng to th e earlier prac tice th e procons ul

, ,

or pr o pr a e tor ha d the righ t o f e ntering on his provinci al

m agis tra cy i m medi a tely a fter the termin ati o n of his co nsul
ship o r pra e to ship th e succes s o r of C a es ar was to be
r ,

50 . no m i na ted no t from th e urb an m agis tr a tes of 7 0 4 but

, ,

49 . from th o se of 7 0 5 a nd could not therefore e nter befo re

,

48 .
r s t Jan .
70 6 S o far C a e sa r h a d s till during the l a st
.

49 . te n m o nths of th e ye a r 7 0 5 a righ t to th e co m ma nd no t ,

o n th e ground of th e Po m peio L ici ni a n la w but o n th e -

grou nd of th e old rule th at a co mma nd wi th a s et term

s till co nti nued a fter th e expiry of the term up to the
a rriv a l of th e succe s s o r B ut now since the new regul a tion
.
,

52 . of 7 0 2 ca lled to th e go vernorships no t the co nsuls a nd

praetor s goi ng o ut b ut th o se who had go ne o ut five ,

ye ars a g o or m o e a nd thus p escribed an i nterva l between

r ,
r

th e civil m agi st a cy a nd th e co m r m a nd ins te a d of the

previous im m edia te sequence the e was no longer any ,
r

di ffi cul ty in s t a igh tw ay filli ng up fro m a no ther qu arter

r

every leg lly a ca nt g o ver no r ship a nd so in the c ase in

a v , ,

ques tio n bri ngi ng a b o u t for th e Ga llic pr o vi nces the

,

49 . C h a nge of co m m n d o n th e r s t M a rch 7 0 5 i n s te a d of th e
a ,

4 8. r s t Ja n 7 0 6
. T he pi tiful di s si m ul a tion a nd procra s tin a ting
.

a r tifice o f P o m p e iu s a e a fter a re ma rka bl e ma nner m ixed

r

up in these a rra nge m e nts wi th th e wily fo r ma lis m a nd

, ,

th e co ns ti tu ti o na l erud ti o n of th e republic an p a r ty i Ye ars .

befo re these we a p o ns o f s tate la w c o uld be e m pl o yed they -

h a d the m duly p ep a ed a n d p ut the m s elves in a c o n dition

r r ,

o n th e o ne h a n d to c o m pel C a es a r to th e resign a tion of

his co mmand f o m th e day when the ter m secured to

r

h im by P o mp e ius o wn la w expired th at is fr o m th e r s t
’

49 .
M a rch 7 5 by sendi ng success o rs to h im an d on the
0 , ,

o ther h a n d to be a ble t o tre a t a s null a nd void the v o tes

48 . tendered fo r h im at the ele ctions fo r 7 0 6 Ca esa r no t .

,
CHAP. ix R U PT URE WE EN
B ET TH E J OI N T R UL ER S 1 79

u ap o si ti o n to hinder the s e m o ve s in th e g a m e kep t ,

sile nce a nd left thi ngs to their o wn c o ur s e .

Gra du a lly the efo re the sl o w c o urse of co ns ti tu ti o nal D b

r e a tes nl

procedu e dev e l o ped i tsel f A ccordi ng to cu s to m the

r .

sen a te h a d to deliber a te o n th e g o er no ships o f th e yea r v r

7 5
0 ,
so fa a s t
rhey wen t t o fo r m er c o n s uls a t th e begi nni ng 4 9 , ,

of 7 0 3 so f r as th e y we nt to fo m er pra e to r s at th e 5 1
,
a r ,
.

begi nning of 7 0 4 th a t e a rlier delibe atio n g a ve th e fi s t 50 r r .

o cc a si o n to di s cus s th e n o m in a ti o n of ne w g o e no r s fo v r r

th e tw o G a uls in th e s en a te a nd thereby th e fi s t o cca si o n

,
r

fo r Open collisio n be twee n th e cons ti tu ti o n al p a ty pushed r

fo rwa rd by P o m pe ius a nd th e se na to i a l supp o te s of r r r

C a e sa r . T h e co n sul M a cu s M a cellus i ntroduced a

r r

pro pos a l to give th e tw o pr o vi n ces hi the to a dm i nistered r

by the proc o ns ul G a iu s C e sa r fr o m th e st M a ch 7 5 49
:

a r r 0 .

to th e tw o c o n s ul a s w h o w e e to be pr o vided wi th g o ver n or
r r

ships for th a t ye ar Th e l o ng repr e s sed i ndig nati o n bur st

.
-

fo th in a torrent thr o ugh th e sluice o nce o pe n ed ; e very

r

thi ng th a t th e C a to ni a n s we e m edi ta ti ng a g i ns t C a es a r
r a

w a s br o ugh t forw a d in thes e discu s si o n s

r For the m it .

wa s a se ttled p o in t th a t the righ t gr a nted by excep ti o nal

,

la w to th e pr o c o ns ul C a e sa r of a nn o u nci ng his c a ndid a ture

fo r th e co ns ul s hip in a bsence h a d bee n ag a i n c a ncelled
by a subseque nt decree of th e pe o ple a nd th a t th e ,

rese va tio n i nse ted in th e l a tter w a s in a lid T he se na te

r r v .

should in their Opi nio n c a u s e this m agi strate now th a t ,

th e subjuga ti o n o f G a ul w a s e n ded to di s ch a rge i m m edi a tely

,

th e s oldiers who h a d serv e d o ut their ti m e T h e c a ses .

in which C a e sa r ha d be s to wed bu ges s righ ts a nd es ta bli s hed

r -

colonies in U pper I taly were de s cribed by the m a s um

con sti tu ti o nal and null ; in fu ther illu s t ati o n of which r r

M a cellu s o rd i ned th a t a respec te d se n to r of the

r a a

C a es a ri a n c o lony of C o m u m w ho eve n if th at pl a ce had

, ,

no t b urgess b u t o nly L a ti n rights w a s e nti tled to lay ,

cl a i m to R o m a n ci tizen s hip
(p sh o uld receive the
.
1 80 D EA T H OF CRA S S US Kv
B OO

punishment of scourging which was a dmissible only in ,

the c a se of non burgesses -

.

Th e supporters of C a es a r a t this ti m e —am ong who m

Ga ius V ibius Pa ns a who w a s th e son of a m an pro scribed
,

by S ulla but ye t ha d en tered on a poli tic a l ca reer form erly ,

a n o fficer in C a es a r s a r m y a nd in this ye a r tribune o f the

’

p e o ple wa
, s the m os t no ta ble — a ffi r me d in th e sen a te th a t

both the s ta te of things in Ga ul a nd equi ty de ma nded no t

only th at C a es a r should not be recalled before th e ti me ,

b ut th a t he should be a llowed to re ta i n th e co m mand al o ng

with the consul ship ; a nd they poi nted beyo n d doubt to
th e fa cts th a t a few ye a rs previously P o mp e iu s h a d j us t in
,

the s a me way c o m bined th e S p a nish governorships with

th e consul a te th a t eve n a t th e presen t tim e besides th e
, ,

im por ta nt o ffi ce of superi ntending th e supply of food to

the c a pi tal he held th e supre m e co m m and in I taly in
,

a ddi tion to th e S p a nish a nd th a t in fa c t the whole m e n

,

ca p a ble of a r m s h a d been sw o rn in by h im a nd h a d no t

ye t been rele a sed fr o m their o a th .

T h e process beg a n to ta ke sh ape but its course wa s no t ,

o n th at a ccoun t m ore r a pid T h e m aj o ri ty o f th e se nate

.
,

seei ng th e bre a ch a pproa ching a llowed no si tti ng ca p a ble ,

of issui ng a decree to ta ke pla ce for m on ths ; a nd other

mo nths in their turn were l o st over the sole m n procr a s tin a
tion of P o m pe ius A t length the latter broke the silence
.

a nd r a nged hi m sel f in a reserved a nd v a cill a ting fa shio n a s

,

usu a l b ut ye t pl a i nly e no ugh on th e side of th e co nstitu

,

tio nal p a rty a g a in s t his for m er a lly H e su m m a rily a nd .

a brup tly rejec ted th e de ma n d of th e C a es a ri a ns th a t their

m as ter should be a llowed to conj o i n th e c o nsulship a nd th e

proconsul s hip this de ma nd he a dded with blun t co arse ,

ness see m ed to him no be tter th a n if a son should o ffer to

,

fl og his father H e a pproved in pri nciple th e pro posal o r

.

M arcellus in so far as he to o decl ared tha t he would no t

,

allow C a es a r d irec tly to a tta ch th e consulship to th e pro

 D EAT H OF C RA S S US B oo K v
the t erm of its p o mulgati o n wa s si m ply p o stpo e d T he
r n .

elec tions for the followi ng ye a r pr o ved thoroughly adverse

to him .

Counter D uri ng these p a rty ma noeuvres of his a ntago n s t s pre i

g
arran e
ments of
pa atory to wa r C aes a r ha d succeede d in ge tti ng rid o f th e
r
,

Caesar .
Gallic insu rec ti o n a nd res toring the sta te of pe ace in the
r

51 .
wh o le subjec t terri to y As e a rly as the su m mer of 7 0 3
r .
,

under the conve nie nt pre text of defe ndi ng the fro ntier (p 1 0 3) .

b ut evide ntly in to ken of the fa ct th at th e legio ns in Ga ul

were now begi nni ng to be no l o ng e r n e eded there h e mo ve c ,
’

o ne of the m to N or th I taly H e c o uld no t a void pe r

.

ce iv ing now a t a n r a te if no t e arlier th a t he wou ld no t b

y , , r

sp ared th e nece s si ty of drawi ng the sword aga i nst h is

fellow ci tizens never th e l e ss as it wa s highl y de s ira ble to
-

le a ve th e legi o ns s til l for a t m e in th e b a r ly p ac ified G a ul

.
e
,

he s o ugh t eve n y e t o procras ti na te and we l a cqua i nted

”
.
, ,
l

wi th the extre me lo vz: of pe a ce in the m aj o rit y of th e sen a te ,

did no t a b a ndo n th e h o pe of s till re str aining them fro m th e

decl arati o n o f w a in spi te of th e pr e s ure exercised over
r
s

the m by P o m p e ius H e did no t e ve n hesi ta te to m ake

.

gre at s acrific e s if only he migh t avo i d for the pre se nt open

,

v a ri a nce w i th th e supre me g ove r ning b oa rd Whe n the .

s e na te in spri g of 0 4 a t the sugge stion of P o m e ius

50 .
( th e n 7 ) p
reques ted b o th h im a nd Cae s to furnis h e ach a legion ar

fo r th e i m pe n di ng Pa r thia n w ar ( p 1 6 7 ) a n d when agree a bly

.

to this e s o lu ti o n P o m p e ius de m a n ded b a ck fr o m C a e s a r

r

th e legio n le nt to him om e ye a rs before so a s to se nd it

s
,

to S y i a C a e sa r co mp li e d wi th th e double de m a nd bec u s e
r , ,
a

n ei ther the o p po rt ui cne s s of this dec ee of th e se na te no r

i r

th e jus tice of th e de m a nd of P o m p e ius c o uld in the m selves

be dispu ted a nd th e keeping wi thi n the bounds of the la w

,

and of fo r m a l loya l ty w as o f m o e c o nseque nce to C a es a r

r

tha n a few th o us a n d s o ldie s T h e tw o legions c a m e wi th o u t

r .

dela y a nd pl a ced the m selves a t th e dispos al o f th e g o vern

me n t b ut ins tea d of sendi ng the m to the Euphra t e s the
, ,
CH A P . Ix R U PT U R E B ET WEE N TH E JOI NT R U LE RS 1 83

la tter kep t the m at C apua in re a di nes s for Po mpe ius and

th e public h a d once m ore th e opp o r tuni ty o f co m p a ring
th e m a nifes t e nde a vours of C a es a r to a oid a rup ture wi th v

the p e fi dio us prep a ra tio n for w ar by his opp o ne nts

r .

F o r th e discus si o n s wi th th e sen a te C a es a r h a d s ucceeded C urio.

in purch a si ng no t o nly o ne of th e tw o co nsuls of th e ye ar ,

L ucius A e m ilius Pa ullus but a bove all th e tribu n e of th e

,

people Ga iu s Curio prob a bly the m os t e m i ne nt a m o ng th e

,

m any p r o fiig a te m e n of p ar ts in this ep o ch ; u nsurp a ssed in

1

refi ned el e ga nce in flue nt and clever o ratory in dexteri ty

, ,

of i ntrigue a nd in th a t e nergy which in th e c a se of vig o r o us

,

b ut vicious ch r a c ters b e s ti s itself o nly th e m ore powerfully

a r

a m id th e p a uses of idle ness ; but a ls o u n surp a s sed in his

diss o lu te life in his ta len t fo r bor owi ng—his debts were
,
r

es ti mated at 6 o o o o ses ter ces

,
oo ,
o —a nd in his
m or a l and poli tic a l wa nt of principle H e ha d previously .

offered hi m self to be bough t by C a e sa r a nd h ad been

rejected ; th e tale nt which he thenceforward displ a yed in
,

his a tta cks on C a es a r i nduced the la tter subsequen tly to

,

buy him up— the price wa s high but th e commodi ty wa s ,

worth th e m o ney .

Curio ha d in th e firs t m o n ths of his tribun ate of th e

pe o ple played the i n depe nde nt republic a n and had a s such ,

thu nde ed bo th aga i ns t C a es a r a nd a ga i n s t P o m p e ius

r He .

a va iled hi m self wi th r a re skill of th e a pp a re ntly i m p a r ti al

posi ti o n which this g ave him when in M a rch 7 0 4 the ,

p op o sal a s to th e filli ng up of th e G allic gover no r ships for

r

th e nex t ye a r c a m e up a fresh for discussion in th e se na te ;

he c o m pletely a ppr o ed the decree but a sked th a t it should

v ,

be at th e s a m e ti me ex te nded to Po mp e ius a nd h is ext a r

ordi nary c o mm a nd s H is a gu m en ts —that a c o ns ti tu ti o na l

. r

s ta te o f t hi ngs c o uld only be brough t a b o u t by th e re m ov a l

o f all excep tion a l posi ti o n s th a t P o m p e iu s a s merely e n

,

trus ted by the sen ate wi th th e proco nsul ship could still les s

H omo ing eniosix ime u ya a n (Vellei . ii

.
 D EA TH OF CRA S S US B OO Kv
tha n C aes a r refuse obedie nce to it th at the one sided
,
-

re moval of one of the tw o genera ls would o nly increa se th e

da nger to the cons ti tu ti o n— c arried c o m ple te co nviction to
s uperfici a l p o li tici a ns a nd to th e public a t l a rge ; a nd th e

decla ration of Curi o tha t he i ntended to preve nt any o ne

,

sided pro ceedings a ga ins t C a esa r by the veto c o ns ti tu tio nally

belo nging to him m e t with m uch a pprov a l in and o ut o f
,

the sen a te C a es ar decla red his conse nt at once to Curio s ’

.

prop o s al and offered to resign his governorship and comm and

a t any m o m en t on the su m m o ns of th e se nate provided ,

P o mpe ius would do th e s a m e ; he m igh t sa fely do so for ,

P o mp e ius wi thou t his I talo S p a nish co mma nd w a s no

-

longer fo r m ida ble P o mp e ius aga in for th a t very e a s o n

. r

could no t a v o id refusing his reply—th at C aes a r m us t firs t

resign a nd th a t he m ea nt speedily to follow th e example
,

t hus set — was th e less s a tisfa c tory th a t he did no t even

,

specify a defini te ter m for his re tire men t Aga i n th e .

decisio n w as del ayed for mon ths P o mpe ius a nd the

C a to ni ans perceivi ng the dubiou s hu m our of the m aj o rity of
,

th e sen a te did no t ve nture to bring Curio s prop o s a l to a

’
,

vote C a es a r e m ployed the su mm er in es ta blishi ng the

.

s tate of pea ce in th e regions which he ha d conquered in ,

holding a grea t review of his tro o ps on the S cheldt and ,

in ma ki ng a triu mpha l m a rch through the province of

N o rth I ta ly which was en tirely devo ted to h im ; a u tumn
,

fo und him in R a venn a th e sou thern fro n tier town of his

,
-

p ovi nce
r .

T he v o te which c o uld no longer be del ayed on Cu rio s

’
C nd
a esa r a
P mp i
o
b th
o
e us
propos a l a t le ng th to o k pl a ce a nd exhibi ted the de fe a t of
,

recall d
e .th e p a r ty of P o mp e ius a nd C a to in a ll its ex ten t By 37 0.

vote s agains t 2 0 th e sen ate resolved that the pro consuls of

S p a i n and G a ul should b o th be c alled up o n to resig n their
offi ces ; and with boundless joy th e g o od burgesses of
R o m e he a rd th e gl a d news of the s a vi ng a chie e m en t of v

Curio Po mp e ius was thus reca lle d by the sen ate no less
.
 D EAT H OF CR A S S US B OO Kv
tion conceived by the m in th e true i ntere st of the g o ern v

m en t wi th a high h a nd irr e spec tive of it jus t a s C a to a nd ,

his f ie n ds now proposed to do ; th e m a chi nery o f th e

r

co nsti tu ti o n w as in fa ct u tte ly e ffe te a nd th e se nate w a s

r ,

no w — a s th e c o m i ti a h a d bee n fo r c e nturies — n othing but

a w o rn o ut wheel slippi ng co ns tantly o u t o f its tr a ck

-
.

I t w a s ru m ou ed ( Oct 7 0 4 ) th at C a e sa r h a d m o ed
r . v

four legions fr o m T ra ns alpine i nto Cis alpine G a ul and

s ta ti o ned th e m a t Pl a ce nti a T his t a nsfe re nce of tr 0 0 ps
. r

w a s of i tself wi thi n th e prer o g a ti e of th e g o vernor v Curi o

m ore o ver p a lpa bly sh o wed in th e s e nate th e u tter g ound r

less ness o f th e ru m o ur ; a nd they by a m aj o i ty rejec ted r

th e pr o p o sa l o f th e c o ns ul G a iu s M rcellus to give P o mpe iusa

o n th e s tre ng th o f it o ders to m a rch a ga i ns t C a e s

r Yet ar .

th e sa id c o nsul in co ncert wi th th e tw o c o nsul s elec ted fo r

,

7 5 0 w h o likewise bel o n ged to th e C a to ni a n p a r ty p o ceeded ,

r

to P o m p e iu s a nd these three m e n by vi tue o f th ei o w n

,
r r

ple ni tude of p o w er reques ted th e ge neral to p ut hi m self at

the he a d of th e tw o legi o ns s ta ti o n ed a t C a pu a a nd to c all ,

th e I ta li a n m ili ti a to a r m s a t his discre tion A m ore in .

fo rma l a u th o riza tion for th e comm e nce m en t of a civil w ar

ca n h a rdly be c o nceived ; b ut p e o ple h a d no l o nger ti me

to a ttend to such seco n d ry m a tte r s a P o mp e ius acc e p ted

it . T h e m ili ta ry prep a ati o n s th e levies b ega n ; in order
r ,

pe so na lly to fo rwa rd them P o m pe ius left the ca pi tal in

r ,

D ece m ber 7 0 4 .

C a esa r ha d com ple tely atta i ned th e o bject of de olving v

th e i ni ti tive of civil w ar o n h is opp o ne nts

a H e h a d while .
,

hi m self keeping o n lega l grou nd c o mpelled P o mp e ius to ,

decl a re w ar a nd to decl a re it no t a s repre se ntati e of th e

,
v

legi ti ma te a uthori ty but as ge ne al o f a n Ope nly rev o lu ti o n

,
r

a y m i no ri ty of th e se na te which o e ra wed th e m aj o ri ty
r v .

T his resul t w a s no t to be reck o ned o f s ligh t i mp o r ta nce ,

a l th o ugh th e i nsti nc t of th e m a sse s c o uld no t a nd did no t

deceive itself for a mo m en t as to th e fa c t th a t the w ar con

.
C H A P. I X R U PT U R E B ET W E EN T H E TO I N T R U L ER S 1 87

ce ned o ther thi ngs th a n ques ti o ns of fo m al la w N o w

r r .
,

when war w as decl a red it w as C es a s i nter e s t to s trike a

,
a r
’

blow as soon as possible Th e prep a a ti o ns o f his oppo

. r

ne nts were jus t begi nni ng a nd e e n th e c a pi ta l w a s no t

,
v

occupied I n te n or twelve da ys a n ar m y th ee ti m es as
. r

s tr o ng as the troo ps of C e sa r that were in U pper I taly

a

c ould be collec ted at R o m e but s till it w a s no t i m possible

to surprise th e city undefe n ded o r e e n pe h a ps by a r apid ,
v r

win ter camp a ign to seize all I taly a nd to shu t off the bes t ,

resources of his o ppone nts before they could ma ke the m

a va il a ble T he s ag a cious a nd energe tic Curio who a fter
.
,

resig ning his tribu nate ( 1 0 D e c 7 0 4 ) ha d imme diatdy .

gone to C ae s a r at R a ve nna vividly represen ted the sta te

,

of things to his ma s ter ; a nd it h a rdly needed such a re pre

se ntatio n to convince C a es a r th a t l o nge del a y now could r

only be injurious B ut a s he wi th th e view of not giving

.
,

his antagonis ts occ a si o n to co mpl a i n h a d hi ther to brough t

no troops to R a ve nna i tself he could for th e presen t do ,

nothing b ut de s p a tch o rders to his whole force to se t o ut

wi th all h a s te ; a nd he ha d to wa it till a t le a s t the one

legion s tationed in U pper I ta ly rea ched R avenn a Mean .

while he sen t an ulti ma tu m to R o m e which if useful for , ,

nothing else by its ex tre m e sub m issiveness s till fa rther

,

co mpro m ised his oppo ne nts in public o pinion a nd perh a ps ,

even a s he see m ed hi m self to hesita te i nduced the m to

, ,

prosecute more re m issly th e ir p e p ara tio ns ag a i ns t h im r .

I n this ul ti ma tu m C a es a dropped a ll th e c o un ter de m a nds

r -

which he for merly ma de on P o mp e ius a nd offered o n his ,

own p art both to resign th e go e r no rship of T ra ns alpi ne v

Ga ul a nd to dis m iss eigh t of th e te n legi o ns bel o nging to

,

him a t th e ter m fixed by th e s e na te ; he decl a ed hi m self

,
r

con tent if th e se nate would lea ve him ei ther the g o ver no r

,

ship of Ci salpi ne Gaul a nd I lly ia W th one or tha t of Cis r i ,

a lpine Ga ul a lo ne wi th tw o legion s no t fors o o th up to his

, , , ,

inves titure wi th th e c o nsulship but till a fter the close of ,

 D EA TH OF CRA S S U S KV
B OO

48 . th e consular elections fo r 7 0 6 H e thus co nsen ted to .

th o se propos als of a cco m mod ation wi th which a t the begin ,

ni ng of the discussions the sen atori al p a rty a nd even

P o m p e ius hi m self ha d decl a red th at they would be s atis
fi e d a nd showed hi m s elf re a dy to re m a in in a priv ate
,

position fro m his electi o n to the consul ate down to his

en tering on office Whe ther C aesar wa s in ea nes t wi th
. r

these a stonishing concessions a nd had confidence th at he

should be a ble to c arry through his g am e aga inst Po mp e ius
even after granting so m uch or whether he reckoned th at
,

those on the other side h ad a lre a dy g o ne to o far to find in

these propos als of co mprom ise m ore tha n a proof th at
Caesar regarded his c a use i tself a s los t ca n no longer be ,

wi th certain ty determ ined The prob a bility is tha t Ca es a r

.
,

commi tted the fa ul t of pl a ying a to o b o ld ga me far rather ,

th a n the w o rse fa ul t of pro m ising s o m e thing which he w a s

no t m in d ed to perfor m ; a nd that if s tr a ngely enough his , _

proposals h ad been accep ted he would h ave m a de good ,

his wor d .

Curio un dertook once m ore to represent his ma s ter in

d e ba te in
the lion s den I n three d a ys he ma de the journey fro m
’
.

R a ven na to R o me When th e new consuls L ucius L en tulus

.

a nd G a ius M a rcellus e younger asse m bled th e sen a te

1
th
for the first ti me on 1 Ja n 7 0 5 he delivered in a full .
,

meeti ng the le tter a ddressed by th e genera l to the sen ate .

Th e tribunes of the people Ma rcus A n tonius well k no wn

,

in the chro nicle of sc andal of the ci ty as th e in ti mate frie nd

of Curio a nd his a ccomplice in all his follies but at the ,

s am e ti m e known from th e Egyp ti a n a nd G allic ca m p a ig ns

as a brillia n t c a v a lry o fficer a nd Qui ntus C a ssius P o m pe ius
’
, ,

former qu aes tor — th e two who were no w in Curio s s te a d

, ,
’

m a nagi ng th e ca use of C a es ar in R o me — insis ted on the

50. 1
To be d istinguish e d fro m th e co nsul h a ving the sa m e na me o f 70 4 ;
49 . th e l
a tter was a co us in, th e co nsul of 70 5 a. bro ther , of th e M ar cus M a r
51 . ce llus wh o was co ns ul in 7 0 3.
 D EA T H OF CRA S S U S BOO K v

T rans lpine G a ul to L ucius D o m i tius Ahe no b arbus and

a ,

Cis alpi ne Ga ul to M a rcus S e rvilius N o nianus and should ,

dismiss his ar my fa ili ng which he sh o uld be es tee med a

,

tr a i tor When th e t ibu nes of Ca es a r s p arty ma de use o f ’

. r

their righ t of ve to a g a i ns t this re so lu ti o n no t o nly were ,

they a s they a t le a s t a s se ted thre a te n ed in th e se na te

,
r ,

house i tself by th e sw o rds o f P o m pei an s o ldiers a nd forced , ,

in order to s a ve their lives to fl e e in sl a ves clothing fro m

,
’

th e c a pi ta l ; but th e now s ufiicie ntly overa wed s e n te a

tre a ted their fo r m ally qui te c o nsti tu tio nal in terference a s

a n atte mp t a t revolu ti o n decl a ed th e c o u ntry in d a nger
,
r
,

a nd in th e u s u al fo r m s c a lled th e whole burgesses to take

up arm s and all ma gi stra tes fa ithful to the co ns ti tu ti o n to

,

pl a ce the m selves a t th e hea d of the a rm ed ( 7 Ja n 7 0 .

N o w it wa s enough When C a es ar w as info rm ed by the

.

t ibunes who h a d fled to his ca m p e ntre a ting pr o tec tio n as

r

to th e recep ti o n which his p o p o s a ls h a d m e t wi th in th e

r

c api tal he c alled toge ther the s o ldi e rs o f th e thirteen th

,

legion which h ad mea nwhile a rrived fro m its can to n me nts

,

ne ar T erges te (T ieste) a t R a ve nna a nd unfolded be fore

r ,

the m th e s ta te of thi ngs I t w a s no t m erely the m a n of

.

ge nius versed in the k no wledge a nd skilled in the c o ntrol

of men s he a r ts who se b illi a nt eloque nce sho ne fo th a nd
’
,
r r

glowed in this agita ti ng crisis of his o w n and the w o rld s ’

des ti ny ; nor m erely th e ge nerous c o mma nder in chief - -

a nd th e victori o us genera l a dd essing s o ldier s

, who had r ,

been c a lled by hi m self to ar m s and fo eigh t ye s had r ar

followed his ba nners wi th d a ily i ncre a si ng en thusi a s m -

.

T here spoke a b o ve a ll th e e nerge tic a nd c o n si sten t s ta tes

, ,

m an who h a d no w fo r ni ne a n d twe nty ye a r s defen ded

,
- -

th e c a use of f eed o m in go o d a nd evil ti m es ; w h o h a d

r

bra ved fo r it th e d agge s of a s s a s s i ns a nd the execu tio ners

r

of the a ris to cra cy th e swo rds o f th e Ge ma ns a nd the

,
r

waves of th e u nk no wn o ce a n wi th o u t ever yieldi ng or ,

wavering who h a d torn to pieces the S ull a n c o ns ti tuti o n ,

CHA P . 1x R U PT U R E B ET WE EN TH E J O I N T R U LER S 1 91

had over thr o w n th e rule of th e sen ate and h ad fur ni shed ,

t h e defe nceles s a nd u na rm ed de m o c a cy wi th pr o tec ti o n r

a nd wi th a r m s by m e a n s o f th e s tru g gle beyond th e A lps

A nd he sp o ke n o t to th e Clo dia n public w h o e republic a n

,
s

e nthusi a s m h a d bee n l o ng burn t d o w n to a shes a nd d o ss r ,

b ut to th e y o u ng m e n f o m the t ow ns a nd vil la g e s o f
r

N o rther n I ta ly w h o s till fel t f eshly a nd purely th e m igh ty

,
r

influence o f th e th o ugh t of civic freed o m ; who we e s till r

c a p a ble o f figh ti ng a nd of dyi ng for ide a ls who h ad the m

sel e s recei ed for their c o un try in a revolu tiona ry w ay
v v

from C a es a r the bu gess righ ts which th e gover nm en t

r -

refused to them ; wh o m C a es ar s fall w o uld le ave once ’

mo e at th e mercy of the f a res a nd wh o a lre a dy pos

r ,

se ss ed pra c tic al pro o fs (p 1 7 9 f ) o f th e i nexo ra ble use which

.

th e olig a chy pr o p o sed to m ke o f these a ga i ns t th e T r a ns

r a

p a d a ne s S uch
. were th e lis tener s befo re wh o m such a n
o ator s e t fo rth th e fa c ts — th e th a nk s fo r th e co nques t o f
r

Ga ul which th e nobility were p ep a ri ng for th e ge neral a nd r

his ar m y th e c o nte m p tu o us s e tti ng a side of th e co m i ti a ;

th e over a wi ng o f th e sen a te th e s a c ed du ty o f pro tec ti ng r

wi th a r m ed h a nd th e t ibu na te o f th e pe o ple wres ted five

r

hu ndred ye a rs ag o by their fathers a rm s in h a nd fro m

th e no bili ty a nd o f keepi ng th e a ncie nt o a t h which t hese
,

h a d ta ke n fo r the m selve s a s for their child en s child en

’
r r

th at they would m a n by m a n s ta nd fi rm even to de a th

for the tribu nes o f the pe o p le (i A nd the n when.

,

h e — th e le a der a nd g e ner a l of th e popul a r p ar ty — sum

m o ne d the s o ldiers o f th e pe o ple no w th a t co ncili a tory ,

m e ans h a d been e x h a u sted a nd c o nces sion h a d re a ched

its u tm o st li m i ts to foll o w h im in th e l a s t th e i nevi ta ble
, , ,

th e decisive s trug g le a g i ns t th e equ ally h ated a nd de s pi s ed

a
,

equ ally p e fidio us a nd i nc a p b le a nd in fa ct ludicr o u sly

r a ,

inc o rrigible a is to cr a cy there w as no t an o fficer or a

r

soldier who could h o ld b a ck T he orde w a s give n fo r . r

departure a t th e he a d o f his vangu a rd C a es a r cro s s ed

1 93 D EATH OF CRA S S U S s oox v

the n arrow brook which sep arated his provin ce fro m I taly ,

and which th e cons titu tion forb a de th e proconsul of G a ul

to p ass When a fter nine years absence he trod once

’
.

more the soil of his n ative l a nd he trod at th e s am e ti me

,

the path of re volution. T h e die was cas t

.
 BR UN D I S I U M , I LER D A, B OO Kv
c ums ta nce h th a t o ne was precisely the foremos t o f
t at

them a ll serves si m ply to confir m this vie w of th e rel a tion

,

of Ca es ar to his a dhere nts .

La bie nus
. T i tus La bie nus h ad sh a red wi th C a es a r all th e troubles
o f th e d a rk ti m es of C a tili na iv 4 5 7 as w e ll a s a ll th e lu s tre
( ) .

o f th e G a llic c a r e er o f vic tory h a d e gul a ly held i nde

,
r r

pe nde nt co m ma nd a nd f eque ntly led h lf th e a rmy as he

,
r a

w as th e oldes t a ble s t a nd m o s t fa i thful of C a e sa r s a dju

’
, ,

ta n ts he was beyo n d ques tion a lso highes t in p o si tio n a nd

,

highes t in h o nour A s la te a s in 7 4 C a e sa r ha d e nt us ted

. 0 r

to h im th e supre m e co mm a n d in Ci s alpine G a ul in order ,

p artly to put this confide nti al pos t i nto s afe h ands p ar tly to ,

fo rwa rd the views of L a bie nus in his canv a s s fo r th e c o nsul

ship B ut fr o m this very posi tion La b ie nus en tered in to
.

c o m m unic a tion wi th the opposi te p a rty re s orted a t the ,

begi nni ng of h o s tili ties in 7 0 5 to th e he a dqu a rters of

P o m p e ius ins te a d of th o se of C a es a a nd fo ugh t th ough r, r

th e wh o le civil s trife wi th unp a ra lleled bi tter ness a ga i ns t

his o ld frie nd a nd ma s ter in war We are no t sufii .

c ie ntl
y i n for m ed ei ther a s t o th e ch a a c ter of L a b ie nus r

o r as to th e speci a l circu m s ta nces o f his ch a ngi ng sides ;

b ut in th e m a i n h is c a se certa i nly pre s en ts no thi ng but

a fur ther proof o f th e fa c t th a t a m ili ta ry chief ca n
,

recko n far m o re surely o n his ca p ta i ns th an o n his

m a sh als
r . T o all a ppe a ra nce La b ie nus was o ne o f th o se
pers o ns who co mbi ne wi th m ili ta ry e ffi cie ncy u tter in
c a p a ci ty as s tate sm e n and who in c o nsequence if they
, ,

u nh appily ch o o se o r a re c o m pelled to take pa r t in poli tics ,

a re exp o s ed to th o se s tr a nge p a r o xy s m s o f giddi nes s of ,

which th e hi s to ry o f N a p o leo n s m a s h a l s supplies so ’

r

ma ny tra gi co m ic exa m ples

-
H e m a y p o b a bly h a ve held
. r

hi m self e nti tled to ra nk al o ng side o f C ae sa as the sec o nd r

chief of th e de m o cr a cy a nd th e rejecti o n o f this cla i m

of his m ay h a ve se nt h im o ver to th e c a m p o f his
opp o nents H is c a se rendered fo r the firs t ti me a pparen t
.
CH A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D TH A PS US
the whole gra vi ty of the evil that Ca es ar s tre atm en t
,
’

his o fficers a s a djuta n ts wi th o u t i ndepende nce a d m i tted

of the rise of no me n fi tted to underta ke a sep a ra te com
ma nd in his c m p while a t th e s a m e ti m e he s too d
a ,

urgently in need of such m e n a m id s t the di ffusion

which m igh t e as ily be fo resee n—o f th e i m pe ndi ng s t uggle r

through all th e provinces of th e wide e m pire B ut this .

disa dva n ta ge was fa r o u tweighed by th a t uni ty in the

supre me le a ders hip which w as the primary co ndi tion of
,

a ll success a nd a condi tion only to be preserved at such

,

a co st.

T his uni ty of le a dership a cquired its full power through

th e e ffi ciency of its i ns tru m e nts H ere th e a r m y co m es
.
,

first of all in to view I t s till nu m bered ni ne legions of

,
.

i nfa ntry or at th e m os t m e n all of wh o m however ,

h a d fa ced the e ne m y and tw o thirds ha d served in a ll the

-

ca mp a igns ag a i ns t the Cel ts The ca v a lry consis ted of

.

Ger ma n a nd N oric m erce naries whose useful ness and trus t ,

worthiness had bee n pr o ved in th e wa r a ga ins t Verci nge to rix .

T he eigh t ye a rs w a rfa re full of va ried vicissi tudes a g a inst

’
, ,

th e Cel tic n a tio n— which was br a ve a l th o ugh in a mili ta ry ,

poin t of view decidedly inferior to the I tali a n—had given

C a es ar th e opp o r tu ni ty of org a nizing his army as he al o ne
k n ew how to orga nize it Th e wh o le e fficie ncy of the
.

soldier presupp o ses physica l vig o ur ; in C a e sa r s levies mo re ’

r eg a rd w a s h a d to th e s tre ng th a nd a c tivi ty of th e recrui ts

th a n to their m e a ns or their m o ra ls B ut th e service a ble .

ness of a n a rm y like th a t of a ny o ther ma chi ne depe nds

, ,

a bove all on th e e a se a nd quick ness o f its m ove m en ts th e

soldiers of C a es ar a tta i ned a perfec ti o n rarely re a ched a n ! “

prob ably never surp a s sed in their re a di ness for i m m edi ate
dep ar ture a t a ny ti m e and in the ra pidi ty of their m a rching
, .

Courage o f course w as valued a bove every thi ng ; C a es ar

, ,

pra cti sed wi th u nrivalled m s tery th e a rt of s ti m ul a ti ng

a

ma rtial emul ation and the esp r it d e co p s so that the p re ’

r ,
1 96 BR U ND I S I U M , I LER D A, B oo n v
eminence
’

ccorded to p articul ar soldiers a nd divisions

a

a ppe a red even to t hose who were pos tponed a s the necess a r
‘

y
hiera rchy of val our H e weaned his men fro m fear by not
.

unfrequen tly — where it c o uld be done wi thou t serious

da nger—keeping his s oldiers in ignora nce of a n approachi ng
conflict a nd all o wing the m to encoun ter the ene my unex
,

p e cte d ly B ut obedienc
. e w a s on a p a ri ty wi th v a lour .

T he soldier was required to do wh at he was hidde n wi thou t ,

a sking the re a son or the obj ec t ; m a ny a n a imless fa tigue

wa s i mposed on h im solely a s a tra ining in the di fficul t a t r

of blind obedience Th e discipline wa s s trict but no t

.

h arassing ; it was exercised wi th unrelen ting vigour when

the soldier w a s in presence of th e e ne m y ; a t o ther ti mes ,

especi ally after vic tory the reins were rela xed a nd if an
, ,

otherwise e ffi cien t soldier was then ple ased to indulge in

perfu mery or to deck hi mself wi th elega n t a rms and the
like or even if he allowed hi m self to be guil ty of ou t a ges
,
r

or irregul a ri ties of a very ques tiona ble kind p ovided o nly ,

r

his mili ta ry du ties were not i mm edi a tely a ffected the foolery ,

a nd the cri m e were a llowe d to p a ss a nd th e gener a l len t a ,

dea f e ar to th e com pl ain ts of the provi nci als o n such poi nts .

Mutiny on the o ther h a nd w a s never p ardoned ei ther in ,

the i ns tiga tors o r even in th e guil ty co ps i tself

,
r .

But the true s o ldier ough t to be no t m erely ca p a ble ,

bra ve a nd obedien t he ough t to be all this willingly a nd

, ,

spon taneously ; a nd it is the privilege o f gi fted na tures

a lone to i nduce th e a ni m a ted m a chine which t hey govern

to a j oyful s e rvice by m e a ns o f ex a mple a nd o f h e pe a nd ,

especi ally by th e con sciou s ne s s o f bei ng turned to befi tti ng

use A s the officer who w o uld de mand v alour from his
.
,

tr 0 0 p s m u s t hi m self h ave lo o ked d a nger in th e fa ce wi th

,

the m C a es a r h a d even whe n ge n er a l fo u nd o pp o r tunity of

,

dra wi ng his sw o rd a nd ha d then used it like th e be s t ; in

a c tivi ty m o eove ,
a nd fa tigue he w a s c o ns ta n tly fa r m ore
r r,

exa cting fro m hi m self th an f o m his s o ldiers C a es a r took

r .
1 98 BR U ND I S I U M , I L ER DA , B OO Kv
endure the tru th a nd who had to put fa ith in the prom ises
,

a nd th e a ssur a nces of their gene al wi th o ut thi nki ng o f r ,

decep tion or lis te ni ng to ru mo u s ; as c o m a des through r r

long yea rs in wa fare a nd vic to ry a mo ng wh o m there was

r ,

h a dly any o ne th at wa s no t k no w n to him by n ame a nd

r

th at in th e course of so m a ny c a m p a ig ns h a d not form ed

m o re or less of a pers o na l rel a tio n to th e ge nera l a s good
c o m p a nions wi th whom he talked a nd de al t co nfiden tially
,

and wi th the cheerful el a s tici ty peculi a r to h im a s clien ts ,

to requi te whose s ervices and to a venge whose wr o ngs ,

and de ath con sti tu ted in his view a s a cred du ty

, P erh a ps .

there never w a s a n a r my which w a s so perfec tly wh a t a n

a r m y o ugh t to b e — a m a chi n e a ble for its ends a nd willi ng

for its e nds in th e h an d o f a m a s ter who tra nsfers to it

, ,

h is own el a s tici ty Ca es a r s soldiers were a nd fel t the m

’
.
,

selves a m atch for a te n fold superior fo ce ; in connectio n

,
r

wi th which it should no t be overl o o ked th at un der the ,

R o m a n ta ctics — c a lcul ated a l toget he for hand to h and r - -

confl ic t a nd especi a lly for co mbat wi th the sword — the

prac tised R o m an s o ldier wa s sup e rior to th e novice in a
far higher degree th a n is now th e c a se u nder th e circu m
s ta nces o f m odern ti m es 1 B ut s till m o re th an by th e
.

supe iori ty o f v al o ur th e a dvers a ries o f C a es a r fel t the m

r

selve s hu mbled by th e unch a nge a ble and touching fideli ty

wi th which his soldiers clu ng to their genera l I t is .

perh aps wi thout a pa a llel in his tory that whe n the genera l
r ,

su mmo ned his soldiers to follow him in to th e civil w a r ,

1 l k
A ce ntur io n o f Cae sar s te nth e gio n , ta e n p ris o ner , d e c are d to th e
'
l
co mm an d e r in ch ie f o f th e e ne my th a t h e w as re a dy With te n o f h is m e n
- -

k
t o m a e h ea d a ga ins t t h e b e st co h o r t o f th e e ne m y ( 5 0 0 m e n ; B e l l .

Af r ic. I n th e a ncre nt m o de o f fi gh ting , t o quo te th e o p inio n o f

l
N a po e o n L . l
a b a tt e co ns is te d s im p y o f d ue s l l
w ha t w as o n y co rr e ct l
l
in th e mo ut h o r th a t ce ntur io n w o u d b e m e r e b o as ting in th e m o u th o f
,

th e m o der n s o ldie r l l
V ivi d p ro o fs o f th e s o die r y s p irit th a t p e r va de d
”

—
.

C a e sa r s a r my a re fur nis h e d b y th e R e p o r ts a p p e nde d to his M e m o irs

’

re s p e cting th e A fr ica n a nd th e s e co nd S p a nish w ars o f w h ich th e fo r m er ,

a pp ea r s to h a ve h a d as its a uth o r a n o ffi ce r o f th e s e co nd r a n , whi e th e k l

l
la tte r is in e ver y r e sp e ct a s ub a te rn ca mp j o urnal. -
C H A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A P S US
wi th single excep tion a lre a dy m e ntioned o f L abie nus
th e ,

no R o m a n o ffi cer a nd no R o m a n s o ldier dese ted h im r .

T h e hopes o f his oppo nen ts a s to a n exte n sive de s er ti o n

were thw a r ted as ig no m i ni o u sly a s the fo mer a tte mp ts to r

bre ak up his a r m y like th a t of L ucullu s (p L a b ie nus .

hi m self a ppe ared in th e ca m p of P o m pe ius wi th a b a nd

d oubtless o f Cel tic and Ger m a n h o rse m e n b ut wi th o u t a
single legio na ry I ndeed th e soldiers as if they would
.
,

s how th a t th e w a r w as qui te a s m uch their m a tter a s th at

of their general s e ttled a m ong the m selves th at they would

,

give credi t for th e p ay w hich C a es a r h a d pro m ised to

,

double for the m a t th e ou tbre a k o f th e civil war to their ,

c o mma nder up to its term i nation a nd would m e a nwhile ,

s uppor t their poo er co m a des f o m th e ge ner a l m e a ns ;

r r r

be s ides every sub a l tern o fficer equipped a nd p aid a tro oper

,

o ut of his own purse .

While C a es ar thus ha d the one thi ng which wa s need Fi l d e of

'

ful— unli mi ted p o li tica l and m ili ta ry a u tho i ty a nd a tru st p wC

r
a e sar s

o e r.

w o r thy a rm y re a dy for the fig ht — his power extended ,

c o mp a ra tively spea ki ng over o nly a ve ry li m i ted sp a ce

, .

I t wa s b a sed esse nti a lly on th e p o ince o f U pper I taly r v .

T his regio n w a s no t m e ely the m os t popul o us of a ll th e U p p

r er

I t ly
dis tricts of I tal y but a l so devo ted to the c a use of the
,
a .

de mo cra cy a s its own T he feeling which preva iled the e

. r

is shown by the co nduct of a divisi o n of recrui ts from

Op ite g ium ( Oderzo in th e delega tio n o f T revis o ) which
r ,

no t l o ng a fter th e o u tbre a k of th e w a r in th e I llyri a n

w aters surrounded o n a wre tched r a ft by the war vessels of

,
-

th e ene m y a ll o wed the m selves to be sh o t a t duri ng th e

,

whole day d o w n to su nse t wi th o u t surre nderi ng a nd s uch , ,

of the m a s h a d e sc a ped the m is s ile s p ut the m selves to ,

de a th wi th their o w n h a nd s du i ng th e foll o wi ng night

r .

I t is e a sy to c o nceive wh a t m igh t be expec ted of such a

popul a tion A s they ha d a lre ady g a nted to Ca e sa r the
. r

me ans of more than doubling his origin al ar my so a fter ,

 BR UND I S I UM , I LER DA, BOOK v

the ou tbre ak of the civil wa r recruits presen te d themselves

in great nu mbers for the am ple levies th at were i mme di ately
ins ti tu ted
.

I n I taly proper on the o ther h and th e in fl uen ce of

, ,

C a es ar wa s no t eve n re m otely to be comp ared to th at of

his opponen ts Al though he ha d the skill by d exterou s
.

ma n oeuvres to put th e C a toni an p ar ty in the wr ong and ,

ha d suflicie ntly co mmended th e rec ti tude of his c a use to

a ll who wished for a pre tex t with a good conscience ei ther

to rem a in neu tr al like th e m ajori ty of th e sen at e or to

, ,

e mbrace his side like his soldiers and the T ranspa dane s
, ,

th e m a ss of th e burgesses n a tu ally di d no t a llow themselves

r

to be misle d by these things and whe n th e com ma nda n t ,

of Ga ul put his legions in motion a gainst R ome they

beheld — despi te all for ma l expl a n a tions as to law —in
,

C a to and P o m pe ius th e defenders of the legiti mate republic ,

in C a es ar the de m ocra tic usurper People in ge neral .

moreover expec ted fr o m th e nephe w of M a ius the son in r ,

-

la w of Cinn a th e a lly of C a tili na a repe ti tion of the

, ,

Mari an a nd Cinnan horr o rs a re aliza tion of the s aturnali a

,

o f a n archy projec ted by C a tilin a and though Ca es ar

certainly gained a llies through this expectation — so th at
th e poli tical re fugees i mm edi a tely p ut the m selves in a body

at his d ispos al the ruined men s a

,
w in h im their deliverer ,

a nd the lowes t r anks of th e r abble in the ca pi ta l a nd

coun try towns were thrown into a ferm en t o n the news of

his a dva nce —these belonge d to the cl ass of friends who
,

a r e m ore d a ngerous th a n foes .

Pro vinces
. I n th e provinces a nd th e dependent st ates C a es ar ha d
even less in fl uence tha n in I taly T rans alpine G aul in deed
.

as far a s th e R hine a nd th e Ch a nnel o beyed him a nd the ,

c o lonis ts of N arbo as well as the R oma n burgesses el s e

where se ttled in G aul were devoted to him ; but in the
N a rbonese pro i nce i tself the consti tu ti o nal p a r ty h a d
v

nu merous a dhere nts and now even the newly con q uere d
,
-
 BR UNDI S I UM , I L ER D A , B oo x v

te ndence T he recollec tion of the twe nty ye ars w a r

.
’

w ged on both side s wi th envenom ed wea po ns be twee n

a

Po mp e ius a nd th e c o nsti tu ti o n a l p a ty ; th e feeling which r

vividly pre a ile d o n b o th side s a nd which they wi th

v ,

di fficul ty co nce led th a t th e first conseque nce of th e

a ,

victo y whe n a chieved would be a rup ture be twee n th e

r

vict or s ; th e co nte mp t which th e y e nte tai ned fo r e a ch r

o the a nd wi th only to o g o od gro u nds in eithe c a se ; th e

r r

i ncon e nie nt nu m ber o f respec ta ble and i nflue nti al m e n

v

in th e a nk s of th e a ris toc a cy a nd th e i ntellec tu a l nd

r r a

m o r al i nferio i ty of a l m os t ll who took p a rt in th e m a tter

r a

— a l to ge ther produced a m o ng th e o pp o ne nts of C a e s a r a

reluc ta nt a nd refra c to ry co oper ation which fo rm ed th e -

s a ddes t con t a st to th e h ar m o ni o us and c o mpa c t a c ti o n o n

r

th e o ther side .

Fi l d
e of While a ll th e di sa d a n ta ges i nciden t to the co ali tion o f
v

p o wers natu ally h o s tile we e thu s fel t in a n unu s u al

r r

m e a su e by C a e sa s a n tagonis ts this co a li ti o n w a s cer tai nly

’
r r ,

s till a ery consider able power I t ha d exclusive c o mma nd

v .

of the s e a ; all po ts all ships of w ar all th e ma teri als fo

r , , r

equippi ng a flee t were at its di s p o s a l Th e tw o S pa i ns .

as it were th e h o m e o f th e p o wer o f P o m p e i us j u s t as th e

two G a uls were th e h o m e of th a t o f C a e s a —w e r e fa i thful r

a dheren ts t o thei m a ster a nd in th e h a nds o f a ble a nd

r

t u s tw o r thy a d m i n i s t a to r s I n th e o th e r p ro v inc e s a lso

‘

r r .
,

of cou se wi th th e excep tio n o f th e two Gauls th e p o s ts of

r ,

th e gove no r s a nd co m ma nders ha d duri ng rece nt ye a rs

r

be e n filled up wi th s a fe m e n under the i nflue nce o f

P o mp e ius a nd th e m i nori ty of th e sen ate T he clie nt .

s tates throughou t and wi th gre a t decisio n to o k p a rt a ga i nst

C a es a r a nd in favour of Po mpe ius T he m o s t im p o ta nt . r

pri nces and ci ties had bee n b ough t i nto the cl o s e st r

pe sonal rel ati o ns wi th P o m pe ius in virtue o f th e di ffere nt

r

secti o ns o f h is ma nifo ld a ctivi ty I n th e wa r a ga i ns t th e .

M a ri a n s fo r i ns ta nce he h ad been the co mp a nion in arms

, ,
cna r . x PHA R S AL US , AND TH A PS US
of the kings of N u m idi a a nd M a ure tani a an d had re
es ta blished the ki ngdom o f the for m er ( iv in the .

Mi thr a da tic war in a ddi tion to a nu m ber of other m inor

,

princip ali ties spiritu al a nd te mpora l he ha d re es ta blished

,
-

the kingdo m s of B osp o rus A rm eni a a nd C a pp a d o ci a a nd

, , ,

crea ted th at of D e iotarus in G al a ti a (iv 4 31 4 3 it .

,

was pri m a rily a t his ins tig a tion th a t the Egyp ti a n w a r w a s

under taken and it wa s by his a dju ta n t th a t th e rule of the
,

Lag ids h a d been confirm ed a fresh ( iv E ve n th e ci ty

.

of M a ssilia in C a es a r s own provi nce while i ndeb ted to

’

th e l a tter doub tless for va rious fa vours w a s indeb ted to ,

P o mp e ius at th e time of th e S erto rian war for a very con

s ide ra ble ex tension of terri tory ( p a nd besides
. th e , ,

ruling oliga rchy there s tood in n a tura l a lli a nce — stre ng thened
by various mu tu a l rel ations — with the oligarchy in R o me .

B ut these person a l a nd rel a tive consid e ra ti o ns a s well a s

t h e glory of th e victo r in three con ti ne nts which in these ,

m ore remo te p ar ts of th e e mpire fa r ou tshone th a t of the

conquer o r of Ga ul did perh a ps less h a r m to C aesa r in
,

those qu a r ters t h a n th e views a nd designs— which ha d no t

rema ined there unknown— o f the heir o f Ga ius Gr a cchus

a s to th e necessi ty of uni ting th e depe nden t s ta tes and

the usefulness of provinci a l colonizatio ns N o one o f .

th e dependen t dyn a s ts found himse lf m ore i mminently

t hre a tened by t his peril tha n J ub a ki ng of N u m idi a No t J b f . u a o

N m idia
only ha d b e years before in the life ti m e of his fathe
, r
u .

H ie mpsal fa llen into a veheme nt per s o n a l qu arrel wi th

,

Ca es ar but recen tly the s ame Curio w ho now occupied

, ,

a l m os t the firs t pl a ce a m ong C a es a r s a dju ta n ts ha d pro

’
,

posed to the R o man burgesses the a nnex ati o n o f the

N u m idi a n ki ngdo m . La s tly if m atters should go so far
,

a s to le ad th e i ndependen t neighb o uri ng s ta tes to i nte fere r

in the R o ma n civil war the only s ta te re ally p o werful

, ,

th at o f th e Pa thi an s wa s pr a c tica lly alre a dy a llied wi th

r ,

the a ristocratic p arty by the connection entered into

2 04 BR UND I S I U M , I LER DA , B OO Kv
be tween Pa co rus ibulus ( p
a nd while C a es ar was
B .

far to o m uch a R o ma n to le ague hi m self for p ar ty in teres ts -

wi th the c o nquer o s of his f iend Cra ssus

r r .

A s to I ta ly the gre a t majori ty o f the burgess e s were as

has been a lre a dy m en ti o ned a verse to C a es a r — more
,

e speci ally of course the whole aris tocra cy wi th their very

, ,

c o nsider a ble fo llo wi ng b ut a lso in a no t much les s degree

,

the gre at c a pi ta lis ts who c o uld no t hope in the even t of

,

a th o rough refor m of the co m m onwe a lth to prese ve their r

pa rti sa n jury courts a nd their m o nopoly of ex torti o n Of

-
.

equ a lly anti de m ocratic se nti m e nts were the s mall ca pi talis ts
-

th e la ndh o lders a nd gener a lly a ll cl a sses th a t h a d a ny thi ng

to lose ; b ut in these a nks of life the ca res of th e nex t

r

re nt term a nd of sowi ng and re aping o u tweighed as a rule

-

, ,

eve y o ther co nside a tion

r r .

T h e a r m y at th e dispos al of P o mpe ius consis ted chie fl y

o f th e S p a ni s h tr 0 0 ps seven legio ns inured to w a r a nd in
,

e ery respect trus two thy ; to wh ich fell to be a dded the

v r

divi sions of troops— we a k indeed a nd very m uch s c attered ,

— which were to be fou nd in S yri a A si a Ma cedonia , , ,

A f ica S icily a nd elsewhere

r , , I n I ta ly there were under.

a r m s a t the ou tse t only th e tw o legions ecen tly given o ff r

by C a es ar whose e ffec tive s trength did no t am ount to

,

m o re tha n 7 0 0 0 m e n a nd whose trus tworthiness was

,

m ore th a n doub tful beca use — levied in Cis alpine G a ul

‘

a nd o ld c o mr a des in a r m s of C a es a r—they were in a high

degree displea sed at th e unbeco m ing i ntrigue by which

they ha d bee n ma de to ch a nge c a m ps ( p a nd rec a lled .

wi th longing their genera l who h ad m ag na ni m ously p a id to

the m beforeha nd a t their depa rt ure the presen ts w hich we e r

pro mised to every soldier for the tri umph But a par t fro m .
,

th e circu m s ta nce th a t th e S pa nish troops m igh t a rrive in

I ta ly wi th the spri ng ei ther by th e l a nd rou te through G a ul

o r by s ea the m e n of th e three le g ions s till re m a ining fro m
,

the l evi es of 6 99 (p a s well as th e I tali a n levy sworn

.
 BR U N DI S I U M , I L E R D A, B OO Kv
ca v alry —a t R a ven na which wa s by th e highwa y so m e
30 0 ,

2 4 0 m iles dis ta nt fro m R o m e ; P o m p e ius h a d tw o we a k

legions—7 0 0 0 infan try a nd a s mall squ adron of ca valry

under th e orders of A ppius Cl a udius a t L uce ria fro m which , ,

likewise by the highwa y the dista nce was jus t abou t a s

,

great to th e c api tal The o ther troops of C a es ar leaving

.
,

o ut of a ccoun t the ra w divisi o ns of recrui ts s till in course

o f for ma tion were s ta tioned o ne h a lf on the S a one and

, ,

Loire the other h a lf in B elgic a while P o mp e ius I tali a n

’
, ,

reserves were a lre a dy ar riving from all sides at their

rendezvous ; long befo e even the firs t of the T ra ns alpi ne
r

divisions of C aes ar c o uld a rrive in I taly a far superior ,

a r m y could no t but be re a dy to receive it there It .

see m ed folly wi th a b a nd of the s trength of th at of

,

C atilin a a nd for th e m ome nt wi thou t a ny e ffective reserv e ,

to a ssu me th e aggressive a g ai ns t a superior and hourly

incre a si ng arm y under a n a ble genera l ; b ut it w as a folly
in the spirit of H a nnib al I f th e beginni ng of the s truggle
.

were pos tponed till spri ng th e S p anish troops of Po mp e ius

,

would a ssu m e the o ffensive in T rans alpi ne a nd his I tali a n ,

tro o ps in Cis alpine Ga ul a nd Po mp e ius a ma tch for

, , ,

C a esa r in ta ctics a nd superior to him in expe ie nce was r ,

a for m id a ble a nta go nis t in such a c a m p a ign run ni ng its

regul ar course N o w perh a ps a ccus to med a s he was to

.
,

operate slowly and surely wi th superior m a sses he m igh t ,

be disconcerted by a wholly i mprovised a tta ck ; and tha t

which could not gre a tly disco mp o se C a es a r s thir teen th ’

legi o n a fter th e severe tri a l of th e G allic surprise a nd th e

J a nu ary ca mp aig n in the l a nd of the B e ll o va ci (p 9 .

th e sudden ness o f the wa r a nd th e to il o f a win ter ca m

ai n
p g
-
could no t b ut dis o rg an ize th e P o m p e i a n corps

co nsis ting of o ld s o ldiers o f C a esa r or of ill trai ned recrui ts -

a nd s till only in th e c o urse of fo m ati o n r .

A cc o rdingly C es
a a a dva ced i o ly T wo highwa ys
n rn t I ta
l
.

Th d e f th
ecr ee o n t we sep da e th 7 th J
as
y ; th
as se 8 th on e a nuar on e 1
C R A P. x P HA R S A L U S , AN D THA PS US

led at h t ti me fro m the R o m agn a to th e south ; th e

t a

A e m ilio— C a s si an which led fro m B ono nia over the Apennines

to A rre tiu m a nd R ome a nd the Po p illio Fl a m ini a n which,
-

led fro m R ave nn a a long the coa st of the A dri atic to F a num
a nd wa s there divided one bra nch running w es twa r d through
,

the F urlo p a ss to R o m e a no ther sou thw a rd to A ncon a a nd ,

thence onwa rd to Apuli a On th e for m er M a rcus A ntonius .

a dva nced a s far as A r e tiu m on th e second C a es ar hi mself

r ,

pushed forw ard R esis ta nce w a s nowhere encoun tere d ; the

.

recrui ting offi cers of qu ality ha d no m ili ta ry skill their hands ,

of recruits were no soldiers th e inh a bi tants of the cou ntry ,

towns were o nly a nxious no t to be involve d in a siege .

When Curio wi th 1 5 0 m e n a ppro ached I g uvium where a

0 ,

couple of th o us a nd U m bri n recruits ha d a sse m bled under a

the pra e to r Quin tus M inucius T her mus general and soldiers ,

took to fl ight at the b a re tidings of his approa ch ; a nd

s i m il a r results on a s m all sc a le everywhere ensued .

Ca es ar ha d to choose whether he would m arch a ga inst R m o e

“ mu m"
R ome fro m which his c ava lry at A rre tiu m were alre a dy only
,

a bout 1 30 m iles dis ta nt or a ga ins t th e legions enca m ped at

,

Luce ria H e ch o se th e l atter pl a n

. T h e c o ns ter nation o f .

th e opposi te p ar ty was bou n dless P o mp e ius received th e .

news of C a es ar s a dva nce a t R o m e he seemed at firs t dis

’

posed to defe nd the c a pi ta l but when the tidings a rived , ,

r

of Ca es ar s en trance i nto the P iceni an terri tory a nd of his

’

firs t successes there he ab a ndoned R o m e and ordered its

,

evacu ation A p a nic aug m en ted by the fa lse report th at

.
,

C aes ar s c avalry ha d a ppe a red before the ga tes cam e over

’
,

the w o rld of qu ali ty Th e sen a tors who had been informed

.
,

tha t every one who should re ma in behind in th e c api ta l

would be treated a s an a ccomplice of the rebel Ca esar ,

l
it h ad b ee n a lrea dy for se vera d ays kno wn in R o m e th a t Ca e s ar h a d cro ss e d
th e b o und a ry ( Cic a d A f t vii 1 0 ; ix 1 0
. . th e m es se nge r ne e d e d a t th e
. . ,

ve ry l eas t thr ee da y s fr o m R o m e to R a ve nna A cco rding to this th e .

ll
se tting o ut o f C a es ar fa s a b o ut th e 1 2 th Ja nuary , w h ich a cco r ding to th e
curre nt re d uctio n corres po nds to th e ulia n 2 4 N o v 7 0 4 J . .
2 0 8 BR UN DI S I U M , I L ER DA , B OO Kv
fl ocke d in crowds out at the gates T he co nsuls them selves .

h ad so to tally los t their se nse s th a t they did no t even secure

,

th e tre asure ; whe n P o m pe ius c a lled upo n the m to fe tch it ,

fo r which the r e was s u fficie nt ti me they re tur ned th e reply

,

th a t they would dee m it s a fer if he should firs t o ccupy

,

Pice num . All w a s perplexi ty c o nseque ntly a gre at c o u ncil

of war was held in T e a num S idicinum ( 2 3 a t which

P o mpe ius La b ie nus a nd b o th co nsuls were presen t

, , Firs t .

of all propos als of a cco mmo d atio n fro m Ca es a r were a ga i n

sub mi tted ; even no w h e decl a red hi m s elf re a dy at once to
dis m iss his army to ha nd over his pro vi nces to th e successors
,

n o mi na ted a nd to beco m e a c a ndida te in th e regul a r way

,

fo r th e consulship pr o vided th at P o m p e ius were to dep a r t

,

for S p a in a nd I taly were to be di s ar med T he answer wa s

,
.
,

th a t if C a es ar would i mm edi a tely r e turn to his pr o vince ,

they would bind them selves to procure the disa r mi ng of

I taly a nd th e dep a r ture of P o mp e ius by a decree of th e
se nate to be p a ssed in due form in th e c a pi tal ; perh a ps
this reply w a s i ntended no t a s a b a re a r tifice to deceive but ,

as a n a ccep ta nce of th e propos al o f c o m p r o m i s e ; it wa s ,

however in re a li ty the opp o si te T he perso na l conference

, .

which C a es a r de sired wi th Po m pe ius the l atter declined ,

a nd could no t b ut decline th a t he migh t not by th e

,

s embl a nce of a new c o a li ti o n wi th C a es a r provoke s till m ore

th e di s trus t a lre a dy fel t by th e cons ti tu ti o n a l p a r ty Con .

cerni ng the m a nage m en t o f th e war it wa s agreed in T e a num ,

th a t Po m p e ius should take th e co mm a nd of th e troops

s ta tioned at La ceri a o n which n o twi th sta ndi ng their
,

u ntrus twor thi ness all h o pe depe nded ; th a t he should a d

v ance wi th these i nto his o wn a nd L a bie nus na tive coun try ’
,

P ice num th at he sh o uld perso nally c a ll the genera l levy

there to a r m s a s he h a d do n e s o m e thi rty fiv e ye a r s ag o
,
-

( iv . a nd should a tte m p t a t th e he a d of th e fa i thful

Pice ntine c o h o r ts a nd th e ve tera ns for m erly u nder C a es a r to

se t a li m i t to th e a dv a nce of th e ene m y .
2 10 BR UN DI S I U M ,
I LER DA , BOO Kv
of T rans alpi ne Ga ul Lucius D omi tius one of the mos t
, ,

n arrow m i nded a nd s tubbor n of the R oma n aris tocra cy and

-

he not o nly refused to c o m ply wi th the orders of Po mpe ius ,

but a lso preven ted V ib ullius fro m dep a rting at le a s t wi th th e

m e n fro m P ice num for A puli a S o fir mly was he persu aded
.

th a t P o mp e ius only del a yed fro m obs tin a cy and mus t

necess arily come up to his relief th at he scarcely ma de any ,

serious prep arati o ns for a siege and did not even gather into
Co rfinium th e b a nds of recrui ts pl a ced in th e surrounding
towns P o mp e ius however did no t a ppea r and fo r go o d
.
,

re a sons fo r while he m ight perhaps apply his two u ntrust

,

worthy legi o ns as a reserved support for the P iceni a n gener al

levy he could not wi th the m alone o ffer b attle to Ca es ar
, .

I ns te a d of him after a few da ys C a es ar c am e ( 1 4

H is troops ha d been joi ned in Pice num by the twelfth and ,

before Co rfinium by the eighth legion from beyond the ,

Alps and besides these three new legio ns h a d been for med
, , ,

p a rtly from the P o mpei a n m e n tha t were taken prisoners o r

presen ted the m selves volun ta rily p artly from th e recruits ,

th a t were at once levied everywhere so th at C aes ar before

Co rfinium w as a lre a dy at th e hea d of a n ar m y of
me n h alf of who m ha d see n service
,
S o lo ng as D o m i tius .

h o ped for the a rriva l of P o mpe ius he c a used the town to ,

be defended ; when the le tters of P o m p e ius had at le ngt h

u ndeceived h im b e resolved no t forsooth to persevere at
, ,

th e fo rlo n p o s t— by which he would h a ve rendered th e

r

greate st service to h is p a rty— no eve n to ca pitul a te b ut r , ,

while the comm o n soldiers were i nfo rmed th at relief w as

cl o se at h a nd to m ake his own esc a pe along wi th his
,

o ffice s of qu ality duri ng th e next n igh t Yet he had not

r .

th e judg m e nt to c a rry i nto effect even this pre tty s che m e .

T h e c o nfu s i o n o f his beh a vi o ur be tra yed him A p a r t of .

th e me n beg a n to m u ti ny ; th e M a rsi a n recrui ts who held ,

such a n i nfa m y o n the pa rt of their genera l to be i mpossible ,

w ished to figh t aga ins t th e m u ti neers but they to o we re

CH AP. x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A P S US
obliged relucta n tly to believe the tru th of th e a ccus ation ,

whe eupon the wh o le g a riso n a rre sted thei s ta ff a nd

r r r

h a nded it the m s e lves a nd the tow n over to C a es ar ( 2 0

, ,

Feb ) T h e corps in Alb a 30 st o ng a nd 1 5 0 0 ecrui ts

.
,
0 0 r ,
r

a sse m bled in T a rra cina thereupo n l a id d o wn their a r m s a s ,

s o on a s C a es a r s p atr o l s of horse m en appe ared ; a third

’

division in S ulm o of 35 0 0 m e n had been previously

c o mpelled to surrender .

P o m p e ius h a d given up I taly a s l o s t so soon as C a es a r

,

h a d o ccupied P ice num o nly he wi shed to del a y h is

e m b a rk a tion a s l o ng a s p o ssible wi th th e view of s avi ng so
,

m uch o f his force a s could s till be s a ved A ccordi ngly he

.

ha d slowly p ut hi m self in m o tion for th e ne ares t se a por t

B rundisiu m . T hi ther c am e th e tw o legions of Luce ria a nd
such recruits as Po mp e ius h ad been able h a stily to collect
in th e deser te d A puli a a s well a s the troops ra ised by the
,

consuls a nd other com m is s io ners in C a mp a ni a a nd con

duc ted in all ha s te to B ru ndisiu m ; thi ther to o res o rted a
nu m ber of p o li tic al fugi tives includi ng th e m os t respected
,

of the sen a tors a cco mp a nied by their fa m ilies T h e .

e m b ark ati o n began ; but th e vessels at ha nd did not suffice

to tr a nspor t all at o nce th e whole mul ti tude which s till ,

a m oun ted to persons N 0 cou se re ma ined but to

. r

divide th e ar my T he l arger h alf went first (4 M a rch ) ;

.

wi th th e s maller divisio n of som e m e n P o m p e iu s

a w a i ted a t B ru n disiu m th e re turn of th e fl ee t for h o wever ,

desira ble the p o ssessio n of B ru ndisiu m m igh t be for an

even tu al at te mpt to reoccupy I ta ly they did not presu m e
,

to hold th e pl a ce perm a nen tly a g a ins t C a es a r Me a nwhile .

C a es ar arrived before Brundi siu m th e siege bega n .

C a es ar atte m p ted firs t of all to clo se th e m ou th of th e

h a rbour by m oles a nd fl o a ting bridges with a view to ,

e xclude th e re turning flee t ; but P o mp e ius c aused the

tr a ding vessels lying in the h a rbour to be ar m ed a nd ,

m a n ag e d to preven t the c o m ple te cl o si ng of the h arbour

 BR UN DI S I UM ,
I L ER D A , BOO Kv
un til th e fl ee t a ppe a red and th e troop s— wh o m P o mpe ius
with gre at dex teri ty in spi te o f the vigil a nce of th e
,

besiegers a nd th e hos tile feeli ng of the i nh a bita nts wi th ,

drew fro m the tow n to th e l ast m a n u nha m ed — were r

c arried o fi bey o nd C a es ar s e a ch to G eece ( 1 7 M a ch)

" ’
r r r .

T h e fur ther pursui t like th e siege i tself fa iled for w a n t of

, ,

a flee t .

I n a c a m p aign of two m o nths wi thout a si ngle serious ,

e ngage me nt C a es a r h ad so bro ken up a n a r my of te n

,

legions th a t less th a n the h a lf of it had wi th gre at di fficul ty

,

e sc a ped in a co n fused fligh t a cross th e se a a nd th e whole ,

I ta li a n pe ninsul a i n cludi ng th e c a pi tal wi th th e s tate ches t

,
-

a nd a ll th e s to res a ccu m ul a ted there h a d fa llen i nt o th e ,

power of the vic to N o t wi thou t re a s o n did th e be a te n

r .

p a r ty bewa il th e te ible ra pidity s agaci ty and energy of

rr , ,

th e
“
m ons ter .
”

B ut it m ay be que stioned whe ther C a es a r ga ined o r los t

m o e by th e c o nques t of I taly
r I n a m ili tary respec t no
.
,

d o ub t ve ry considera ble res o urces were now no t m e ely

,
r

wi thd a wn from his o pp o ne nts b ut re ndered a va ila ble for

r ,

hi m self ; eve n in th e spri ng o f 7 5 h is a r m y e m bra ced in 0

,

c o nseque nce of th e levies en ma sse i nstitu ted eve ywhere a r

,

c o nsidera ble nu m ber of legio ns of recrui ts in a ddi tio n to

th e nine old o nes B ut on th e o ther h a nd it no w bec a m e
.

necess ary no t m erely to le a e behind a c o nsidera ble v

garrison in I taly b ut a lso to ta ke m e a sures a ga in st th e

,

clo si ng o f th e tr an s ma rine traffic c o nte mpl ated by his

o pp o nen ts w h o co m m a n ded th e s e a a nd a g a ins t th e ,

fa mine with which the c a pi tal w a s consequen tly threa te ned ;

whereby C a es ar s alre ady su fficien tly complicated mili ta ry
’

ta sk was c o m p lica ted furthe s till Fi nanci a lly it w a s

r .

certainly of i mporta nce th at C aesar h ad the go o d fo r tune

,

to ob ta in possessi o n of th e s to ck of m o n ey in th e c a pi t l ; a

b ut the princip a l s o u ces o f inc o m e a nd p art icul a rly the

r

revenues from th e e a s t were wi th a l in th e h a nds of th e

 BR U ND I S I U M , I LER DA, BOO Kv
prohibi ted all co mm on soldiers from a ppe a ring a rm ed
wi thin the walls ; the c o u ntry to w ns were pro tec ted fro m
all i njury thr o ughou t a nd wi thou t dis ti nc ti o n whe ther they ,

h a d given h im a frie n dly or h o s tile recep ti on When th e .

m u tinous ga r iso n surre nd e red Co rfi nium l a te in th e

r

evening he in the fa ce of every m ili ta ry con s idera ti o n

,

p o s tponed th e occup ati o n of th e town till the followi ng

m orning solely th at he m igh t no t a b a ndon th e burge s ses
,

to th e noc tur nal i nva sion of his ex a spera ted soldiers Of .

th e p is o ners th e c o mm o n s o ldiers as presu m a bly indi ffere nt

r
,

to poli tics we e i nco por a ted wi th his own a r my while the

,
r r ,

o ffi cers were not m erely sp ared but a lso freely rele a sed
,

wi th o u t dis ti nc tion of pers o n a nd wi thou t th e exaction of

any pr o m ises wh a tever ; a nd all which they cl ai m ed a s

private proper ty was fr nkly given up to them wi thou t

a ,

even i nves tig ating wi th any s tric tness th e w a rran t for their
cl ai ms L ucius D o m i tius hi ms elf wa s thus tre ated a nd
.
,

even Lab ie nus ha d th e m oney a nd b aggage which he ha d

left behind sen t a fter him to the e ne my s c amp I n the ’
.

m os t p a i nful fin a nci a l e m b a rr a ss me nt the i mm ense es ta tes

of his o ppone nts whether presen t or a bse nt were no t
a ss a iled ; indeed C a es a r preferred to borrow fro m friends ,

ra ther th a n th a t he should s tir up th e possess o rs of pro perty

a ga i ns t him eve n by exa c ti ng th e fo r m a lly a d missible b ut ,

pra ctically a n tiqu ated l a n d tax ( iv , T he vic tor

.

reg arded only th e h a lf a nd th at no t the m ore di fficul t h alf

, ,

of his ta sk a s solved wi th the vic to ry ; he saw the securi ty

fo r its dura tio n a ccordi ng to his o wn expressio n o nly in
, ,

the unc o ndi tion a l p a d o n of th e va nquished a nd had

r ,

a cc o rdingly du i ng th e wh o le m at ch fro m R a ve nna to

r

B rundisiu m i nces sa n tly re newed his e ffo r ts to bring a bou t

a person a l c o nference wi th Po mp eius a nd a toler able
a cco m m od ation .

B ut if th e a ris to cr a cy h a d previ o usly refused to lis ten

,

to any reco ncili a tio n th e u nexpec ted e m igr a tion of a ki n d

,
cru r . x PH AR SA L U S , A N D T H A PS US 2 1 5

so disgr aceful ha d ra ised their wrath to m ad ness and the ,

wild venge a nce bre athed by the be aten co ntra s ted s tra ngely
wi th the pl a c a bili ty of the victor T h e co mm unic ati o ns .

regula rly com i ng from th e cam p of the e migra n ts to their

friends left behin d in I taly were full of projec ts for
c o nfi sca tio ns a nd proscrip tions of pl a ns for purifying th e
,

s en a te a nd th e s ta te co m p a red wi th which th e res tora tion

,

of S ull a was child s pl ay and which even th e m oderate

’
,

m e n of their own p a r ty he ard wi th horror T h e fra n tic Th m . e as s

fq i t o u e
p a ssio n of i mpotence the wise m oderation of power p p l
, , eo e

produced their effec t T he whole m a ss in whose eyes g i d f

.
,
a ne or
C ae sar.
m a teri a l i nteres ts were superior to poli tic al threw itself ,

in to th e ar m s of C a es a r T he coun try towns id o lize d the

.
“

uprigh tness the m oderatio n the prudence of th e victor ;

, ,
”

a nd even opponen ts conceded th at these de m o ns tra tions of

respect were m e ant in e a rnes t Th e gre a t ca pi tal is ts .

,

fa r m ers of th e ta xes a nd j ury m e n showed no speci a l

, ,

de sire a fter the severe shipwreck which ha d befa llen th e

,

cons ti tu tion al pa rty in I taly to en trus t the m selves farther

,

to the s ame pilots ; c a pi tal c am e once m ore to the ligh t ,

a nd
“
the rich lords resor ted ag ain to their da ily ta sk o f
wri ting their ren t rolls
-
E ven th e gre at m aj o ri ty of th e
.
”

sen ate at le a st nu m eric ally spe a king —fo r certa inly but few
,

of the nobler a nd m ore i n fl uen tial m em bers of th e sen ate

were included in it — ha d no twi ths ta nding th e o rders of
Po m p e ius a nd of th e consuls re ma ined behind in I taly a nd ,

a por ti o n of the m eve n in th e c a pi ta l i tself ; a nd they a cqui

e s ce d in C a es a r s rule T he m oder a tio n of C aes a r well

’
.
,

c alcul ated even in its very se mbl a nce of excess atta i ned ,

its object : the tre m bling a nxie ty of th e propertied cl a sses

a s to th e i m pending a narchy w a s in so m e me a sure a ll a ye d .

T his was doub tless a n inc a lcul a ble ga in for th e fu ture the
prevention of a n a rchy and of the sca rcely less da ngero us
,

a l a r m of a na rchy was the indispe n s a ble preli min a y con

,
r

di tion to th e fu ture reorg a niz ati o n of th e c o mm onwe alth .

 BR UNDI SI U M , I L E R D A, B OOK V

But at th e m o m e nt this m oder a ti o n d a ngero us wa s m ore

for C a es ar tha n the renewa l of th e Cinna n a nd C a tilin a ia n r

fury would ha ve been ; it did no t c o nvert ene m ies in to

frie nd s a nd it con ve ted frie nds in to ene mie s Cae sar s
,
r .
’

C atili nari an a dhe e nts were indig na nt th at m urder and

r

pill age re m a ined in abeya nce these a ud a cious and

desperate pers o nages so m e of wh o m were me n of talen t
, ,

m igh t be expec ted to prove cro s s a nd u ntra c ta ble The .

republica ns of a ll s h a des o n th e other h a nd w e re nei ther

, ,

c o nverted no r pro pi ti a ted by the le nie ncy of th e conqueror .

A cc o rding to th e creed of the C a ton ia n p a r ty du ty to w ards ,

wh at they ca lled their fatherl and abs olved the m f o m r

every o ther c o nsiderati o n ; even one who owed freed o m

a nd life to C a e s a r re m a ined en ti tled a nd in du ty bound

to ta ke up a rm s or a t le a st to e ng age in plo ts a ga ins t h im .

T he less decided sec tion s of th e cons ti tu tio na l p ar ty were

no doubt f und willing to accep t pe a ce a nd pro tec tion
o

fro m the new m o na rch ; neverthele ss they ce a sed no t to

curse the m o n chy a nd the m on a rch at he a t T h e m o re
ar r .

cle arly the ch ange of the c o nsti tution beca m e m a nife st ,

th e m ore di sti nc tly th e gre a t m ajori ty o f th e burgesse s

b o th in the c pi tal wi th its kee ner suscep tibili ty of p o li tica l

a

exci te m en t a nd a mo ng th e m ore e nerge tic p o pul a tion o f

,

th e cou ntry a nd c o u ntry to wns — a woke to a co nsciou s ness

o f their republic a n se nt i m e nts ; so fa r th e friends of th e

“

c o ns ti tu tio n in R o me ep o r ted wi th tru th to their b e thren

r r

o f ki n dred views in exile th a t a t h o m e all cl a sses a nd all

,

person s we e f ie ndly to Po m p e ius The di sc o nte nte d

r r .

te m per of all thes e ci cles w a s fur the r incre ased by the r

m ora l pres s ure which th e m o e decided a nd m o re no ta ble

,
r

m e n w h o sh a red s uch views exe cised fro m their very p o si ti o n

r

a s e m igr a nts o ver th e m ul ti tude o f th e hu m bl e r a nd m o e r

lukewar m Th e co nscie nce o f th e ho no u a ble m an s mo te

. r

him in reg a rd to h is re m a i n i ng in I ta ly ; th e h a lf a ris tocra t -

fancied th at he was r anked a m ong th e plebeians if he ,

 BR UN D I S I U M , I L ER D A , no o n v
th e s a me inertness of th e dignified corporation by me a ns ,

of which C a es a r had shor tly befo re frus tra ted the legal
n o m in a tion of P o mp e ius as ge ner a li s si m o in th e civil w a r
,

he to o wa s now thwar ted when m aki ng a like request .

Other i mpedi men ts m oreover o ccur ed , C ae sar desired

,
r .
,

with the view of regul a ti ng in som e sort of w ay his

posi ti o n to be n amed a s dic tator ; but his wish wa s not
,

co m plied wi th bec a use such a m agis trate c o uld o nly be

,

co nsti tu ti o n ally a ppoi nted by one of the co nsul s a nd the ,

a tte m p t o f C a es a r to buy th e consul L e ntulus —o f which

o wi ng to th e disorde ed c o ndi tion of his fi na nces there

r

w a s a good pr o spec t— never theless proved a fa ilure T he .

tribu ne o f th e people L ucius Me tellus m o eover lodged ,

r ,

a pr o tes t a g a in s t all th e s teps of th e proc o nsul a nd ma de ,

signs a s th o ugh he would pr o tect wi th his person th e .

public che st when C a es a s m e n c am e to e m pty it C a es a r

,
r
’
.

could not a void in this ca se o rderi ng th a t the invi o l a ble

perso n should be pushed a side a s ge ntly a s p o ssible ;
o therwise he kep t by his purp o se of a bs ta ining from all
,

violent s teps H e decla red to th e s e na te just as the

.
,

cons ti tuti o nal p arty ha d done shor tly befo re th at he had ,

certa inly desired to regul ate thi ngs in a lega l w ay a nd .

wi th the help Of th e supre m e a u th o ri ty ; but since this ,

help wa s refused he could dispe nse with it

, .

Pro visio nal Wi thou t fur ther concerni ng hi m s elf abou t the sen ate
arr a n ge
me nt o f the a nd th e fo r mali ties of s tate law he h a nded over the ,

a ffa irs o f te m pora y a d m ini s tr a tion of th e c a pi ta l to the pra e to r

r
th e ca p ita l .

M arcus Ae milius L epidus a s ci ty prefect and ma de the -

requisi te a rr ange m en ts for th e a d m inis tra tion of the

pr o vinces that obeyed h im a nd th e co nti nu a nce of th e
w r
a . E ven a m ids t th e din of th e gig a n tic s truggle a nd ,

wi th all th e alluring sound of C a e sa s l a vish pro m ises it r

’

s till m a de a deep i m pression o n th e m ul ti tude Of th e

c a pi tal when they s w in their free R o me the m o na rch
,
a

for the firs t ti m e wi el ding a m on arch s power and bre akir g ’

CH A P. x PH A R S AL US , A N D TH A P S US
open the doors of the tre a sury by his soldiers B ut th e .

ti m es h a d g o ne by whe n th e i m p e s si o n s a nd feeli ng s of
,
r

th e m ul ti tude de ter m i ned th e c o urs e o f even t s ; it wa s

w i th th e legions th a t th e decisi o n la y a nd a few p a inful

,

feelings m ore or less were of no fa r ther m o me nt .

C aes ar h a s te ned to resu me th e war H e o wed his Th . e

successes hi ther to to the o ffe nsive and he i ntended still g gp ifi

,
p n o e

a
’

to ma i nta in it . Th e posi ti o n of his a n tag o nis t w as singul a r .

A ft er th e origin a l pl a n of c arrying o n th e c a m p a ign

sim ul ta neou sly in the two Ga uls by o ffe nsive Operatio ns
f o m the b a ses of I taly a nd S p a in ha d been frus trated by
r

C a es a r s a ggressive P o mp e ius had in tended to go to

’
,

S p a in
. T here he ha d a very s t ong p o s i ti o nr T h e ar my .

a m ou nted to seven legi o n s ; a l a rge nu m ber o f P o m p e ius

’

ve tera ns served in it and several ye a rs o f c o nflic ts in the

,

L usi ta ni a n m oun tai n s h a d h a rde ned soldiers a n d office s r .

Am ong its c a p t i ns M a rcus Va rro indeed w a s si m ply a

a

celebra ted schol a r a nd a fa i thful p a r tis a n ; but L uciu s

A fra niu s ha d fough t wi th dis tinc tion in th e e a s t a nd in
th e A lps a nd M a rcus P e tr e iu s th e c o nquer o r of C a tili na
, , ,

wa s a n o fficer as d a un tless a s he w a s ble While in the

a .

Further provi nce C a e sa r ha d s till va riou s a dherents f o m r

the ti m e of his g o vernorship there (p th e m o re.

i mpor ta nt province of the E br o was a tta ched by all th e

ties of venera tion and g rati tude t o th e cel e b a ted ge n er a l r ,

who twen ty ye ars befo e ha d held the c o m m a nd in it

r

during the S e rto ria n w ar and a fter th e ter m i na tion of

,

th at wa r ha d orga nized it anew P o mp e ius c o uld evide ntly

.

a fter th e I tali a n dis a s ter do no thi ng be tter th a n p o ceed r

to S p a in wi th th e s a ved e m na nt of h is a rm y a nd then at
r
,

th e he a d of his wh o le force a dva nce to m ee t C a es a r B ut .

u nfor tuna tely he h a d in th e hope of bei ng a ble still to

,

s ave the troops tha t were in Co rfi nium tar ied in Apuli a ,

r

so long that he wa s co mpelled to choos e th e ne arer

B rundisiu m as his pl ace o f e m b ark a ti o n ins te a d o f th e
 BR UN D I S I U M , I LER D A , B oox v
Ca mp a ni an por ts Why m as ter a s he was Of the se a
.
,

and S icily he did no t subsequen tly ever t to his origin a l

,
r

pla n c a nnot be de ter m ined ; whe ther it was th a t perh a ps

,

th e a ris tocra cy a fter their sh o t sigh ted a nd dis trus tful

r -

fa shi o n showed no d e sire to en trus t the m selves to th e

S p a nish tr o ops a nd the S p a nish p o pul a tion it is e no ugh ,

to say th a t P o m p e ius re m a ined in th e e a s t a nd C a es a r ,

ha d th e Op tion of direc ting his firs t a tta ck ei ther a ga i nst

the a rm y which w a s being org a nized in Greece unde r
Po m p e ius o wn c o mm a nd or ag a i ns t th at which w as
’
,

rea dy for b attle u nder his lieu ten ants in S p in H e ha d a .

decided in fa vour o f the l atter course a nd as soon as , ,

the I tali an c a mp a ign e nded h a d ta ken me a sures to collect

,

on th e lower R hone nine of his bes t legions as also 6 0 0 0 ,

ca va lry — p a rtly me n individua lly picked o ut by C a es ar

in th e Cel tic c anto ns p ar tly Germa n merce naries—a nd a
,

nu m ber of I beri a n a nd L iguri a n a rchers .

B ut at this poin t his opponen ts a lso h ad bee n a ctive .

L ucius D o m itius who wa s no m i n a ted by th e sen a te in

,

C a es ar s s te a d as gover nor of T ra n salpine G a ul ha d

’

pro ceeded fro m Co rfi nium — as soon a s C a es ar ha d

,

relea sed h im —along wi th his a ttenda nts and wi th P o m

peiu s co nfida n t Luc ius V ibullius R ufus to M a s sili a a nd
’
,

a c tu a lly i n duced th a t ci ty to decl a re fo r P o mp e ius a nd

eve n to refuse a p a ssage to C a e sa r s troops Of th e ’

.

S p a nish tro o ps th e tw o le a s t tru s tw orthy legions were left

behi nd under th e comm and of Va rr o in the Further
province while the five bes t rei nforced by , S p a ni s h
infa n try — p a rtly Cel tiberi a n i nfa ntry of th e li ne p a tly ,
r

Lusi ta nia n a nd o ther ligh t t o o ps — ra nd by

5 0 0 0 S p anish
c a valry u nder A franius and P e tre ius ha d in accorda nce
, , ,

w i th th e o rders of P o m pe iu s tra ns m i tted by V ib ullius s e t ,

o ut to close th e P yre nees a g a ins t th e e ne my .

Me a nwhile C a es a him self a rri ed in Gaul a nd as the

r v ,

com m ence me nt of th e siege of M a ssili a s till de ta ined h im

 BR UNDI S I UM , I L ER DA , Kv
BOO

wi th G a ul s o lely o n two bridges which they had h a s tily

co ns truc ted o er th e S ico ris a nd th a t i ndeed as the river
v , ,

at I le rda i tself was to o c o nside a ble to be bridged over r

,

a b o u t eigh teen or twe nty m iles fa r ther up .

Whe n the fl o o ds c am e o n wi th the m el ting of the snow ,

these te m pora ry bridges were swept a w a y a nd as they h a d ,

no vessels for th e p a ss age of th e highly s w o llen rivers and

under such circum s ta nces th e res to ation of the bridges r

could no t for the presen t be th o ugh t of the C a esa ria n a r my ,

w as co n fined to th e n a rrow sp a ce be tween th e Cinca a nd

th e S ico ris while the left b a nk of th e S ico ris a nd wi th it

,

th e ro a d by which th e a r m y co mm unic a ted wi th G a ul a nd

,

I ta ly were exposed al m os t u ndefended to th e P o mpei a ns

, ,

w h o p a ssed th e river pa r tly by th e t own bridge p a r tly by -

swi mm ing a fter th e L usi tani an fa shion o n ski ns I t wa s the .

se a so n shortly befo re h a rves t ; the old produce wa s al m os t

used up the new wa s no t ye t ga thered a nd th e n arrow
, ,

s tripe of l a nd be twee n th e two s tre am s wa s so o n exh a us ted .

I n the c a m p a c tu a l fa m ine prev a iled— the moa zus of whe a t

'
’

cos t 5 0 dena r zz '

1 6s
’

) a nd d angerous dise a ses bro ke

.
-

o ut ; where a s on the left b a nk there were a ccu m ul a ted

provisio ns and va ried supplies as well a s t oops of all sorts

,
r

-
rei nfo rce m en ts fro m Ga ul of c avalry a nd archers offi cer s ,

a nd soldiers fro m fu lough for a gi ng p art ies re turni ng — in

r ,

all a m a ss of 6 0 0 0 m e n who m th e P o m pei a ns a tta cked

,

wi th superior force and dr o ve wi th gre at l o ss to the m ou n

ta ins while the C a es a i a ns on th e righ t b a nk were o bliged
,
r

to re ma i n p a ssive spec ta tors Of th e u nequ al con fl ict Th e .

co mmunica tions of the a rmy were in th e h a nds of the

P o mpei ans in I taly the a ccou nts from S p ai n suddenly
ce a sed a nd the s uspicious ru m ou s which bega n to circu
,
r ,

l a te there were no t so very re m o te fro m th e tru th H a d

, .

th e P ompei a ns fo ll o wed up their a dva n ta ge wi th some

e nerg y they could no t h a ve failed ei ther to reduce under
,

the ir p ower or at le as t to drive b ack towards G a ul the m a ss

ca n . 1: P H AR S A L U S , AND TH A P S U S

sca rcely cap able of resis tance which was crow d e d t o ge ther
on the left b a nk Of the S ico ris a nd to occupy this b a nk s o
,

c o m ple tely tha t not a man could cross th e river wi th o u t

their knowledge B ut bo th points were neglected ; th o se
.

b a nds were d o ub tless pushed a side wi th loss but nei ther

d e s troyed nor co m ple tely be aten b a ck a nd th e preven tion ,

of th e crossing o f th e river wa s left subs ta nti ally to the river

i tsel f
.

T hereupon C a es a r fo r med h is pl an H e orde ed port C. r a e sa re .

a ble bo a ts Of a ligh t woode n fr a m e a nd 0 5 1 6 1 work li ned

51 2 23551
' 5 61 6

1
wi th le ather a fter th e m o del of those used in the Ch annel m i
, un ca

a m ong th e Bri tons a nd subsequen tly by th e S a xons to be ,

p e p ared in th e c am p and tra nspor ted in wa ggons to the

r

p o i nt where th e bridges ha d s tood On these frail b arks

.

th e o ther b a nk w as re a ched a nd as it w a s found unoccupied

, ,

t h e bridge w a s r e es ta blished wi thou t much di fficul ty

-
th e
r o a d in co nnection wi th it was thereupo n quickly cle ared ,

a nd th e e age ly expec ted s upplies were conveyed to the

r -

c am p C a es a s h a ppy ide a thus rescued the a rm y fro m

. r
’

th e i m m ense peril in which it w a s pl a ced T hen the c a v a lry.

of C a es a r which in e fficie ncy far surp a ssed th at of th e ene m y

beg a n at once to sc o ur th e cou ntry o n the left b ank o f th e
S ico ris th e m o st co nsider a ble S p a nish c o m m u ni ties be tween
th e P yrenees a nd th e E bro— Osca T a rra co D e rto sa a nd , , ,

o ther s —nay even several to th e south of the Ebro p a ssed

, ,

over to C a es ar s side
’
.

T he supplies Of th e P o m pei a n s were now rendered sc a rce R t t e rea

through th e fo ra gi ng p a ties o f C a es a a nd th e defec tio n o f

r r
ga g g im e
th e n eighbouri ng c o mm u n i ties ; they resolved a t le ng th to f m ro

re tire behind the li ne o f th e Ebr o a nd se t the m sel es in all n d“

v
er
,

h a s te to form a b idge Of b o ats over the Ebr o below the

r

mou th of th e S ico ris C a es a r s o ugh t to cut Off the re t eat

. r

o f his opponen ts o ver th e E br o a nd t o de ta i n the m in

I le rda but so l o ng a s th e e ne m y re ma i ned in possession

o f th e bridg e a t I le rda a nd he h a d c o ntrol o f nei ther ford
 BR UNDI S I UM ,
I LER D A , B OO K v

nor b ridge there he could not dis tribu te his army over both
,

b a nks of th e river a nd could not i nves t I le da H is s o ldiers r .

there fore worked da y a nd nigh t to lower th e dep th of th e

river by m e a ns of c a n a ls drawi ng o ff th e water so th at th e ,

infa ntry coul d wa de through it B ut the prep ara ti o ns of

.

the P om pei a ns to pa ss the Ebro were soo ner fi n is h ed th a n

the a rra nge men ts o f th e C a es a ri a ns for i nve s ti ng I le rda ;

when the former a fter finishing th e bridge of b o a ts beg a n
their m arch t ow a rd s th e E bro a l o ng th e l e ft b a nk of the

S ico ris the ca n als of th e C aes a ri a ns see m ed to th e ge nera l

,

no t yet fa r enough a dva nced to m ake th e fo rd a v a il a ble for

th e infa n try ; he o rdered only his c a alry to p a ss th e s tre a m

v

a nd by cli nging to th e re a r of th e ene m y a t le a s t to de ta in

, ,

a nd h a ra ss the m .

B ut when C a es ar s legio ns sa w in th e gr ay m or ning th e

’

ene my s colu m ns w hich h ad been re tiri ng si nce m idnigh t

’

they discerned wi th th e sure i nsti nc t of e xpe ie nced ve ter a ns r

th e strategic i m p o rtance of thi re tre a t which would

s ,

compel the m to follow their a n tag o nis ts in to di sta n t and

i mprac tic able regio ns filled by h o s tile troops at their o wn
re ques t th e gener a l ven tured to le a d th e i nfa ntry also i nto
the river , a nd a l though th e wa ter re a ched up to the
shoulders of the men it wa s crossed wi th o u t a cciden t I t
, .

was high ti m e . I f the n a rrow pl a in which sep a ra ted th e

,

to wn of I le r da fro m the mo u nta ins e nclosi ng th e E br o

were o nce traversed and the ar my of th e Po mpei a n s
e ntered the moun ta i ns their re tre at to th e Ebro could no
,

longer be preven ted A lre a dy they had notwi thstan ding

.
,

the cons ta n t a ttacks o f th e e ne my s ca valry which g reatly

’

del a yed their march a ppro a ched w i thin five miles of the
,

m oun ta ins when they h a ving been on the ma rch since

, ,

m idnigh t a nd unspe ak a bly exh a us ted a b a ndoned their ,

origin al pl a n of traversi ng th e whole pl a i n on th e s a m e

day a nd pi tched their ca mp
,
H ere th e in fa n try of C a es ar
.

ove rt o o k the m and enc a m ped Opposi te to them in the

 BR UNDI S I UM , I LER D A, B OO Kv
ha d b een lre a dy conceded by C a es a r when Pe tre ius wi th
a ,

his escort c o nsis tin g of sla ves a nd S pa ni ards c ame upon

the negoti a tors a nd c aused the C a esa ri a ns on who m he ,

could lay h ands to be put to dea th C a esa r nevertheless

,
.

sent the Po m pei ans who h ad co me to his c amp ba ck un

h arm ed and persevered in seeking a pe aceful solu tion
, .

I le rda where th e P o m pe ia ns h a d s till a g a rrison and con

,

s ide rab le m ag a zines becam e now th e poi nt which they

,

sough t to re a ch ; but with th e hos tile ar m y in fron t and

the S icoris betwee n them and th e fo rtress they marched ,

wi thout coming ne arer to their object T heir c avalry .

bec am e gra dually so afra id th at the infa ntry ha d to take

the m i nto th e cen tre a nd leg io n s ha d to be s e t a s the re a r

guard ; th e procuri ng of water and forage beca m e more

a nd m ore diflicult they h ad a lre a dy to kill th e be a s ts of
burde n bec ause they could no lo nger feed the m A t
, .

length the wa nderi ng a r my found i tself form ally inclosed ,

wi th the S ico ris in its re ar a nd th e e ne my s force in fro nt ’

which drew ra mp art and trench a rou nd it I t atte mp ted .

to cross th e river b ut C a es ar s Germ an h orse m en a nd ligh t

,
’

infa n try a n ticip ated it in the occup ation of the oppo si te

b a nk.

N o br avery a nd no fidelity could longer a vert th e in

evi ta ble c api tul ation ( 2 Aug 7 . Ca es ar gra nted to
0

o ffi cers a nd soldiers their life a nd liberty a n d th e posses ,

sion of the pr o perty which they s till re ta i ne d as well a s th e

restora tion of wh at had been a lrea dy taken fro m the m the ,

full value of which he undertook pe so nally to make g o o d r

to his s o ldiers a nd no t o nly so but while he ha d co m ul

, p
s o ily e nrolled in his a r m y th e recrui ts c a p tured in I ta ly
r
,

he h o no u ed these Old legi o naries of P o mpe ius by th e

r

promise th a t no one should be com pelled a g a i ns t his will

to en ter C a es a r s a r m y H e required o nly th a t e a ch s hould
’
.

g ive up his ar m s a nd rep a ir to h is ho m e A cc o di ngly th e . r

s oldie rs who were na tives of S p a in a bout a thir d of th e

,
cna r . x P H A R S AL US ,
A N D TH A P S U S

ar m y were disb a nde d at o nce while the I talia n sol d iers

, ,

were disch a rged on th e borders of T ra ns alpine and Cis

alpine G a ul .

H i ther S p a in on the bre aking up of this a r m y fell Of Fu th r er

itself in to th e p o wer of th e vic to r I n Fur ther S p a i n where E

.
gg“ ,

M a rcus Varro held th e chief co mma nd for P o mp e ius it ,

seemed to him when he le a rned the dis a s ter Of I le rda

, ,

most a dvis a ble th at he should throw hi m self i nto the insul a r

town of G a des a nd sh o uld c a rry thi ther for s a fe ty the con

s ide ra b le su m s which he h a d collec ted by co nfi s ca ting the

trea sures of the te m ple s and the proper ty of p o mi nen t r

C a es ari ans th e no t inco nsidera ble flee t which he ha d

,

raised and the tw o legio ns e ntrusted to him B ut on th e

,
.

mere ru m our of C a es ar s rrival the m os t n o ta ble towns Of

’
a

th e province which ha d been for lo ng a tta ched to C a es a r

decl a red for the l atter a nd drove awa y th e P o mpei a n
ga rris o ns or induced them to a si mil ar revo l t ; such was
th e c a se wi th C o rdub a C a r m o a nd G a de s i tself
, , One of .

th e legions a lso se t o ut of its own a ccord fo r H isp a lis a nd ,

p a ssed over a l o ng wi th this town to C a es ar s side When ’

.

a t length even I ta lic a cl o sed its ga tes a g a inst Va rro th e ,

l atter resolved to c a pi tul ate .

Abou t the s a m e ti m e M a ssili a a lso submi tted Wi th S i g " e e ?

m
.

M ass a'
r are energy the M a s silio ts ha d no t m erely sus tai ned a siege ,

but h ad also kept the se a aga inst C a es ar ; it was their

n ative elem en t and they m igh t hope to obtain vigorous
,

supp o rt on it fro m Po mpe ius who in fa c t h ad the exclusive

,

co mma n d of it B ut Ca es a r s lieu te nant the a ble D eci m us

.
’
,

B ru tus th e s a m e who h ad a chieved th e first n a v a l vic tory

,

in th e Atl a n tic over the Ve ne ti (p 5 5 f ) m an aged rapidly .

,

to equip a fl ee t and in s pi te of the bra ve resis ta nce of the

e ne m y s crews —co n sis ti ng p a r tly Of A lb io e cia n m e ce na rie s
’
r

of the M assilio ts p artly of sl a ve herds m en of D o m i tius

,
-

he va nquished by me a ns Of his brave m arines selec ted fro m

the leg ions the stro nger M a ssilio t flee t a nd s a nk or c a p tured ,
 BR U N DI S I U M , I L E R D A, B OO Kv
the gre ater p ar t of their ships When the efore a s mall . r

P o m pei an squ a d o n u nde L uciu s N as idius arrived fro m

r r

th e e a s t by w a y Of S icily a n d S a rdi ni a in the por t o f

Ma ilia the M assilio ts o nce m o e re ne w ed thei na val

ss ,
r r

a r m a m e n t a n d s a il e d for th l o ng wi th th e s hip s of N asidius

a

a g a i ns t B u tus r T he e ng a g e m e nt which to o k pl a ce o ff
.

T a uro e is ( La Ci o ta t to th e e a st o f Ma r s eill e s) migh t pr o b

a bly h a ve had a di ffe en t resul t if th e ves s els o f N a s idius
r ,

h a d fo ugh t wi th the s a me desper a te c o ura ge which the

M a s silio ts di spl a yed o n th a t da y ; b ut the fligh t of the
N a sidians decided th e vic to y in fa v o ur of B u tus a nd th e
r r ,

re ma ins o f th e P o mpei a n fl ee t fled to S p ai n T he besieged .

were c o mple tely d i en from th e se a On th e l andward

r v .

side whe e G a ius T reb o nius c o nducted th e s iege the mo s t

,
r ,

res o lu te re s i st nce wa s till con ti nued ; b ut in s pi te o f th e

a s

freque nt s allies o f th e A lb io e cia n mercen a ies a nd the skilful r

expe ndi ture of th e i m m e nse s to res o f projec tiles a ccum u

l ated in th e ci ty th e w o rks of th e besiegers were at length
,

a dv a nced up to th e w a ll s a nd one of th e t o wers fell T he .

M a ss ilio ts decl a red th a t they w o uld give up th e defe nce ,

but de s ired to conclude th e c a pi tul a ti o n wi th C a es a r h im

self a nd en tre a ted th e R oma n c o mmander to suspe nd th e
,

siege operatio ns till C a esa r s a rrival T reb o nius h ad ex’

.

press o rders fr o m C a e s a r to spare the town a s far as

p o s sibl e he gran ted th e ar mis tice desired B ut when the .

M a ss ilio ts m a de use o f it for a n ar tful s ally in which they ,

co mpl e tely burn t th e o ne h alf of th e a l m os t u ngu a rded

-

R o m a n works th e t uggle of th e siege bega n a new a nd

,
s r

wi th inc e a sed exasper tion T he vig o ro us commander of

r a .

th e R o m a ns rep a i ed wi th surpri s ing a pidi ty th e des tr o yed

r r

towe s a nd th e m o u nd ; so o n th e M a ssilio ts were once

r

m o e c o m ple tely i nve sted

r .

Whe n C a esar o n his re tur n from the conquest of S pa in

a rrived befo re their ci ty he fo u nd it educed to extre m i ties
, r

pa rtly by the e ne my s atta cks p a rtly by famine and pe sti

’

,
 BR U N DI S I U M , I L ER D A, B OOKv
me a ns of d o i ng so in their h a nds T hey ha d thorough .

co mma nd of th e se a a nd l ab o ured wi th gre at ze al every

where — in Ga de s U tica Mes sa na a bove all in the e a s t
, , ,

to incre a se their flee t T hey held m oreover all the

.

provinces fro m which th e c api ta l drew its m ea ns o f

,

subsis tence : S ardi ni a and Corsica through M arcus C o tta ,

S icily through M arcus C ato A fric a thr o ugh th e self ,

n o m in a ted comma nder in chief Ti tus A ttius Va rus a nd

- -

their a lly J ub a ki ng of N u midi a I t w a s i ndi spe ns a bly

.

needful for C a es ar to thwar t these pl a ns Of th e ene my and

S a rd inia to wres t fr o m the m th e corn provi nces Quin tus Va lerius
-
.

o ccup ie d
w a s se nt wi th a legion to S a rdini a and c o m pelled the
.

P o m pei a n governor to eva cu a te th e isl a nd Th e m ore .

i mp o rta n t en terprise of ta ki ng S icily a nd A fric a fro m th e

enemy was e ntrus ted to th e you ng Ga ius Curi o wi th th e
a ssis ta nce of th e able Ga ius Ca ninius R e bilus who ,

l
S ici y pos sessed experience in w a S icily w a s occupied by him
r.
occu pie d .

withou t a blow ; C a to wi thout a proper a rm y a nd not a

,

m an of th e sword ev a cu ated th e isl a nd a fter h a ving in

, ,

his stra igh tfo r ward m a nner previously warned th e S iceli o ts

no t to compro m ise the m selves uselessly by a n ine ffectu al

resis ta nce.

La nd ing o f Curio left behind h alf of his tro o ps to pro tect this isla nd
s o i m p o r ta nt for th e c a pi ta l a nd e m b a rked wi th th e o ther
Curio in
,
Africa
h a lf— tw o legi o ns a nd 5 0 0 horse m en — for Afric a H ere
.

he m igh t expect to encoun ter more serious resi sta nce ;

besides th e c o nsider able and in its o w n fa shion e ffi cien t
a r m y of J ub a th e g o vernor Va rus h a d for m ed tw o legions
,

fro m the R o m a ns se ttled in A frica a nd a l s o fi tted o ut a

s mall squ adron of te n s ail Wi th the aid of his superior
.

flee t however Curio e ff ected wi th o ut di ffi cul ty a la nding

, ,

be tween H a dru m e tu m where the o ne legio n of the ene m y

,

lay a lo ng wi th their s hips of war a nd U tic a in f o nt of , ,

r

which town lay th e second legion un der Va rus hi mself .

Curio turned ag ai ns t the l atter a nd p i tched his c amp not,

CH A P . x PHA R S AL US , AN D T H AP S U S 2 31

fa r fro m U tic a j us t where a century a nd a h a lf before th e

,

elder S cipio had taken up his firs t win ter c a mp in A f ic a -

r

( ii
. C aes a r co m pelled
,
to keep to ge ther his bes t
troops fo r th e S p a nish wa r h a d been obliged to ma ke up
,

the S icilo Afric a n a r m y for the m os t p ar t o ut of th e legio ns

-

taken over fro m the ene m y m ore especi ally the war ,

prisoners of Co rfinium ; the officers of th e P o m pei an army

in A frica some of who m h ad served in the very legions
,

th a t were conquered a t Co r fi nium now left no me a ns ,

u ntried to bri ng b ack their Old soldiers who were now

figh ting agains t the m to their firs t allegi a nce But C aes ar .

h ad no t erred in th e choice of his lieu te na nt Curio k new .

a s well how to d irec t th e move m ents of th e ar m y a nd of

th e fleet as how to a cquire person a l in fl uence over th e

,

soldiers ; the supplies were a bu nd a nt the con fl icts withou t ,

excep tion successful .

When Va rus presu m i ng th at the troops of Curio wan ted C i

,
ur o

O ppor tuni ty to p a ss over to his side res o lve d to give b

, t
a tle q
t U ti
co n uers
a ca.
chiefly for th e s ake Of a ffording the m this oppor tuni ty the ,

resul t did no t jus tify his expec tati o ns Ani mated by th e .

fiery a ppea l of their youthful le a der the c a va lry of Curio ,

p ut to fl igh t th e horse m en Of th e ene m y a nd in presence ,

of th e two a r mies cut down a lso th e ligh t i nfa ntry which

h a d a cco m p a nied th e horse m e n ; a nd e m boldened by this
success and by Curio s person al exa m ple his legions
’
,

a dv a nce d through th e di fficul t r a vi ne sep a r a ting th e tw o

li nes to th e atta ck for which the P o mpeia ns h o wever did

,

no t wa i t but di s gr a cefully fl ed b a ck to their c a mp a nd

,

e va cu a ted even this in the ensui ng night T h e vic tory .

w a s so co m ple te th a t Curio at once took s teps to besiege

U tic a Whe n news a rrive d however tha t king J uba was

.
, ,

a dv a ncing wi th all his forces to its relief Curio resolved , ,

j ust as S cipi o ha d do ne on th e ar rival of S yph ax to raise ,

th e siege a nd to re turn to S cipio s fo r m er c a m p till rein

’

force m ents sh o uld arrive from S icily S oon afterwa r d s .

 BR U N D I S I U M , I L E R D A , BOO Kv
ca me a second report th at ki ng J ub a ha d been i nduced
,

by the a ttacks of neighb o uring prince s to turn b a ck wi th

his mai n force a nd wa s sendi ng to the aid Of the besieged
m erely a m odera te c o rps under S a burra Curi o who fro m
.
,

his lively te mpera men t had only wi th gre at reluc tance

m a de up his m ind to res t now se t o ut ag a i n at once to
,

figh t wi th S a burra be fore he c o uld en ter in to communi

c ation wi th the garris o n Of U tica
H is ca va lry which h a d gone fo rwa r d in th e eveni ng
, ,

a c tu a lly succeeded in surprising th e c o rps Of S a burr a on

th e Bag ra da s during the nigh t a nd inflic ting much da mage

upon it ; and on the news of this victory Curio h as tened

th e ma rch of the infa n try in order by the ir me a ns to
,

co m ple te the defeat S o o n they perceived on the las t

.

slopes of th e heigh ts th at s a nk tow a rds the Bag radas

th e corps of S a burr a which was skir mishing wi th th e
,

R o ma n horse me n ; th e legions co m i ng up h elpe d to drive

it co mple tely d o wn in to th e pl a in B ut here the c o mb a t
.

ch anged its a spect S a burr a wa s no t as they supposed , ,

des ti tu te of suppor t ; on the co ntra ry he wa s no t m uch

more tha n five m iles dista nt fro m the N u m idi a n m ai n
force A lre ady the fl ower Of th e N u midi a n i nfa n try a nd
.

2 0 0 0 Gallic a nd S pa nish h o rse men ha d a rrived on the

fiel d of b attle to suppor t S a burra a nd the king in person
,

w i th the bulk of th e a r m y a nd sixtee n eleph a n ts wa s

a ppro a ching. A fter th e n o c turn al m arch a nd th e h ot
conflic t there were at th e m o men t no t m ore th an 2 0 0 of
the R o ma n c a v alry toge ther a nd these a s well a s the
,

in fa n try extre m ely exh a u sted by fatigue a nd figh ti ng were

, ,

all su rrounded ,
in th e wide pl a in in to which they had
a llowed the m selves to be a llured by the con ti nu ally
,

i ncreasing hos ts Of the ene my Va inly Curio endeavoured

.

to e ng age in close co m b a t ; th e L iby a n horse me n re t e a ted

r
,

as they were won t so soo n a s a R o m an di i s ion a d a nced

,
v v
,

only to pursue it when it turned I n va in he a tte mp ted

.
2 34 BR U N DI S I U M , I LE R D A, s oo x v
fire and high courage ca rried him i nto i nca u tious ac ts a nd ,

if he to o pro udly accep ted de ath th at he migh t no t sub mi t

to be p a rdoned for a p a rd o na ble fa ul t tr a i ts of si mil ar,

i mprudence a nd si mil ar pride a re not w a n ting in Ca esar s ’

history a lso We may regre t th at this exubera nt n a ture wa s

.

no t per m i tted to w o rk o ff its follies a nd to preserve i tself

for the following generation so m iserably poor in tale nts and ,

so ra pidly falling a prey to the dre a dful r ule of medi o cri ties .

H o w fa r these eve nts of th e wa r in 7 0 5 in terfe red wi th

P o mpe ius ge ner a l pl a n for th e c a mp a ign a nd p a r ticul a rly
’

wh a t p ar t in that pl an was a s signed a fter th e loss of I taly

to the i mpor ta n t m ili tary c o rps in th e wes t can o nly ,

be determined by c o njec ture T h at Po mp e ius had the

.

in ten tion of co ming by way of A fric a a nd M a ure tani a to

th e a id of his a r my figh ting in S p a i n wa s si mply a ro m a n tic
, ,

a nd beyon d doub t altoge ther groundless ru m our circu ,

l ating in the c amp of I le rda I t is m uch m ore likely that

.

he s till kep t by his e arlier pl a n of a tta cking Ca es ar from

bo th sides in T ra ns alpine a nd Cis alpi ne Ga ul (p 2 0 6 ) even .

a fter th e loss of I ta ly a nd m edi ta ted a co m bi ned a tta ck a t

,

once from S pa in a nd M a cedoni a I t may be presu m ed

.

th a t th e S p a nish a r my was m e a nt to re main on th e defensive

a t th e P yrenees till th e M a cedoni a n a r m y in th e course of

o ga niz a tion wa s likewise rea dy to m arch ; whereupon both

r

would then h ave s tarted si mul ta neously a nd e ffec ted a

ju nction a ccordi ng to circu ms ta nces ei ther on the R h o ne or
on th e Po while the fl ee t it may be co njec tured would
, , ,

ha ve a tte mp ted a t the s ame ti m e to reconquer I ta ly pro per .

On this supposi tion a pp a ren tly C a es a r h a d firs t prep ared

hi m self to m ee t an a tta ck o n I taly One of the a bles t Of
.

his Officers the tribu ne o f the pe o ple M arcu s A ntoniu s

, ,

co mma nded there wi th pr o p a e tori a n powers T he s o u th

r .

ea s ter n p o r ts — S ip us Bru ndi siu m Ta e ntu m — where a n

, ,
r

a tte m p t a t l a nding w a s fir s t t o be expec ted ha d received a ,

g a rrison of t hree legions . B esides t hi s Qui ntus H or te nsi us ,

C H A P. x P H A R S AL US , AN D TH A P S US
th e degenerate so n of th e well k nown orator collected a -

fl ee t in the T yrrhene S e a a nd P ublius D ola be lla a seco nd

,

fl ee t in the A dri atic which were to be e m pl o yed p artly to

,

suppor t th e defence p ar tly to tra nsport the i nte nded

,

expedi tion to Greece I n th e even t Of Po m p e ius

.

a tte m p ting to pe ne tr ate by l a nd in to I ta ly M a rcus L icinius ,

Cra ssus th e eldes t son of th e ol d colle ague o f C aes ar w a s

, ,

to conduc t the defe nce of Cis alpi ne G a ul Ga ius the ,

younger bro ther of M a rcus A n to nius th at of I llyricum .

B ut th e expec ted a tta ck wa s long in co m i ng I t was C ‘

. a e sar s

no t till the heigh t of su m m er th a t th e c o nflic t beg a n in

fifgy if
a’

I lly ri a T here C a es a r s lieuten a n t G a ius A n t o nius wi th I lly i m

’
. r cu
d ’my d
his two legions lay in the isl a nd of Curicta (Vegli a in th e es e ‘

gulf of Qua rne ro) and C a es ar s a dm ira l P ublius D o lab e lla

,
’

wi th fo rty ships lay in the n arrow a rm Of th e se a be tween

this i sl a nd a nd th e m a i nl a nd T he a d m ira ls o f P o mp e ius
.

in th e A dri a tic M arcus Oc ta vius wi th th e Greek L ucius

, ,

S cribo nius L ib o wi th th e I llyri a n division of th e flee t ,

a tta cked the squ a dro n of D o lab e lla des troyed a ll his ships , ,

a nd cut Off A nto n ius on h is isl a nd T O rescue h im a .

,

corps u nder Ba silus and S allustiu s c a m e from I taly a nd th e

squ a dron of H o te nsius fro m th e T yrrhe ne S e a ; but
r

nei ther th e fo r m er nor th e l a tter were a ble to e ffec t

a ny thi ng in presence of th e fa superior flee t o f the ene m y
r .

T he legions of A nto nius h a d to be ab andoned to their fa te .

P r o visio n s c a m e to a n end the troops bec am e trouble s o m e

,

a nd m u ti n ous wi th the excep tion of a few divisi o ns ,

which succee d ed in re a ching the m a inl an d on r a fts th e ,

corps s till fifteen cohorts s trong l a id dow n their a r m s a nd

, ,

were c o nveyed in the ves s el s of L ibo to M a cedoni a to be

there incorp o r a ted wi th th e P o m pei a n a r m y while Oc tavius ,

wa s left to c o m ple te th e subjug a tion o f th e I lly i a n c o a s t r

now denuded of tro o ps Th e Da lm a ta e no w far th e m o s t

.
,

powerful tribe in the s e egi o ns (p r th e i m porta n t .

ins ul ar town of I ssa (Liss a) a nd other t ownships e mbraced

, , ,
2 36 BR U NDI S I U M , I L ER D A, B OO K v

the p arty o f Po mpe ius but th e a dheren ts o f C a esa r

main ta ined the m selves in S alo na e (S p a l ato) a nd Lissus
(Alessio) and in the for mer town not m erely sus tained wi th
,

courage a siege but when they were reduced to extremi ties

, ,

m a de a s ally wi th such e ffec t th at Octavius ra ised the siege

a nd s a iled Off to Dy rrh a ch ium to p a ss th e wi nter there .

T he success a chieved in I llyricu m by the P o mpei a n

fl ee t a l though of i tself no t i nco nsidera ble h ad ye t but
, ,

li ttle in fl uence on the issue of the ca mp aign a s a whole ;

a nd it a ppe ars m isera bly s m a ll when we consider th a t th e
,

performances of th e la nd and n aval forces u nder the

supreme comm and of Po mpe ius during the whole even tful
yea r 7 0 5 were confi ned to this single fe at of arms and ,

th a t fro m th e e a s t where th e general

, th e sen a te the , ,

second great army the pri ncip al fl ee t th e i mm ense m ilitary

, ,

a nd s till m ore extensive fin an ci al resources of the a n ta gon

ists o f C a es a r were uni ted no in tervention at all took pl a ce

,

where it was needed in that all decisive struggle in the -

west T h e scattered condi ti o n of the forces in the e a stern

.

h alf of the em pire th e m e thod of the general n ever to

,

operate excep t wi th sup e rior m a sses his cum brous and ,

tedious m ove men ts a nd th e disc o rd of the coa li tion ma y

,

perha p s expl a in in s o me m ea sure though not excuse th e, ,

in a cti vity of the l a nd fo rce but th at the fl ee t which

-

com ma nded the Medi terra ne a n wi thout a rival shoul d have ,

thus do ne no thi ng to in fl uence th e course of a fl a irs

'

nothing for S pa in ne xt to no thing for th e fa i thful M a ssilio ts

, ,

nothing to defend S ardini a S icily A frica or if no t to

, , , ,

reoccupy I taly at lea st to obstruct its supplies — this

,

m akes de ma nds on our ide a s Of th e confusion a nd per

versi ty prevailing in th e P om peia n cam p which we can ,

only wi th difficul ty m eet .

The aggregate resul t Of this c a mp ai g n was corr espo nd ing .

'
Caesar s d ouble a ggressive m o em e nt a ga ins t S pa i n and
v ,

ag ainst S icil y and A fric a w a s successful in the fo rmer case

,
 2 38 B R U ND I S I UM ,
I L E R D A, B OO Kv
unse ason a ble re miniscences a nd s till m ore unse a s o n a ble
recrim i na ti o ns their poli tic al per ers i ties a nd fin a ncia l
, v

e mb arrass m en ts I t was a matter o f c o m p a atively s ligh t

. r

m o m e nt th a t while th e Old s t uc ture w a s fa lling to pieces

,
r ,

they were wi th th e m o s t p a ins taking gr a i ty wa tching o ver v

e ery o ld orn a me nta l scr o ll a nd every speck o f rus t in the

v

co ns ti tution ; after all it was si mply ridiculous when the ,

gen teel lords h a d scruples o f conscie nce as to ca lling their

deliberative a sse mbly beyo nd th e sa cred s o il o f the ci ty the
sen ate a nd cau ti o usly ga ve it the ti tle of th e three
,
“

hu ndred or whe n they i nsti tu ted tediou s i nves tig ati o ns

in s ta te la w as to whe ther a nd how a cu i a te law could be r

legi ti mately e nac ted elsewhe e tha n wi thi n the ring wall of r -

R ome .

F ar worse tr a i ts were the indiffere nce of the lukew a r m

luke warm.
a nd th e na rr o w m i n ded s tubbo n ness of th e ul tr a s
-
Th e r .

for mer could no t be brought to a ct or even to keep silence .

I f they we e a sked to exer t the m sel es in s o m e defini te

r v

w a y for the c o m m o n g o od wi th th e inconsis te ncy ch a ra c ,

te ristic of we ak people they reg a rded a ny such sugge s ti o n

a s a ma licious a t te m p t to c o m pr o m i s e the m s till fur ther ,

a nd ei ther did no t do wh a t they were o rdered a t all o r did

it wi th h alf he a r t A t the sa m e ti m e o f course wi th their

.
,

a ffec ta tion of knowi ng be tter when it w a s to o l a te a nd their

over wise i mpr a ctic bili tie s they proved a perpe tu a l clog
-
a ,

to those w h o were a c ti ng ; their d ily work c o n sis ted in a

cri ticizing ridiculi ng a nd bem oa ni ng eve y o ccurrence g e at

, ,
r r

A s a cco r ding to fo rma l la w th e

1 l ga l l
de ibe r a tive as s e mb ly
“
e

undo ub te dl y j u s t l ik e th e l e g a l co urt co uld o n ly t k p l a ce in th e city

“
, , a e

l l
its e f o r within th e p re cincts th e a s s e m b y re p r e s e ntin g th e s e na te in th e
,

Afr ica n a r my ca e d itse f th e ll l

th re e h u ndre d ( B e l l Af r ic 8 8 , 9 0 ; . .

A p p ia n ii , n o t b e ca us e i t co ns is te d o f 30 0 m e m b e r s , b u t b e ca us e this
.

l
w as th e a ncie n t no rm a nu m b e r o f se na t o rs ( i I t is v e ry i e y th a t . lk l
l k
th is a ss e mb y re cru ite d its ra n s b y e g u ztes o f r e p u te b ut , w h e n P uta rch l
k I l
ma e s th e th re e hundr e d to b e ta ia n wh o e s al e de a e rs ( Ca to M m 5 9 , l l .

h e h as m is unde r sto o d h is a uth o rity (B e ll Af r Of a s imi a r . . l

k
ind m us t h a ve b e e n th e arra nge m ent as to th e quas i s e na te a rea dy in -
l
Th ess a o nica l .
CH A P . x P H A R S AL US , AN D T H A P S US 2 39

a nd s mall a nd in un nerving a nd d iscouragi ng the mul ti tu d e

,

by thei o w n sluggish ness a nd h o pele s s ness

r .

While th e se displ a yed the u tter pr o s tra tion of we a kness ,

ultras.

th e ul t a s o n th e o ther h a n d exhibi ted in full displ a y its

r

exaggera ted a c tion Wi th the m there was no attemp t to

.

conce al th at th e preli mi na ry to a ny neg o ti ation for pe a ce

w a s th e bringing over of C a es ar s he a d every one of the ’

atte mp t s tow a rds pe a ce which C a es a r repe a tedly m a de

,

eve n now wa s tossed a side wi th o u t being exa m ined or

, ,

em pl o yed o nly to cover insidious atte mpts on th e lives of

th e c o mm issi o ners of their oppone nt T h a t the d ecl a red .

pa r tisa ns of C a es ar h a d join tly a nd severally forfei ted life

a nd p o per ty w a s a m a tter of course ; b ut it fared li ttle
r ,

be tter wi th those m ore or less neu tral L ucius D o m i tius .

,

the hero of Co rfinium g avely prop o sed in the council of

,
r

war th a t those se nators who h a d fough t in th e a r m y of

Po mp e ius should co m e to a v o te on all who h a d ei ther re
ma ined neutr al or h a d e m igra ted b ut no t en tered th e a rm y ,

a ndshould a cc o rding to their own ple a sure individu ally a cqui t

the m or pu nish the m by fine or eve n by th e fo rfei ture of

life and p o pe ty A nother of these ul tra s fo rma lly lodged
r r .

wi th P o m p e ius a ch arge of corrup ti o n a nd trea so n aga i ns t

L ucius A fra nius for his defec tive defe nce of S p a i n A m o ng .

these deep dyed republic a n s their p o li tic a l theory a ssu m ed

-

al m o s t th e ch a r a c ter Of a co nfessio n o f r e ligious fa i th they

a ccordingly h a ted their own m o e lukew a r m p a r ti sa ns a nd r

Po mp e ius wi th his per s on al a dhere nts if possible still , ,

m ore th a n their open Opponen ts a nd th a t wi th a ll th e dull ,

o bstin a cy Of h a tred which is won t to ch a r a c terize or th o d o x

the o logi a n s ; a nd they were ma inly to bl a m e for th e

nu mberles s and bitter separa te qu arrels which di stra c ted

th e e m igr a nt a rm y a nd e m igr a n t sen a te B ut they did .

no t confine the m selves to words M a rcus B ibulus T i tu s

.
,

La bie nus a nd o thers of this c o te ie c a rried o ut their the o ry

,
r

in pra c tice and ca used such o fficers o r so ldie rs of C a e sa r s

,
’
 BR U N D I S I UM ,
I L ERD A , B OO Kv
a r my as fell in to their h ands to be execu ted m m m e e ,

which as may well be co nceived did no t tend to make

, ,

C aes a r s troops fight wi th less e nergy I f the cou nter

’
.

rev o lu tio n in fa vour of the frie nds of th e con sti tution fo r ,

which all the elemen ts were in exis te nce (p did not .

bre ak o ut in I taly during C a e sar s a bsence the rea son ’

, ,

a ccording to the a ssur a n ce of di s cern i ng Oppo ne nts o f

Ca es ar lay chiefly in th e genera l d e a d of th e unbridled

,
r

fury of th e republica n ul tr a s a fter th e res tora tio n should

h ave taken pla ce T he be tter m e n in the P o mpei a n c amp
.

were in despa ir o ver this fra n tic behaviour Po mp e ius .

,

hi mself a br a ve soldier sp ared th e p iso ners a s far a s he

,
r

migh t and could but he w as to o pusilla ni mous a nd in too

a wkw ard a p o si tion to prevent or even to punish all
atroci ties Of this sor t as it bec a m e h im a s co m m a nder ih
,
-

chief to do M arcus Cato th e o nly ma n who at lea st

.
,

carried m o r a l co nsis te ncy in to the s truggle a tte m p ted wi th ,

more energy to check such proceedi ngs ; he induced the

e migra n t sen ate to prohibi t by a speci a l decree the pill age
of subject towns a nd the pu tti ng to de ath o f a burgess
o therwise th a n in b attle The a ble M arcus Ma rcellus had
.

si m il a r views N o o ne indeed knew be tter th an C ato

.
, ,

a nd M arcellus th a t th e ex tre m e p a rty would c a rry o ut their

sa vmg deeds if nece s s ar y in defi a nce of a ll decrees of the

, ,

sen ate B ut if even now when they had s till to regard

.
,

considerati o ns of prudence the ra ge Of the ul tra s could ,

not be ta m ed people m igh t prep a re the m selves a fter th e

,

vic tory fo r a reign of terr o r fro m which M a ius and S ull a r

the m selves would h ave turned aw a y wi th horr o r ; a nd we

ca n u nder sta nd why C a to a ccording to his o w n c o nfessio n, ,

wa s m ore a fr a id of th e vic tory th a n of th e defe a t of his

o wn p a r ty .

Th e m a n age m e nt of th e m ili ta y prep ara tions in th e r

M a cedo ni an c a mp was in the h a nds of P o mpe ius the

co mma nder in chief H is posi tion always troubleso me
- -
.
,
 BR UNDI S I U M , I L ER D A , Kv
B OO

often ci cul a ted there even in bro a d da ylight T hose

r .

fashi o na ble warri o rs for med a si ngula con tra s t wi th C aes ar s r

’

da rede ils who ate c o a rs e b e a d fro m which the form er

v ,
r

recoiled a nd wh o when that fa iled devoured even roo ts

, , ,

a n d swore th a t they would a the chew the b ark of treesr r

th a n de s is t fro m th e ene m y While m oreover the a c ti o n

.
, ,

of P o mp e ius wa s h a mpered by the necessi ty of h avi ng

regard to the a u th o ri ty of a collegi ate bo a rd persona lly
disi nclined to him this e mb a rra ss m en t was singul arly
,

i ncrea sed when the s ena te of e migra n ts to ok up its abode

a l m o s t in his very he a dqu a r ters a nd all th e veno m o f

the e m igr a n ts no w fo u n d ve nt in these sen a to ri a l si tting s ,

La s tly there wa s no whe e a ny m a n of m a rk who c o uld

r ,

h a ve thr o wn his o wn weigh t in to the sca le ag a i nst all

the s e prep o sterous doi ngs Po mp e ius hi mself was ln
.

te lle ctua lly far to o sec o nda ry for th a t pu pose a nd far r ,

to o he s i ta ti ng a wkwa d
, nd reserved r M arcus C a to would
,
a .

h a ve ha d a t le a s t th e equisi te m o a l a u th o ri ty and would

r r ,

no t h a ve l a cked th e g o o d will to suppor t P o m p e ius wi th

it ; bu t P o m p e ius i ns te a d Of c a lli ng h im to his a ssis ta nce

, ,

o ut o f dis trus tful je a l o usy kep t him in th e b a ckground ,

a nd p efe red for in s ta nce to co m m i t th e highly i mporta n t

r r

chief c o m ma nd Of th e fl ee t to the in every respec t inca pable

Ma rcus B ibulus r ather th a n to C ato .

Wh ile P o mp e iu s thu s treated th e poli tic al aspec t of

his po si tio n wi th his ch a a c teris tic perve si ty a nd did his
r r ,

bes t to ma ke wha t w a s a lrea dy had in i tself s till worse ,

b e devo ted hi m self o n the o ther h a nd wi th co mm end a ble

zea l to his du ty o f givi ng m ili ta ry orga niz atio n to the
c o nside a ble b ut sca tte ed forces of his p a rty T he flower
r r .

o f his fo rce w a s c o m p o sed O f th e t oops brought wi th r

h im fr o m I ta ly o ut of which wi th th e supple m e nta ry a id

,

of th e I llyri a n p is o ne s of w ar a nd th e R om ans do m iciled

r r

in Greece five legi o ns in all we e form ed T hree others r .

ca me fro m th e e a s t— the two S yria n legions form ed fro m

CHA P. x P H A R S A L US , A ND TH A P S US 2 43

the re ma i ns r my of Cra s su s a nd o ne m a d e up o ut
Of th e a ,

o f th e tw o we a k legi o n s hi the to s ta ti o n e d in Cilici a

r .

N o thi ng s to o d in the w a y of th e wi thd a w a l o f the se corps r

o f occup a ti o n bec a use on th e o ne h a nd th e P o mpei a ns

:

h a d a n u n ders ta n di ng wi th th e P a r thi a ns a nd m igh t even ,

h ave h a d a n a ll ia nce wi th the m if P o m p e ius ha d no t

i ndig nantly refused to p a y the m the p ice which they r

de m a nded fo r it th e cessio n of th e S yri a n province a dded

-

by hi m self to th e empir e ; and o n th e o ther h and C a e sa s r

’

pl a n o f de s p atchi ng tw o legi o ns to S yri a a nd i nduci ng the ,

J ew s o nce m ore to ta ke up a rm s by m e a ns o f the pri nce

A ris tobulu s kep t a pri s o ne in R o m e w a s f u s tra ted p a r tly
r ,
r

by o ther c a uses p a rtly by th e death o f A is tobulus N e w

,
r .

legio ns we e m o re o ver a i s ed— o ne fr o m th e ve tera n soldiers

r r

se ttled in Crete a nd M a cedo ni a two fro m th e R o ma ns ,

o f A si a Mi nor T o a ll these fell to be a dded 2 0 0 0

.

vo lu nteers who were derived f o m th e re ma ins of th e

,
r

S p a nish selec t corps a n d o ther si m il a s ource s a nd l a s tly r

, ,

th e con ti ngen ts of th e s ubjec ts P o m p e iu s like C a es a r h a d

.

disd ained to m ake requisi ti ons o f i nfa ntry fro m the m only
th e E pir o t A e to li a n a nd T hr a ci a n m ili ti a were c a lled o ut
, ,

to gu a rd the co a s t a nd m o reove 3 0
,
a rcher s fro m Greece
r 0 0

a nd A si a Mi n or a nd 1 2 0 s li nger s were ta ken up a s ligh t

0

troops .

T he c a a lry o n the o ther h a nd — wi th the excep tion of H i

v s
“ W
a noble gu a rd m o re respec ta ble th a n m ili ta rily i m p o rt a n t
'
, ,

fo rm ed fro m th e you ng a is tocra cy o f R o m e a nd of the

r ,

A puli a n sl ave herds m e n who m P o m p e ius h ad m oun ted

-

p 0 5 ) —consis ted exclusively o f th e con ti ngen ts Of th e

( . 2

subjec ts a nd clien ts of R o m e The fl o wer of it consis ted

.

o f th e Cel t s p a r tly f o m th e g a rriso n Of A lex a ndri a iv

,
r
( .

p artly the con ti ngen ts o f king D e io tarus who in spi te o f

his gre at a g e h ad a ppe a red in pe s o n at the he a d of his r

tr o o ps ,
a nd o f th e o the G al a ti a n dy na s ts Wi th them
r .

were as oci a ted th e excellen t T hra ci an horsem en who

s
,
 BR UNDI S I U M , I L E RDA , BOO K v

were p a rtly brough t up by their p ri nces S a dala a nd

R h a scup o ris p a r tly e nlis ted by Po m p e ius in the M ace
,

do nia n pr o vince ; th e C a pp a d o ci a n c a va lry ; th e m oun ted

a rchers sen t by A ntiochus ki ng of Co m m a g e ne th e con

ting e nts of th e A r me ni a ns fr o m th e wes t side of th e

Euphra tes under Ta ile s a nd fro m the o ther side under
x ,

M e g ab ate s a nd th e N u m idi a n b a nd s sen t by king J ub a

,

— th e whole bo d y a m oun ted to 7 0 0 0 horse men .

La s tly the fl ee t of P o mp e ius was very c o nsi d era ble It .

wa s fo r m e d p a r tly Of th e R o m a n tra nspor ts brough t fro m

B rundisium or subsequen tly buil t p a r tly of th e w ar ,

vessels of the ki ng of Egyp t of th e Colchi a n princes of , ,

th e Cilici a n dy na s t T a rco ndimo tus o f th e ci ties of Tyre , ,

R hodes Athe n s Corcyra a nd generally of all the A si atic

, , ,

a nd Greek m a i ti m e s ta tes ; a nd it nu m bered ne a rly 5 0 0

r

s a il Of which the R o m a n vessels fo r m ed a fi fth I m men se

,
.

m aga zines o f corn a nd mili ta ry s tores we e a ccu mul ated r

in Dyrrha ch ium The wa r chest wa s well filled for th e

.
-

P o mpei a ns found the mselves in possession of the p incip a l r

sources of the public revenue and turned to their own ‘

a cc o u nt th e mo ney e d resources of th e client princes of -

the sen ato rs o f disti nctio n of the far mers of the t axes
, ,

a nd genera lly of th e whole R o ma n a nd non R om a n p o p u -

l a tion within their rea ch Every a ppli a nce th at th e

.

reputation Of the legi tim ate govern men t a nd the much

re now ned protec torship of Po mp e ius o ver ki ngs and p e oples
could m ove in A frica Egyp t M acedoni a Greece Western
, , , ,

As i a a nd S yri a ha d been put in m o tion for th e pr o tection

,

of the R o man republic ; the report which circula ted in

I t aly th at P o m p e ius w a s ar m ing th e Ge ta e Colchi a n s a nd , ,

A rmeni a ns a ga ins t R o m e a nd th e design a tion of king of

“
,

kings given to P o m peius in th e c amp could h ardly be

”
,

ca lle d exaggerations On th e wh o le he had co mmand

.

over an army of 7 0 0 0 c av a lry and eleven legions of which ,

,

it is true b ut five a t the m os t c o uld be described a s

,
2 46 BR UN D I S I U M , I LER DA , BOO Kv
to pro ceed to tha t desti nation T h e unp ar alleled e xe r .

tions n o d o ub t which we e thu s e qui ed by C e sa

,
r f om r r a r r

his soldiers thi nned th e ra nks m o e tha n thei c o nflic ts

,
r r

h a d do ne a nd the m u ti ny o f o ne o f th e fo ur o lde s t legi o n s

, ,

th e n i nth o n its m a rch th o ugh P l a cen ti a w a s a d a nge o u s

, r r

i ndica tio n o f the te m per prev a ili ng in the a r my ; but

C a es a r s p e s e nce of m i nd a nd pe sonal auth o ity ga i ne d
’
r r r

th e m a s tery a nd fr o m this qu a r ter no thi ng i m peded th e

,

e mb arka tio n But the wa nt o f ship s thro ugh which th e

.
,

pursui t o f Po mp e ius h a d failed in M a rch 7 5 thre ate ned 0 ,

a ls o to frus tra te this expedi ti o n T h e war ve ss el s which .

-

C aes ar ha d give n o de s to build in th e Gallic S icili n

r r ,
a ,

a nd I tali a n por ts were no t ye t e a dy or at any rate no t

,
r

on the spot ; his squ a d o n in th e A dri a tic h a d bee n in r

th e previ o us ye a r des tr o yed a t C u icta (p 2 35) he fo u nd r .

at B ru ndisiu m no t m ore th a n twelve ships of w ar a nd

sc arcely transports en o ugh to co n ey o ver at once the v

third p a r t o f his a rm y — o f twelve legi o ns nd a

ca valry des tined for Greece Th e co nsidera ble flee t

-
.

of th e enem y exclu s ively co mma nded th e A dri atic a nd

especi a lly all th e h a b o ur s Of the m a i nl a nd and isl ands
r

on its ea s tern co a s t U nder such circu msta nces the.

question pre s e nts i tself why Ca e sar did not ins te ad of

,

th e m a ri ti m e r o u te choose th e l a n d ou te through I llyria r

,

which relieved him fro m all the perils thre ate ned by th e
flee t and besides w as shorter fo h is tro o p s who mos tly r ,

c am e from G a ul th a n the rou te by B ru ndisiu m I t is true

,
.

th a t th e regio ns Of I llyri a were rugged a nd poor beyond

descrip tio n ; but they w ere tra ers ed by other arm ies no t v

long a fterwa ds and this Ob sta cle can h a rdly h ave appea ed
r ,
r

insurm o u nta ble to th e co nquero r o f Ga ul Perha ps he .

a pprehended th a t duri ng th e troubles o m e m a rch thr ough

I llyri a P o m p e ius migh t c o n ey h is wh o le fo ce ove r th e v r

A dri atic w hereby their p a r ts m igh t co m e at o nce to be

,

c h a nged — wi th C a es a r in M a ce do ni a a nd Po mp e ius in ,
CH A P . x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A PS U S

I ta ly ; l h o ugh such a ra pid ch a nge w a s sc arcely to be

a t

expec ted f o m h is sl o w m o vi ng a n ta go ni st P erh a ps C a es a r

r -
.

h a d decided fo r th e m ri m e rou te o n th e supposi ti o n a ti

th a t his flee t would m e a nwhile be br o ugh t i nto a co n di

tio n to co m ma n d respec t a nd whe n after his return

, ,

fro m S p a i n he beca m e a w a re Of th e true s ta te o f things

in the A dri atic it m igh t be to o l a te to ch ange th e pl a n
,

o f c a m p a ign Perh a ps— a nd in a cco d a n ce wi th C a es a r s

’
.
,
r

quick te m per a me nt a lw a ys urgi ng him to decisi o n we ,

m a y even sa y in all pr o b a bili ty — h e fo und hi m self ir e r

s is tib ly te m p ted by the ci cu m s ta nce th a t th e Epir o t r

c o a st w s still a t th e m o m e nt u no ccupied b ut w o uld

a

cer ta inly be covered in a few days by th e ene my to ,

thw a rt o nce more by a bold stroke th e whole pl a n of

his a ntag o nis t .

H owever this m ay be on th e 4 th Jan 7 0 6 C a e sar s e t 48

,
1
. .

C
s a il wi th six legions gre atly thi nned by to il and s ickne ss l d a e s ar

an s in
a nd 6 0 horse m e n fr o m B rundisiu m for th e c o a s t of Ep i
0 rus .

E pirus . I t w a s a cou nterp a t t o th e fo olh ardy B ri tannic r

expedi ti o n ; b ut at l e a st the firs t throw was fo r tu na te .

Th e c o a s t w as re a ched in th e m iddle of th e A cro ce r

a unia n
( Chi m a ra ) cliffs at th e little f e que nted ro a dste a d
,
-
r

o f P a le assa
( P a lj a ssa
) T h e tr a n sp o ts were see n bo th
. r

fr o m the h a b o ur Of O icum ( creek Of Avl o na) where a

r r

P o m pei a n squ a d o n o f eigh tee n s a il w as lyi ng a nd f o m

r ,
r

th e he a dqu a r ters o f th e h o s tile fl ee t a t C o rcy a but in r

th e o ne qu a rt er they dee m ed the m selves too we a k in th e ,

o ther they were no t re a dy to s a il so th at th e fir s t freigh t ,

w as l nded wi thou t hi n dra nce

a While th e vessels a t .

o nc e e tu ned to b i ng ov e r th e sec o nd C ae sa r o n th t
r r r ,
a

sa m e eve ni ng sc a led th e A cr o cer a u ni a n m o u n ta i n s H is Fi t . rs

succes ses.
fi st succe ses were a s gre at as th e su prise of his e ne m ie s
r s r .

T h e Epir o t m ili ti a n o whe e o ffered resis ta nce rth e i m p o r t

a nt sea p o r t t ow n s o f O icum a nd A poll o n i a a l o ng wi th a

r

A1 d g t th
cco r int fi d o l d th 5th N
e re c i e 7 5 ca e n ar o n e o v. 0 .
 BR UNDI S I UM , I L ER D A , BOO K 1

number o f s maller town ships were taken and Dyrrhach ium , ,

selec ted by the P om peia ns a s their chief a rsen al and filled

wi th s tores of all sorts but o nly feebly ga rris o ned was in
, ,

th e u tm ost d a nger .

B ut th e fur ther course of th e c a m p a ign did no t cor

respond to this brilli an t begin ning B ibulus subsequently .

m a de up in so me m e a sure for th e negligence o f which he ,

h ad a llowed hi m self to be g uil ty by redoubling his e x e r

,

tions . H e no t o nly c a p tured n ea rly thir ty Of th e tra ns

ports re turning hom e a nd c a used the m wi th every livi ng
,

thing o n bo a rd to be burn t b ut he a l s o es ta bli shed a lo ng

,

th e whole dis tric t of co a st occupied by C a es a r fr o m th e ,

isla nd S a son ( S a seno ) a s far as the p o rts of Corcyra a ,

m os t ca reful w a tch however tr o ubleso m e it wa s rende ed

,
r

by th e incle m en t se as o n of th e ye a a nd the necessi ty o f

r

bringing every thing necess ary for th e gu a rd ships even -

wood and w ater fro m C o rcyra in fa ct his success o Lib o

,
- r

—for he hi mself soon succu m bed to th e unwon ted fatigues

—eve n blocka ded for a ti m e the port of B rundisiu m till ,

the wa n t of w a ter a g a in dislodged him fro m th e li ttle i sl a n d

in front o f it on which he h a d es ta blished hi m sel f I t w a s .

no t possible for C a es a r s o fficers to co nvey th e second

’

porti o n of the a rmy over to their genera l A s li ttle did .

he hi m self succeed in the c ap ture of Dy rrhachium Po m .

peius learned through o ne o f C a es ar s pe a ce e nvoys as to ’

his prepa ation s for th e v o y age to th e Epirot c o a s t a nd

r , ,

t hereupon a cceler a ti ng his m a rch threw hi m self j us t a t th e

,

righ t ti m e i nto th a t i mporta nt arsen a l Th e situ ati o n of .

C a es ar wa s cri tical Al though he extended his r ange in

.

Epirus as fa r a s wi th his sligh t s t e ng th w a s a t all po s sible

r
,

th e subsi stence of his a r m y re m a i ned di fficul t a nd p e c a ri r

ous while the ene m y in p o ssessi o n of th e maga zi ne s of

, ,

Dyrrh a ch ium a nd m asters of th e s e a h a d a bu nd a nce of ,

eve ythi ng Wi th his a r my presu m ably li ttle ab o ve

r .

s tro ng he c o uld no t offer b a ttle to that of Po m p eius a t

 BR UND I S I U M , I L ER D A , B OO K v

fo rtun ately still a dhered to C a es a r (p When it .

s a iled pa s t th e h a b o ur of D yrrha ch ium th e R hodi an

r ,

galleys s ta rted in pursui t a nd h a rdly ha d the ships of ,

A nto n ius en tered th e por t Of L iss us when th e enemy s

’

squ a dro n a ppe a ed befo re it B ut jus t a t this mo me nt the

r .

wi nd suddenly vee ed and drove th e pursuing g alley s b a ck

r ,

in to th e o pen se a a nd p a tly o n th e ocky c o ast T hro ug h

r r .

th e m o s t m a rvell o us g o od for tu ne th e l a ndi ng o f th e seco nd

freigh t h ad also been successful .

A n to nius a nd C a es a r were no d o ub t s till so m e four

d y s ma rch fro m e a ch o ther sep a ated by Dyr ha chium
a
’
,
r r

a nd th e wh o le a r m y Of th e ene m y ; b ut A n to nius h a ppily

effec ted the peril o u s ma rch rou nd a bou t D yr ha chium r

through the pa sses of th e G a b a B alk a n a nd w as recei ed r , v

by C a e sa r who h a d go ne to m ee t h im o n th e igh t b a nk
, ,
r

of the Apsus P o m pe ius after h avi ng va i nly a tte m p ted

.
,

to prevent th e ju nc tio n of th e two a r m ies of th e ene my

a nd to fo rce th e c o rps of A nto n ius to figh t by i tself to o k ,

up a new p o si ti o n a t A sparag ium on th e river Ge nusus

( S k u mbi
) which
,
fl o ws p a a llel to th e A psus be tween th e
r

la tter and the to w n o f Dyrrhach ium and here re ma ined ,

o nce m ore i mmo ve a ble C a es a r fel t hi mself now s trong

.

en o ugh to gi e b attle ; b ut P o m p e ius declined it On the

v .

o th er h a nd C a e sa succeeded in deceiving his a dvers a ry

r

a n d thr o wi ng hi m self u na w ares wi th his be tter m a rchi ng

troops jus t as at I le r da be twee n th e ene my s ca mp a nd

’
, ,

th e fo r tre s s of D yrrh achium on which it res ted a s a b a sis .

T he ch a i n of th e Gra b a B alka n which stre tchi ng in a ,

direc ti o n f o m e a s t to wes t ends o n th e A dri atic in th e

r

n a r ow tongue o f l a nd a t D yr h ach iu m sends o ff— fo ur tee n

r r ,

m ile s to th e e a s t o f D y rrh a ch ium— in a sou th wes te ly di e c -

r r

t i o n a l a tera l bra nch which likewise tur n s in the fo r m of a

cre sce nt towards th e se a a nd th e ma in ch ain a nd l a teral

,

b a nch o f th e m oun ta ins enclo s e be twee n the m selve s a

r

s mall pl a i n e xte n di n round a cli ff o n the s e ashore H e re

g .
C H A P. x PH A R S AL US , A N D T H AP S US
P o m pe ius o o k up h is ca m p and a l th o ugh Ca es ar s
no w t , ,
’

a rm y kept th e l a nd ro u te to D y h a ch ium cl o sed aga inst rr

h im b e ye t wi th th e a id o f his fle e t re m a i ned co ns tantl y

,

in com m u nic a tio n wi th th e to w n a nd w a s a m ply and e a sily

provided from it wi th eve ythi ng needful ; while a mong r

th e C a es ari a ns n o twi th s ta n di ng s tr o ng de ta ch m en ts to the

,

coun try lying behind a nd no twi ths ta ndi ng all th e exertion s

,

of the genera l to bri ng a b o u t a n o g anized sys te m of con r

ve ya nce a nd thereby a egula r supply the e w as m ore th an

r ,
r

sca rcity a nd flesh b a ley nay even r o ots ha d very ft c

, ,
r ,

quen tly to take the pl ace of th e whe at to which the y were

a ccus to m ed .

As his phleg m a tic o pponen t persevered in his in action C

m
, a esar
a “
C aes ar u nderto o k to o ccupy the circle of heigh ts which ) c
enclosed the pl a i n o n the shore held by Po mp e ius wi th P mp iu ,
o e s

th e view o f being a ble at le a s t to a e st th e m ove m ents Of rr

th e superior c a va l y o f the ene m y an d to opera te wi th more

r

freedom aga ins t D yrrh a ch ium a nd if po s sible to compel ,

his Opponent ei ther to b attle or to e m b ark ation N e arly .

the ha lf of C a es ar s t o o ps was de ta ch ed to th e interior ;

’
r

it see m ed a l m o s t Quix o tic to pr o p o se wi th th e res t vir tu ally

to besiege a n a r m y perh a ps twice a s s trong c o ncentra ted ,

in posi tio n a nd res ti ng on th e s ea and the flee t Y e t

,
.

Ca es ar s e tera ns by i nfi ni te exerti o n s inves ted th e P om

’
v

peia n ca mp wi th a ch a in of posts s ixteen m iles long and

,
,

a fterw ards a dd e d jus t as befo re Ale s i a to this inner line a

, ,

secon d ou ter o ne to pro tect them selves aga ins t attacks

,

from D yrrh a ch ium a nd a ga i n s t a tte m p ts to turn their

posi tion which c o uld so e a sily be execu ted wi th th e aid of
th e fl ee t P o m p e ius a tta cked m o re th a n o nce p o r tions o f
.

these e ntre nch m e nts wi th a view to bre a k if possible the

ene my s li ne b ut he did no t atte m pt to preven t th e invest
’
,

m e nt by a b a ttle he preferred to cons truc t in his tu rn a

nu m ber of e ntre nch m e nts a r o und his c am p a nd to conn ect ,

the m wi th one a no ther by lines B o th sid es e xe rt ed .

2 5: BR UN DI S I U M ,
I LE R D A , B OOK v
the m selves to push forwa rd their trenches as far as possible ,

a nd th e e a r thworks a dv a nced but slowly a m id s t cons ta nt

con fl icts At th e same ti m e skir mishi ng wen t o n o n the

.

Opposi te si d e of C aes ar s c am p wi th the ga rrison of

’

Dy rrhach ium C a es a r hoped to get the fortress in to his

power by m ea ns of a n u nders ta nding wi th some of its
in mates but w as preven ted by th e ene my s fl e et There ’

wa s incess an t figh ti ng at very di ff ere nt poi nts—

, .

c u one of

th e ho ttest d ays at six pl a ces si m ul ta neously — a nd as a ,

rule th e tried valour o f th e C a esa ri ans had the a d a n ta g e

, v

in these s kirm ishes ; once for ins ta nce a single c o ho rt

, ,

m a in ta ined i tself in its en trench m en ts ag ain st four legions

for severa l hours till support ca me up N o pro m ine nt
, .

success was atta i ne d on ei ther side ; ye t the e ffec ts of the

i nvestm en t c am e by degrees to be oppre ssively fel t by the
P o mpei a ns T h e s to ppi ng of the rivule ts fl owing fro m th e
.

heigh ts into the pl a in c o mpelled the m to be con te nt wi th

sca n ty a nd ba d well w ater S till m ore severely fel t w as
-
.
-

the wa n t of fodder for the be a s ts of burden and the horses ,

which the fl eet was unable a dequ a tely to re m edy nu mbers

of the m died and it was of but li ttle a va il th at the horses
,

were conveyed by the fl ee t to Dyrrhachium bec a use there ,

a lso they did no t fi nd su ffi cie nt fodder .

P o mp e ius c o uld no t m uch lo nger del ay to free hi msel f _

fro m his dis agree able posi tio n by a blow struck aga in st th e
e ne my H e wa s i nfor m ed by Cel tic deser ters th at the
.

e ne my h ad neglec ted to secure the be a ch be twee n his tw o

cha ins of en trench m e nts 6 feet dis ta n t fro m ea ch o ther
0 0

by a cross wa ll and o n this he formed his pla n While he

-
, .

c a use d th e inner line o f C a es ar s en tre nch m en ts to b e ’

atta cked by th e legions fr o m th e c a m p a nd th e ou ter li ne ,

by th e ligh t tro o ps pla ced in vessels a nd l a nded beyond th e

e ne my s e ntrench m en ts a third divisio n l anded in the sp ace
’
,

left be tween the two li ne s and a tta cked in the re a r their

a lre a dy su fficie ntly o ccupied defe nders T he en tre nch men t
.
 BR UNDI SI U M , I LER DA , B OOKv
ha d by b old a tta ck p artly burn t pa r tly carried o fl C a es ar s ' ’
a , ,

fe w ships of w ar lyi ng in th e p o r t of Oricum a nd ha d s o o n ,

a fterwa rd s a lso se t fire to th e t a nsp o t flee t th a t wa s left r r

behind in Lissus ; all p o ssibili ty of bri ngi ng up f e sh r

rei nforce m e nts to C a e sa r by s e a fr o m B undisiu m w a s thu r s

los t The numerous P o mpei an c a valry no w rele a sed fr o m

.
,

their confi ne m en t poured the m sel es over th e a dj a ce nt

, v

country a nd thre a te ned to render the provi s ioning o f

C a es ar s a rm y which ha d alwa ys bee n di fficul t u tterly
’
, ,

i m p o ssible C a esar s da ri ng en terprise of carrying on

.
’

o ffensive Operatio ns wi thou t ships a ga inst a n e ne my in

co mma nd of th e se a a nd res ting on his fl ee t had to tally
fa iled On wh a t h a d hi the to bee n the the at e of war he
. r r

found him self in presence o f a n i mpregn a ble defensive

posi tio n and un able to s trike a se rio us bl o w ei ther ag ai nst
, ‘

D yrrh ach iu m or a ga i n st th e h o s tile a r m y ; on the o ther

h a nd it depe nded no w solely o n P o m pe ius whe ther he
should proceed to attack u nder the m o st fa voura ble cir
c um s ta nce s a n a ntago nis t alre a dy in gr ave d a nger a s to his

me a ns of subsiste nce T he w ar h a d arrived at a crisis

. .

H i ther to P o m pe ius h a d to all a ppe ar a nce pl a yed th e ga m e

, ,

o f wa r wi th o u t speci a l pl a n a nd o nly a djus ted his defence

,

a ccording to th e exigencies of e a ch a tta ck ; a nd this w as

no t to be ce ns ure d for the pro tr a c tion of th e w ar ga ve h im

,

opportuni ty of m aki ng his recrui ts cap able o f figh ti ng o f

‘

b i nging up his reserves a nd o f bri nging m o re fully i nto

r ,

pl a y th e superiori ty of his flee t in the A d i a tic C a es a r r .

w a s be a te n no t m e ely in t a c tics b ut a lso in s tra tegy

r T his .

de fe at ha d no t it is t ue th at e ffec t which P o mp e ius no t

,
r ,

wi thou t re a s o n expec ted ; th e e mi ne nt s oldierly e ne gy o f r

Ca es a r s ve terans did no t allow m atters to com e to a n

’

i m media te a nd to ta l bre aking up of th e ar my by hu nger a nd

‘

m u ti ny .B ut ye t it see m ed a s if it depended solely on h is

opp o nen t by judiciously foll o wing up his vic tory to re ap its
full fruits .
C H A P. x P H A R S AL US , AN D T H A PS U S 2 55

I t was for Po mp e ius to a ssu me the a gg essive ; a nd h e W r ar

p p t ro s ec s
w as res o lved to do s o T hree di ff ere nt wa ys of renderi n g f
.
o

h is vic to ry frui tful prese nted th e m sel e s to h im T he firs t P mp iu

v .
o e s.

a nd s i m ples t w as no t to desis t fr o m a ss a ili ng th e a nquished v

a r m y a nd if it dep a r ted to pur s ue it

, , , S econdly P o mp e ius.
,

m igh t le a ve C a es a r hi m self a nd his bes t troops in G e e ce r ,

a nd m igh t cro s s in perso n a s he h a d lo ng been m a ki ng

,

p epa a tions fo r d o i ng wi th th e ma i n army to I ta ly where

r r , ,

the feeling wa s decidedly a n ti m o n a chic a l and th e forces of r

C a es a r a fter the desp a tch of the bes t t o ops a nd their bra ve

,
r

a nd trus twor thy co m m a nd a nt to th e Greek a r m y would no t ,

be of very m uch m o m e nt La s tly th e vic to r m igh t turn S ipi nd

.
,
c o a
C l in
i nl a nd e ff ec t a j unc tion wi th the legi o ns of Me tellus S cipi o
, ,
a v as .

a n d a tte m p t to c a p ture th e tr o ops o f C a es a r s ta tio ned in

th e in teri o r The l a tter fo rso o th h a d i m m edi ately a fter

.
,

th e a rriv a l of th e second f eigh t f o m I ta ly o n the one h a n d

r r ,

de sp a tched s tr o ng de tach m e n ts to A etolia a nd T hess a ly to

p ocure m e a ns o f subsis te nce for his a rm y a nd o n th e other
r ,

ha d o rdered a c o ps of tw o legi o ns u n der G na eus D o m i tius

r

C alvinus to a dva nce on th e Eg na tia n highw a y tow a rds

M a cedo nia wi th the view of i ntercep ti ng and if possible
,

defe a ti ng in de ta il th e c o rps o f S cipi o a dv a ncing on th e s am e

roa d fr o m T hessal o nica Ca lvinus and S cipi o h a d a lre a dy
.

a ppr o a ched wi thin a few m iles of e a ch o ther when S cipio ,

suddenly turned sou thw a d a nd rapidly crossi ng the r ,

H aliacmo n ( I nje K a ra su ) a nd le a vi ng his b agga ge there

under Ma rcus Fa vo niu s pene tr ated i nto T hes saly in order
, ,

to a tta ck wi th superi o force C aes ar s legion of rec ui ts ’

r r

e mployed in the reduc ti o n o f th e c o u ntry u nder Lucius

C a ssiu s L o ngi nus B ut . L o nginu s re tired over th e
m o un tains to w a rd s A m b ra cia to joi n th e de ta ch m e nt under
Gn a eu s Calvisius S a binus se nt by C a es a r to A e to li a a nd ,

S cipio could o nly c a use h im to be pu sued by his T hr a ci a n r

ca va l y fo r Calvinus threa te ned his reserve left behi nd

r ,

un d er F a vonius o n th e H a lia cm o n wi th th e s a m e fa te which

£ 56 BR U N D I S I UM , I L ER D A, BOO Kv
he had hi mself d estined for L onginus S o Calvinus and .

S cipio me t aga in on the H aliacmo n a nd e nc amped there ,

for a considera ble time Opposi te to e a ch o ther .

Po mp e ius migh t choose a m ong these pl a ns ; no choice

wa s left to C a es a r. A fter th a t unfor tun a te eng a ge m en t he
e ntered on his retreat to A pollonia Po mpe ius followed . .

T h e ma rch fro m Dyrrha chium to A p o lloni a a long a difficul t

ro a d crossed by severa l rivers was no e a sy task for a
defe ated a r my pursued by the enem y ; but the dexterous
le a dership of their general and the indes truc tible m arching
energ y of the soldiers co mpelled Po mp eius a fter four d ays ’

pursuit to suspend it as useless H e had now to decide

.

between the I tali a n expedition and the march in to the

in terior H owever a dvis a ble and a ttractive th e former
.

might seem a nd though various voices were ra ised in its

,

favour he preferred no t to a b ando n the corps of S cipio

, ,

the more especi ally as he hoped by this march to g e t th e

c orps of Calvinus into his h a nd s Calvinus la y a t the
.
_

momen t on the Eg natian roa d a t H era clea Lynce stis ,

be tween Po mpe ius and S cipio a nd a fter C aes ar h ad re

, ,

tre ate d to Apollonia farther dis ta n t fro m the l atter th a n from

,

th e gre a t army o f P o mp e ius wi thou t knowledge m oreover , ,

of the even ts a t Dyrrh achium a nd of his h az a rdous posi tion ,

s in ce a fter the successes a chieved a t D yrrh ach ium th e whole

c oun try incline d to P o mp e ius a nd th e m ess engers of C a es a r

were everywhere seized I t was not till th e enem y s ma in

.
’

force ha d a pproa ched wi thin a few hours of him th at

Calvinus le arned fro m th e a cc o u nts of th e enem y s a dv anced
’

p os ts the m selves th e s tate of thi ngs A quick

. dep ar ture in

a s outherly di ec tio n towa rds T hess a ly wi thdrew h im a t

r

the l a st m o me nt from i mm inent destruction Po mp e ius had

to conte nt hi m self wi th h aving libe a te d S cipi o fro m his r

posi tion of peril C a es a r h a d me a nwhile arrived u nm oles ted

.

a t A pollonia . I mmedi a tely a fter th e disa s te of Dy rrha chium r

he had resolved if possible to tra nsfer the s truggle fro m the

 BR UN DI S I U M , I L E R DA, B OO Kv
w ti h his ma i n force for I taly where succe ss was sc a cely ,
r

d o ub tful But in the m e anti m e only a division of the fleet

.

dep ar ted for S icily a nd I taly I n th e c am p of the co a li ti o n

.

the con tes t wi th C a es a r w a s lo o ked o n a s s o co m ple tely

decided by the b attles of Dyrrh ach ium th at it o nly re ma i ned

to re a p th e frui ts of vic to y in o ther wo d s to seek o u t a nd
r ,
r ,

c a p ture the defe a ted a rm y T heir fo r mer o ver c a u tious .

-

reserve was succeeded by a n ar o g a nce s till le ss jus tified by r

th e circu m s ta nces they g a ve no heed to th e fa cts th a t they ,

h a d s tric tly spe aki ng fa iled in th e pu sui t th a t they h a d to

, ,
r ,

h o ld them selves in rea diness to e nco un ter a co m pletely re

f eshed a nd re o rg a nized a rmy in T hes sa ly a nd tha t there
r ,

w a s no s m all ri s k in m ovi ng a w a y fro m th e s e a renou ncing ,

th e supp o r t of th e flee t a nd foll o wi ng their a n ta g o nis t to

,

th e b a ttle fi e ld ch o s en by hi m self
-
T hey were si m ply .

re solved a t a ny price to figh t wi th C a e s a r a nd therefore to ,

g e t a t him as s oon as possible a nd by th e m os t co nvenie nt

w ay . C a to took up th e c o mma nd in D yr hachium where r ,

a g a rris o n was left behi n d of eigh tee n c o h o r ts a nd in ,

C o rcyra where 30 0 ship s o f w ar were left ; P o mpe ius a nd

,

S cipio pr o ceeded — th e fo r m er a pp a re ntly fo ll o wing th e , ,

Eg na tia n w a y a s far a s P ella a n d the n s triki ng i nto th e

grea t roa d to the s ou th th e la tter fro m the H alia cm o n
,

th o ugh th e p a sses of Oly m pus

r to th e lower P e ne ius a nd -

me t a t La ris a .

C a e sa r lay to th e s ou th of La ri sa in th e pla in — which

exte nds be tween th e hill c o u ntry o f Cyn o scepha la e and th e
-

ch a in o f Oth rys a nd is i ntersected by a tribu ta ry of the

P e ne ius th e Enip e us—o u th e left b a nk of th e l atte s tre a m
,
r

nea r the to wn of P h a s a lus P o m pei a s pi tched his camp

r

opp o si te to him o n the igh t bank of th e Enip e us a l o ng th e

r

sl o pe o f th e heigh ts of Cy o ceph l e The e ntire a r my

n s a a
1
.

1 Th e e x a ct o f th e l
fi e d o f b a tt e is d iffi cu t
de te rm ina tio n A p p ia n ( it l l . .

l l
7 5 ) e xp re ss y p a ces it b e tw e e n ( N e w ) P h ar s a u s ( no w F e rsa la ) a nd th e l
E ni p e us . l
Of th e tw o s trea ms , w hich a o ne ar e o f a ny imp o rtance in th e
 CR A P. x PH A R S A L US , A ND T H A P S US 2 59

of Po mp e ius wa s a ssem bled ; Ca es ar on th e o ther h and

s till expected t he corps of ne a rly two legions formerly
ques tio n, and are undo ub te d y th e A p ida nus a nd Enip e us o f th e a ncie nts l
th e S o fa dh it ik o a nd t h e F e rsa liti—th e fo rm e r h as its s o urces in th e
m o unta ins o f T h a um a ci ( D ho m o ko ) a nd th e D o lo p ia n h e igh ts , th e a tte r l
in m o unt Oth ry s a nd th e F e rsaliti a o ne fl o w s p a st Ph a r salus
, no w as th e l
E nip e us a ccor ding to S tra b o ( ix p 4 32 ) s p ri ngs fro m m o un t Oth ry s a nd . .

l
fl o w s p as t Ph arsa us th e F e rsal iti h a s b e e n m o s t j ust y pr o no unce d b y
, l
k
L ea e (N ar i/rem Gr eece , iv 32 0 ) to b e th e Enip e us , a nd th e h yp o th e s is .

l
fo l o w e d by Gl
o er th a t th e F e rs aliti is the A p ida nus is u nte na b e ith l . W
t his all th e o th er s ta te m e nts o f th e a ncie nt s a s to th e tw o r ive rs a gr e e .

l l
On y w e m ust d o ub t es s as s um e with Le a e th a t th e rive r o f Vlo kh o k ,

fo rm e d b y th e unio n o f th e F e rs aliti and the S o fa dh itiko a nd go ing t o th e

l
Pe ne ius w as cal e d b y th e a ncie nts A p idanus a s w e a s th e S o fa dh itik o ; ll
w hich , h o we ver , is th e mo re na tura as w hile th e S o fa dhit ik o p r o b a b y h as , l , l
t he F er saliti h as no t co ns ta nt y w a te r ( L e ak e , iv , Old P h ar sa us , l . l
l k
fro m w h ich th e b a tt e ta e s its n a m e m u s t th e re fo re h a ve b e e n s itua t e d ,

b e twe e n F e rsa la a nd th e F e rs aliti A cco r ding y the b a tt e w as fo ugh t o n . l l

t h e e ft b a n l k
o f th e F e rsa li ti, a nd in s u ch a w a y th a t th e P o mp e ia ns ,

s ta nding w ith th e ir fa ce s to w ar d s Ph ars a us e a ne d th e ir righ t w in g o n th e l , l

rive r ( C a e sar B C iii 8 3 ; F ro ntinu s , S tr a t ii 3,
, . . . T h e ca m p o f th e . .

Po m p e ia ns , h o we ve r , ca nno t h a ve s to o d h e re , b ut o n y o n the s o p e o f th e l l
l
h e igh ts o f Cyno s ce p h a a e o n th e righ t b a n o f th e Enip e us p a r t y be ca u se
, k , l
th e y b a rr e d th e ro u te o f C a e s a r t o S co tus s a , p a rt y b e ca u s e th e ir ine o f l l
l
r e trea t e vide nt y w e n t o v e r th e m o un ta ins th a t w e r e to b e fo und a b o ve th e

ca m p tow ar ds L a risa if th e y h a d a cco rdin g to L e a e s h yp o th e sis (iv , k ’

.

e nca m p e d to th e e as t o f Ph a rs a us o n th e e ft b a n o f th e E nip e us , th e
y l l k
l
co u d ne ver h a ve g o t t o th e no r th w ar d thr o u gh th is s tr e a m w h ich a t th is ,

ve ry p o int ha s a de e p y cut b e d ( L e ak e , iv l
a nd Po m p e ius mu st .

h a ve fl e d to L a m ia ins te a d o f L aris a Pr o b a b y th e r e fo re th e P o m p e ians . l

p itch e d th e ir ca m p o n th e righ t b a n of th e F e rs a liti, a nd p as s e d th e rive r k
b o th in or d e r to fi gh t a nd in o r d e r , a fter t h e b a tt e t o re ga in th e ir l ,

ca m p , w h e nce th e y th e n m o ve d up th e s o p e s o f Gra nmo n a nd S co tus sa , l

l
w h ich cu m ina te a bo ve th e a tte r p a ce in th e h e igh ts o f Cy nos ce p h a a e l l l .

T h is w a s no t im p o s s ib e l
Th e Enip e us is a narr o w s o w fl ow ing r ivu e t ,
. l l
which L a k
e fo und tw o fe e t d e e p in N o ve m b er , a nd w hich in t h e h o t

l
s e as o n o fte n ies quite dr y ( L e a e i 44 8 , a nd iv 4 7 2 , co mp L uca n vi k , . . .
, .

l
and th e b a tt e w a s fo u gh t in th e h e igh t o f s umm e r ur th e r th e . F
l
a rm 1 es b e fo re th e b a tt e la y t h r e e m i e s a nd a h a f fr o m ea ch o th e r A p p ia n ,
( l l
B C ii
. . s o th a t th e Po m p e ia ns co u d m ak e a ll p re p a ra tio ns a nd a s o
. l l
l
p ro pe r y s e cur e th e co mm unica tio n with th e ir ca m p b y b r idge s H a d th e .

l
b a tt e ter m ina t e d in a co m p e te ro ut, no do ub t th e r e tre a t t o a nd o ve r th e l
l
rive r co u d no t h a ve b e e n e x e cute d, a nd do ub t e s s fo r th is re as o n Po m p e ius l
l l
o n y r e ucta nt y a gree d to fi gh t h e re l T h e e ft w in g o f th e Po m p e ia ns . l
w hich was th e m o s t r e m o te fr o m th e b a s e o f r e tre a t fe t th is ; b u t t h e l
r e tre a t a t l
e as t o f th e ir ce ntre a nd th e ir r ig h t w ing w a s no t a cco m p is h e d' l
in s uch h as te as to b e im p ra ctica b e under th e give n co nditio ns Ca e s ar l .

a nd h is co p y is ts a re s i e nt as to th e cro ssing o f th e riv e r l b e ca us e th is ,

l l l
w o u d p a ce in t o o c e ar a igh t th e e a ge rne s s for b a tt e o f th e P o m p e ia nsl l
a pp are nt o th er w ise from th e w h o e narra tive , a nd th ey ar e als o s ilent as l
to th e so nditio ns o f re t r e a t fa vo ura bk for th e se .
2 60 BR UNDI S I U M , I LE R D A , B OO Kv
d e ta ched to A e to li a and T hess aly now s tationed under ,

Qui ntus F ufi us Gale nus in Greece a nd the two legions of ,

Co rnificius which were sen t a fter h im by the l a nd rou te -

from I ta ly and had a lre a dy a rrived in I llyria The a rmy .

o f P o mp e ius nu m bering eleven legi o n s or

,
me n a nd
7 0 0 0 horse was mo re th a n double th a t of C a es a r in infa ntry
, ,

a nd seve n ti m es a s nu m erous in c avalry ; fa tigue a nd

conflic ts h a d so deci ma ted C a es a r s troops th at his eigh t
’
,

legions did no t nu mber m ore th a n m e n u nder a rms ,

c o nsequen tly no t nearly th e h alf of their nor mal a m oun t .

Th e victorious a rm y of P o mp e ius pr o vided wi th a coun tless

c a va lry a nd good mag azines ha d provisions in a bu nda nce ,

while th e troops of Ca e sa r had di ffi cul ty in keepi ng the m

selves a live a nd o nly hoped for be tter supplies from the
c o r n h a rves t no t fa r dis ta nt T h e Po mpei a n s o ldiers who
-
.
,

ha d le ar ned in th e l a s t ca m p a ign to kn o w w a r a nd tru st their

lea der we re in th e bes t of hu m our All mili tary rea s ons on
, .

th e side of P o mp e ius fa voured th e view th a t the decisive ,

b attle sh o uld no t be lo ng del ayed seeing that they now

"

c o nfr o n ted C a esa r in T hess a ly ; and th e e m igra n t i mpatience

of the ma ny ge nteel o fficers a nd others a cco m pa nying the
a rmy doub tless ha d more weigh t th a n even such re a sons in

the c o u ncil of war S ince th e even ts of Dyrrhachium these

.

l o rds reg a rded the triumph of their p ar ty a s a n a scertained

fa c t ; a lre a dy there w as e ager s trife a s to the filling up of
C a es a r s supre m e p o ntifica te a nd i ns truc ti o ns were sen t to
’
,

R o m e to hire houses at the Foru m for th e nex t elec tions .

When Po m p e ius hesi tated o n his p a r t to cross the rivule t

which sep a ra ted the two armies a nd which C aes a r wi th his

,

much we aker a r my did no t ve nture to p ass this exci ted ,

gre a t i ndig na ti o n ; Po mp e ius it wa s a lleged only del a yed

, ,

th e b a ttle in o r der to rule so m ewh a t lo nger over So m a ny

c on s ul a rs a nd pr a e tori a ns a nd to perpe tu a te his p ar t of

A g a m e m no n P o m p e ius yielded ; a nd C a es a r who u nder

.
,

the impression tha t m atters wo uld not co me to a battle had ,

 B R U N D I S I U M , I LER D A, BOO Kv
the field of b a ttle The victorious legion aries cut to pieces
.

th e enemy s a rchers now unpro tec ted the n rushe d at th e

’
,

left wi ng of the ene my and bega n now o n their p art to tur n,

it A t th e s a m e ti me C a es ar s third division hi therto t e

’
.

se ved a dva nced al o ng the whole line to the attack T he

r .

unexpec ted defe at of the bes t arm of th e P o mpei a n a rm y ,

a s it a ised th e coura ge of their o pponen t s broke th at of

r ,

th e a r m y and above all th a t o f th e genera l When .

P o m p e ius wh o fro m the ou tse t d id no t trus t his infantry

, ,

sa w th e horse m en g all o p o fi he r o de b a ck a t once from the

"
,

field o f b attle to th e c a m p withou t even aw a i ti ng the is sue ,

o f th e ge nera l a tta ck ordered by C a es a r H is legions bega n .

to wa ver a nd soon to re tire over th e brook in to th e c amp ,

which wa s no t a ccomplished wi thou t severe loss .

I t! issue . T h e day was thus los t a nd m a ny an able soldier had

fa lle n b ut the a rmy wa s s till subs tan tially in tact and th e
“

, ,

si tu a tion of Po mpe ius wa s fa r less perilous tha n th at of

C a es a r a fter the d efe at of D yrrha chium Biit while C a es ar .

in th e vicissi tudes of his de s tiny had le a rned th at fo rtune

l o ves to wi thd a w herself a t ce tai n m om en ts eve n from her
r r

fa vouri tes in o rder to be once m o re wo n b a ck through their

per severa nce P o mpe ius knew fo rtu ne hi therto o nly a s the
,

co ns tant goddes s a nd desp aired of hi m self a nd of her when

,

she wi thdrew fro m h im ; a nd while in C a esa r s gr ander ,

’

n a ture desp air only developed ye t m igh tier energies th e ,

i nferior s o ul of Po mpe ius under sim ila r pressure sa nk i nto

th e i nfini te a byss of despo n dency A s once in the w ar wi th .

S er torius he h a d been on the poi nt o f a b a ndoni ng the o ffi ce

69 7 , 1C 4 5 ; Ap p i
a es . 7 6 7 8 ; Fl ; O i 5
a n , ii. , or . ii . 1 2 ro s . v . 1 e rro n

e o us ly F ro ntinus , iv 7 , T h e a ne cdo tical tur n g iv e n to th is ins tructio n,

.

th a t th e P o m p e ia n h o r s e m e n w ere to b e b ro u h t t o run a w a y by th e fear g

o f r e ce ivin g
s ca r s in th e ir fa ce s , a nd th a t th e y a ctua y a o p e d o ff ho d ll g ll l
ing th e ir h a nds b e fore th e ir e ye s l
( P utar ch ), co a p se s o f its e f fo r it ll l
l
h as p o int o n y o n th e s upp o sitio n th a t th e Po m p e ia n ca va ry h a d co ns is t e d l
ll g
p rincip a y o f t h e y o un no b i ity o f R o m e , th e l r a ce fu da nce rs a nd g l
t his w as no t th e cas e (p A t th e m o st it m a y b e , th a t th e wit o f th e
.

ca m p g l j
a ve to th a t s im p e a nd udicio us military o r er this ver
y irra tio na l d
l
b ut ce rta in y co m ic tur n .
C H A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A P S US 2 63

e ntrus ted to him in presence of his superior oppo nen t a nd

of depa ti ng (iv r so now whe n he saw th e legi o ns re tire
.
,

over th e stre am he threw fro m h im th e fatal ge neral s sc arf

,
’
,

a n d rode o ff by th e ne a res t rou te to th e s ea to find m e a ns ,

of e m b arking th e re H is a r m y discoura ged and lea de less

. r

—fo r S cipio al th o ugh recog nized by P o m pe ius a s colle ague

,

in supre m e comma nd wa s ye t gener a l in chief o nly in n am e

,
- -

—hoped to find p o tecti o n behi nd th e c am p walls b ut

r -

C a e sa r all o wed it no rest ; the o bs ti na te resis ta nce of the

R o m a n a nd T h a ci n gu a rd o f th e c a m p was speedily over
r a

c o m e and the m a ss was com pelled to wi thdra w in dis o rder

,

to th e heigh ts o f Cra nno n a nd S co tussa a t the foo t of ,

which the c am p wa s pi tched I t a tte mp ted by m ovi ng .

fo rw ard a long these hills to rega in Laris a ; b ut the troops

of C a e sa r heedi ng nei ther bo o ty no r fa tigue and a dva ncing
,

by be tter p aths in the pl ain i ntercepted th e rou te of the ,

fugi tives ; in fa c t whe n l ate in the evening the P o mpei ans

,

su spe nded their m a rch their pursuers were a ble even to,

d a w a n en trenched line which preclu ded the fugi tives from

r

a ccess to th e o nly rivule t to be fo und in th e neighb o urhood .

S o ended th e day of P h a rs a lus T h e ene m y s arm y w a s

’
.

no t o nly defe a ted b ut a nnihil a ted ;, o f th e ene m y

lay de a d or w o u nded o n th e field of b a ttle while th e ,

C a es ari ans m issed only 2 0 0 me n th e body which re ma i ned

to ge ther a m oun ting s till to n e a rly
, m e n l a id dow n ,

their a r m s o n th e m orni ng a fter th e b attle ; o nly isol a ted

troops includi ng it is true th e o ffi cers of m os t n o te sough t

, , , ,

a refuge in th e m oun ta i ns ; of the eleven e a gle s of th e

ene my nine were ha nded over to C a e sa r C a es ar who o n .

,

th e very day o f th e b a ttle h a d re m i n ded th e soldiers th a t

they sh o uld no t fo ge t th e fell o w ci tizen in th e foe did no t

r -

tre at th e c a p t ive s as did B ibulus a nd La b ie nus ; ne ve rth e

less he to o found it necessa y no w to exe cise som e s everi ty r r .

T he co mm on s o ldiers were i nco p o a ted in th e a rmy fines r r ,

or co nfiscations of proper ty were i nfl ic ted on the men of

 BR UNDI S I U M ,
I L E R D A, B OO Kv
better rank ; the se nators and equites o f n o te who were
ta ken wi th few excep ti o ns su ffered de ath T he ti me for
, ,
.

cleme ncy was p a s t ; the l o nger th e civil war l a s ted the ,

more re mo sele s s a nd i mpl ac able it bec am e

r .

S o m e ti me el ap sed be fo re th e c o nseque nces of the 9 th

,

o f A ugus t 7 0 6 c o uld be fully discer ned What a d m i tted .

of le ast d o ub t w as th e p a ssi ng over to th e side of Ca es a r

,

of all those wh o h a d attached the m selves to th e par ty

v a n quished at P h a s alus m erely as to th e m ore po w erful ;
r

the defe at wa s so thoro ughly decisive th a t the vic to was , r

j oined by all who were no t willi ng o r were not obliged to

fight for a lost c a use All th e ki ngs people s a nd ci ties
.
, , ,

which ha d hi therto been th e clien ts of P o m p e ius now ,

recalled their n aval a nd m ili ta ry c o ntingen ts a nd decli ned to

receive the refugees of the be ate n p arty ; such a s Egyp t ,

Cyrene the com muni ties of S y i a P hoenici a Cilici a a nd

,
r , ,

A si a Mi nor R h o des A thens a nd generally th e whole e a s t

, , , .

I n fa c t Pha r na ce s king o f th e B o sp o rus pu shed his o flicio us

ness so far tha t on th e news of th e Ph a rs ali a n b attle he
,

took possession no t only of th e town o f Phana g o ria which

s eve ral ye a rs before h a d been decl a red free by P o m p e ius ,

and o f th e do minions of th e Colchi a n pri n ces co nfi m ed by r

him but even of th e ki ngdom of L i ttle Ar me ni a which

,

Po mpe ius had conferred on king D e io ta r us A l mo s t th e .

s ole e xcep tions to this gener al sub m ission were th e li ttl e

”

town of Meg ar a which a llowed i tself to be besieged a nd

storm ed by the C aes ari ans and J ub a ki ng of N u m idi a
, ,

w h o h a d for long expec ted a nd a fter th e vic to ry o ver

,

Curio expected o nly wi th a ll th e g eate ce tai nty th at r r r ,

his kingdom would be a nnexed by C a e sa nd w as thus r, a

obliged for better or for worse to a bide by the defe ated

party .

I n the same way as th e clien t co mmuni ties sub m i tted to

th e vic tor o f Ph a s a lus th e ta il o f th e co nsti tu ti o nal p ar ty
r ,

—all who had j o ined it wi th h alf a hear t or ha d eve n like ,

 BR UN DI S I U M , I L ER D A , B OO K v

m en tal re ser ation of thereby preserving the m sel es for a

v v

future ch a nge of thi ngs T his cou se w a s chiefly foll o wed. r

by the pa rti sa ns of les ser n o te ; b ut the a ble M a rcus

M arcellus th e s a me wh o had br o ugh t a b o ut th e rup ture
,

wi th C aes a r (p w a s to be found a m o ng these judici o us

.

pers o ns and volu ntarily b a ni sh ed hi m self to Lesbos I n th e .

m ajori ty h o weve of the genuine a is to cracy p a ssi o n w a s

,
r, r

m ore powe ful th n cool reflec ti o n ; al o ng wi th which no

r a

doubt self decep tions as to succe s s being s till p o s sible

,
-

a n d a pprehe n si o n s of th e i nevi ta ble ve nge a nce of th e vic tor

va riously co operated -
.

Cat o . N o one pr o b a bly form e d a j udgm en t a s to th e si tu a tion

of a ffa irs wi th so p a i nful a cle ar nes s a nd so free f o m fea r ,
r

or hope on his o wn a ccou nt as Ma rcus C a to Com ple tely , .

convi nced that a fter the days o f I le d n d P h a rsa lus th e r a r

m o na rchy w a s i nevi ta ble a nd m o r ally fi m en o ugh to ,

r

confes s to hi m self this bi tter t uth a nd to act in accorda nce r

wi th it he hesi tated fo r a m o m e nt whe ther th e co nstitu

,

tio nal p a r ty ough t a t all to co nti n ue a war which w o uld ,

necess a rily requi e sa crifices for a los t ca use o n the p a r t of

r

ma ny who did no t k no w why they o ff ered the m A nd .

whe n he res o lved to figh t ag ai ns t th e m o na chy no t fo r r

vic tory but for a sp e edier a nd m o re h o no ura ble fall he

, ,

y e t sough t a s far a s p o s sible to d a w no o ne i nto this wa r r ,

who chose to survi e th e fall o f the repub lic a nd to be

v

rec o nciled to m o na rchy H e c o nceived th a t so l o ng as.

,

th e republic h a d bee n m e ely thre a te n ed it w a s a righ t r ,

a nd a d uty to c o m pel th e lukewa r m a nd ba d ci tize n to

ta ke p a r t in th e st uggle ; b ut th a t now it w as se ns ele ss

r

a nd cruel to c o m pel th e i ndi idu l to s h a re th e ruin o f th v a e

l o s t r e public N o t o nly did he hi m self disch ge eve ry o ne

. ar

w h o de s i ed to re tu n t o I ta ly
r b ut whe n th e wilde st o f th e
r

wild p a rti sa ns Gna eus P o m pe ius th e y o u nger i nsi sted o n

, ,

th e execu ti o n o f the s e pe o ple a nd o f Cicer o in p ar ticul a r .

it w a s C a to a l o ne who by his m o al a u tho i ty p eve nted it r r r .

CH A P. x PH A R S AL US , A N D T H A PS US
P o mp e ius lso had no desire for peace H a d he been P mp iu
a . o e s.

a man who deserved to hold th e po si tio n which he

occupied we m igh t suppose him to h ave percei ed th at
,
v

he who a spires to a crown c a n not return to the beaten

tra ck of ordin a ry exi stence a nd th at there is a ccordi ngly
,

no pl ace left on e ar th for one who has fa iled B ut .

P o mp e ius was h ardly too noble m i nded to a sk a favour -

which the victor would h ave been perh a ps magn animous

en o ugh not to refuse to him ; on the con tra ry he was ,

proba bly too m ea n to do so Whe ther it was th at he .

coul d not m ake up his m in d to trus t hi m self to C a es a r or ,

th at in h is usu al v a gue a n d undeci d ed way a fter the first ,

i m medi ate impression of the dis as ter of Ph a rs alus had

v anished be began again to cherish hope P ompe ius was
, ,

res olved to con tinue th e s truggle aga inst Ca es ar a nd to

seek fo r hi m self ye t a no ther b attle fi eld after th at o f -

P h ars a lus .

T hus however m uch C a es a r ha d s triven by prudence M ilit y

, ar

a nd m odera tion to a ppe a se th e fury of his Opponen ts a nd

£ 11 32
to lessen t heir nu m ber th e s truggle never theles s we nt on
,

withou t alteration B ut the le a ding me n ha d al m os t all Th

. e

ta ken p a r t in the figh t a t P h a rs alus a nd a l th o ugh they a ll

Lti ia
a t
,
e
escaped wi th th e excep tion of L ucius D o m i tius A he nobarb us ,

who wa s killed in the fl igh t they were ye t sca ttered in all

,

direc tions so th at they were un able to concert a comm on

,

pla n for th e con ti nua nce o f the cam p aign Mos t of the m .

foun d their way p ar tly through the desol a te m oun tains of

,

M ace doni a a nd I llyri a p artly by the a id of the flee t to

, ,

Corcyra where M a rcus C a to com ma nded the reserve left

,

behind H ere a sor t of council of w ar to o k pl a ce under

.

th e presidency of C a to a t which Me tellus S cipi o T i tus

, ,

L a bie nus Lucius A fra nius G na eus P o m p e ius th e you nger

, ,

and o thers were present ; but th e a bse n ce of th e co m ma nder

in chief a nd th e p a inful uncer ta i nty a s to his fa te a s well

-

as the in tern a l dissensions of the ar ty re ented the

p p v ,
 BR UNDI S I UM , I L ER D A, BOO Kv
a dop tion of any co mmo n res o lution a nd ul tima tely e ach ,

t o ok the course which see med to him th e m o s t sui ta ble for

himself or for the co mm o n c au s e I t was in fa ct in a h igh .

deg ree difficul t to say am ong the ma ny s traws to which

they m igh t pos s ibly cling which wa s th e one th a t w o ul d

keep lo nges t above wate r.

Ma cedonia a nd Greece were los t by the b attle o f

P h a rs a lus I t is true th a t C a to who h a d i m m edi a tely
.
,

o n th e new s of th e defe a t ev a cu a ted D yrrh ach iu m s till ,

held C o rcyra and R utilius Lupus the P elop o nne s us duri ng

, ,

a ti m e fo r the c o n s ti tu tio na l p a r ty For a m o men t it .

seem ed also a s if th e P om pei a ns would ma ke a s ta nd

a t P atra e in th e P el o p o n nesus b ut th e a ccou nts o f the
a d a nce of Cale nus su fficed to frigh ten the m f o m th a t
v r

qu a rter A s li ttle was there any a tte mp t to ma in tain

.

C o rcyra On the I tali a n a nd S icilia n coa s ts th e P o mpeia n

.

s qu a d o n s desp a t ched thi ther a fter th e vic to ries o f D y r ha

r r

chiu m ( p 2 5 8 ) h a d a chieved no t uni mporta n t s uccesses

.

a g a in st th e port s of B rundisiu m, Mess a na a nd Vibo a nd ,

a t Mes sa n a especi a lly h a d burnt the whole fl ee t in cour s e

of bei ng fi tted o ut fo r C a e sa r ; but the ships that were

thus a c tive m o s tly fro m A si a Mi nor a nd S yri a were
, ,

r ec alled by their co mm uni tie s in c o ns eque nce o f the

Ph a rs a li a n b attle so th a t th e expedi tio n c a m e to a n end
,

Th e cas t. of i tself I n A si a Mi no r a nd S y ia t here were a t the

. r

m om e nt no troops of ei ther p a rty wi th the excep ti o n o f ,

the B o spora n a m y o f Ph arnace s which h a d ta ken p o s se s

r

s io n os tensibly o n C a e sar s a ccou nt o f di fferen t egions

’
,
r
,

bel o ngi ng to his o pp o ne nts I n Egypt there wa s s till.

i ndeed a co nsider a ble R o ma n a r m y form ed of the t o ops ,

r

left behi nd there by Gab inius ( iv 4 5 2 ) and the ea fter . r

recruited fro m I ta li a n vag a nt s and S yria n o Cilici a n

r r

b andi tti b ut it wa s self eviden t a nd was soon officia lly

-

co nfirmed by th e reca ll o f th e Egyp ti a n vessel s th at the ,

court of Alex a ndri a by no m e a n s h a d th e in ten tion of

 BR UNDI S I U M , I L E R D A, B OO Kv
in the m oun ta ins a nd on the se a s a nd especia lly n atural
,

for the m to take up pira cy on a gre ater sc ale wi th m o re ,

co mp a ct orga niz a tio n and wi th m ore defi ni te a i m s Even

, .

a fter the rec all of th e squ a dron s th a t h a d co m e fro m th e

ea s t they still possessed a very consider able fl ee t of their

own while Ca esa r wa s a s ye t vir tu ally wi thout vessels o f
,

wa r ; a nd their connection wi th th e D a lm a ta e w h o h ad
risen in their own in teres t aga ins t C aes ar (p 2 a nd their
.

control over th e m os t i mp o rta n t se as and sea p o rt s pre ,

sen ted the most a dva ntageous pro spec ts for a n a val war ,

especi ally on a s mall scale A s fo m erly S ull a s hu nting

. r
’

out of the de mocra ts ha d ended in the S e rto ria n insurre c

ti o n which w a s a c o n flic t first w aged by pir a tes a nd then
,

by robbers and ul ti mately becam e a very seriou s war so ,

possibly if there was in the C ato nia n aristocra cy or a m ong

,

th e a dhere nts o f P o mp e ius as m uch spiri t a nd fire as in

th e M a ri a n de m ocr a cy a nd if there was fou n d a m ong

,

the m a true s e a ki ng a c o mm o nwe al th independen t of

-

th e m on a rchy of C a es a r a nd perh a ps a m atch fo r it m igh t

a rise on th e s till u nconquered se a .

Parth ia n F ar m ore serious dis a pprova l in every respec t is due to

th e ide a of dr a ggi ng a n i ndependen t n eighbouring s ta te in to

th e R o ma n civil w ar a nd of bri nging a bout by its m e a n s

a coun ter revolu tion ; la w a nd co nscie nce conde m n th e
-

deser ter m ore severely th a n the robber and a victori o us ,

b a nd of robbe s fi nds its way ba ck to a free and well

r

ordere d c o m m o nweal th more ea sily tha n the e m igra n ts

who a re conducted b ack by the public fo e B esides it .

w a s sc a rcely prob a ble th a t th e be aten p a r ty would be

a ble to e ff ec t a res tor a ti o n in this w a y T he o nly s ta te

.
,

fro m which they could a tte m p t to seek support w a s th at ,

of th e P a rthi ans a nd a s to this it was at le a s t d o ub tful

whe ther it would m ake their c a use its own a nd very ,

im prob ab le th a t it would figh t o ut th a t c ause ag ain st

Cae sa r .
C H A P. x PH A R SA L US , A N D TH A PS U S

T he ti me for republica n conspira cies had not ye t

come .

Wh ile the re mn a n t of the defe ated p a rty thus allowed C a es ar

m
the m selves to be helplessly d riven a bou t by fa te a nd eve n
p ues
P m p iu
,
o e s

those who h a d de ter m ined to continue th e s truggle knew t Eg yp t o .

no t how or where to do so Ca es a r quickly as ever

, ,

resolving and quickly a cting l a id everything a si de to

pursue P o m pe ius —the o nly one of his opponen ts whom
,

he respec ted as an offi cer a nd the one whose person al

,

cap ture woul d h a ve prob ably p aralyzed a h alf a nd th at ,

perha ps th e more d angerous h alf of his opponents Wi th .

a few m e n he crossed the H ellespont —his single b a rk

,

e ncoun tered in it a fl ee t of th e enemy d es tine d fo r th e

B l a ck S e a an d to ok th e whole crews s truck a s with

, ,

stupefa ction by the news of the battle of P h arsa lus ,

prisoners — a nd as soon as the m os t necess ary prep ar a

tions were made h a s tened in pursuit of Pompe ius to the
,

e a st. T h e l a t ter h a d gone fro m the P ha rs ali a n b a ttle

fiel d to L esbo s whence he brought a wa y his wife and
,

his second son S extus and had s ailed onward round

,

A si a Minor to Cilici a a nd thence to Cyprus H e m ight .

h ave joined his p a r tisa ns at Corcyra or Afric a b ut

re p lig na nce tow a rd his a ris tocr atic a llies a nd the though t

o f th e recep tion which a w a i ted him there a fter the day

of Ph ars alus a nd above all a fter his disgra ceful fl igh t ,

a pp ea r to h a ve induced him to ta ke his own course a nd

ra ther to resor t to th e protection of the Pa rthi a n king

th a n to th a t o f C a to While he was e mployed in
.

collec ting m oney a nd slaves fro m the R om a n revenue

fa rmers a nd m erch a n ts in Cyprus and in a rming a b a nd ,

of 2 0 0 0 sl aves he received news th at A n ti o ch had

,

decl ared for Ca esar a nd that the route to the Parthi a n s

w as no l o nger open S o b e a l tered his pl a n a nd s a iled
.

to Egyp t where a nu m ber of his old soldiers served in

,

th e army and th e si tu a tio n a nd ric h resources of th e

 BR U N D I S I UM , I LE R D A , BOO K V

c o un try a llowed h im ti m e a nd O ppor tuni ty to reo g anize r

th e w a r .

In E gyp t a fter the dea th o f P tole ma eus Aule tes ( M ay

,

7 0 3) his children Cleop a tra a b o u t six teen ye a rs of ag e a nd

,

P tole m a eus D i o ny s us ab o u t te n ha d a scended th e thro ne

,

a cc o rdi ng to their fa ther s will j o i ntly a nd a s cons o r ts b ut

’
,

soon the brother or ra ther his gu a rdi a n P o thi nus ha d d iven r

the sis ter fro m the kingdom a nd c o m pelled her to s eek a

refuge in S yri a whence she ma de prep arati o ns to g e t b a ck
,

to her p atern a l ki ngd o m P to le ma eus a nd P o thinus lay

.

with the whole Egyp ti a n a m y at Pe lusium fo r th e s ake

r

of pro tecti ng the ea s tern fro ntier aga i ns t her j us t whe n ,

P o m p e ius c a s t a nchor a t th e C a si a n p o m o ntory and se nt r

a reques t to th e king to a ll o w h im to l a nd Th e Egyp ti a n .

court long i nfor m ed of the di sas ter a t P h a rs a lu s wa s on

, ,

th e p o in t of refusi ng to receive P o m p e ius b ut th e ki ng s ’

tu tor T heodo tus pointed o ut tha t in th a t c a se P o mp e ius

would pr o b ably e mploy his c o nne c ti o ns in the Egyp ti a n

a r my to ins tig a te rebellion ; a nd th a t it would be s a fer ,

a nd a lso prefer a ble wi th reg ard to C a es a r if they embra ced ,

the o ppor tuni ty of making a wa y wi th P o m p e ius P oli tical .

rea s o ni ngs of this sort did no t rea dily fa il of their effect

a m ong th e s tates m en of th e H ellenic world .

A chill a s th e general of th e roy al tro o ps a nd so m e of the

for m er soldiers of P o mp e ius wen t o ff in a bo a t to his vessel ;
a nd invi ted him to co m e to th e ki ng a nd a s th e w a ter wa s ,

sh all o w to en ter their ba rge A s he w as s teppi ng a sh o re

,
.
,

th e m ili ta ry tribu n e L ucius S e p tim ius s tabbed h im fro m

behind under the eyes of his wife a nd so n who were
, ,

co m pelled to be S pec ta to rs of th e m urder from the deck

of their vessel wi thou t being a ble to rescue or reve nge
,

2 8 S ep t O n th e s a m e da y o n which thir teen

( .
,

ye a rs before he ha d e nte ed th e c api ta l in triu mph over

r

M ithra date s (iv th e ma n who fo r a ge ner a tion h a d

.
,

be e n ca lled th e Gre at a nd for ye ars h a d ruled R o me ,

 2 74 BR U ND I S I U M , I L ERDA, o
B ox v

wi th the ruler s death The death of Po mp eius did not

’
.

bre a k up the Pompei a ns but gave to them ins tead of an

,

a ged ,
incapable a nd worn out chief in his sons Gn aeus
,
-

a nd S ex tus tw o le a ders both of who m were young and

,

a c tive a nd th e second w a s a m a n of d ecide d c ap a ci ty .

T o th e newly founded heredi ta ry m on archy here d i tary

-

pre tendership attached itself at once like a p ara site and ,

it w a s very doub tful whether by this ch a nge of person s

Caes a r did not lose m ore th an he g ained .

Caesar Mea nwhile in Egyp t Caes a r h ad now nothing further to

do and the R o ma ns and th e Egyp ti a ns expec ted th at he
,

would i mm edi ately set s ail a nd apply hims e lf to th e sub

juga tion of A frica a nd to th e huge ta sk of orga niza tion
,

which aw aited him a fter the victory B ut Ca esar fa i thful .

to his cus to m —wherever he found hi m self in the wide

e mpire — o f fin ally regul ati ng m atters at once and in
person a nd firmly convinced th at no resis ta nce was to
,

be expected ei ther from the R o m n ga rrison or fr o m the a

court being m oreover in urge nt pecuni ary e mb arra ss m en t

, , , ,

l a nded in A lexa ndria with th e two amalgamated legions

a cco m p a nying h im to th e nu m ber of 32 0 0 m e n and 8 0 0

C el tic and Ger ma n cav a lry took up his quarters in the ,

royal p al a ce a nd proceeded to collect the necessa ry sum s

,

of m oney a nd to regula te the Egyp ti a n succession wi thou t ,

a llowing hi m self to be dis turbed by th e s aucy re ma rk of

P o thinus th a t C a e sa r should no t for such pe tty m att ers

neglec t his o wn so i m porta n t affa irs I n his de ali ng wi th .

the E gyp tia ns he wa s jus t a nd even indulgen t A l though .

th e a id which they h a d give n to P o mp e ius jus tifi ed the

i mposi ng of a war con tribu tion the exh aus ted l and w as ,

sp a red from this ; and while th e a rrea rs of the sum

,

s tipul a ted for in 6 9 5 (iv 4 5 1 ) a nd since then only a bou t

.

ha lf p a id were re m i tted there wa s required m erely a fin al

,

pa yment of dena n z T he belli

’ '

gerent bro ther a nd sis ter were enjoined i m medi ately to

ca n . x PHA R S AL U S , AN D TH A P S U S 2 75

suspend hostili ties a nd were in i ted to h ave their dispute

,
v

i nvestigate d a nd decided before the arbi ter T hey sub .

mitte d ; th e roy al boy w as alre a dy in th e p al a ce a nd

Cleop a tra also presente d herself there C a es ar a dj udged
.

the kingdo m of Egyp t a gree a bly to th e

, tes tament of
A ule tes to the in ter m arried bro ther a nd sis ter Cleop atra
,

a nd P tole ma eus D ionysus a nd further g a ve un a sked the

,

kingdom of Cypru s — cancelling the e arlier act of a nnexa

tion (iv 4 50 ) — as the a pp an age of the second born of
.
-

Egypt to the younger children of A ulete s A rsinoe a nd ,

P tolem a eus th e younger .

B ut a s tor m wa s secretly prep aring A lexa ndri a w as I

.
r nsu rec

a cos m opoli ta n ci ty as well as R ome h ardly inferior to figg g

, g
th e I tali a n c a pi tal in th e nu mber of its inh a bi ta n ts far ,

superior to it in stirring c o mmerci al spirit in skill of ,

han d icraft in taste for science a nd art : in the ci tizens

,

there was a lively sense of their own n ation al i mporta nc e ,

a nd if there was no poli tic a l senti m en t there w a s at a ny

, ,

rate a turbulent spiri t which induced the m to indulge in

,

their street riots as regul arly and as he artily as the Pa risi ans
of the present day : one may conceive their feelings when ,

they saw the R om an gener al ruling in the p al a ce of the

La g ids and their kings a ccep ting the a w ard o f his tribun a l .

P o thinus and the boy king bo th a s m ay be conceived ve ry

-

d issatisfied a t once wi th the peremp tory requisi tion of old

deb ts and wi th the in terven tion in the throne dispute which -

coul d only issue as it did in fa vour of Cleop atra sent—in

, ,

ord er to p a cify the R om a n de man d s —the tre asures of the

,

templ e s a nd the gold plate of th e ki ng wi th in ten tion a l

os tentati o n to be mel ted at the mint ; wi th incre asing
indign ation the Egyp ti a ns — who were pious even to
s upers ti tion a nd who rejoiced
, in the world renowned
m ag nificence of their court as if it were a possession of
their own — beheld the ba re walls of their te mples a nd
the wooden cu ps on the ta ble of their king Th e R om an.
 BR U ND I S I U M , I L ER D A , BOO K v

a r my of occup a ti o n a l so which h a d been essen ti a lly

,

de na ti o naliz e d by its l o ng a bode in Egyp t a nd the m a ny

in ter marri a ges betwee n the o ldie s a nd Egyp ti a n women
s r
,

a nd which m o reover n u m bered a m ul ti tude of th e old

soldiers of P o m pe ius a nd u na way I ta li a n cri m i nals a nd

r

sl aves in its ra nks was indig na nt a t C a es ar by wh o se

, ,

orders it ha d been o bliged to suspe nd its a cti o n on the

S yri a n fron tier a nd a t his h a ndful of h a ugh ty legi o naries
, .

Th e tu m ul t eve n t th e l a nding whe n th e m ul ti tu de saw

a ,

th e R o m a n a xes c a ied in to th e o ld p a l a ce a nd th e
rr ,

nu mer o us c a ses in which his s o ldiers were a ss a s si na ted

in the ci ty ha d ta ugh t C a es a r th e i mm e nse d a nger in
,

which he wa s pl a ced wi th his s mall force in presence o f

th a t ex a spe a ted m ul ti tude
r B ut it w a s di ffi cul t to re turn
.

on a ccou nt o f th e no r th w e s t winds preva ili ng at this sea son

-

of th e ye a r a nd th e a tte m pt at e m b ark ation m igh t e sily

,
a

beco m e a sign al for the o u tbreak of th e i nsurrec tion ;

besides it was no t th e na ture of C ae sa r to take his
,

depa rture wi th o u t h a i ng a ccomplished his wo k H e

v r .

a ccordi ngly ordered up a t once rei nfo rce m e nts fr o m A si a ,

and m e a nwhile ,till these a rrived ma de a sh o w o f th e ,

u tmos t self p o sse ssi o n N ever was there g reater ga ie ty

-
.

in his c a mp th a n during this res t at A lexa ndri a ; a nd

while the bea u tiful a nd clever Cleop atra was no t sp ari ng
of her ch a r ms in ge nera l and le a s t of all towards her ju dge ,

Ca es ar a lso appe ared a mo ng all his vic tories to va lue mo s t

those won over be a u tiful wo m e n I t w a s a m e y prelude
. rr

to gra ver scenes U nder the lea dership of A chill a s a nd

.
,

a s w as a fterw a rds p oved by th e sec e t o rders of th e ki ng

r ,
r

a nd his gu a rdi a n th e R om a n a r m y of o ccup a ti on s ta tioned

,

in Egyp t a ppe a ed u nexpec tedly in A lexa ndria ; a nd a s

r

soon as the citize ns sa w th at it ha d co m e to atta ck C a esar ,

they ma de co mm on ca use wi th th e s o ldiers .

Caesar in Wi th a pr e sence of m ind which in so me m e a sure ,

jus tifie s his earlier fo o lha rdi nes s C a es a r has tily collec te d
,
2 78 BR U N D I S I UM , I L ERDA, B OO Kv
th e e a st h arbour while the m o le and the wes t harbour were
,

in possession of the ci tizens ; and a s the Alexa ndri a n ,

fl eet w a s burnt his vessels s a iled in a nd o ut wi thou t

,

hindrance T he Alexa ndri a ns a fter havi ng va i nly at

.
,

te mpted to introduce fi re ships fro m th e wes tern in to th e -

e a s tern h arbour equipped wi th the re mn ant of their a rse nal

,

a s ma ll squ a dron a nd wi th this blocked up th e w ay of

C a es a r s vessels when these were towing in a fl ee t o f

’
,

tra nsports wi th a legion th at had a rrived from As ia Mi nor

b ut the excelle nt R h o di a n m ari ners of C a es a r ma s tered the
enemy N o t long a fterwards however the citize ns
.
, ,

c ap tured th e lighth o use isl and a nd from th at poin t to tally

1 -

closed the n arrow and rocky m ou th of the e a s t h arbour for

la rger ships ; so th at C a es a r s fl ee t was compelled to take ’

its s ta tion in the open ro a ds before th e e as t ha rbour a nd ,

his com munic ation wi th the se a hu ng o nly on a we a k

thread C aes ar s flee t attacked in th at roa ds te a d repeatedly
.
’
,

by the superior n aval force of the ene my could nei ther ,

shun the unequ al s trife since the loss o f th e ligh thou se ,

isl an d closed th e inne h a rbour aga i ns t it nor ye t wi thdra wr , ,

for the loss of the roa ds te a d woul d h ave deb arred C a esa r
wholly from the se a T hough the brave legion aries .
,

supported by the dexteri ty of th e R hodi an s a ilors ha d ,

a lwa ys hitherto decided these c o n fl ic ts in fa vour of th e

R o ma ns the A lex a n d i a ns renewed a nd a ug m

, en te d theirr

n a val a r mamen ts wi th unwearied persevera n ce the besieged

h a d to figh t as ofte n a s it ple ased th e besieger s a nd if th e ,

former should be on a si ngle o cca sion v a nquished C a esa r ,

would be to tally he mm ed in a nd prob a bly los t .

I t was a bsolu tely necess a ry to ma ke a n a ttemp t to

recover the lig h th o use isla nd Th e d o uble attack which .
,

Th l
1
f th l igh th
e os s oi l dm th e f ll t wh th i
o use - s a n us a ve a en ou , e re ere s
f th i l d w
'
n w
o h m (B A
a c as . i f t t fi t i C
.
p w
or e s an as n ac a rs n ae sa r s o er

( B C iii
.
; B A
. . Th m l m t h
1 2 . b . t ly i th e o e us a ve ee n co ns ta n n e

p w
o f th
er o my f C h ld i
e e ne with th i l d nly by
, or a esa r e nterco ur s e e s an o
ship s .
ca n ». it PH A R S A L US , AN D TH A PS U S 2 79

was ma deby boa ts from th e side of the h a rbour and by

th e wa ves s els fro m th e se abo a d in re ali ty brough t no t
r -
r ,

o nly th e isl a nd but a lso the lower p a r t of th e mole in to

C a es a r s power ; it was only at the secon d a rch o pening o f

’
-

the m o le th a t C a es a r ordered th e atta ck to be s topped a nd ,

th e m ole to be there closed tow a rds the ci ty by a tr a nsve se r

wall B ut while a violent con fl ic t a r o se here a ro und the

.

en trenchers th e R o ma n troops left the lower p ar t of th e

,

m ole a djoi ni ng th e isl a nd b a re of defe nders ; a division of

Egyp ti a ns l a nded there unexpec tedly a tta cked in the re a r ,

the R o m a n soldiers a nd s a ilors crowde d toge ther o n th e

m ole a t th e t a nsverse w all a nd drove th e whole m a s s in
r ,

wil d confusi o n i nto th e se a A p a rt were taken on boa rd

.

by th e R o m a n ships the mo s t were drowned S om e 4 0 0 .

soldiers and a s till gre ater nu m ber of m e n belongi ng to the

fl ee t were s acrificed on this day the genera l hi m self w ho ,

h a d sh a re d th e fa te of his m e n ha d been obliged to seek ,

refuge in his ship and when this s a nk from h aving be e n

,

overloa ded wi th me n he had to s ave hi m self by swi m mi ng

,

to a n o ther But severe as w a s th e loss su ff ered it w as

.
, ,

a mply co m pens a ted by th e recovery of th e ligh thouse isl a nd -

which a l o ng wi th the mole as far as the firs t a rch ope ni ng -

re ma ined in th e h a nds of Ca esa r .

A t leng th th e longed for relief arrived M ith ra date s o f R li ing

-
. e ev

P erg a mus a n a ble wa rrior of th e scho o l of M ithra da te s m

g
y
,

E up a to r whose n a tural son he cl ai m ed to be brough t up M i

, , nor.

by la nd from S yria a mo tley a r my—th e I tyrae a ns of the

prince of th e Liba nus (iv 4 th e B edouins of j a m blichus
. 2 ,

son of S a mpsice ra mus (iv th e j ews under th e m i nis ter

.

t ntipa te r a nd th e con tinge nts ge nera lly of th e pe tty chiefs

,

a nd co mm uni ties of Cilici a a nd S yri a From P e lusium .

,

which M ithra da te s ha d th e fortune to occupy on the da y

of his a rriva l he to o k th e gre at roa d towa rds Me m phis
,

wi th the view o f a voiding th e i nte sec ted gro u nd of the r

D el ta and cro s sing the N ile befo re its d ivision ; duri ng

 BR UN DI S I U M , I L E R D A, B oo x v

which m ove me nt his tro ops received m ni fold su ppo rt fr o m a

th e J ewi s h pe a s a nts w h o were se ttl e d in peculi a r nu m b e rs

in this p a t o f Egyp t T he Egyp ti a ns wi th th e yo r n g ki ng
r .
,

P tolem a eus no w a t their hea d wh o m C a es a r h a d ele a ed

,
r s

to h is people in th e a i n hope of a ll a yi ng th e i nsu rec ti o n

v r

by his mea ns de sp a tched an a r m y to th e N ile to detai n

, ,

M ithra date s on its fa r ther b a nk T his a r m y fell in wi th th e

.

e ne my even beyon d Me m phis at the so c alled J ews ca mp -

’
-

be tween Onion a nd H eli o polis never thel e ss M ithra da te s ,

t a ined in th e R o ma n fa shio n of ma n oeuvri ng a nd e n

r

cam pi ng amids t successful co nflicts g a ined th e o pp o si te

,

b nk at Me mphis C a e sa r on th e o ther h a nd a s s o o n a s
a .
, ,

he ob ta i ned news of th e arriva l o f the relie i ng a my v r ,

c o nveyed a p a rt o f his tro o ps in ships to the e nd of th e

l ake of M are a to the wes t of A lexandri a a nd marched ,

round this l ake a nd dow n the N ile to mee t M ithra date s

a dva n cing up th e river .

Th e junc tion took pl a ce wi thout th e ene m y a tte mp ti ng

to hi nder it C a e sa r the n m a ched i nto th e D el t whi the
. r a, r

th e ki ng h a d re tre a ted overthrew n o twi ths tan di ng th e

, ,

deeply cut c anal in their f o nt th e Egyp tia n v a ngu a rd a t

r ,

th e firs t o n se t a nd i m m edi a tely s to r m ed th e Egyp ti a n

,

camp i tself I t lay at th e fo o t of a risi ng ground be twee n

.

th e N ile — fro m which o nly a n arr o w p a th s ep ara ted it

a nd m a she s di fficul t o f a cce s s
r C a es a c used th e c am p
. r a

to be a ss a iled si m ul ta neou s ly f o m th e f o nt a nd fr o m th e
r r

fl a nk o n th e p a th along th e N il e ; a nd duri ng thi s a ss aul t

orde ed a thi d de ta ch m e nt to as cend u ns e en th e heigh ts
r r

behi nd th e cam p T h e icto y w a s c o m ple te ; the c am p

. v r

w a s taken a nd th ose o f th e Egyp ti a ns wh o did no t fa ll

,

be nea th the swo rd of th e ene my wer e dr o wned in th e

a tte m pt to esc a pe to th e flee t o n th e N ile Wi th o ne of .

th e bo ats ,
which s ank o verl a de n wi th m e n th e yo ung ,

ki ng a lso disa ppe a re d in th e w ater s of his nati e s tre a m v .

I mmedia tely a fter th e b a ttle C a e sa r a dvanced at the

 BR UN DI S I UM , I L E R D A, o
B ox v

C o urs e o f T his Alexandri an insurrection insignifica n t as it wa s in ,

th ings
during i tself a nd sligh t as wa s its i ntri nsic c o nnection w i th the
’
C a es ar s eve nts of i mportance in th e world s hi story which took ’

a b s e nce in

Alexa ndr ia .
pla ce at the s a m e ti m e in th e R o m a n s tate ha d neve rth e ,

less s o far a m ome nto us influe nce on the m that it co mpelled

th e m a n who w a s a ll in all a nd wi th o u t who m no thi ng
,

could be desp a tched a nd n o thing c o uld be s o lved to le a v : ,

48. his proper ta sks in abeya nce from Oc tober 7 0 6 up to

M a rch 7 7 in orde to figh t a long wi th J ews and B edoui ns
0 r

a g a ins t a ci ty r a bble T h e c o n sequences of person al rule

.

bega n to make the m selves fel t T hey h ad the m o n archy ;.

b ut the wildes t c o nfusion preva iled everywhere a nd th e ,

m o n arch wa s a bse nt T h e C ae sa ri a ns were for th e

.

m o m en t j us t like th e P o mpei a ns wi thou t superin te ndence ;

, ,

th e a bili ty of th e i n dividu a l o ffi cers a nd a bove a ll a ccident , ,

decided matte s everywhere

r .

s I n A si a Mi no r there w a s a t the ti m e O f C a es a r s de
’
I n ub or ‘

,
dina tio n o f
Ph arnaces .
p a rture fo r Egypt no ene m y But C a es ar s lieu ten ant
, .
’

there the a ble Gn a eu s D om i tius Calvinus h a d received

, ,

o de s to take a w a y aga i n fro m ki ng Pharnace s wh a t he

r r

ha d wi thou t i ns truc tions wre s ted fro m the a llies of

P o m p e ius a nd a s P h ar na ce s a n obs ti na te a nd a rrog a nt
, ,

despot like his fa ther perseveringly refused to eva cu ate

,

L esser A r meni a no cour s e re m a i ned but to m a ch a ga i ns t

,
r

h im . Calvinus h a d bee n o bliged to desp a tch to Egyp t two

o ut of th e th ee legions left behi nd wi th him a nd for m ed
r

o ut of the P h a rs a li a n pris o ners of w a ; he filled up th e r

g p
a by one legi on h a stily g a thered fr o m th e R om a n s
d o m iciled in P o n tus a nd two legi o ns o f D e io ta us ex e rci sed r

a fter R o ma n ma nn er a nd a dva n ced in to L esser

‘

th e ,

A r m eni a . B ut th e B o sp o ra n a r m y tried in nu m er o u s ,

c o nflic ts wi th the dwellers on th e Bl ack S e a showed i tself ,

m o re e ffi cie nt th a n his o w n .

I n a n e ng ge m en t a t N icop o lis th e P o ntic le vy of Cal

a

v inus was Gil t to pieces and the G al ati an legio ns ra n o ff ; only

CH A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A P S US 2 83

th e o ne o ldlegion of th e R o m a ns fough t its w ay th o ugh r

wi th modera te loss .I ns te a d of co n queri ng L esser A r m e ni a ,

Calvinus could not eve n preve n t Ph a nace s fro m repossess r

ing hi mself of his P o ntic heredi ta ry s ta tes a nd p o uring

“
,
”

for th th e whole vi a ls o f his horrible sulta nic c aprices o n

their inh a bi ta n ts especi ally th e unh a ppy A mise ne s ( win ter
,

of 7 0 6 When C a es a r in perso n arrived in A sia 484 7 .

Min o r and i nti mated to him th at the service which

P h arna ce s h a d re n dered to him person ally by h avi ng
gra n ted no help to Po mp e ius could no t be ta ke n i nto
a ccou nt ag a ins t th e i njury i nfl ic ted o n th e e m pire a nd ,

th a t before a ny n ego ti a tion he m us t ev a cu ate th e province

of Pontus a nd send b a ck th e property which he h a d
pillaged he decl a red hi m self doub tless rea dy to sub m it ;
,

never theless well k nowi ng how good rea son C a e sa r ha d for

,

h a s te ning to the wes t he m a de no serious p ep a a ti o ns fo r

,
r r

the ev a cu a tio n . H e did no t know th a t C a es ar finished

wh a tever he took in h a nd Wi thou t ne go ti a ti ng further
.
,

C aes ar to ok wi th him th e one legion which he brough t

from Alex a ndri a a nd th e troops of Ca lvinus and D e io ta us r ,

a nd a dva nced a g a i nst the c a m p of P h arnace s a t Z iel a .

When th e B o sp o rans saw h im appro a ch they boldly Vi t y f , c or o

cro ssed the deep o un ta i ravine which covered their

m n -
“ 9

fron t a nd ch arged the R om a ns up the hill C a es a r s

,
.
’

soldiers were s till occupied in pi tchi ng their c am p and the ,

ra nks wa vered fo r a m om en t but the ve tera ns a ccus to m e d

to war r a pidl y r a llied a nd s e t th e ex a m ple for a gener a l

a tta ck a nd fo r a co m ple te vic tory

( 2 Au
g 7 0 7
) I n five 47
.
.

days the c amp a ign was e nded — an inv alu able piece of
good fo rtu ne a t this ti m e when every hour was precious
, .

C a es a r e ntrus ted th e pursui t of the king who h a d g o ne R eg flafl on

,
i

ii/iiiig:
i
h o m e by wa y of S i n ope to P har na ce s illegi ti m ate bro ther
’
, ,

th e bra ve M ith rada te s of P erga m us who a s a rewa r d for th e

,

services rende red by him in Egyp t received the crown of

the B osporan king dom in roo m of P ha rnace s I n o ther .
 2 84 BR UN DI S I U M , I LE R D A , B OO K v

respects the a ffa irs o f S yri a a nd A si a Minor were pe a cefully

s e ttled ; C a es a r s own a llies were richly rew a rded those of
’
,

P o m pei a s were in genera l di s m ssed wi th fi nes o r re p ri i

m an d s D e io taru s a lo ne the m o st powerful of th e clien ts

.
,

of Po mp e ius w as a g a in co nfined to his n arrow her e di tary

,

doma in the c a nto n of th e To listo b o g ii I n his s te a d

,
.

Ario bar a ne s ki ng o f C a pp a doci a wa s i nves ted wi th L esser

z

A r m e ni a a nd th e te tr a rchy of th e T o cmi usurped by

,
r

D e io tar us w as co n ferred on th e ne w ki ng of th e B osporus ,

who w a s desce nded by th e ma ter nal side fro m o ne o f the

Gal a ti a n pri ncely houses as by the p atern a l fro m th at of
P o ntus .

I n I llyri a a lso while C a es ar w a s in Egyp t i ncide nts of

, ,

a very g a ve na ture ha d occurred

r T he D al ma ti a n co a s t .

h a d bee n for ce nturies a sore ble m i sh on th e R o m a n rule ,

a n d its i nh a bi ta nts h a d bee n a t ope n feud wi th C a es a r since

th e co n flic ts a rou n d D y rrh ach ium while the i nterior a lso

si nce the tim e of the T hess a li a n war swa rm ed wi th ,

dispersed P ompei a ns Qui ntus Co rnificius h ad h o wever .

,

wi th the legio ns tha t fo llowed him fro m I taly kept both ,

th e n a tives a nd th e refugees in check a nd h a d a t th e s a m e

ti m e s u ffi cie ntly m e t th e di ffi cul t ta sk of provisi o ning th e

tr o o ps in these rugged dis tric t s E ven whe n th e a ble .

M a cus Octa ius th e vic tor of Cu icta ( p

r v , a ppe a red r .

wi th a p a t o f the P om pei a n flee t in these wa te s to wage

r r

w a r there a g a ins t C a es a r by se a a nd l a nd C o r nifi cius no t ,

only knew h o w to ma in ta i n hi mself res ti ng fo r supp o rt o n ,

th e ships a nd th e h a bour o f th e I a de s tini ( Za r a ) but in

r ,

his turn a ls o sus ta i ned seve al successful enga ge men ts a t r

s e a wi th th e flee t o f his a nta g o ni s t B ut whe n th e new .

go ver no r of I llyria th e Aulu s G binius rec alled by C a esa r

,
a

fr o m exile (p a rived by th e l a n dw a rd rou te in I lly i

. r r a

48 47
-
. in th e wi n ter of 7 0 6 —7 0 7 wi th fiftee n coh o r ts a nd 30 0 0

h o r s e th e sys te m o f warfa re ch a nged I ns te a d o f c o nfi ni ng

,
.

hi m self like his predecessor to w ar o n a s mall scale th e ,

2 86 BR U NDI S I U M ,
I L ER D A, K
BOO v

king J ub a had properly spea ki ng borne rule there ; he

, ,

h a d v a nquished Curi o a nd his flyi ng hor se m en a nd his

,

nu mberles s a rchers were th e m a i n s tre ng th o f the army ;

th e P o mpei a n gover nor Va rus pl a yed by his side so sub
ordin a te a pa rt th at he even ha d to deliver th o se s o ldiers
of Curio who had surrendered to h im over to the ki ng
, , ,

a nd h ad to look on while they were execu ted or ca rried

a wa y in to th e in teri o r of N u m idi a A fter th e b a ttle o f .

P h ars alus a cha nge to ok pl a ce Wi th the excep tion of .

Po mp e ius hi m self no m a n of no te a m ong th e defe a ted

,

p a r ty though t of fligh t to th e Par thi a ns As li ttle did .

they a tte mpt to h o ld th e se a wi th their uni ted resources ;

the warfa re waged by M a rcus Oc ta vius in th e I llyri a n

waters was isol ated a nd wa s with ou t per mane nt success
, .

T he gre a t m aj ori ty of th e republic a ns a s of the P o m pei a ns

be to ok the m selves to Afric a where a l o ne an h o nourable ,

a nd cons ti tu ti o n a l w a rfare m igh t s till be w aged a g a i ns t th e

usurper T here the fr gm ents of the arm y scattered at

. a

P h a s alus th e tro o ps th a t ha d g a rriso ned Dyrrhachium

r , ,

Corcyra a nd th e P eloponnesus the rema i ns of the I llyri a n

, ,

flee t gra du ally congrega ted ; there th e sec o nd c o mmander

,

in chief Me tellus S cipio the two s o n s o f P o m p e ius Gn a eus

-

, ,

a nd S extus the poli tic a l le a der of th e republica ns M a rcus

'

C ato the a ble o ffi cers Lab ie nus A f anius Pe tre ius

, ,
r , ,

Octa vius a nd o thers me t I f the resources of th e .

e m ig ra n ts h a d di m inished their fa n a ticis m ha d if possible

, , ,

even i nc e a s ed N o t only did they co ntinue to m urder

r .

their priso ners a nd eve n th e offi cers of C a es a r under fl ag

of truce but ki ng J ub a in who m the exa speration of the
, ,

p artis a n mi ngled wi th th e fury of the ha lf b arb arous -

A frica n l a id down th e ma xi m th at in every co mm uni ty

,

suspec ted of sym p athizi ng wi th the e ne my th e burges ses

ought to be extirpa ted a nd the to wn bu n t d o w n a nd even r ,

pra ctically ca rried o ut this the o ry a g i ns t s o me tow nships a ,

s uch a s the unfortun ate Vag a n ea r H a dru m e tu m I n fa c t .

CH A P . x PH A R S A L US , A N D T H A PS U S

it was solely owing to th e energetic i nterve ntion of Cato

th at the c a pi ta l o f th e pr o vi nce i ts elf th e fl ourishing U tic a ,

—which jus t like C a th a ge formerly ha d been long

,
r ,

reg arded wi th a je alous eye by the N u midi a n kings — did

no t experience th e s a m e tre a tm ent fr o m J ub a a nd th a t ,

m e a sures of prec a u tion m erely were taken a gai ns t its

ci tizens who certa inly were not unj us tly a ccused of le ani ng
,

to w a rds C a e sa r .

A s nei ther C a es ar hi m self nor a ny of his lieuten an ts

under to o k the s malles t m ove me nt aga inst A frica th e ,

co ali tion had full ti m e to a cquire poli tica l and m ili ta ry

re o g anization there Firs t of all it was necess a ry to fill
r .
,

up a new th e pl ace of comm an der ln— chief v a can t by th e -

dea th of Po mpe ius K ing J ub a wa s no t disinclined still

.

to m a i nta in th e po s i tion which he h a d held in A fric a up

to th e b attle of P h a rs a lus indeed he bore hi m self no
longer a s a clie nt of the R o m a ns b ut as an equ a l a lly or
even a s a pro tector and to o k it upon him for exam ple
, , ,

to coin R o ma n silver m o ney wi th his n am e a nd device ;

nay he even r a ised a cl a i m to be th e s o le we a rer of purple
,

in th e c a m p a nd sugge sted to the R o m a n comm a nders

,

th a t they should lay a side their purple ma ntle of o fli ce

'

. .

Further Me tellus S cipio demanded the supre m e com ma nd

,

for hi m self beca use P o mp e ius ha d recog nized h im in the

,

T he s s a li a n c am p a ign a s on a fo o ting of equ a li ty more ,

from the co nside a ti o n th at he w as his so n in law than on

r - -

m ili ta ry grounds T h e like de ma nd w as r a ised by Va rus

’

governor — self no m in ated it is true —o f A frica

.

a s th e -

, ,

seeing th a t the w ar w as to be wa ged in his province .

La s tly the a r m y desi ed fo r its le a der the pr o pr e tor

r a

M a rcus C ato Obviously it wa s righ t C a to was the o nly

. .

m an who possessed th e requisi te devo tedness ene gy a nd ,

r ,

a u thori ty for th e di ffi cul t o ffice ; if he wa s no m ilita ry

m an it w a s infi ni tely be tter to a ppoint a s co m ma n der ln

,
-

chief a non m ili ta y ma n wh o unde s tood how to lis ten to

-
r r
2 33 BR U N DI S I U M , I LE R DA , B oo n v
rea son a nd m a ke his sub o rdi na tes act th an an officer o f ,

un tried ca p a ci ty like Va ru s o r e e n o ne of t ied inc a p a

,
v r

city like Me tellus S cipio B ut th e deci s i o n fell a t le ng th

.

on this s a m e S cipio a nd it was C to hi m self w h o ma i nly

,
a

deter mined th at decisi o n H e did so no t bec a use he fel t

.
,

hi m self u nequ a l to such a ta sk o r beca u se his va ni ty fo u n d

,

its a ccoun t a ther in declining th a n in a ccep ti ng ; s til l less

r

beca use he loved or espec ted S cipio wi th whom he on

r ,

th e con tra ry w a s perso na lly a t v a ri a nce a nd w h o wi th h is ,

no to rious i ne ffi ciency h ad atta i ned a certa in i mp o ta nce r

merely in vir tue of his po s i tion as father in law to - -

P o mpe ius ; b ut si m ply a nd s o lely bec a u s e his obs tin a te

leg al for m a lis m ch o se rather to le t th e e public go to rui n r

in due co u se o f la w th a n to s a ve it in a n i regul a r w a y
r r .

When after th e b a ttle of P h a rs alus he me t wi th M a cu s r

Cicero at Co cyra he h a d o ffered to h a nd over th e co m

r ,

m a nd in Corcyra to th e l a tter — who w a s s till fr o m th e

ti me of his Cilici a n a d m i ni s t a ti o n i nves ted wi th th e r a nk
r

of general — a s th e officer o f higher s ta ndi ng a ccordi ng to

the le tter of the la w a nd by this re a diness h a d drive n th e
,

unfortun ate a dvocate who now cursed a th o u sa nd ti m es

,

his l a u els fro m th e A m anus al m o s t to desp a ir ; but he

r ,

h ad at th e s am e ti m e a s to nished a ll m e n o f a ny to lera ble

discernm en t T he sam e p i nciples were a pplied now
. r ,

when som ething m ore wa s at s take ; C ato weighed th e

ques tion to whom the pl ace of com ma nder in chief - -

belonged as if th e m atter h ad refere nce to a field at

,

T usculum a nd a djudged it to S cipio

,
B y this sen te n c .
e

his o wn ca ndid a ture a nd th at of Va rus were se t a s ide .

B ut he it wa s a lso a nd he a lone who c o nf on ted wi th

, ,
r

e nerg y the cl a i m s of king J ub a a nd m a de h im feel th a t ,

the R om an nobili ty c am e to h im no t suppli a n t a s to the ,

great prince of the P a thia ns wi th a view to a sk a id at

-
r ,

th e h a nds o f a p o tec to r b ut a s e nti tled to co m ma nd a nd

r ,

requi e a id f o m a subjec t I n th e presen t s tate of the

r r .
 BR U NDI S I U M , I LER DA , B OO Kv
it Corn and o ther supplies were a ccu mul ated in immense
.

q u an ti ties in the fortresses ca pa ble of defence ; at th e

s am e time the s tores were a s far a s possible re m ove d from
the ope n townships The a bsence of C a es ar the trouble
.
,

som e temper o f his legions th e fer m en t in S pa in and I taly ,

gra du ally raised m en s S piri ts a nd the recollection of the

’
,

P h a rs ali a n d efe a t beg a n to give w ay to fresh hopes of

vic tory .

T h e time los t by C a es a r in Eg ypt nowhere revenged

i tself m ore severely th a n here H a d he proceede d to .

A fric a i m m edi ately a fter th e de a th of Po m pe ius he would ,

ha ve found there a we a k disorga nized a nd frigh tened , ,

a rmy and u tter a n archy a m o ng the le a ders w here a s there

w a s now in A fric a owing m ore especi a lly to C a to s energy a n
’
, ,

a r m y equ al in nu m ber to th a t defe a ted a t P h a rs alus under ,

le aders of no te and under a regul ated s upe i nte ndence

,
r .

A peculi a r evil s ta r see m ed a l to ge ther to preside over

this A frica n expedi tion of C a es a r H e ha d even before .
,

his e mb a ka tion for Egyp t a rr anged in S pa in a nd I taly

r ,

v arious m e asures preli m i nary a nd prep a ratory to th e

A fric a n w ar ; but out of all there h a d sprung n o thi ng but
m ischief Fro m S p a in a ccordi ng to Ca es ar s a rrange m e nt ’
.
, ,

th e governor of th e sou ther n provi nce Quintus C a ssius

Longi nus w a s to cro ss wi th fo ur legio n s to A fric a to be ,

joined there by og d ki g of We st M aure ta i a and to

B u n n
1
,

M uch o b s cur ity res ts o n th e sh a p e as s um e d b y th e sta tes in no r th

1

w es ter n Afr ica dur ing th is p e rio d A fte r th e ug ur th ine w a r Bocch us

. J
k l l
in g o f M a ure ta nia r u e d p r o b a b y fro m th e w e stern se a to th e p o rt o f
S al da e , in w h a t is no w M o ro cco a nd A gie rs ( iii th e p rince s o f l .

n is ( T a ng ie rs — l
) p ro b a b y fr o m th e o uts e t diffe re nt fr o m th e M a ure
ta nia n so v ere igns —w h o o ccur e ve n e a r ie r ( P ut S e r f l
a nd to w h o m it l . .

may b e co nj e ctur e d th a t S a llus t s L e p tas ta ( H ist ii 3 1 K r itz ) a nd

’

. .

Cice r o s M a s ta ne so sus (I n Va t 5, 1 2 ) b e o ng , m a y h a ve b e e n inde p e nde nt

’
. l
l
within certa in im its o r m ay h ave h e d fr o m him a s fe uda t o ries ; j ust a s l
l C
S yp h ax a lre a dy r u e d o ve r m a ny h ie fta ins o f tr ib e s (A pp ia n , P u n .

a nd a b o u t th is tim e in th e ne ighb o ur ing N um idia C ir ta w a s p o s se ss e d,

l
p ro b ab y h o w e ve r under Jub a s s up re m a cy , b y th e p rin'ce M a ss m is sa
’

32 .
(A p p ia n, B C iv . . . A b o ut 6 7 2 w e fi nd in Bo cch us s tea d a ing k
calle d B ocut or B o g ud (iv 9 2 ; Oro s ms , v 2 1 ,
. th e so n o f Bo cch us . .
C H AP. x PH A R S A L US , A ND T H A P S U S

a dva nce wi th h im tow ard s N u m idi a and A fric a But th at .

ar m y des tined for A fric a included in it a nu m ber of na tive

S p a ni ar d s a nd tw o whole legions for m erly P o mpei a n ;

P o mpei a n sy mp athies preva i led in th e a r my a s in th e
province a nd the unskilful a nd tyra n nical beh aviour of the
,

C a es a ri a n governor was no t fi tted to all a y the m A formal .

revol t to ok pl ace ; troops a nd towns took p art for or ag a inst

th e governor ; a lre a dy those who h a d ris e n a ga ins t th e
lieu te nan t of Ca es ar were on the poin t of ope nly displ aying
th e b a nner of P o mp e iu s a lre a dy h a d P o m p e ius elder son
’

G na eus e m b a rked from Afric a fo r S p a in to ta ke a dva ntage

of this fa v o ur able turn whe n th e dis a vowal of th e govern or
,

by th e m os t respec table C a e sari a ns the m selves and the

in terference of th e co mm a nder of th e northern province
suppressed j ust in right ti me the insurrec tion G n a eus .

P o m pe ius who h a d los t time on th e w ay wi th a v a in

,

a tte m p t to es ta blish hi m self in M a ure ta ni a ca m e to o l ate ; ,

G a ius T rebo nius whom C a e sa r a fter his return f o m the

,
r

e a s t se nt to S p a in to relieve C a ssius ( a u tu m n of met 47.

everywhere wi th a bsolu te obedience B ut of cours e am ids t .

these blunders n o thi ng w a s do n e fro m S p a in to dis turb th e

orga niz ation of the republican s in A fric a ; i ndeed in con
sequence of th e co mplic ati o ns wi th L o ngi nus B og ud king ’

of Wes t M a ure tani a who w as o n C a es a r s side a nd m igh t at

,
’

lea s t h ave put s o m e o bs ta cles in th e w ay of ki ng J ub a ,

ha d bee n ca lled a w ay wi th his troops to S p a i n .

S till m ore cri tic a l were th e occurrences a m o ng th e troops l

M i itary

who m Ca e sa r h ad c a used to be collec ted in sou ther n I t ly a

l
r e vo t in
,
Ca mp ania.
in order to his e mb arka ti o n wi th the m for A frica T hey .

were for the mos t p art th e old legio ns which ha d fo unded ,

C a es a r s throne in Ga ul S p ain and T hess aly T he spiri t

’
, , .

F ro kingd m p p di id d b tw n king B
m 7 0 5 th e o a ea rs v e e ee w h o p o s sess es 49.
o g ud

th w t
e d k ng B
e s e r n, a n h wh p i th t
o cc us o oss e ss e s l
e e a s e r n h a f, a nd to th is

h l t k i gd '
t e p t iti
a er f M
ar t nioni t B g d
o a ur e a a n o o u s n o m or th e s ta te o f
h u k i gd m ) ( Plin
’
T ing i nd B
s a o cc th t t
s f 1 1 (Cn o or e s a e o 0 aesar ea re fer s .

H N . . v. 2 , 1 9 ; co mp . B e ll Af r ic
. .
2 92 BR UNDI S I U M , I L ER D A , BOO Kv
of these tro o ps ha d no t been i mproved by victories and ,

h a d bee n u tterly diso ga nized by lo ng repose in L ower

r

I taly . T h e al mo s t superhu m a n de m nds which th e gener a l a

m a de o n the m a nd th e e ffects of which were o nly to o

,

cl e a ly app are nt in their fe a rfully thi nned ank s left behi nd

r r ,

even in the se m e n o f i on a le aven of sec e t a ncour which

r r r

required o nly ti m e and quiet to se t their m inds in a

fer m en t The o nly ma n who ha d influence over the m
.
,

h a d been a bse nt a nd a l m os t unhe a rd o f fo r a ye a r ; while -

th e officers pl a ced over the m were fa r m o e a fra id o f th e r

s o ldiers th a n th e soldie s o f the m a nd o verl o oked in the

r ,

c o nquerors of th e w o rld every o u t a ge ag a in s t those th at r

ga ve the m qu a ters a nd eve y b ea ch o f discipli ne Whe n

r ,
r r .

th e orders to e m b a k fo S icily a rived a nd th e s o ldier w as

r r r ,

to exch a nge th e luxu i o us e a se of C a m p a ni a fo r a third

r

c a mp a ig n certa i nly no t i nferi o to th o se of S pa i n a nd r

T hess a ly in p o i nt o f h a rd s hip th e rei ns which ha d bee n , ,

to o l o ng rel a xed a nd we e to o sudde nly tigh te ned s nap t

r ,

a su n der T h e legi o n s refused to obey till the pro m i s ed

.

prese nts we e p a id to the m scornfully repulsed the o ffi cers

r ,

se nt by C a es a r and even threw s to nes at the m A n

, .

a tte m p t to ex ti ngui s h th e i ncipien t revol t by incre a si ng th e

su m s pro m ised not o nly h a d no success but the s o ldier s ,

se t o ut in m a sses to ex tor t th e fulfil me nt of th e pro m i s e s

from th e ge neral in th e c a pi tal S evera l o ffi cers who .

,

a tte m p ted to res tra in th e m u tin o us b a nds on th e w a y were ,

s l a in . I t w a s a fo r m ida ble d a nger Ca es ar o dered the . r

few s o ldiers w ho we e in th e ci ty to o ccupy th e ga te s wi th

r ,

th e view o f w a rdi ng o ff th e jus tly a pp ehe n ded pill a ge a t r

le a s t a t th e fir s t o nse t and s uddenly a ppe a ed a mo ng the

,
r

fu i o us b a nds de m a ndi ng to k no w wh at they w a nted

r .

T hey excl a i m ed di s ch a rge I n a m o m en t th e reques t

”
: .

wa s g a ntedr R e specti ng th e pre se nts C a es a r a dded

.
, ,

which he h d p o m i s ed to his s oldiers a t his triu m ph a s

a r ,

well as respec ti ng th e l an ds which he h a d no t pro mised

 394 BR UNDI S I UM , I LER D A, B OO K v

of Lilyb ae um des ti ned for th e e mb ark atio n th e te n legion s ,

intended fo r A frica were far fro m bei ng fully a sse m bled

there a nd it wa s th e experie nced tr o op s th a t were fa r thes t
,

behi nd H a rdly however h d s ix legio ns o f which fi e were

. a ,
v

newly fo m e d a rrived there and the nece ssa y war vessels

r ,
r -

and tr a ns po ts co m e fo rw a rd whe n C a e s a
r
put to se a wi th
,
r

the m ( 2 5 D e c 7 0 7 of th e uncorrec ted a b o u t 8 Oct of th e

.
, .

I uli an ,
c a le nd a r
) T h e e ne my s fl ee t
. w hich on a ccou nt
’
,

of th e pre a ili ng equi no cti al g ales w a s dr a wn up on th e

v

be a ch at th e isla nd A eg im u us in front of th e bay o f r

C arth age did no t Opp o s e th e p ass age ; but th e s am e

,

s torms sc a ttered th e flee t of Ca e sa in all direc tio ns a nd r , ,

when he a vailed hi m self o f th e oppor tu ni ty of la nding no t

far fro m H a dru m e tu m ( S us a) he could no t dise m b a rk m ore
,

tha n so m e 30 0 0 m e n m o s tly recrui ts a nd 1 5 0 horse m en

, , .

H is a tte m p t to c a p ture H a drum e tu m s tro ngly o ccupied by

the e ne my m isca ried b ut Ca es ar p o ss e s sed hi m self of th e
r

two se apo ts no t far dis ta n t from e a ch o ther R uspin a

r ,

( Mon a s tir ne a r S us a
) and L i ttle L e p tis H ere he e n .

trenched hi m self ; but h is posi ti o n wa s s o i nsecu e th at he r ,

kep t his cavalry in th e ships a nd th e ships ea dy fo se a r r

a nd provided wi th a supply of w a ter in o der to r e e m b a rk ,

r -

at a ny m o m e nt if he should be a tta cked by a s uperi o r

force . T his h o wever w a s no t necess a ry for jus t a t th e ,

righ t tim e th e ships th at h a d been driven o ut of their c o u s e r

46 . a rrived ( 3 I a n .On th e very foll o wi ng da y C a es a r ,

whose a rmy in c o nsequence of th e a rra nge m e nts ma de by

th e P o m pei a n s su ffe ed fr o m w an t o f c o n u nderto o k wi th
r r ,

three legions a n expedi ti o n in to th e i nte i o r of th e coun tr y r

,

but w as a ttacked o n th e m a rch no t fa r fro m R uspi na by

th e corps which L a bie nus h ad b o ugh t up to di sl o dge r

Co nflict a t C a e sa fro m th e c o a s t A s Lab ie nus h a d exclu si ely

r . v

R us pina. cavalry and a rche s a nd C a e sa r a l m os t no thi ng b ut i nfant y

r ,
r

o f th e li ne th e legi o ns were quickly s urr o u nded a nd

,

e xposed to th e m i s sile s o f th e e ne m y wi thou t bei ng a ble to ,

C H A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D THA PS US

re tali ate or to atta ck with success N o d oub t the depl o yi ng

.

of the en tire line relieved once more the fl anks a nd spiri ted ,

charges s aved th e ho nour of their a rms ; b ut a re treat wa s

un av o i dable and ha d R uspin a not been so ne ar the
, ,

Moorish j avelin would perh a ps h ave a ccomplishe d the s ame

result here as th e Pa rthia n bow at Carrhae .

C aes ar whom this day had fully convince d of the C

,
’
a e s ar s

difliculty of th e impendin wa r would no t a ga in exp ose

g ,

his soldiers un tried and d isc o uraged by the new mo d e of

fighting to any such a tta ck but aw a i ted th e a rrival of his
,

ve tera n legions The in terval was employed in providing

.

some sort of co mpens ation ag a ins t the crushing superiori ty

of the enemy in the weapons of dist an t w arfare The .

incorporation of the sui table m en from the fl eet as light

h o sem en or archers in the l a nd a rm y could not be of
r -

m uch a v ail .T h e diversions which C a es a r sugges ted were

so mewh at m ore e ffectu al H e succee d ed in bri ngi ng into
.

a rm s a ga inst j ub a th e G a etuli a n p a s toral tribes w a ndering

on th e sou thern slope of the grea t Atl as towards the

S ah a r a ; for th e blows of the M a ri a n a nd S ull a n period
h a d re a ched eve n to the m and their indig na tion a ga i nst
,

P o m p e ius who h a d at th a t tim e ma de the m subordin ate to

,

the N u m idi a n kings ( iv rendered them from th e

.

outse t favoura bly inclined to th e he ir of th e migh ty M a rius

o f whose J ugurthine c am p aign they had still a lively
rec o llec tion The M a ure ta ni an ki ngs B og ud in T i ngis and
.
,

B o cchus in 1 0 1 were J ub a s n atural riva ls a nd to a cert ain

’
,

ex te nt long since in alli a nce wi th C aes ar F urther there .

,

s till ro am ed in th e border region between the ki ngdo ms of

-

J ub a and B o cchus the l a s t of th e Catilin a ri a ns th at P ublius ,

S ittius of N uce ria ( iv . who eigh tee n ye ar s before

h a d beco m e c o nver ted from a b a nkrup t I ta li a n merch a nt
i nto a Ma ure ta ni an le a der of free b a nds and since that ti m e
,

h a d procured for hi m self a n a me a nd a bo d y of re ta iners

a mi d s t th e Li b ya n q u arrels B o cch us and S ittius unite d
.
2 96 BR UN DI S I U M , I L E R DA , B OO Kv
fell o n th e N u m idi a n l a nd a nd occupied th e i mport ant ,

to wn of Cir ta ; a nd their a tta ck a s well a s tha t o f th e ,

Ga e tulia n s compelled ki ng J uba to se nd a por tion of his

,

tr o o ps to his s o u thern and we ster n fr o ntiers .

Ca e sar s si tu a tion however co nti nued su fficien tly un

’
, ,

ple a s a n t H is a r my wa s crowded toge ther wi thin a space

.

o f six squ a re m iles ; though th e flee t conveyed corn th e ,

wa n t of fo rage was a s much fel t by C a es ar s ca valry as by ’

those of P o m p e ius b e fo re Dy r h a ch ium T h e ligh t tro o ps

r .

of the e ne my re ma i ned no twi ths ta ndi ng all the exertions

o f C a es a r so i mm e a su a bly superior to his th a t it see med
r ,

a l m os t i m possible to c a ry o ffensive opera tions i nto th e

r

in terior eve n wi th e te ans I f S cipio retired a nd ab a n

v r .

do ne d th e co a s t tow ns he migh t perh a p s a chieve a ic to ry

,
v

like those which th e viz ier of Oro de s h ad w o n over C a ssus r

a nd J ub a over Cu i o a nd he could
r a t le a s t e ndlessly
,

pro tra ct the war T h e si mplest consideratio n sugges ted

.

this pl a n o f c a m p ig n ; even C a to a l though far fr o m a

a ,

s tr ategis t c o unselled its a dop ti o n a nd offered a t th e s ame

, ,

ti m e to cr o ss wi th a corps to I taly a nd to c a ll th e republic a ns

there to a rm s — which a m id s t th e u tter c o nfusio n in tha t
,

quarter m igh t very well m eet wi th s uccess But C a to

,
.

could only a dvi s e no t command ; S cipi o the com ma nde

, r

in chief decided th a t th e w a r should be c a rried o n in th e

-

region of the c o a s t T his was a blunde i no t m erely

.
,

in a s much a s they thereby dropped a pla n of wa r promi si ng

a sure resul t b ut a ls o i nasm uch a s the regi o n to which
,

t hey tra n sferred th e w a r w a s in d a nger o us g i ta ti o n a nd a a ,

good p art of th e a r my which they o pposed to Ca es ar was

likewise in a troubles o m e te mper T he fe arfully s trict .

levy th e ca rryi ng o ff o f th e supplies th e deva stating o f th e

, ,

s m aller tow nship s th e feeli ng in ge nera l th at they were

,

bei ng s acrific e d fo a c a u s which f o m the o u tse t w as

r e r

fo reig n to th e m nd w a s l e a dy l o st ha d ex aspe a te d the

a a r , r

na tive popul atio n a g a i ns t th e R o m a n republic a ns figh ting

 BR U NDI S I U M , I LER DA , B OO K v

At l a st C aes ar a fter being joined by his l a s t rei nfo rce

,

m ents m de a la tera l m ove m en t towa ds T h a psus

,
a S cipio r .

h a d as w e h ave s a id s tro ngly g a riso ned this town a nd

, ,
r
,

thereby co m m i tted the blunder o f presen ting to his

oppone nt a n o bjec t of attack e a sy to be seized ; to this
firs t error he so o n a dded the second s till less excu sable
blu nd er of now for th e rescue of T ha psus givi ng th e b attle ,

which C a es a r ha d wi shed a nd S cipi o h ad hi therto righ tly

refused on grou nd which pl aced the decisi o n in th e ha nds
,

of th e in fantry of th e l ine I m media tely a lo ng the shore

.
,

oppo si te to C aesa r s c am p th e legions of S cipi o a nd

’

J ub a a ppeared the fore ra nks re a dy for figh ting th e

, ,

hi nder ranks occupied in for m ing an e ntre nched c am p ; at

th e s a m e ti m e th e ga r i s o n of T h apsus prep a red for a s a lly
r .

C a es a r s c amp gu a rd su ffi ced to repulse the l atter H is

’
-
.

legions a ccus to m ed to war al e a dy fo rmi ng a correct

, ,
r

es ti mate of the e ne my fro m th e want of precision in their

m ode of a rr a y a nd their ill cl o sed r a nks co m pelled—while
-

y e t th e e ntrenchi ng w a s going forw a rd o n th at side a nd ,

before even the ge neral gave the sig nal — a tru mpe ter to
s o und for the atta ck a nd a dva nced a long the whole line
,

he a ded by C a es ar hi m self who when he saw his me n , ,

a dva nce wi thou t w a i ti ng for his o rders g a lloped fo rw ar d to ,

lea d the m ag ai ns t the ene my Th e righ t wi ng in a dva nce .

,

of the o ther divisi o ns frigh te ned th e line of eleph a n ts

"

opposed to it—this was the l a s t gre at b attle in which thes e

a ni m a ls were e m pl o yed b y throwi ng bulle ts a nd a rrows
-

so th at they wheeled round on their o wn ranks The .

c o veri ng fo rce was cut down th e left wing of the ene my ,

w as broken a nd th e whole li ne was over thr o wn

,
The .

defe a t w a s the m ore des truc tive a s th e new camp o f the ,

be a ten a r my was no t ye t re a dy a nd th e o ld one wa s a t a ,

co nsidera ble dis tance ; both we e succes sively cap tured r

a l m os t wi thou t resis ta nce T he m a ss of th e de fe a ted a rm y

.

threw a w a y their a r m s a nd sued for qu a r ter ; but C a es ar s

’
C H A P. x PH A R S A L US , AN D T H A P S US 2 99

s oldiers were no lo nger th e s a m e wh o ha d re a dily refra ined

fro m b a ttle before I le rda a nd honoura bly sp ared th e
defenceless a t P h a rs a lus T h e h a bi t of civil w ar a nd th e
.

ra ncour left behi nd by th e m u tiny a sserted their power in

a terrible m a nner on th e b attle fi e ld of T h a p s us -
I f th e .

hydra with which they fo ugh t alwa ys p ut fo r th ne w e nergies ,

if the a rm y wa s hurried fro m I taly to S p ain f o m S p a in to ,

r

M a cedonia from M a ced o ni a to A frica and if th e repose

, ,

ever m ore eagerly l o nge d fo r never ca m e th e s oldier ,

s o ught and not wholly wi thou t c a use the re a son of this

, ,

s tate of things in the unse a son a ble cle me ncy o f C aes a r .

H e h a d sworn to re trieve th e gener a l s neglec t a nd

’
,

re ma ined de a f to the en treaties o f his disar m e d fellow

ci tizen s a s well as to the co mm an ds of C a esa r a nd th e
superior offi cers T h e fifty th o us a nd c o rpses that covered
.

th e b a ttle fi e ld of T h a p s us a m ong who m were sever a l

-

C a e s ari a n officers know n a s secre t o pp o nen ts of the new

m o na rchy a nd the efore cut d o w n o n this occ a sion by their
,
r

own m e n showed how the so ldier procures for hi m self

,

repos e T he vic torious a rm y on the o ther h and nu m bered

.

no m ore th a n fifty de a d ( 6 A pril 46

T here w a s a s li ttle a con tinu ance of th e s truggle in C t a o in

Ut
A fric a a fter th e b a ttle of T h a psus as there h ad been a
’ca '
,

ye ar and a ha lf before in th e e a s t a fte th e defe at of r

P h ars alus .C a to as co mman d an t of U tic a convo ked th e

se nate s e t forth how the m e a ns o f defe nce s tood a nd
, ,

submi tted it to th e decision of th o se a sse m bled whe ther

they would yield or defend the m selves to th e l s t m an a

o nly a dju i ng the m to resolve a nd to a ct no t e a ch o ne fo r

r

him self but a ll in u nison T he m ore courageous view

,
.

found sever al supp o rters ; it was pro p o sed to m a nu mi t o n

beh alf of the sta te the sla ves c a p a ble o f a m s which r ,

however C a to rejected as a n illeg a l encro a ch men t o n

private proper ty a nd suggested in its s te a d a p t i o tic
,
a r

a ppe al to th e sl a ve owners B ut s oo n th is fit of resol utio n

-
.
 B R UN DI S I U M , I L ER DA, Kv
B OO

in an assembly consisting in gre at p art of Africa n mercha n ts

passe d o ff and they agreed to c a pitul ate T hereup o n
,
.

when F aus tus S ulla son of the rege nt and Lucius Afranius
, ,

arrived in U tic a wi th a s trong divisi o n of c a v al ry fro m th e

field of battle C ato still m a de an attemp t to hold the to wn

,

through them ; b ut he i n dign a n tly rejec ted their de ma nd

to le t them firs t of all p ut to de ath th e untrustworthy

citizens of U tica en me me and chose to le t th e l a st s trong
,

hold of the republicans fall into the h ands of th e mon arch

without resis tance rather th an to profane the l ast m o men ts
H is dea th .
of the republic by such a mass acre A fter he h a d— par tly .

by his a uthority p artly by liberal l argesses — checked so far

,

as he coul d the fury of th e soldiery a g a inst the unfortun ate

U ticans after he h ad wi th touchi ng solici tude fu rnished

to those who preferred not to trus t themselves to Ca es ar s ’

m ercy th e me a ns for fl ight and to those who wished to ,

rema in the oppor tuni ty of ca pitul ating under the most

t oler a ble condi tions so far a s his a bili ty re a ched ; a nd
,

a fter h aving th o roughly s a tisfied himself tha t he could

render to no one a ny fa r ther a id he held hi mself relea sed ,

fro m his co m m a nd re tired to his bedcha mber a nd plu nged

, ,

his sword in to his bre as t .

Of th e o ther fugi tive le a ders only a few esca ped T he .

c avalry th at fl e d fro m T ha psus encoun tered the b a nds of

S ittius a nd were cut down or c a p ture d by them ; their
‘

le aders Afranius a nd Fa us tus were delivered up to Ca es a r ,

and when th e l a tter did no t order their i mm edi a te e x e cu

,

t ion they were sl a in in a tu m ul t by his ve ter a ns

, T he .

c o mma nder in chief Me tellus S cipio wi th the flee t of the

- -

de fea ted p a rty fell i nto the p o wer of th e cruisers of S ittius

a nd when they we e a bou t to la y h a nds o n h im s ta bbed
,
r ,

hi msel f K ing J ub a no t unprep a red for such a n issue

.
, ,

had in th at c a se re s olved to die in a w ay which see med to

him be fitti ng a king and h ad c a used an enormous funeral
,

p ile to be prepared in th e m arket pl ace of his ci ty Zam a -

,
 BR U ND I S I UM ,
I L ER D A , B OO K v

as w e ll by fa r th e l arges t a nd m os t fer tile p o rtion of th e

as

l a te N u midi a n ki ngd o m were u ni ted as N e w A frica,

“

wi th the o lder provi nce o f A f ic a a nd th e defence o f the r ,

cou ntry a l o ng th e coa s t aga ins t th e r o vi ng tribes of th e

desert which th e republic ha d e ntru sted to a clie nt king
,
-

w a s i m posed by th e new ruler o n th e e m pire i tsel f .

T h e s truggle which P o m pe ius a nd th e republic a ns h a d

,

u ndertaken a ga i nst th e m ona rchy o f C a es a r thus termin ated , ,

a fter h a ving l a sted for four ye a rs in th e co m ple te vic tory ,

of the new m on a rch N o d o ub t the m on a rchy was no t

.

es ta blished for th e firs t ti m e o n th e b attle fie lds o f Ph a rs a lus -

a nd T h a psus ; it m igh t a lre a dy be da ted fro m th e m o me nt

whe n P o mpe ius a nd C a e sa r in le ague ha d es t bli shed their a

joi nt rule a nd o erthrown th e p evi o us a is to c a tic co nstitu

v r r r

ti o n . Y e t it w as o nly th o se b a p ti s m s o f bl o o d o f the nin th

48
. 46
. A ugus t 7 0 6 a nd th e six th A pril 7 8 th a t s e t a side th e 0

co njoi nt rule so opposed to the nature of a bsolu te do m ini o n ,

a nd c o nferred fixed s ta tus a nd fo ma l recog ni ti o n on th e r

new m ona chy R i si ngs of pre tende s a nd republica n

r . r

c o nspi a cies m igh t ensue a nd pro voke ne w c o mmo ti o ns

r
,

perh ap s even ne w re o lu ti o ns a nd res to ra ti o ns ; but the

v

con tinui ty of th e free republic that h a d bee n uni nterrup ted

for five hu n dred ye a rs w a s b oken thr o ugh a nd mo n archy r ,

w as es ta blished th ough o u t th e r a nge of th e wide R o m a n

r

e m pire by th e legi ti ma cy o f a cco mplished fac t .

Th e cons ti tu ti o n al s t uggle was a t a n end ; a nd tha t it

r

w as so w a s procl a i m ed by M a rcus C a to when he fell on

,

his sword a t U tic a For m a ny ye a r s he had bee n the

.

fo e mo st ma n in th e s truggle o f th e legi ti m a te republic

r

a g a ins t its o ppressors he h a d c o ntinued it long a fter he ,

h a d ce a sed to cherish a ny hope o f vic to ry B ut now th e .

s truggle i tself ha d bec o m e i m p o s sible ; the republic which

l
Africa n to w ns h ip M i e v b ears as R o m a n th e na m e calon za S a r nerm :
‘ ’

( C . 1 L . . . l
viii p . 1 0 9 4 ) e vid e nt y fro m th e N uce ria n rive r g o d S ar nus -

( S ue to n R M . .
C H A P. x PH A R S A L US , A N D T H A PS U S 30 3

M arcus Bru tus ha d founded w as de a d and never to be

revived ; wh at were th e epublic a ns no w to do on the
r

e a th ? T he tre a sure wa s c a rri e d o ff th e se ntinels were

r ,

the eby relieved ; who could bl a m e the m if they dep a rted ?

r

T he e w as m o e nobili ty a nd a b o ve all m ore judg men t in

r r , ,

th e de a th of C a to th a n there h a d bee n in his life Cato .

w as a ny thi ng b ut a gre at m a n ; but wi th all th a t shor t

sigh tedness th at perversi ty th at dry prolixi ty and those
, , ,

spurious phrases which h a e s ta m ped him fo r his own a nd

v ,

for all ti m e a s th e ide al of unre fl e cting republica ni sm and

,

th e fa v o uri te of a ll who m a ke it their hobby he wa s ye t ,

th e only m a n who h o nou a bly a nd cou a geously ch a m pio ned

r r

in th e l a s t s truggle th e great sys te m doo m ed to des truc tion .

J us t beca use the shrewdes t lie feel s i tself i nw ardly a nni

hilate d before th e si m ple tru th a nd beca use all the dig ni ty ,

a nd glory of hu m a n na ture ul ti m ately depend no t on

shrewd ness b ut o n ho nes ty C ato h a s pl ayed a gre ater pa rt
,

in his tory th an m a ny m e n fa superi o r to him in in tellect r .

I t only heigh tens th e deep a nd tr a gic signific a nce of h is

de ath th a t he wa s hi m self a fool in tru th it is jus t bec a u se
D o n Quixo te is a fool th a t he is a t a gic figure I t is a n
r .

a ffec ting fa c t th a t o n th a t world stage on which so m a ny

,
-

gre at a nd wise me n ha d m oved a nd a c ted the fo o l wa s ,

des tined to give the epilogue H e to o died no t in v a i n . .

I t wa s a fe a rfully s triki ng pro tes t o f th e republic a ga i n st

the mon a rchy th a t th e l a s t republic a n we nt a s th e firs t

m o na rch c am e —a pro tes t which tore a su nder like gos sa m er

,

a ll th a t so c a lled c o ns ti tu ti o n a l ch a r a c ter wi th which C a e s a r

-

i n ested his m o n a rchy a nd exp o sed in all its hypocri tica l

v ,

fa l s ehood th e S hibb o le th of the reco ncili ation of all p arties ,

under the a egis of which despotis m grew up T he unre .

len ting wa rfa re which the ghos t o f the legi ti ma te republic

waged for cen turies fro m C a ssius a nd B u tus down to
,
r

T hrase a a nd T a ci tus na y eve n far l ater a g a ins t th e

, , ,

C ae s ari an monarchy — a w a rfa re of plo ts a nd of li terature

30 4 BR U N D I S I U M , I L ER D A, PH A R S AL US , TH A PS US BK . v
—w as the leg a cy which th e dying C ato beque athed to his
e nem ies . T his republic a n Opp o s i tion derived fr o m Ca t o
its whole a tti tude — s ta tely tra nsce n den tal in its rhetoric
, ,

pre ten tiously rigid hopeless a nd fa i thful to de ath ; a nd

, ,

a ccordingly it bega n even i m m edi a tely a fter his de a th to

revere a s a s ain t th e ma n who in his lifeti me wa s no t um

frequen tly its l a ughing s tock a nd its sc an dal But the
-
.

gre atest of these ma rks of re s pec t was the involun tary

homage which C a es a r rendered to h im when he m a de a n
,

excep tion to the con te m p tuous cle me ncy wi th which he was

won t to tre at his oppo ne nts P ompei ans as well as t e
,

publica ns in the c a se of C ato a lone a nd pursued him

, ,

even beyond th e gr ave wi th th at energetic h a tred which

pra ctic al s tates me n are won t to feel towa rds antagonis ts
opposing the m fro m a regio n of ide a s which they rega rd
as e qu a lly d a ngerous a nd i m pr a c tic a ble .
 TH E OLD R EP B LI C AN D U B OO Kv
t hese dissipa ted a nd fl ig hty cou ses ; C a es ar re ta i ned both r

his bodily vig o u a nd his el a s tici ty o f m ind and of he a rt

r

u ni mp a i ed I n fe nci ng a nd in ridi ng he w a s a match for

r .

a ny o f his soldie s a nd his s wi m m i ng s a ved his li fe at

r ,

A lex a n dri a ; th e i nc edible ra pidi ty o f his journeys which

r ,

usu ally for the s ake o f g i ning ti m e were performed by a

nigh t—a th o rough c o nt a s t to th e processi o n like sl o wness

r -

wi th which Po mp e ius m ove d fro m o ne pl a ce to a nother

wa s the a s to nish m e nt o f his co nt e m p o a ies a nd no t th e r r

lea s t a m o ng th e ca uses o f his success T h e m ind wa s like .

th e b o dy . H is re m a rk a ble power of i ntui tion reve a led

i tself in th e preci s io n a nd pra ctic a bili ty of all his a rra nge
me nts eve n where he g a e orders wi thout h a vi ng seen
,
v

wi th his own eyes H is m emory wa s m a tchless and it

.
,

wa s e a sy fo r him to c rry o n sever al occup a t i o ns s im ulta

a

ne o usly wi th equ a l self p o ssessi o n A l though a ge ntle m a n

-
.
,

a ma n of genius a nd a m o na rch he ha d s till a he a r t

, So , .

long a s he lived he cherished th e pu es t veneratio n for his

,
r

w o rthy m other A u eli a (his father h a i ng died e arly) ; to

r v

his wives and a b o ve all to his da ughter J uli a be devoted

a n ho no u a ble r a ffec ti o n which w a s no t wi thou t reflex
,

i nflue nce eve n on poli tic a l a ffa ir s Wi th th e a bles t and .

m o s t excelle nt m e n of his ti m e of high a nd of hu m bler ,

r a nk he m a i nta i ned n o ble rel ati o ns of mu tu a l fideli ty wi th

, ,

ea ch a fter his ki nd A s he hi m s elf never ab a ndoned any

.

of his p a r tis a ns fter th e pusilla ni m ous a nd unfeeli ng

a

m a n ner of P o m p e ius b ut a dhered to his friends — a n d

,

th at no t m erely f o m c a lcul a ti o n— through good a nd bad

r

t i m e s wi th o u t w a ve i ng sever a l of these such a s A ulus

r , ,

H irtius a n d G a iu s M a tius ga ve even a fter his de ath nobl e , , ,

tes ti mo nies of their a tta ch m en t to h im .

I f in a n a ture s o h a r m o niou sly o rg a nized a ny one a spec t

of it m ay be si ngled o ut a s ch a ra c teristic it is this—th at ,

he s to od a l o of f o m all ide o l o gy a nd everythi ng fa nciful

r .

As a mat ter of cour s e C a es ar was a man of p a ssion for, ,

CHA P . Xx TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y
wi thou t p a sion there is no ge nius ; but h is p a ssi o n was
s

never s tr o n ge th a n he c o uld c o n tr o l
r H e h a d h a d his .

se a s o n o f you th and so ng l o e a nd wi ne h a d ta ken lively

, ,
v ,

p o s s es sion o f his spi it ; but wi th him th e y did no t pene trate

r

to th e in m o st c o e o f h is na t ure
r L i te a tu e o ccupi e d h im . r r

l o ng a nd e ne s tly ; but while Al e x ande c o uld no t sleep

ar ,
r

for thi nki ng of the H o m eric A chilles C a e sa r in his sleepless ,

h o urs m u sed o n th e i nflec ti o ns o f th e Lati n n ou ns a nd

ve b s H e m a de verses a s everybody the n did but they
r .
, ,

were we ak on th e o ther h a nd he w a s i nter e s ted in subjec ts

o f a s t o n o m y a nd natu a l s cie n ce
r While wi ne wa s a nd
r .

co nti nued to be w i th Alex a nde th e des troye o f c a re th e r r ,

te m pe ate R o m a n a fter th e revels o f his you th we e o ver

r ,
r ,

a voided it e ntirely A rou n d h im a s a r o u nd all those

.
,

who m th e full lu stre o f wo m a n s l o ve h a s d a zzled in you th ’

,

fa i nter gle am s o f it con ti nu e d i m peri sh a bly to li nger ; even

in l a ter ye a rs he ha d love a dve ntures and successes wi th -

w o m en a nd he re ta ined a cer ta in fo ppish nes s in his o ut

,

wa rd appe a a nce or to spe k m ore correctly th e ple a s i ng

r , ,
a ,

c o nsci o us ness o f his own m anly b e a utyf H e ca efully r

c o vered th e b a ldness which he kee nly fe l t with the l a urel

, ,

ch a plet tha t he wore in public in h is l ater ye a s a nd he r ,

w o uld doub tle s s h ave surre nde ed s o m e of his victo ies if r r ,

he c o uld thereby h a ve brough t b a ck his y o u thful locks .

B ut however m uch eve n whe n m o na rch he e nj o yed th e

,

s o cie ty o f wom e n he o nly a m used hi m self wi th the m and

, ,

a ll o wed the m n o m a nn er o f i nflue nce o v e r h im ; even his

m uch ce ns ur e d rel a tio n to quee n Cle o p a tr a w a s o nly con

~

triv e d to m a sk a we a k poin t in his p o li tic l p o si ti o n ( p 2 a .

C ae sar wa s th o r o ughly a re alis t a nd a m a n of sense ;

a n d wh a tever he under to ok a n d a chieved w a s perv a ded

a nd guided b y th e co o l s o b ie ty which c o ns ti tu tes th e m os t

r

m a ked peculi a ri ty of his ge niu s

r T o this he owed th e .

p o wer of livi ng e ne getica lly in th e p e se nt u ndis turbed

r r ,

either by rec o llectio n or by expectati o n ; to this he owe d

30 8 TH E OLD R E P U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
the ca p a ci ty of a c ti ng a t a ny mom en t wi th c o llec te d vig o ur ,

a nd of a pplying his whole genius even to the s ma lles t a nd

mos t incident al en terprise ; to this he owed the ma ny sided -

power wi th which he gr asped and ma stered wh atever under

s tanding ca n co mprehe nd a nd will can co mpel ; to this he
owe d the self possessed e ase wi th which he arra nged his
-

periods as well a s projec ted his ca mp aigns ; to this he

owed th e m a rvellous sere ni ty which re mained s te a dily
“ ”

with him through good a nd evil d a ys ; to this he owed the

co mple te indepe nde nce which a d mi tted of no con trol by
,

favouri te or by m is tress or even by friend , I t resul ted .

,

moreover fro m this clear ness of judg me nt th at C aes ar

,

never formed to hi m self illusi o ns regarding the power of

fate and the a bili ty of ma n ; in his ca se th e friendly veil
w as li fted up which c o nce a ls fro m m an th e in a dequ a cy of
,

his working Prude ntly a s he la id his pl a ns and co nsidered

.

all possibili ties th e feeli ng w as never a bsen t fro m his bre a s t

,

th a t in all things for tu ne th a t is to say a ccide nt m us t

, ,

bes tow success ; and wi th this may be connected the

circu m s ta nce th at he so often pl aye d a desper ate ga m e
wi th des ti ny a nd in p articula r ag a in a nd a ga in ha z a rded
,

his person with d ari ng indi fference As indeed occ a sio n .

a lly men o f predo m in a n t s ag a city be take the m selves to a

pure game of h a za r d so there was in Ca es ar s ration alis m a

,
’

point at which it ca m e in some m e a sure into contac t wi th

m ys ticis m .

Gifts such as these could not fa il to produce a states

ma n . From early you th a ccordingly C a es ar w as 3 s ta tes
, , .

ma n in th e deepes t se nse of the ter m and his a im was th e ,

highest which man is allowed to propose to hi mself—th e

poli tic al mili tary in tellectu al a nd m ora l regeneration of
, , ,

his own deeply deca yed na ti o n a nd of the s till more deeply ,

deca yed H ellenic n ation in ti ma tely a kin to his o wn T he .

h ard school of thirty ye a rs experience ch a nged his views ’

as to th e me a ns by which this a im was to be re a ched ; his

3m T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AND BOO Kv
The soldier m ore especi ally pl a yed in him al to gether a n
a ccess o y p a r t a nd it is o ne of th e pri n cip a l peculi a ri ties
r ,

by which he is disti nguished fro m Alexa nder H a nnib al , ,

a nd N a poleo n th a t he beg a n h is po li tic a l a c tivi ty no t a s

,

an o fficer b u t a s a de m a g o gue
,
A ccordi ng to his o rigin al .

pl a n he ha d pu p o sed to e a ch his object like P ericle s a nd

r r ,

G a ius Gra cchus wi thou t fo rce of arm s and th o ughou t

, ,
r

eigh tee n ye ars he h a d a s l e a der of th e p o pul ar p arty m o ved

exclusively a mid p o litic al pl ans a nd in trigues — un til re ,

lucta ntly c o nvi n ced of th e necessi ty for a m ili ta ry supp o r t ,

he whe n lre a dy fo ty ye ars of ag e p ut hi m self at the

,
a r ,

he a d of an ar my I t wa s natural th at he should even

.

a fte w a rd s re m a i n s till m o e s ta tes m a n th a n ge ner a l — ju s t

r r

like C o m well who a ls o t a nsfo med hi m self f o m a lea der

r ,
r r r

o f o pp o si ti o n in to a m ili ta ry chief nd de m o cra tic ki ng a ,

a nd w h o in ge ne al li ttle a s th e prince of P u i ta ns se e m s
r ,
r

to rese m ble th e dissolu te R o m a n is ye t in his devel o p m en t ,

—

a s well as in th e objec ts which he a im ed at a nd th e resul ts

which he a chie ed of all s ta tes m en pe h aps the m o st aki n

v r

to C a es a Even in his m ode of w a rfa re this i mprovised

r .

ge ne a lship may s till be recog nized ; th e e nterprises of

r

N a p o le o n agains t E gyp t a nd a ga i ns t E ngl a nd do no t m o e r

cle arly exhibi t th e ar tillery lieu ten a nt w ho ha d risen by -

service to co m ma nd tha n the si m il a r e nterprises o f C a es ar

exhibit th e de magogue m e tam o rphosed into a ge neral .

A regul a ly tra i n ed o ffi cer w o uld h a rdly h a ve been prep a red

r
,

th o ugh p o li tic a l co nsider atio ns of a no t a l toge ther s tri ngen t

r

n atu e to se t a side th e be st fo u nded military scruple s in

r ,
-
‘

th e w a y in which C a es a r did o n sever a l occa sions mos t ,

s triki ngly in th e c a se o f his l a ndi ng in Epirus S evera l of .

hi a c ts
s e the efo re ce nsur a ble f o m a m ili ta ry poin t of
ar r r

view ; b ut wh a t the ge nera l lo s es th e s ta tes m a n ga i ns , .

T h e ta s k o f th e s ta tes m a n is u n i e sa l in its na ture like v r

C a e sa s ge nius ; if he under to o k thi ngs th e m os t va ried

r
’

a n d m os t re m o te o ne fro m a n o ther they h ad all wi thout ,

CH A P . x i TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y
excep tion a bea ring on th e one gre at objec t to which wi th
i nfi ni te fideli ty a nd c o nsis te ncy he devo ted hi m self ; a nd of
th e m a n ifo ld a spec ts a nd di ecti o ns of his gre a t a c tivi ty he
r

never p eferred o ne to a no ther A l though a ma s ter of th e

r .

a t of w ar he y e t fr o m s tates m a nly c o nsider a ti o n s did his

r ,

u tm os t to a ver t civil s tri fe a nd when it ne ertheless beg a n

,
v ,

to e a rn l a urels s ta ined as li ttle a s p o s s ible by bl o od .

A lthough th e founder of a m ili ta ry m o na chy he y e t wi th r , ,

an e n e rgy u n ex a m pled in his tory a ll o wed no hier a rchy of ,

m a rsh als o r governm e nt of pr a e to ri a ns to co m e i nto exis t

e nce I f he h ad a p efe e nce fo r a ny one fo rm of services
. r r

ren de ed to th e s ta te it w a s fo r th e scie nces a nd ar ts of

r ,

pe a ce ra ther th a n for th o se of wa r .

T h e m os t re m a rk a ble peculi a ri ty of his a c tion as a

s ta tes m a n w as its perfec t h a m o ny I n re ali ty a ll th e con
r .

ditio ns for this m os t diflicult of a ll hu m a n fu nc ti o ns were

‘

uni ted in C a e sa r A thoro ugh rea lis t he never allowed

.
,

th e i m a ges of the p a s t or ve ner a ble tr a di tio n to dis turb

h im fo r him no thi ng was of v alue in poli tics b ut th e living

pre se nt a nd th e la w o f re a s o n jus t as in his ch ara c ter of
,

gra mm a i an he se t a side his to ica l and a n tiqu a ri a n resea rch

r r

a nd rec o g nized n o thi ng b ut on th e o ne h a nd th e li i ng v

m us 10 9 1 6 72 4 7 nd o n th e o ther h a n d th e rule o f sy m m e try

1 a .

A b o rn rule he g o er ned th e m i n ds of m e n a s th e wind

r, v

drives th e cl o uds a nd c o m pelled th e m o s t he ter o geneous

,

n a tures to pla ce the m selves a t his service— th e pl a i n ci tizen

a nd the r o ugh sub al tern th e gen teel m a trons of R o m e a nd
,

th e fa i prince sses of Egyp t a nd M a ure ta ni a th e brillia nt

r ,

ca valry o ffi e a nd the c alcul a ti ng b a nker H is ta len t fo r

-
c r .

o g a niz ti o n w a s m a rvellous ; no s ta te s m a n h a s e ver c o m

r a

p e lle d a lli a nces no ge nera l h a s ever collec ted a n a r m y o ut

,

o f u nyieldi ng a nd refr a c tory ele m e nts wi th such decision ,

a n d kep t t he m to ge ther wi th such fir m ness a s C a es a r dis ,

p la yed in constra i ni ng a nd uph o ldi ng his co a li tio ns a nd his

l e gions ; never did egen t judge his ins trumen ts and a ssign
r
31 2 TH E OL D R EPU B L I C AN D B OO K v

ea ch to the pl ace a ppropriate fo r h im wi th so a cu te an

e ye.

H e was m on a rch ; but he never pl a yed the king Even .

when absolu te lord of R o m e, he re ta ined th e deportmen t

of th e p ar ty le a der perfec tly pli an t and s mo o th e asy and
-
,

ch a rming in convers ati o n co mpl a is a n t towards every o ne

, ,

it see m ed as if he wished to be no thing but th e firs t a m o ng

his peers C a es ar en tirely a voided th e blu nder in to which
.

so many m e n o therwise on a n equality wi th him h ave

fallen of c arrying in to poli tics th e m ili ta ry tone of
,

comma nd ; however much occ a sio n his dis a greea ble rela
tions wi th the sen ate gave for it he never res o ted to o ut ,
r

rages such as w as th a t o f the eigh teen th Bru ma ire C a esa r .

was mon a rch ; but he wa s never seized wi th th e giddiness

o f th e tyra n t H e is perh a ps th e only o ne a m o ng th e
.

migh ty o nes of the e arth who in gre at m atters a nd li ttle,

never a c ted a ccord ing to incli nation or c aprice but a lways ,

wi thou t excep tion a ccordi ng to his du ty as ruler a nd who _

, ,

when he looked b ack on his li fe found d oub tless erro ne o us ,

calcul a ti o n s to deplore but no false step of pa s sion to

,

regre t T here is nothing in the his tory of C a es ar s life

.
’
,

which even on a s ma ll c le can be co mpa red wi th those

s a
1

poetico se nsu a l ebulli tion s— such a s th e m urder of K le ito s

-

or th e bur ning of P ersep o li s — which th e his tory of his

grea t predecessor in the e a s t records H e is in fine .
, ,

perh a ps th e only one of those m igh ty o nes who has pre ,

served to the end o f his c areer the s tates ma n s ta ct of ’

discri m in ati ng be twee n the p o ssible and th e i mp o ssible ,

a nd has no t broken dow n in th e ta sk which for gre a tly

gifted natu es is th e m o st di ffi cul t of all — the ta sk o f

r

re cognizi ng whe n o n the pinn a cle of success its n atura l

, ,

Th ff i w ith L b
e a a r t l d i th w ll k
a w
e rius ,p l go h b n n e e -
no n ro o ue , as ee

q t d i l
’

uo e i t
as a n f C ty
ns a nce o p i b t th
a e s ar s wh h ra nn ca ca r ces , u o se o a ve

do ne soh th gh ly mi d t d h i y f h it ti
a ve o ro u s un w ll
er s o o t e ro n o t e s ua o n as e

as o f th p t t e y oe h g f ho sa i ll f l m
no t in i g o m y tht e fl a r/ e o a e nt n as a art r e

p t wh
oe d ily p k t hi h
o r ea i m
oc e s s o no ra r u .
31 4 T H E OL D R EP U B L I C AN D B OO Kv
ch ara c teris tic fe atures which are in re ali ty no thing else ,

th a n devi atio ns fro m th e n a tura l c o urse o f hu ma n de elop v

m e nt Wh at in C aesa r pa sses fo r such a t th e firs t super

.

fi cia l gl a nce is when m o re closely o bs e rved seen to be

, ,

th e peculi a ri ty no t of th e i ndi idu a l b ut of th e ep o ch o f v ,

cul ture or of th e n ation ; his you thful a dven tures for ,

i ns ta nce we e co mm on to him wi th all his m o re gifted

,
r

c o n te m p o ra ies o f like posi tio n his u np o e tic al b ut s t o ngly

r ,
r

logic a l te mpe a men t w a s th e te mpera m en t o f R oma ns in

r

genera l I t for m ed p a t ls o of C a es a r s full hu m a ni ty th at

. r a
’

he was in the highes t degree in fl ue nced by th e co ndi tions

of ti me a nd pl a ce ; for there is no abs tra c t hu ma ni ty— the
living m an c a nno t but o ccupy a pla ce in a give n n ati o nali ty
a nd in a defini te line of cul tu r e C a es a r wa s a perfec t ma n .

jus t beca u s e he m ore tha n a ny othe pl a ced hi ms elf a mid st r

th e cur e n ts of his ti m e a nd bec a u s e he m ore th a n any

r ,

o ther pos sessed th e e ssen ti al peculi ari ty of th e R o m a n nati o n

— pra c tic a l p ti tude as a ci tize n — in pe fecti o n fo r his
a f r :

H elle nis m in fa c t w as o nly th e H elle ni s m which h a d bee n

’

l o ng in ti ma tely ble nded wi th th e I tali a n nationa lity But .

in this very ci cu m s ta nce lie s the di ffi cul ty we may pe h aps

r ,
r

s a y th e i m pos s ibili ty of depic ti ng C a es a r to th e life

, As .

th e a r tis t ca n p a in t every thi ng s a ve o nly co nsu mm a te

bea u ty so the hi sto i a n wh e n o nce in a th o us and yea rs

,
r ,

he encou nte s the perfec t ca n o nly be sil e n t ega rdi ng it

r ,
r .

For n o r ma li ty a d m i ts doub tle ss of bei ng expressed but it ,

gives us o nly th e nega tive noti o n o f th e a bsence of defec t

th e secre t of n ture whe eby in her m o s t fi nished m a n i fes ta
a ,
r

t i o n s n o m a li ty a nd i ndividu a li ty a e c o m bi ned is bey o nd

r r ,

exp es sio n N othing is left fo us but to dee m th o se

r . r

fo tu nate wh o beheld this pe fec tio n a nd to ga in so m e

r r ,

fa i nt concep tio n o f it fro m th e eflecte d lus t e which re sts r r

i mperi sha bly o n th e works th a t were th e cre ation of this

g e a t n a ture T hese also it is true bea r the s tam p o f the
r .
, ,

ti me . T h e R o m a n her o hi m self s to o d by th e s i de o f his

C H A P. x i T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y
y ou thful Greek predeces s or no t m erely a s a n equ a l b ut a s ,

a superior ; b ut th e w o rld h a d m e a nwhile beco m e o ld a nd

its you thful lus tre h a d fa ded Th e a c ti o n of C a es a r wa s

.

no lo nger like th at o f Alexa nder a j o y o us ma rchi ng o nward

, ,

tow a rds a goa l i ndefini tely e m o te ; he buil t o n a nd o ut of

r
, ,

ruins a nd wa s con ten t to es ta blish hi m self a s tolera bly and

,

as securely as possible wi thin th e a m ple b ut y e t defini te

bounds once a ssigned to him Wi th re a s o n therefore th e

.

delic ate poetic ta ct of the n atio ns ha s no t troubled i tself

a bout the unpoe tic a l R o m an a nd on th e o ther h a nd ha s
,

invested th e son of P hilip wi th all the golden lus tre of

poe try wi th all the a inbow hues of lege nd B ut wi th
,
r .

e qu al rea so n th e poli tica l life of the n a ti o ns has during

thousands of ye ars ag a in and a ga i n reverted to the li nes
wh ich C a es ar drew ; a nd th e fa c t th a t th e peoples to ,

w hom th e world bel o ng s s till a t th e prese nt day design a te

the highes t Of their m o narchs by his n a me co nveys a ,

wa rning d eeply signific a nt a nd unh a ppily fra ugh t wi th

, ,

sh ame .

I f the ol d in every respec t viciou s s ta te of things was S tti g

, , e n
id f
to be successfully g o t rid of a nd th e c o mm o nwe al th w a s to
as e o

th ld e o

b e renova ted it w a s necess a ry firs t of a ll th a t th e cou nt y p ti

, r ar es.

should be pra c tically tra nquillized and th at the gro u nd

s houl d be cle a ed fro m th e rubbish wi th which since the
r

recen t c ata s tro phe it was everywhe e s trewed I n this r .

work C aes ar se t o ut fro m the pri nciple of th e recon

cili ation of the hi ther to subsis ti ng p a rties or to put it ,

more correctly — for where th e a ntago nis tic pri nciples are
,

irreconcil a ble we c a nno t spea k of re a l reconcili a tion — from

,

the pri nciple th a t the aren a on which th e nobili ty a nd

,

the popula ce h a d hi ther to co nte nded wi th e a ch o ther wa s ,

to be a b a n doned by bo th p a r ties a nd th a t bo th we e to, r

m eet toge ther on th e gr o u nd of th e new m o na rchic a l

cons ti tu tion First o f all the efore a ll the ol de qu a rels
. r r r

of th e republica n p a s t were reg a ded a s done a w a y for r

 TH E OL D R E P U BLI C AN D B OOKv
ever and irrevocably While Ca es a r gave orders th at the
.

s ta tues of S ulla which ha d been thr o wn down by the mo b

of the ca pi ta l on the news of th e ba ttle Of P ha rs alus should
be re — erected and thus recognized the fac t th at it bec a m e
,

his to ry al o ne to s it in judgm en t on th at gre at m an he at ,

the s am e ti m e ca ncelled the l a s t re ma ining e ffects of S ulla s ’

excep tion al l a ws recalled fro m exile those who ha d been

,

b anished in the ti m es of th e Cinnan and S e rto ria n troubles ,

a nd res tored to th e children of th o se ou tl a wed by S ull a

their forfei ted privilege of eligibili ty to Office I n like .

manner all those were res tored who in the preli m in a ry

,

stage of the recen t c ata strophe had los t their seat in the
sen a te or their civil exis tence through sente nce of the
censors or poli tica l process especi ally through the im
,

e ach m e nts r a ised on th e b asis Of the excep tion al la ws

p
of 7 0 2 T hose alo ne who had put to death th e proscribed
.

for m o ney re mained as w as re a son able s till u nder atta inder ;

, ,

a nd Milo th e mos t da ring condottzi

,
e e of th e sen a tori a l p a rty
z r
,

w a s excluded fro m th e genera l p a rdon .

F a r m ore di fficul t th a n th e s e ttle m en t of these q ues tions

which alrea dy belo nged subs ta nti ally to the pa st wa s the
tre a tm e nt of th e p a r ties c o nfr o n ti ng e a ch o ther at th e

m o men t — o u th e one h a nd C a es a r s own de m ocra tic

’

a dherents on the o ther h a n d the over thrown a ris tocr a cy

, .

T h at th e for m er s hould be if pos s ible s till less s a tisfied

, ,

th a n th e l a tter wi th C a es a r s conduc t a fter th e vic tory a nd

’

wi th his su mm on s to a b a ndon the Old s ta ndi ng gro und o f -

p arty was to be expected C a es a r hi m self desired doub tles s

,
.

on the whole the s am e issue which Ga ius Gra cchus h a d

con te mpl a ted ; but the desig ns o f the C aes aria ns were no
longer those of th e Gracchans T h e R oma n popul ar pa ty
. r

h ad been dri en onward in gr a du a l progres s ion f o m refo m

v r r

to revolu ti o n fro m revolu tion to a narchy from a n a rchy to

, ,

a wa r ag a i ns t proper ty they celebra ted a m ong the m selves

th e me m ory of th e reig n of terror a nd now a dorned th e

 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO K v

to a r m s in the regi o n o f T hu n R ufus m a de a rrange me nts r

to seize th e tow n o f C a pu a by m e d sl a ves B ut the l a tte

ar . r

pl a n w a s de tec ted befo re its execu ti o n a nd fru st ted by ra

th e C a pu a n m ili ti a ; Qui ntus P e diu s w h o a d a nced wi th ,

v

a legio n in to th e ter i to y o f T h ur ii s c a ttered th e b a nd

r r ,

m a ki ng h av o c there ; a nd th e fa ll Of th e tw o lea ders p ut

a n e nd to th e s c a nd a l

N eve theless there w a s fo u n d in th e fo ll o wing ye ar ( 7 0 7 )

r

a s ec o nd fo o l th e t ibu n e o f th e pe o ple P ubliu s D o la b e lla

,
r , ,

w h o equ a lly i n s olven t but fa r fr o m bei ng equ a lly gifted

,

w i th his predecess o r i nt o duced a f esh h is law as to

,
r r

cr e di to s cl a i m s a nd h o u se r ents and wi th his c o ll e a gue

r
’
,

L uciu s T e b e llius beg a n o n th a t poin t o n ce m o re — it

r

w a s th e l a s t ti m e — th e de ma g o gic w a r ; there were

seri o u s frays be twee n the a r med b ands o n b o th s ides
a nd v a rious s tree t i o ts till the comm anda nt of I taly
-
r ,

M a rcus An to nius ordered the mili tar y to i nte fere a nd r ,

so o n a fterwa rds C a es a r s re tur n f o m th e e a st co m ple tely

’
r

p ut a n e nd to th e prep o s terou s p oceedi ngs Ca es a r r .

a tt ibu ted to these bra i nle s s a tte m p ts to revi e th e p ojec ts

r v r

Of C a tili n a s o li ttle i m por ta nce th a t he tole a ted D o la b e lla

,
r

in I ta ly a nd i ndeed a fter s o m e ti m e even recei ed h im ‘

v

a g a i n i nto fa v o ur A ga i ns t a ra bble Of this s o t which

. r ,

ha d n o thi ng to do wi th a ny p o li tica l ques ti o n a t a ll b ut ,

s o lely wi th a w ar a g i nst pro per ty — a s ag a ins t ga ngs o f

a

b andi tti —the m e e existence of a st ong go ver nm e nt is

r r

sufficien t ; a nd C a es ar w as to o g e at nd to o c o nsi de a te r a r

to busy hi m self wi t h th e a pprehe ns i o n s which th e I ta li a n

a l a m i s ts
r fel t rega rdi ng the s e c o mm u nis ts o f tha t day ,

a nd thereby unduly to pr o cure a false popula i ty fo r r

h i m o na rchy
s .

While C a e sa thu s m igh t le a ve a nd a ctu a lly left the la te

r , ,

d e m o c atic p ty to th e p o ces s o f dec o m p o si ti o n which ha d

r ar r

a lre a dy in its c s e a dv a nced a l m o s t to th e u tm o s t li m i t he

a ,

ha d o n th e o the h and wi th refer e nce to the for me r a i sto

r ,
r
C H AP. x 1 T H E N EW M ON AR CH Y
cra tic p a ty p o s sessi ng a fa r g e a ter vi tali ty not to bri ng
r r ,

a b o u t its di s s o lu tio n— which ti m e l o ne c o uld a cco m pli sh a

-
b ut to p a e th e w a y fo r a nd i ni ti te it by a pr o per
v a

c o mbi nati o n Of rep e ssi o n a nd concili a tion A m ong m i no r

r .

m e a u e s C a e sa r eve n fro m a n a tura l s e ns e Of pr o p ie ty

s r ,
.
,
r ,

a oided e x a spe a ti ng th e fa llen p a r ty by e m p ty sa rc a s m

v r

he did no t triu mph over his co nquered fell o w burges s es ; -

he m e ntioned P o mp e ius o ften a nd a lways wi th e spect r ,

a nd c a u s ed his s ta tue over thr o wn by th e pe o ple to be

r e erec ted a t th e se na t e h o use when th e l a tter w a s res tored

- -

, ,

in its ea lier dis ti nguished pl a ce T o poli tic al pro secu ti o ns

r .

a fte r th e vic to y C a e sa r a s sig ned th e na rr o wes t p o s sible

r

li m i ts N O inves tig ation wa s i ns ti tu ted i nto th e va ri o us

.

com munica tio ns which the con sti tu ti o nal p ar ty h a d held

even wi th nom in al Ca e sa ri a ns ; C a e sa r threw the piles
Of p a pe s found in th e e n e m y s he a dqu a r ters a t P h a rs a lu s
’
r

a nd T h a p s us i nto th e fire u nre a d a nd sp a red hi m self ,

a nd th e c o un t y fr o m poli tic a l pr o cesses a g a i n s t individu a ls

r

suspected o f high tre a s o n Fur ther a ll th e c o mm o n .

,

s o ldiers who ha d foll o wed their R o m a n or pr o vi nci a l

o ffi cers i nto the con tes t ag a ins t C ae sa r c a m e o ff wi th
i mpuni ty T he sole exception ma de wa s in the ca se of
.

th o se R o ma n burgesses who ha d ta ke n service in th e ,

a r m y of th e N u m idi a n ki ng j ub a thei proper ty was r

confisca ted by way of pen a l ty for their tre a s o n E en . v

to th e o fficers o f th e co nquered p ar ty C a e sa r ha d gra nted

u nli m i ted p ard o n up to th e close of th e S p a ni sh c am p a ign
Of 5 ; b ut he b e c a m e co nvi nced th a t in this he h d 4 9
'0 a .

gone to o far and th at th e e m o a l a t le a s t o f th e lea de s

,
r v r

a m o ng the m w as i nevi ta ble T h e ule by w h ich he w a s . r

thenceforth guided w a s th at every o ne w h o a fter th e ,

capi tul ati o n of I le rda ha d served as an officer in the

l
The trium p h a fte r th e b a tt e o f M unda sub se que nt y l to b e m e nt io ne d
l l
p ro b a b y h a d re fe r e nce o n y to the L us ita n ia ns w h o s er ve d in g r ea t
numb ers in th e co nquere d a r my .
 TH E OLD R E P U B LI C AN D B OO K v

ene my s arm y or h a d sat in the Opp o s i ti o n sen ate if h e

’
-

survived the cl o s e o f th e s truggle fo feited his proper y

,
r t

and his p o li tic a l righ ts a nd w a s b a nished f o m I ta ly fo r

,
r

life ; if he did no t survive the close o f the s truggle h is ,

proper ty at le a s t fell to the sta te ; but a ny o ne of the s e ,

who ha d formerly accep ted pa don f o m C a e sa r a nd w a s

r r

once m ore fou n d in the ranks o f th e e ne m y thereby ,

forfei ted his life T hese ru les we e however m a teri ally

. r

m odified in th e execu tion T h e s en te nce o f de a th w as

.

a c tu a lly execu ted o nly a ga i n s t a very few of th e nu m e ous r

b a cksliders I n th e c o nfisc a ti o n of th e pro per ty of th e

.

fa llen no t only were th e deb ts a tta chi ng to the severa l

portion s of the estate as well a s th e cl ai m s of th e wido ws
for their d o wries p a id o ff a s w as re a s o nable b ut a por tio n
, ,

of the patern al es ta te was left a ls o to th e Children o f th e

dece a sed L a stly no t a few o f those who in co nseque nce
.
,

of those rules were li able to b a nish m e nt and co nfi s c a ti o n

o f pr o per ty were a t once p a rd o ned en ti ely or g o t o ff wi th
,
r

fines like the A frica n c api ta lis ts who were i mp es sed as

,
r

m e mbers Of th e sen ate of U tic a A nd even the o thers

.

a l m os t wi thout excep tion g o t their freedo m a nd proper ty

restored to the m if they could only prev a il on the m selves

,

to pe ti tio n C a es a r to th a t e ff ec t on severa l who declined

to do so such a s the consula r M a rcus M arcellu s pa rd o n
, ,

was even conferred un a sked a nd ul ti m a tely in 7 1 0 a

,

general a mnes ty wa s issue d for all who were s till unre

c alled .

Am nes ty .
T h e republica n opposi tio n sub m i tted to be p ardoned ;
but it was no t rec o nciled D i sc o n ten t wi th th e new order
.

Of things a nd ex a sper a tion ag a ins t th e unw o n ted ruler were

general For Ope n poli tical resis ta nce there wa s i ndeed

.

no farther opportuni ty — it w a s h a rdly worth taki ng in to

a ccoun t th a t so m e opposi tio na l tribunes o n occ a sion of th e
,

q uestion of ti tle a cquired for the m selves the republica n

crown of mar tyrdo m by a de m o ns tra tive in terve ntion a g a ins t
32 2 T H E OL D R E P U BLI C A ND B OO K v

thro ughout th e R o ma n e mpire ; th at the fl ames of ci vil war

kindled now by the P o m pei a ns now by the republic ns ,
a ,

a ga in burs t for th b igh tly a t v a rious pl a ces ; a nd th at in

r

th e c a pi ta l there w a s pe pe tu al co ns pi a cy a ga i ns t th e life
r r

Of the m o n a rch B ut C a es a r c o uld no t be i nduced by

.

these plo ts even to surrou nd hi m self per mane ntly wi th a

body gu a rd a nd usu ally c o n ten ted hi m self wi th maki ng

,

known the de tec ted con spira cies by public pl a c ards .

H o wever m uch C a es a r w as w o nt to trea t all things

rel ating to his person al s a fe ty wi th da ri ng indi fference he ,

could no t p o ssibly c o nce al from hi m self th e very seri o u s

da nger wi th which thi s m a ss o f ma lco nte nts thre a te ned no t
m erely hi m s elf b ut a lso his cre a ti o ns I f n ever theles s .
,

disrega rdi ng a ll the wa rni ng and urgency o f his f ie nds he r ,

wi thou t deludi ng hi m self as to th e i mpl a ca bili ty of the very

oppone nts to who m he showed m e cy persevered wi th r ,

m a rvell o us co m posure and e nergy in th e c o u se of p ard o n r

ing by fa r the gre ater n u m ber o f the m he did so nei ther ,

f o m th e chivalrous mag nani m ity of a proud no r fro m the

r ,

s e n ti men ta l clem e ncy o f a n e ffe m i nate n ature b ut fro m the

, ,

c o rrec t s tate s ma nly consid e a ti o n th at v anqui shed p a ties

r r

a r e dispo s ed Of m ore r a pidly a nd wi th les s public i nju y by r

their a bsorptio n wi thi n th e s tate th a n by a ny a tte m p t to

extirp ate them by pr o scrip tio n o r to ejec t the m fro m th e
com m o nwe al th by b ani sh m e nt C a es ar co uld no t fo his
. r

high Objects di spe nse wi th th e co nsti tu ti o na l p arty i tself ,

which in fa c t e mb a ced no t th e a ris tocra cy m e ely but all

r r

the ele m e nts Of a free a nd n a ti o n a l spiri t a m o ng th e I ta li a n

burgesses ; fo r his sche m e s which c o nte mpl a ted th e re
,

nova tion of the a ntiqua ted s tate he needed the whole ma ss ,

of talen t cul ture he edi ta ry and self a cqui ed di sti ncti o n

, ,
r -
r
,

which thi s p arty e m bra ced ; a nd in this s e nse he may

well h ave na m ed th e p a d o ni ng o f h is o ppo nen ts the fine st
r

rew a d o f ic to y A cc o di ngly th e m o s t p o mi ne nt chiefs o f

r v r . r r

th e defe a ted p a r ties were i ndeed re m o ved b ut full p a rdon ,

C R AP . x r T H E N EW M ONAR CH Y 32 3

w a s no t wi thheld fro m the me n of the second and thi d r

ra nk a nd especi al ly o f th e you nge ge ne a ti o n ; they were r r

n o t however
,
a ll o wed to sulk in p a s s ive o pp o si tion
, b ut ,

were by m ore o r less ge ntle pressure induced to take a n

a c tive p a r t in th e ne w a d mi nis tr a ti o n a nd to a ccep t honours ,

a nd Oflice s fro m it . A s wi th H e n y th e F o u th a nd Willi am

r r

of O a nge so with C a es ar his gre ates t diflicultie s bega n

r ,

only a fter th e victory E ery revo lu tion ary conqueror

. v

le a rns by experience th a t if a fte va nquishi ng his o ppone nts

,
r

he would no t re m a i n like Ci nna a nd S ull a a m ere p arty

chief but would like C a e sar H e nry th e Fo urth a nd Willi a m
, , ,

of Orange subs ti tu te th e welfare of th e co m m o nwe al th for

th e nece s s a ily o ne sided progr amm e of his Ow n p a rty for
r -

th e m o m en t a ll p a r ties h is o w n a s well a s th e v a nquished

, ,

u ni te a ga i nst th e new chief ; a nd the m ore so th e m o re ,

gre at and pure his ide a o f his new voca tio n T he friends .

Of th e co ns ti tu ti o n a nd the P o mpei a n s th o ugh d o ing ,

homage w i th the lips to C a es ar bore y e t in he art a grudge

,

ei the a t m on archy or at le a s t a t th e dyna s ty ; th e degen

r

e rate de m o cr a cy w as in o pe n rebellio n a g a ins t C aes ar fro m

th e m o m en t of its perceivi ng th a t C a es a r s o bjec ts were by

’

no m e a ns its own ; even th e pers o n al a dheren ts of C a es a r

m ur m ured when they fou nd th at their chief w as es tablishi ng
,

ins te a d of a s tate of condofi e z a mon a rchy equ al a nd just

’ ’

z r

to w ards a ll a nd th at th e por tio n s of g a i n a ccrui ng to the m

,

were to be di m i nished by the a ccessi o n of th e v a nqui shed .

T his se ttle men t of th e c o m m o nwe al th w as a ccep ta ble to no

p arty a nd h a d to be i m posed o n his a ss o ci a tes no le s s tha n
,

on his Op p o ne nts C aes ar s o w n p o si tio n w a s no w in a

.
’

certain s ense m ore i mperilled tha n before th e victo y ; but r

wh at he los t th e s tate g ined By a nnihil a ti ng th e p arties

,
a .

a nd no t si m ply sp a ri ng th e p a rt is a ns b u t a llowi n g eve y m a n r

Of tale nt or eve n m er e ly of good desce nt to a tta i n to o ffice

irrespective of his p o li tic a l p a st he ga i ned fo r his g e at , r

buil d i ng all the worki ng power ex ta nt in th e s ta te and not

32 4 U B LI C AN D
T H E O L D R EP OOK v B

only so but th e o lun ta ry or c o mpul s ory p ar ticip a tion of

,
v

me n o f all p a r ties in the s a m e w o k led th e n ation a l s o r

over i m percep tibly to the newly p ep a red ground Th e r .

fa c t th a t this reconcili a ti o n of the p arties was for the

mo men t only ex ter na l a nd th a t they were fo r the presen t
much less agreed in a dherence to the ne w s tate of thing s
th a n in h at ed aga i ns t C a esa did not m i sle ad him ; he
r r,

knew well th at a nta gonis ms lose their keenness whe n

brough t into such ou twa rd union and th at only in this way ,

can th e s ta tes m a n a nticip a te th e work of ti m e which a lo ne ,

is able fi nally to hea l such a s t ife by l a ying th e old genera r

ti o n in the gr ave S till less did he inquire who h ated h im

.

Or m edi ta ted his a ss a ssi na ti o n L ike every genuine s ta tes.

m a n he s e ved no t th e pe o ple fo r rew ard — no t even for th e

r

rewa rd of their love— b ut sacrifi ce d th e fa vo ur of his co n

’

te mp o ra ries for the blessing of pos teri ty a nd a bove all for ,

th e per m ission to s ave a nd re n e w his na ti o n .

I n a tte m p ting to give a de ta iled a ccou nt of th e m ode

in which th e tra nsi tio n wa s e ffected fro m th e old to the new
s tate of thi ngs we m us t firs t of all recollec t tha t Ca esa r
,

c ame no t to begin b ut to co m ple te T he pl an of a new

,
.

poli ty sui ted to th e ti m es l o ng ag o proj ec ted by Ga ius ,

G a cchus h ad been m a i ntained by his a dhere nts and suc

r ,

c e s s o s wi th more o r less Of spiri t a nd success but wi thou t

r ,

w a ve i ng C a e sa r fr o m the o u tset a nd a s it were by

r .
,

h eredi ta ry righ t th e hea d of th e p o pul a r p arty ha d for ,

thir ty ye a rs bo ne a l o ft its b a n ner wi thou t ever C h a ngi ng

r

or eve n so much a s co nce ali ng his col o urs ; he re mained

de m o c at eve n whe n m o narch A s he a ccep ted wi thou t
r .

li m i tati o n a p ar t o f cou se fro m the preposterous projec ts of

,
r

C a tilin a a nd Clo dius th e heri t ge of his p arty ; a s b e dis

,
a

pl ayed th e bi tteres t even pe so na l h a tred to th e aris tocra cy

,
r ,

a nd th e genui ne a ris to cr a ts a n d as he re ta i ned u ncha nged

th e essen ti a l ide a s o f R o ma n de m ocra cy viz a llevia tion Of ,

.

th e bur d en s of deb to rs tra ns ma ri ne coloniza tion gra du al

, ,
32 6 T H E OL D R E P U BL I C AN D Bo o x v

it is i ns truc tive o nly so fa r as th e o bserva ti o n of older form s

of cul tur e reve a ls th e organic c o ndi ti o ns of civiliz ation
ge n ally — th e fu nda m e nta l fo rces eve ywhere alike a nd
er r ,

th e m a nner of thei c o m bi na ti o n everywhere di ff ere nt— and

r

le a ds a nd enc o u ages m e n no t to un e fl e cting i mi tatio n

r
,
r ,

b ut to i ndepe n de nt reproductio n I n this se nse th e hi sto ry .

of C aes a r and of R o man I mpe i alis m wi th a ll th e unsur r ,

p a ssed grea tness o f th e ma s ter worke wi th all th e hi storic al -

r,

n ece s si ty of th e w o k is in tru th a sh arper ce nsure Of

r ,

m oder n a u to c a cy th a n c o uld be wri tte n by th e h and of

r

m an . A ccordi ng to th e s a m e la w Of na ture in vir tue o f

which the s mallest o rganis m i n fini tely surpa s ses the m o s t
a r tis tic ma chine every co ns ti tu tion h o weve
,
defec tive which r

give s pl ay to th e free self de term i na ti o n of a m ajori ty o f

-

ci tizens i nfi ni tely surp a s ses th e m o s t b illi a nt a nd hu ma ne r

a b s olu tis m for the fo rm er rs ca p able o f devel o pm ent a nd

therefo re li i ng th e l a tter is wh at it is a nd therefore de a d
v ,
.

T his la w of n a ture h as verified i ts elf in th e R o m a n a bsolu te

m ili ta ry m on a rchy a nd veri fied i tself all th e m ore co m
p le t e ly,
th a t u n
,
der t h e i m pulse of it s cre a t o s geniu s a nd r
’

in th e a bse nce o f all ma te i a l c o m plic ti o n s fr o m wi thou t

r a ,

th at m o na rchy devel o ped i tself m ore purely a nd freely th a n

a ny s i m il a r sta te Fr o m C a es a r s ti m e a s the sequel will ’
.
,

show and Gibb o n h a s sh o w n l o ng a g o th e R o m a n sys te m ,

h ad o nly a n ex ter na l coherence a nd received only a

m ech a nic a l exte nsio n while i nter na lly it beca m e eve n wi th
,

h im u tterly wi the ed a nd de a d r I f in th e e a rly s ta ges of th e

.

a u tocr a cy a nd a b o e all in C a es a r s o w n soul ( iv 5 0 4 ) the

’
v .

h o peful d ea m of a co mbi na ti o n o f f ee p o pul ar develop m e nt

r r

a nd a bs o lu te rule w as s till che ished th e gove nm e nt of th e r ,

r

highly gifted e m pe ors o f the J uli a n house s o on ta ugh t me n

-
r

in a terrible for m how fa r it w a s po s sible to h o ld fire a nd

water in th e s am e vessel C aes a r s work w a s necess a y a nd
.
’
r

s a lu tary no t bec a u s e it wa s or c o uld be fr a ugh t wi th bless

,

i g
n in i t self b,
ut bec a use — wi th the n ationa l orga niza tion of
C H A P. x r T H E N EW M ON A R CH Y
a nt iqui ty which wa s b a sed o n sla very a nd was u tterly a
,

s tra nger to republica n co ns ti tu tional rep rese nt tion a nd in

-
a ,

prese nce Of the legi ti ma te urb a n c o ns ti tu ti o n which in the

c o urse of five hundred ye a rs ha d ripe ned in to olig a chic r

a bsolu tism —a bsolu te m ili ta ry m o na chy w a s th e c o pe s to ne r

logica lly nece s s a y a nd th e le a s t o f evils Whe n once the

r .

sla e holdi ng a is tocra cy in Virgi ni a a nd the C r o lin a s s h all

v -
r a

h a ve ca rried m a tters a s far a s their congeners in th e S ulla n

R o m e C a es a ris m will there to o be legi ti m ized a t th e b ar
,

of th e spiri t of his tory ; where it a ppe a rs under o the co n

1
r

ditio ns of develop m e nt it is a t o nce a c a ric a ture a nd a

,

usurpation B ut his to ry will no t s ub mi t to curta il the true

.

C a esa r of his due h o no ur beca use her verdic t m ay in the

,

presence of bad C a es ars le a d si mplici ty a s t a y a nd m ay give r

to r o guery occ a s ion fo r lyi ng a nd f a ud S h e too is a B ible r .

,

a nd if she c a nno t a ny m ore th a n th e B ible hi nder th e fool

fro m m isu nders ta nding a nd th e devil from quo ting her she ,

to o will be a ble to be a r wi t h a nd to requi te the m bo th , ,

.

T h e posi ti o n of th e new supre m e hea d of th e s tate

a ppe a rs fo r ma lly a t le a s t in th e firs t ins ta nce a s a dic ta tor
, ,

ship C a es a r to o k it up at firs t a fter his re turn fro m S pa in

.

in 7 0 5 b u t l a id it down a g a in a fter a fe w d a ys a nd w a ged

, ,

the decisive c am p a ign of 7 0 6 si m ply a s c o n sul— this w a s

th e o ffice his te n ure of which w a s th e pri ma ry o cc a s ion

for the ou tbrea k Of the civil war ( p B ut in th e .

a u tu m n of this ye a r a fter th e b a ttle of Ph a rs a lus h e rever ted

t o th e dic ta to ship a nd h a d it repe a tedly e nt us ted to h im

r r ,

a t fi s t fo r a n undefi n e d period b ut fr o m th e r s t J a nu a y
r ,
r

7 90 a s a n a nn u a l o ffice a n d then in J an u a ry or Febru a ry

,

7 01
2
for th e du ati o n of his life so th at he in th e e nd
r ,

1 W h e n th is w as wr itte n —in th e
8 57 no o ne co u
y ear fo res ee h o w
1 — ld
g
so o n th e m i h ties t s tr ug e a nd m o s tgl gl
o r io us victo ry as y e t r e co r e in d d
l
h um an a nna s w o u d s a ve th e l U
nite d S ta te s fro m th is fea rfu tr ia , a nd l l
s e cure th e future e x is te nce o f a n a b so u te se f o ve r nin l l
fre e do m no t to b e-
g g
l k k
p e rm a ne nt y e p t in ch e c b y a ny o cal C a e sar is m l .

2 J ll ll
On th e 2 6 th a nua ry 7 1 0 C a e sar is sti ca e dicta tor 1 1 1 1 ( triump h a 4 4. d . l
32 8 T H E OLD R EP U B LI C AN D BOO Kv
expressly dropped the earlier reservation as to his laying
down the o ffice a nd ga ve for mal expression to its tenure for
li fe in th e new ti tle of dicta tor p e p etua l: T his dictatorship
r
,

b o th in its firs t ephe meral a nd in its sec o nd enduring tenure ,

w a s no t th a t o f th e old co nstitutio n b ut— wh at w a s coincide n t

,

wi th this merely in the n am e — th e supre me excep tional

o ffi ce as a rra nged by S ulla ( iv r o o ) an Office the functions
.
,

of which were fixed no t by th e cons ti tu ti o n a l ordin a nces

,

rega rding the supre m e si ngle m agis tra cy b ut by specia l ,

decree of the people to such an effect th at the holder re

,

ce ive d in th e co mm issio n to projec t l a ws a nd to regul ate

,

th e co mm onwe a l th a n o ffici a l
,
prerogative def j a m un
li m ited which supersede d the republica n p arti tion o f powers .

T h o s e were m erely a pplica tions of this ge neral prerog ative

to the p a r ticul a r c a se when th e holder of power wa s fur ther
,

en trus ted by sep a rate a c ts wi th th e righ t of deciding on

wa r a nd pe ace wi thou t co n sul ti ng th e sen a te a nd th e people ,

with the indepe nde nt dispos al of a rm ies a nd fin a nces a nd ,

wi th the nom in a tion of th e provinci a l gover nors C a es a r .

coul d a ccordingly ae j ur e a ssign to hi m self even such

'

prerog a tives as lay ou tside of the proper functi o ns of th e

ma gistracy and even ou tside of the province o f s tate powers -

a nd it a ppe a rs a l m o s t s a co ncessio n on his p a r t

1
a t a ll ; a
,

tha t he a bst a ined from no m i na ti ng the m agis tra te s i n s te a d

of the Co mi tia a nd li mi ted hi mself to cl a i m ing a bi nding

righ t of prop o s a l for a proportion of the pr a e tors a nd of
th e lower magis tr a tes ; a nd tha t he m oreover h ad hi m self
e mpowered by speci al decree of the people fo r the cre ation
of p atrici a ns which was no t at all allowa ble according to
,

use a nd won t .

l
ta b e ) o n th e 1 8 th e Fbu r ar y o f th is
y l
ear h e was a rea dy dictator
M ews :
m 8
'

(C 1
i ce r o , P lzil p
z
. ii 34 .
. C o p S ta
. a tsr ecld , ii .
716 .

l
T h e for m u a t io n O f th a t dicta to rs h ip a pp e a rs to h a ve e x p res s y l
b ro ugh t into p ro m ine nce a m o ng o th e r th ings th e im p r o ve me nt o f mo ra s l
l
b ut Ca esa r did no t h o d o n h is o wn p art a n Oflice o f this sort ( S ta a tr n c/zt .
ii 8
.
330 T H E OL D R EP U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
n ames wi thou t subs ta n ti al m e ani ng it is sc a rcely a less ,

error to se t up the subs tance Of ple na ry p o we wi th o u t a r

n a m e Only it is no t e a sy to de te m i ne wha t defi ni tive

. r

fo r ma l sh ape C aes ar had in view ; pa rtly beca use in this

pe iod of tra nsi ti o n the ephe mera l and the per ma nen t
r

buildings are not clea rly discri mina ted f o m e a ch o ther r ,

p a rtly because the devo tion o f his clien ts which a lre a dy

a n ticip a ted th e no d of their m a s ter l o a ded h im wi th a

m ul ti tude—Offensive doub tless to hi m self— o f decrees of

confidence a nd la ws conferri ng honours L ea s t of all .

could the new m o n archy attach i ts elf to th e c o nsul ship j us t ,

o n a cc o un t Of th e c o llegi a te ch a r a c ter th a t could no t well be

sep a ra ted fro m this o ffi ce ; C a es ar a ls o evide ntly l a boured

to degr a de this hi ther to supre m e ma gis t a cy i nto a n e m p ty r

ti tle a nd subsequen tly whe n he u nder to o k it he did no t

, , ,

h old it through the whole ye ar b ut before the yea r expired ,

ga ve it a way to pe son ages Of s econdary ra nk T h e r .

dicta torship ca me practica lly i nto pr o m i nence m os t frequen tly

a nd m os t defini tely b ut pr o b a bly o nly bec a use C a es a r
"

wished to use it in the sig nifica nce which it ha d of Old in

th e c o ns ti tu tion a l m a chi nery — a s a n ex t ao di na ry p esidency r r r

for surm o un ti ng extrao rdi nary crises On the o ther h and .

it wa s fa r fro m reco mmendi ng i ts elf a s a n exp ession fo r th e r

new m on archy for the magis t a cy wa s i nherently clo thed

,
r

wi th a n excep tion a l and u npopul a r cha c ter and it ra ,

could h ardly be exp e cted o f th e rep e se nta ti e Of the r v

de m ocracy th at he should choose fo r its per ma ne nt o rg a niz a

tio n th a t for m which th e m os t gifted ch a m pi o n of th e
,

Opp o si ng p a r ty ha d cre a ted fo his o wn e nds r .

T h e new na m e of I m pera tor o n th e o ther h a nd a ppe ars , ,

in every respec t by far m o re a pp o p i ate for th e fo m a l r r r

expre s si o n Of the mon a rchy ; jus t bec a u se it is in this

a pplic i
at o n
1
new a nd no defi ni te o u twa rd o cca sion for its
,

1
D i g th ur np bl p i d h
e re u m I mp
i ca n w hi h d
er o t th
t e na e e ra to r . c e no e s e

i i
v cto r o us g l w l d d w i h h d f th mp ig ;
e ne r a ,
as ar a si e t t e en o e ca a n as a

p m n nt titl it fi t pp
er a e e i thrs af C e ars n e ca se o a esar .
CR A P . 11 1 T H E N EW M ON A R CHY

in troducti o n is appa ren t T he new wi ne migh t not be p ut

.

in to old b o ttles ; here is a new n am e for the new thing ,

and t ha t na m e m os t preg n a n tly su m s up wh a t th e de m o

cratic p arty ha d alre a dy expressed in the Gab inia n law ,

o nly wi th less preci s ion a s th e func ti o n of its chief—th e

,

c o ncen tration and perpe tu a tion of o ffici al p o wer

in the h a nds of a popul ar chief indepe nden t of th e sen ate .

We fin d on C a esar s c o ins e speci a lly those of the l ast

’
,

period alongside of th e dictatorship the ti tle of I mperator

,

prevaili ng and in C a es ar s law as to political cri m es the

,
’

m on a rch see m s to h a ve been design ated by this n a m e .

A ccordingly th e fo llowi ng ti me s though no t i mm edi ately

, ,

co nnected the m o n archy with th e n a me of I mpera tor T o .

lend to this new o flice at once a dem ocratic and religious

s a nc tio n Ca es ar pro b a bly in te nded to a ssocia te wi th it
,

o nce fo r all on the one h a nd th e tribu nici a n p o wer on the ,

o ther th e supreme p o ntifi ca te .

T h a t th e new orga niz a tio n wa s no t me an t to be res tricted

m erely to th e life ti m e of its fo under is beyond doub t ; b ut ,

he did no t succeed in se ttli ng the especi ally difficul t

ques tion of the successi o n a nd it m us t re main a n u ndecided
,

p o i nt whe ther he h ad it in view to ins ti tu te som e sort o f

for m for the election of a success o r such a s ha d subsis ted in,

th e c a se of th e origi nal kingly o ffice or whe ther he wished ,

to in tro d uce fo r th e supre m e o flice not m erely the tenure

for life b ut a lso the h e re ditary ch aracte r a s his a d op ted
l

son subsequen tly m a intained 1

I t is no t i m prob a ble th at
.

he had th e in ten ti o n of co m bining in s o me m e a sure the

tw o sys te m s a nd of a rr a nging th e succes s ion si m il a rly to th e
, ,

1 '
l
T ha t in Cae sar s ife tim e th e imper ium as w e as th e supr e me ll
l
p o ntifi ca te w a s re nd er e d b y a fo rmal e g is la tive a ct h e re d itary fo r his
a gna te d esce nd a nt s— o f h is o wn b o dy or th r o u gh th e m e dium o f a do p tio n
— l l
w as a s se rte d b y C a e sa r th e Y o unge r as h is e ga tit e to rul e l
A s o ur .

l
tra ditio na a cco u n ts s ta nd, th e e x iste nce o f s uch a la w o r re so u t io n o f th e l
l ll
se na te m us t b e de cid e d y ca e d in que s tio n ; b ut d o ub t e ss it re mains l
l
p ossib e tha t Caesar intende d the iss ue of suchia d e cre e ( C o m p S taa tsr ecb t
.
,
.

ii ‘ 7 8 7 ,
.
332 TH E OLD R EP U B L I C AN D BOO Kv
course followed by Cromwe ll and by N a poleon in such a ,

wa y th a t th e r uler should be succeeded in rule by his son ,

b ut if he ha d no son or the son sh o uld no t see m fi tte d for

, ,

th e su ccessio n th e ruler should of his free ch o ice no m ina te

,

his successor in the for m Of a d o p tion .

I n poin t of s ta te law th e new office of I mper a to r wa s

ba sed on the posi tion which the co nsuls o r proco nsul s
o ccupied ou tside of the p amer zum so th a t pri marily the
’

m ili tary co mma nd b ut a l o ng wi th this th e supre m e j udi

, , ,

cial a nd consequen tly also th e a d m inis tra tive power were ,

included in t B ut the a uthori ty of the I mperator was

i 1
.

qua litatively superior to the consular proco nsul ar in so far a s -

,

th e fo rmer w as no t li m i ted as respec ted ti me o r s p a ce b ut ,

wa s hel d for life d oper ive lso in the c a pi tal ; 2

a n a t a a s the

Th e widely sp re a d o p inio n, which s ees in th e imp erial o ffice o f

1 -

I m p era tor no thing b ut th e dig n ity o f ge ner a o f th e e m p ir e te na b e fo r ife , l l l

is no t w arra n te d e ith er b y th e s ignifi ca tio n o f the w or d o r b y th e vie w
ta ke n b y th e o ld a u th o rities I mp e r ium is the p o w e r o f co m m and,
.

imp er a tor is th e po ss e s sor o f th a t p o w er ; ln th e se w ord s a s in th e co rr e

‘

sp o nding re e G k
term s xpdr o s, a in'oxpdr wp so itt e is th ere im p ie d a s p e crfi c
’
l l l
l
mi itary re fe re nce th a t it is o n th e co ntra ry th e ve ry ch a ra cte r istic o f th e
,

R o m a n Oflicia l p o w e r , w h ere it a p pe a rs p ure y a nd co m p e te y , to e mb ra ce l l l

— l
in it w a r a nd p roces s tha t is , th e m i ita ry a nd th e civi po w e r o f co m m a nd l
as o ne inse p a ra b e w h o e
-
l l
D io sa y s quite co rre ctly ( iii 1 7
. co m p x iii l . . l .

4 4 ; lii 4 ) 1 th a t. th e na m e I m p e ra to r w a s a ss um e d b y t h e e m p er o rs
“
to
indica te th e ir full p o w er ins te a d o f th e tit e Of ing a nd dicta to r ( a pes l k
dfihwa w r fj s a iir or ehoiis a ¢ fbv {E
' ‘
on /a la s dvr l r fis 1 0 0
fia o thé ws 1 0 6 r e 61 n d
,
'
.

T wpos ém xh v l
ja e ws) fo r thes e o th er o de r tit es d is a pp ea re d in na me , b ut
'
l
l
in rea lity th e tit e o f I m p er a to r give s th e s a m e p rer o ga tive s ( f a ae é p'yov
( 1 6e r fi 7 0 0 a iir oxpdr opos wpoa ny oplg flefla t ofivr a t ) , fo r ins ta nce th e rig h t
‘
.

l l
o f e vy ing so die r s im p o s ing tax e s . d e c ar ing war a nd co nc uding pe a ce
, l l ,

e x e rcis mg th e s up r e m e a u th o r ity o ve r b ur ge ss a nd no n b ur ge ss in an d o u t -

o f th e city a nd p unis h ing a ny o ne a t a ny p a ce ca p ita y o r o th e r wise , a nd l ll

l
in ge ne ra o f assum in g the p re ro ga tive s co nnecte d in th e e a r ie st tim es l
w ith th e s up re me impe r iu m
"
I t co ul d no t w ell b e sa id in p a iner ter ms .
. l
th a t imp er a tor is no th ing a t a ll b ut a syno ny m fo r r ex j us t as imp er a r e ,

co incides with r eg er e .

W
he n A u gus tus in co ns tituting th e p rincip a te re s um e d th e C a esar ia n
impe r iu m th is was d o ne w ith th e re str ictio n th a t it sh o uld b e lim ite d as to
,

S p a ce a nd in a ce rta in se ns e als o as to t im e ; th e p ro co ns u a r po wer o f th e l

e m perors , w hich w as no th ing b ut j us t this imper iu m, was no t to co m e into
l
a pp ica tio n as re g a rds R o m e a nd ta y ( S ta a ts r e clzt ii 8 I l On th is , .

l
e e me nt res ts th e e sse ntial dis tinct io n b e tw ee n th e C a e sa r ia n impon um
’

a nd the Aug us ta n princip a te . j us t as o n t h e o ther h a nd th e rea l e qua lity

 334 TH E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D Kv
BOO

At very various periods a nd fro m very di ffe re nt sides

in the dece mvira l power in the S ull an rege ncy and in, ,

C aes a r s own dicta torship there ha d been during th e

’
-

republic a pra c tic a l recurre nce to it ; indeed by a cer ta in

logic a l nece s si ty whenever a n excep tion a l power see med

,

re quisi te there e merged in c o ntra dis tinction to the usual

,

li m ited zmp en um th e unli m i ted zmp en um which was

' ’ ’ '

si mply no thi ng else th a n th e regal p o wer .

La s tly ou tw a rd consider ation s also reco mmended this

,

recurrence to the fer m er ki ngly p o si ti o n M a nkind h ave .

infini te di ffi cul ty in re a chi ng new creations and therefore ,

cherish the o nce developed form s as s acred heirl o o ms .

A ccordingly C a es a r very j udici o usly connec ted hi m self

wi th S ervius T ulliu s in th e sa m e way as subsequently
,

Ch arle m agn e connec ted hi m self wi th C a es ar a nd N a p o le o n ,

a tte m p ted a t le a s t to connec t hi m self wi th Ch a rle ma g ne .

H e did so no t in a circui to us w a y a nd secre tly but as

, , ,

well a s his success o rs in the m ost o pen m anner possible ;

,

it w as indeed th e very Objec t o f this con nec ti o n to find

a cle a r na tion a l and popul a r for m of expressi o n for th e
,

new s tate Fro m ancie nt ti m es there s to o d on th e Ca pi tol

.

th e s tatues o f those seve n ki ngs wh o m th e conve nti o n a l

,

hi sto ry of R o me was won t to bring o n the s tage ; C a es ar

ordered his own to be erec ted beside the m a s the eigh th .

H e a ppe a red publicly in the c o stu m e of th e old ki ngs of

“

Alb a I n his ne w la w as to poli tica l cri m es the princip a l

.

vari a tion fro m th a t o f S ull a w a s th a t there was pla ced

,

a longside Of th e collec ti e c o m m u ni ty a nd o n a level wi th

v ,

it the I mper ato a s th e living a nd pers o n a l expression of the

,
r

people I n the form ul a used for p o li tica l o a ths there wa s

.

a dded to the J o vis a nd th e P en a tes o f th e R o ma n pe o ple the

Genius Of the I m perato T h e o u twa rd b a dge Of m o n a rchy

r.

was a ccording to the view u nive ally di ffused in a ntiqui ty

,
r ,

4 4 th e i mage o f th e m o na ch o n th e c o i ns ; f o m th e ye a r 7 1 0
.
r r

th e hea d of C a es a r appe ars o n those of th e R o ma n s ta te .

C R A P. x 1 TH E N E W M ON A R CH Y 335

There could a cc o rdi ngly be no co m pla int at lea st on the

s c o re th a t C a es a r left the public in th e d a rk a s to his view

of his posi tion a s dis ti nctly a nd a s fo r mally as possible he

cam e forwa rd no t m erely as mo n a rch but a s very ki ng of ,

R o me I t is possible eve n al though no t ex a ctly prob a ble

.
, ,

a nd a t a ny r ate of subo din a te i m por ta nce th a t he ha d it r

,

in view to desig na te his Oflicia l power no t wi th the new

n a m e of I mpe ator b ut direc tly wi th the old one of K ing 1
r , .

Eve n in his life ti me m a ny of his ene m ies a s o f h is friend s

were of opinion th a t he i ntended to h ave hi m self expressly
nomin a ted ki ng of R om e ; severa l indeed of his m os t
vehe men t a dheren ts suggested to him in di fferen t w ays
a nd a t di ff ere nt ti m es th a t he should a ssu m e th e crown ;

m os t s triki ngly of a ll M a rcu s A n tonius when he a s consul , ,

offered the di a de m to C a es a r before all the people ( 1 5

Feb . B ut C a es a r rejec ted these propos a ls wi th o u t 44
,

exception at once I f he a t the s am e ti m e took s teps .

a g a inst those who m a de use of these inciden t s to s tir

republica n opposi tion it by no m ea ns follows fro m thi s ,

th a t he was no t in e arnes t wi th his rej ec tion Th e .

1
On this ques tio n th e re m ay b e diff e r e nce o f o p inio n, w he r eas th e hy p o
t h es is tha t it w a s C a e s a r s inte ntio n t o ru e th e R o m a ns a s I m p e ra t o r, th e
’
l
non R o m a ns as R e x m u st b e s im p y dis m is se d
-
, I t is b ase d so e y o n t he l . ll
s to ry th a t in th e s it ting o f th e s e na te in w h ich C aes ar w as a ssa s s ina te d a
ll
S ib y ine utte r a nce w as b r o ugh t fo r w a r d b y o ne o f th e p r ie s ts in Ch a rge o f
l
th e o ra c es L u ciu s Co tta to th e e ff e ct th a t th e Pa rth ia ns co u d o n y b e
, , l l
va nquis h e d b y a
“
ing k
a nd in co nse que nce o f t h is th e r es o utio n was
, l
a d o p te d to co m m it t o C a e s a r r e ga p o w e r o ve r th e R o m a n p r o vince s l .

l
Th is s tory w as ce rta in y in cir cu a tio n imm e d ia te y a fte r Ca es ar s d e a th
'
l l .

l
B ut no t o n y d o es it no wh ere find a ny s or t o f e ve n indir e ct co nfir ma tio n ,

l
b u t it is e ve n e xp r e s s y p r o no un ce d fa se b y th e co nte m p ora r y C ice ro (D e l
D iv ii 54 . 1 1 9 ) a nd re p o rt e d b y th e a te r h is to ria ns , e sp ecially b y
. . l
l
S ue to nius ( 7 9 ) a n d D 1 0 ( x iv 1 5 ) m er e y as a ru m o ur w hich they ar e far
. l
fr o m wish in g to g uara nte e a nd it is unde r s uch cir cum s ta nce s no b e tter

a ccre dite d l
b y th e fa ct o f P utarch ( Ca r 6 0 , 6 4 ; B r u t 1 0 ) a nd A pp ian . .

( B. C ii 1 1 0 ) re p ea tin
. . it g
af te r the ir w o nt, th e fo r m er b y w a y o f a ne cdo te ,

l
th e a tte r b y w a y o f ca us a e x p a na tio n l
But th e s to ry is no t m e re yl . l
una tte s te d l
it is a s o intr ins ica y imp o ssib e E ve n ea vin ll
o ut o f l . l g
a cco unt th a t C a e sar h a d to o m uch inte e ct a nd too m uch p o itica ta ct ll l l
to d d
eci e im p o r ta nt que s t io ns o f s ta te a fte r th e o i a rch ic fa sh io n b y a lg
k l
stro e o f th e o ra c e m a ch ine ry , h e co u d ne ve r thin
-
o f th us fo rma y a nd l k ll
l g ll
e a y S p ittin l g
u} th e s ta te which h e w is h e to re duce to a e vel. d l
 T H E OLD R EP U B LI C A ND B OO K v

a ssu mption th at these invi ta tions took pl ace at his bidding ,

wi th th e view of prepa ri ng th e mul ti tude fo r th e unwo n ted

spectacle of th e R om a n dia de m u tterly m is apprehends the ,

m igh ty power of the se nti men tal o pposi tion wi th which

C aesa r had to reckon a nd which could no t be rendered
,

more c o m pli a nt b ut o n th e c o n tr a ry necess a rily g a ined

,

a bro a der b a sis through such a public recog ni tio n of its

,

wa rrant on the p art of C a es a r hi msel f I t ma y ha ve been .

the uncalle d for zeal o f vehe m en t a dheren ts alone th a t

-

occ a sioned these inciden ts ; it may be also that Ca es a r ,

merely permi tted or e en sugges ted the scene wi th A n to nius

v
,

in order to put a n end in a s m arked a ma nner as p o ssible

to th e inconve nie nt gossip by a decli nature which took pl a ce
befo re the eyes of th e burgesse s a nd was inserted by his co m
ma nd even in the cale ndar of the s tate a nd co uld no t in ,

fa ct be well revoked T he prob a bili ty is th at C aes a r who

, .
,

appreci a ted a like the v a lue of a c o nve nie nt fo ma l design a r

tion and th e a n tip athies of the m ul ti tude which fa s ten m ore

on the n a m es th a n on th e essence of thi ng s was resolved ,

to a void the n a me of king a s ta i nted wi th a n a ncien t curse

a nd a s m ore fa m ili a r to th e R o m a ns of his ti m e when

a pplied to the despo ts of th e e a s t th a n to their o wn N uma

a nd S ervius a nd to a pprop i a te th e subs ta nce Of th e regal

,
r

Office under th e ti tle of I m pera tor .

B ut wh a tever may h a ve been the defini tive ti tle prese nt

,

to his though ts the sovereign ruler was there and a ccord

, ,

ing ly th e cour t e sta bli s hed i tself a t o nce wi th all its due
a cc o m p a ni m ents o f po mp i n sipidi ty a nd e m p ti ness
,
Ca es r , . a

a ppe ared in public no t in th e robe o f th e c o nsuls which w a s

b o rdered with pu ple s tripes but in th e robe wh o lly o f

r ,

purple which w a s recko ned in a n tiqui ty as the proper rega l

attire a nd received se a ted o n his golden ch a ir a nd wi th o u t
, ,

rising from it th e s o le m n processi o n of th e sen a te

,
Th e .

fes tivals in his h o n o ur co mm e m o ative of bir thda y of r ,

victorie s a nd o f v o ws filled th e ca lend a r

, ,
When C a esar .
 TH E OL D R EP U BL I C AND B OOKv
reverted to the tra di tio n of the regal period the burgess
a sse m bly re m a ined — wh a t it h a d a lre a dy bee n in th at

period — by th e s ide of a nd wi th the king the supre m e

a nd ul ti m a te expression of th e will of th e sovereign people

the se na te wa s brough t b a ck to its origi nal des tin ation of

giving a dvice to the ruler when he reques ted it a nd la stly

the ruler concen tra ted in his perso n a new th e whole m agis

te rial a u th o ri ty so tha t there exis ted no o ther indepe nde nt

,

s tate o fficial by his side any m ore th a n by the side Of the

-

ki ngs Of the e arliest ti mes .

For legisl ation the de mocratic mon a rch a dhere d to the

pri m i tive m a xi m Of R o man s tate— law th at the c o mm uni ty
,

of the people in concert wi th the king co nvoki ng them had

a lone th e power of org a nic a lly regul a ting th e co mm on

we al th ; a nd he ha d his consti tu tive e nactments regul arly

s anc tio ned by decree of the people The free energy and .

the a u th o ri ty h alf moral

-
h a lf poli tica l which the ye a or
,
-

nay o f those old wa rrior a sse m blies h ad c a rried wi th it could

-

no t indeed be a g a i n i n s tilled into th e s o ca lled co m i ti a of -

this period ; the co Oper a tion o f th e burgesses in legisla

'

tion ,
which in the old consti tu tion ha d been extre mely
li mited but rea l a nd living was in the new practically a n
,

u nsubstan tia l sh a dow T here was therefore no need o f

.

speci al re s tric tive m ea sures aga inst the co mi tia ; m any

years experie nce h ad shown that every governmen t—the
’

oliga rchy as well as the m o narch —e a sily kep t on g o od

term s wi th this for mal sovereign These C a es a ri a n c o m i ti a
.

were an i mp o rta nt ele men t in the C a es a ria n sys te m a nd

indirec tly of pra c tical signific ance only in so far as they ,

served to reta in in principle the sovereign ty of the people

a nd to co n s ti tu te a n energe tic pro tes t a g a ins t sul ta nism .

B ut a t th e sa m e ti m e —a s is no t o nly obvious of i tself ,

b ut is a lso dis ti n c tly a t tes ted — th e o ther m a xim a lso of th e

olde s t s tate la w w a s revived by C a es ar hi mself and no t

-
,

m erely fo the firs t ti m e by his successors ; viz that wh a t

r .
CR AP. x i TH E N EW M ONA R CH Y
th e supre m e or ra ther s ole magis tra te co mman d s is un
, ,

c o nditio nally valid so l o ng as he re ma i ns in o ffice a nd th a t , ,

while l e gi sl ation no doub t belo ngs o nly to the ki ng and the

burgesses in concert th e roya l edic t is equiva len t to law a t
,

lea s t till th e de missio n of its a u thor .

While the de mocr atic ki ng thus co nceded to the com

m uni ty of the people at le a s t a for m a l sh are in th e s o ve
r e ig nty ,
it w as by no m e a n s his i nte n ti o n to divide h is
a u thori ty wi th wh a t h a d hi ther to been th e governi ng b o dy ,

th e college o f se na tors T h e sen ate of C a es a r w a s to b e

.

in a qui te differen t w ay f o m th e l ater sen a te Of A ugus tus

r

n o thing but a supre me c o u ncil of s ta te which he ma de use,

of for a dvising wi th him beforeh and as to l a ws a nd for the ,

issuing of th e more i mporta n t a dm inis t ative ordina nces r

through it or at le a st u nder its n am e — for c a ses in fa c t

,

Occurred where decrees of sen a te were issued of which ,

n o ne of the sen at o rs recited as presen t at their prep a r ation

h a d any cogniz a nce T here were no ma teri al di fficul ties
.

of for m in reduci ng the sen a te to its origi nal delibera tive

p o si tion which it h ad overs tepped more de f a cto tha n df
, e

j m ; b ut in this c a se it w a s nece s s a ry to pro tect himself

a

from pr ac tical resista nce for th e R o ma n sen a te was a s

,

m uch th e he a dqu ar ters o f the Opp o si ti o n to C a es a r a s the

A ttic A reop agus w as of th e Opposi tio n to P ericles Ch ie fly .

fo r this re a son the nu m ber of sen a to s which ha d hi ther to

r ,

a m oun ted a t m os t to six hundred in its nor ma l co ndi tion

( iv. 1 1 3 and h a d been gre atly reduced by the recen t cri s es

) ,

wa s r aised by extra ordin ary supple men t to ni n e hundred ;

a nd at th e s a m e ti m e to keep it a t le a s t up to this m a rk th e
, ,

nu mber of qu a estors to be no m i nated a n nu ally that is of ,

m e mbers a nnu a lly a d mi tted to the sen a te was r a ised fro m ,

twen ty to for ty 1
T h e extra ordi nary filling up of the sen ate
.

1 A ccor in d g b l l l l
to th e p ro a b e ca cu a tion fo rm e r y assum e d ( iv .

th is w o ul d d gg g b
yiel a n a ve ra g e a r e a te num er o f fro m 1 0 0 0 to 1 2 00
 340 T H E OLD R EP U BL I C AN D BOO Kv
was u ndertaken by the m on arch alone I n the ca se of .

th e o rdin a ry a ddi tions b e secured to hi m self a pe m an en t r

influence thro ugh the circu m s tance th at th e elec tora l ,

colleges were bound by law 1 to give their votes to th e

first twen ty c andidates for th e qu aesto rship who were pro
vide d wi th le tters of reco mm e n d a tio n fr o m th e m o na rch ;

besides the crown wa s at liberty to confer the hono ra ry

,

righ ts attachi ng to th e qu a es torship or to a ny offi ce superior

to it and c o n s equen tly a se at in th e sen a te in p a rticul a
,
r,

by way o f excep tion even on indi idu als not qu alified v .

T h e selection of th e ex tr ao rdin a ry m e m bers who were

a dded n atur a lly fell in th e m a in on a dhere nts of th e new

o der of thi ngs

r a nd in troduced
,
a long wi th equites o f
,

respectable s tandi ng various dubiou s and plebeia n person

,

a ges in to th e proud corpor a tio n— for m er sen a tors who ha d

bee n era sed fr o m th e roll by the ce nsor or in consequence

of a j udici al se ntence foreigners from S p a in and G a ul wh o
,

h a d to s o m e ex te nt to le a rn their L a ti n in th e sen a te m e n ,

l ately sub al tern Oflice s who had not pre iously receive d
r v

even th e eques tri a n ri ng sons of freed men or of such a s ,

fo llowed d ishonourable tra des and other ele me nts of a ,

like kind T he exclusive circles Of th e nobili ty to whom

.
,

this ch a nge in th e person al co m posi tion of th e se na te

n aturally gave the bi tteres t Offence saw in it an in ten tio nal ,

depreci ati o n o f the very ins ti tu tion i tsel f C a es ar was no t .

ca p able of such a self des tructive policy ; he was a s de ter

-

m ined no t to le t hi m self be gover ned by his council as he

wa s co nvinced of the necessi ty of the ins ti tu te in i tsel f .

T hey m igh t m o re correc tly h a ve discerned in this proceedi ng

th e in ten tio n of th e m o n a rch to ta ke a w a y fro m th e sen at e

its for m er ch a ra c ter of a n exclusive represe nta tion of the

oligarchic aris tocra cy and to make it once more—wh at it
,

48 .
1
Th is cer ta inly h l l
a d re fe r e nce m e re y to th e e e ctio ns fo r th e
y ears 7 1 1
42 . a nd 71 2 ( S ta a trr eclzt , ii.
3
7 30 ) g d l
b ut th e arra n e me nt w as o ub t ess m ea nt
to become per ma nent .
 T H E OLD R EP U BL I C A ND B OOKv
perm i t — wi th his sl aves freed men or clients of h u m ble
, ,

bir th H is works a s a whole sh o w wh a t a n organizing

.

genius like his could acco mplish wi th s uch a n ins tru men t ;
but to the question how in deta il these m a vellous fea ts
,
r

were a chieved we h a ve no a dequ a te a nswer B urea u

,
.

cra cy rese m bles a ma nufa c tory a ls o in this e spec t th at the r ,

work d one d o es not a ppe a r a s th at Of th e individu a l who

ha s worked a t it but a s th a t of th e man ufac tory which
,

s tamps it T his much only is qui te cle a r th at C a es ar in

.
,

his work ha d no helper a t all who exe ted a person a l in r

fl ue nce over it or wa s eve n so m uch as ini ti ated i nto th e

whole pl a n ; he wa s no t o nly th e sole m a s ter but he ,

worked a lso wi thou t s killed a ssoci ates merely wi th common ,

labourers .

Wi th respec t to de ta ils a s a m atter of course in stric tly

poli tica l affa irs C a esa r avoided so fa r as was at all possible
, ,

any deleg ation of his func tions Where it wa s i nevi table

.
,

a s especi a lly when during his frequen t a b s e nce fro m R o m e

he ha d need of a higher org a n there th e person des tined ,

for this pu rp o se was signific an tly enough no t the leg a l

, ,

depu ty o f th e m onarch the prefect of the city but a

, ,

confida n t wi thou t Offi cially recognized jurisdic tion usu ally

-

C aesa r s b a nker the cunning a nd pli an t Phoenicia n

’
,

m erch a n t Lucius Cornelius Balbus fro m G a des I n ad .

mi nis tra tio n C a es a r was a bove a ll ca reful to re s u m e the

keys o f the s ta te ches t— which the sen ate had appro pri ated
-

to i tself a fter the fa ll of th e reg al power a nd by me ans of ,

which it ha d posses sed i tself of th e govern me nt—a nd to

en trus t the m only to those serv a n ts who wi th their persons
were a b s olu tely and exclusi ely devo ted to him I n v .

respec t of o w nership indeed the private m ea ns of the

mo narch re ma ined of course s tric tly separate from th e
, ,

property of the sta te ; b ut C ae sa r took in h a nd the

a d m i nis tra ti o n of th e whole fi na nci a l a nd m one ta ry sys te m

o f the s tate a nd conduc ted it en tirely in the way in which

,
CR A P. x i TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y
he and the R oman gra ndees genera lly were wont to
m a n a ge th e a d mi nis tration Of their o w n mea ns a nd sub
s ta nce. For the fu ture the levying of the provinci a l
revenues and in the m a in also the ma n age ment of the
coin age were en t us ted to th e sl aves a nd freedmen o f th e
r

I m pera tor a nd m e n of the sen a tori a l o rder were exclu d ed

,

fro m it— a m o m en tous s tep out of which grew in course ,

of ti m e th e i mpor tan t cl a ss of procurators a nd the i mperia l “

h o usehol d .
”

Of th e governorships on the other h a n d which a fter they in th , , e

b a d h a nded their fin a nci a l business over to th e new i mperi a l

5&1a )
tax receivers were s till m ore th a n they h a d fo r merly been
-

essen tially mili tary comm a nds that of Egyp t a lo ne wa s ,

tr a nsferred to the mo na rch s own re tainers T he coun try

’
.

Of th e N ile in a peculi a r m a nner geogr a phic a lly is o l a ted

,

a nd poli tic a lly ce ntr a lized w as be tter fi tted th a n a ny other

,

dis tric t to bre ak o ff perma nen tly u nder a n a ble le a der fro m
th e cen tr al p o wer as the a tte mp ts which ha d repe atedly
,

been m a de by h ard pres sed I tali a n p a ty chiefs to es tablish

-
r -

the m selves there duri ng th e recen t crisis su ffi cien tly proved .

P rob a bly it w as jus t this consideration tha t i n duced Ca es a r

no t to decl a re th e l a nd for mally a province b ut to le a ve ,

th e h ar m less La g ids there ; a nd cer ta inly for this re a son

th e legio ns s tationed in Egyp t were no t en trusted to a ma n

bel o nging to the se na te or in o ther words to the form er
, ,

govern men t but this comm a nd was j us t like the p o s ts Of

, ,

tax receivers tre ated a s a m eni al o ffi ce ( p

-

,
I n gener al .

however th e c o nsideration had weigh t wi th Ca e sar th at the ,

s oldiers of R o m e should not like those of Orien ta l kings , ,

be co mmanded by l ackeys I t re ma i ned the rule to e ntrus t

.

th e m ore i mpor ta n t g o ve norships to those who h a d been

r

c o nsuls th e less i mp o rtant to those who ha d been pra etors

,

a nd once m ore ins te a d of the five ye a rs in terv al prescribed

’
,

by the law Of 7 0 2 ( p the c o mm e nce m en t o f th e 5 2

.
.

governorship prob a bly was in the a ncie nt fashion a nnexed

 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO K v

direc tly to the close of the offi ci al func tions in the ci ty .

On the o ther h a nd the dis tribu tion o f th e provi nces a mong

th e qu a lified c a ndid ate s which h a d hi ther to been a r a nged
, r

so me ti mes by decree of the pe o ple or se nate so m e ti m es by ,

c o ncert am ong the m agis tra tes or by lot p a ssed over to the
,

m o na rch .A nd as th e con s uls were freque ntly induced to

,

a bdic a te before th e end of th e ye ar a nd to ma ke r o o m fo r

a fter elec ted consuls ( consules

-
as m oreover th e , ,

number of pra e tors a nnu a lly nom i na ted wa s ra ised fro m

eigh t to sixteen and th e no m i na ti o n of h alf of the m was
,

e ntrusted to th e I mpera to r in th e s ame w ay as th at o f the

h alf of the qua es tors a nd la s tly as there wa s eserved to
, , r

the I mper a tor the righ t of no min a ting if no t ti tul a r

,

consuls at any rate titul ar pra e tors a nd ti tul ar qu a es tors

,

C a es ar secured a su ffi cie nt nu mber of ca ndidates a ccep ta ble

to him for filling up the governorships T heir rec ll . a

re ma ine d of course left to th e discreti o n of the regen t

a s well a s their no m ina tion as a rule it w a s a ssu m ed

th at th e consul a r governor sh o uld no t re ma in m ore th a n

two ye ars nor th e pra e tori a n m ore th an one ye a r in the

, ,

province .

L a s tly so far as concerns the a d m inis tra tion of the ci ty

,

which was his ca pi ta l a nd reside nce th e I m perator evi

,

de ntly in te nded for a ti m e to e ntrus t this a l s o to magis

tra t es si m il a rly n o m i na ted by h im H e revived th e o ld
.

ci ty lieu te na ncy of the rega l peri o d (i 8 3) on di fferen t

-
.

occ a s ions he co mm i tted du i ng his a b sence the a dminis

r

tra tio n of th e c a pi ta l to one or m ore such lieu te na n ts no m i

na te d by h im wi th o u t c o n s ul ting th e people a nd for a n

i ndefi ni te period who u ni ted in the m selves th e functi o ns

,

of all the a d mi ni stra tive m agi stra tes a nd possessed even the
righ t of coining m oney wi th their own n a m e a l though o f ,

c o urse not wi th their own e ffi gy I n 7 0 7 and in the firs t

.

ni ne m on ths o f 7 0 9 th e re were m o r e o ver n ei ther pra e to rs

, ,

nor curule a ediles no r quaes tors the consuls too were

346 TH E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D BOO K v

th e R oman empire was converte d i nto a li m ite d com mu nal

freedo m wi thin the R oma n s tate T ha t a t the s ame time
.

the nu mber of the pra etors a nd qu aes tors wa s doubled has ,

been a lre ady men tioned ; the s am e course wa s followed

wi th th e plebei a n a ediles to wh o m two new cor n a ediles
,
-

a ediles Gen d ler were a dded to superintend the supplies of

'

( )
th e c a pi tal T he appoin tm en t to th o se o ffices re ma i ned
.

wi th the comm uni ty a nd was subject to no res triction as

,

respected the co nsuls and perh aps also the tribu nes of
th e people a n d plebei a n a ediles we ha ve alre a dy a dver ted
to th e fa c t th a t the I m per ator reserved a righ t of propos al
,

bin ding on the elec tors a s regards the h alf of the prae tors ,

curule aediles and qu aes tors to be a nnu al ly no m in ate d

, .

I n genera l th e a ncien t a nd h a llowed p a ll a di a of popul a r

freedo m were no t touched which of course did no t , ,

preven t the individu a l refra c tory tribune of the people

from being seriously i nterfered wi th a nd in fact deposed , ,

a nd era sed fro m th e roll o f sen a tors .

As the I mper a tor wa s thus fo r th e m ore general and

,

more imp o r ta nt ques tions his own m i nis ter ; as he con

,

trolled th e fin a nces by his serv a nts a nd th e a r my by his ,

a dju ta n ts a nd a s th e old republic a n st a te m a gis tra cies -

were aga in converted i nto m unicip al ma gis tra cies Of the

C i ty o f R o m e the au tocra cy w as su ffi cie ntly es ta blished .

I n th e spiri tu al hiera rchy o n th e o th er h a nd C a es ar ,

a l though he issued a d e ta iled la w respec ting this por tion of

the s ta te econo my ma de no ma teri a l a l tera tio n excep t th a t

-

, ,

he connected with the person o f the regen t th e supre m e

o n tifi ca te a nd pe h a ps a lso th e m e mbership of th e higher
r
p
pries tly c o lleges ge nerally ; a nd p a tly in co nnec tion wi th
,
r

this one ne w s tall wa s cre a ted in e a ch of the three supre m e

,

colleges a nd three new s ta lls in th e fo urth college o f the

,

b a nquet m a s ters I f th e R o ma n s ta te h ie archy ha d hi ther to

-
.
-
r

served as a supp o t to the ruli ng olig archy it m ight ender

r
,
r

precisely the s a me service to the new mona rchy The .

CH AP. x i T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y 347

c o nserv ative religious policy o f the sen a te wa s t a nsferr e d r

to th e new kings of R o m e whe n th e s tric tly c o nservative

Va rro published a bou t this ti m e his A n tiqui ties of Divi ne “

T hi ngs the gre at fund a mental reposi tory Of R o ma n s ta te

”
,

theology he wa s a llowed to d edic a te it to the P ontz

, fix
M a x i mus C aes ar Th e fa int lus tre which th e wor s hip of
'

J ovis wa s s till able to i mp a rt shone round the newly es ta b -

lish e d throne ; and th e old n ati o n a l fa i th bec a me in its

l a st s tages the ins tru men t of a C a es a ri a n p ap a cy which , ,

however was f o m th e ou tset b ut hollow and feeble

,
r .

I n j udici a l m atters firs t of all the old reg a l jurisdic tion R g l

, , e a

wa s re est a blishe d
-
A s th e king ha d origin a lly bee n judge
j i ur s
.
d i ti n c o .

in cri m i nal a nd civil c a uses wi thou t bei ng lega lly b o und in

,

th e for mer to respect a n a ppe al to th e p eroga tive Of m ercy r

in the people or in the l a tter to com m it the decision of the

,

ques tion in di spu te to jurym en so C a es ar cl ai m ed the righ t

of bringing ca pi tal c a uses as well as private proce s ses for
sole and fin al decision to his own bar a nd disposi ng of ,

the m in th e even t of his presenc e pers o na lly in th e event ,

of his absence by th e ci ty lieuten an t I n fa ct we fi nd h im

-
.
,

qui te a fter th e ma n ner of the a ncient kings now si tti ng in ,

j udg men t publicly in th e Foru m of th e c api tal on R o ma n

burgesses a ccused of high tre a son now holding a judici a l,

i nquiry in his house rega rding the clie nt prince s a ccu se d of

th e like cri m e so th at the only privilege which th e R oma n ,

burgesses had a s com p ared wi th the other subjects o f the

ki ng see m s to have consis ted in the publici ty of th e judici al
,

p o cedure B ut this resusci tated supre m e ju isdiction o f

r . r

th e ki ng s a l th o ugh
, C a es a r di s ch a rged its duties wi th
i m p artia li ty a nd c a re could only fr o m the n ature o f the
,

c a se find pra c tic al a pplic ation in excep ti o n a l ca s es .

For th e usu a l procedure in crim i na l a nd civil c a uses the R t nti n e e o

f th
fo rmer republica n m ode of a dminis tering jus tice w as sub p i u o
re v o
e

sta ntially re ta ined Cri min al c a uses were s till disp o sed of dmi i
.
a ns
t ti n of ra o
as for m erly befo re th e d i fferen t j ury co m m issi o ns co mpe tent u ti
j
-

ce s .
348 T H E OL D R E P U B LI C AN D B OO K V

to de al wi th the several cri mes civil ca uses partly before ,

th e court of inheri ta nce or a s it was co mm only c a lled o f

, ,

th e centumw n p a rt ly befo re th e si ngle zudzcer ; th e super

' ’ ' ’

intendence of judicial proceedings was as fo rm erly con

ducted in the ca pi ta l chie fl y by the pra e tors in the ,

provi nces by the g o vern o rs Poli tica l cri mes to o con ti nued
.

even under the m o narchy to be referred to a jury co mmi s -

sion ; the new o rdi nance which C a esa r issued respec ti ng

,

the m speci fied th e a c ts leg ally puni s h a ble wi th precision

,

a nd in a libe a l spiri t which excluded a ll prosecu tion of

r

Opini o ns a nd it fixed as the pe nal ty not de a th b ut b a ni sh

, ,

m e nt . A s re s pec ts th e selec tio n o f the jury m en who m th e ,

sen a to i al pa r ty desired to see chose n exclu s ively fro m th e

r

sen a te a nd th e s trict Graccha ns exclusively fro m the eques

trian order C a esa r fa i thful to the principle of reco ncili ng
, ,

th e p a rties left th e ma tter on th e foo ting of th e co m

"

prom ise law of Co tta ( iv

-
but wi th th e m odific ati o n
.

-
fo r which the w ay was prob a bly prep a red by th e law
of P o mpe ius of 6 9 9 (p 1 38 ) — th a t the tr ibum a er a z who
.
' ’

r z
’

c am e fro m th e lower ra nks of the people were se t a side ;

s o th a t there w as es ta blished a ra ti ng for jury m en of a t

le ast ses terces a nd sen a tors a nd equi tes

no w divided th e func tions of jurymen which h a d so long

been a n a pple of di s c o rd be tween them .

T h e rel ations of th e reg a l a nd th e republic a n j urisdic tion

were on the wh o le co o rdi na te so th at a ny c a use might be
-

i ni ti ated as well before the ki ng s b a r a s before the co m ’

pe ten t republic a n tribu na l the l atter o f c o urse in the eve nt

,

of c o llisio n givi ng way if on the o ther h a nd the one or th e

o ther tribu na l h a d pr o no unced sen te nce th e c a use w as ,

thereby fi na lly disposed of T o o ve turn a verdic t pro

. r

no unce d by th e jury m e n duly c a lled to act in a civil o r

in a cri m i nal ca use e en th e new ruler was not en ti tled

v ,

e xcep t where S peci a l i nciden ts such as c o rrup tio n o r ,

viole nce alre a dy a ccordi ng to the law of the republic

,
 350 T H E OLD R EP U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
forensic el o que nce fl ourished all posi tive ide as of righ t ,

beca m e broke n up ; and the dis ti nct ion so di ffi cul t of ,

a pprehension by th e public be twee n opinion a nd evide nce

,

was in re a li ty expelled f o m th e R o m a n cri m in a l pra c tice

r .

“
A pla in si m ple defe n da n t s a ys a R om a n a dv o cate of
”
,

m uch experie nce a t thi s peri o d may be a ccused of a ny ,

“

cri me at ple asure which he has o r has not c o mm i tted a nd ,

will he certa inly conde m ned N u m er o us pl ea ding s in

.
”

crimin al ca uses h ave been prese ved to us from this ep o ch ; r

there is h a rdly o ne of the m which m a kes eve n a seri o us

a tte mp t to fix th e cri m e in que s tion a nd to p ut in to pr o per

sh ape th e proof or coun terproof Th at the co nte mp o rary

1
.

civil procedure wa s likewi s e in va ious re spects u ns o u nd r ,

we need h ardly m en tion ; it to o su ffe ed fr o m th e e ffects r

of th e p ar ty p o li tics m ixed up wi th all thing s a s for ,

38 8 1
-
. i ns ta nce in the proces s of P ublius Quinctius ( 6 7 1
67 where th e m ost co ntra dictory decisi o ns were give n
a cc o rdi ng a s Ci nn a o r S ull a h a d t h e a scendency in R om e

a nd th e a dv o c a t es freque ntly no n juris ts pr o duced here

, ,

a lso in te ntion ally a nd uni nte nti o n a lly a bu n d a nce o f con

fusion B ut it was i mplied in th e natu e of th e c a se th at

.
r
,

p a r ty m ixed i tself up wi th such ma tters o nly by way o f

excep ti o n a nd th a t here th e quibbles o f a dv o c ate s c o uld
,

no t s o r a pidly or so deeply bre a k up th e ide a s of righ t ;

a ccordi ngly th e civil ple a di ngs which we p o ssess fro m thi s

‘

epoch while no t a cc o rdi ng to o ur s tric te ide a s e ffective

,
r

com positi o ns for their purpose a e ye t of a far less libell o u s

,
r

a nd fa r m o re j uris tic ch a r a c ter th a n th e c o n te m po a ry r

speeches in cri m in al ca uses I f C a es a r perm i tted th e .

1 P lu m e n im m u lto, sa y s C ice r o in h is trea tise D e Or a tor e ( ii 4 2 , .

p rim l l l
ar i y with r e fe r e nce t o crim ina tria s, [l a minar zu dzca nt odio o u t a mor e
' '

a u t cup zdita te a u t ir a cu rza ia a u t dolor e a ut la e tztia a u t rp e a u t t zmor e a u t

’

er ror e a u t a lig u a par motzone m entis , qu a m ver ita te a u t p r ae rcr z

’
’

p to a u t

iu n r nar ma a lig ua a u t iu a zczi f or m u la a ut leg 1 1 m

' ’ ’ ’

On th is a cco r ding y
-
. l
are fo unde d th e fur th e r ins tr uctio ns w h ich h e g ives fo r a d vo ca tes e nteri ng
o n th e ir p ro fe ss io n.
CR A P. it: T H E N EW M ON A R C H Y
curb i mposed o n the eloquence of a dvoc ates by P o m
peius ( p 1 38 ) to re ma i n or even re nde ed it m ore severe
.
,
r ,

th e re was a t le a st n o thi ng los t by this ; a nd m uch w a s

ga ined when be tter selec ted a nd better supe in tended
,
r

m a gis tra tes a nd jury m e n were no m in ated and the p alp a ble
c orrup tio n a nd in ti m id a tion of th e cour ts c a m e to a n e nd .

B ut the s acred se n se of right a nd th e reverence for th e

law which it is di ffi cul t to des troy in th e m in d s of th e
,

m ul ti tude it is s till more di ffi cul t to reproduce

,
T hough .

th e legisl a tor did a w a y wi th v a rious a buses he coul d n o t ,

he al the root of the evil and it m ight be doub ted whether

ti m e which cure s every thing cura ble would in thi s case
, ,

bri ng relief .

T he R o ma n mili ta ry sys te m of this perio d wa s ne arly D y eca of

in the s ame condi tion as th e C ar th agini a n at the ti m e of

H a nnib a l Th e governing cl a sses furnishe d only the y t m
.
S s e

o fficers ; th e sub j ec ts plebei ans a nd provinci als form ed

, ,

th e a r m y The genera l w a s fin a nci ally a nd milit arily

.
, ,

a l mo s t i ndependen t of th e cen tral government and , ,

whe ther in fo r tune or misfortu ne substa nti ally l e ft to ,

hi mself a nd to th e resources of his province Civic .

a nd even n atio na l spiri t h a d v anished fro m the army ,

a nd the esp r it a e corp s was a lone left a s a b o n d of inwa rd

'

u nion The a r m y had ce as ed to be an instrumen t o f

.

th e co mm onwe al th ; in a poli tic a l poin t of vie w it h ad

no will of its own but it wa s doub tless ab le to a dop t

,

th at of th e m a s te w h o wielded it ; in a m ili ta ry poin t

r

of view it sa nk u nder th e o rdin a ry m iserable le aders i nto

a dis o rg a nized u s eless r a bble b ut under a righ t ge ner a l
,

it a tta ined a m ili ta ry pe fec ti on which the burgess a r my

r -

could never re a ch T he cla ss of Officers especi ally ha d

.

deeply degenera ted T h e higher ra nks sen a tors a nd

.
,

equi tes gr ew m ore and more unused to a rms While

, .

formerly there ha d been a ze al o us competi tion for the

p o sts o f stafl o fi ce rs now every ma n of eques tria n ra nk
'

, ,
352 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO Kv
w ho chose to serve wa s sure of a m ili tary t ibuneship and
,
r ,

s evera l of these p o s t s h a d even to be filled wi th m e n o f

hu m bler ra nk ; a nd a ny m an of qu ali ty a t all who s till

s erve d sough t at le a st to finish h is te m of service in S icily
r

o r so m e o ther provi nce where he w a s sure no t to fa ce th e

e nemy . Offi cers of ordin ary bra ery a nd e fficiency were

v

s tared at as prodigies ; a s to P o mp e ius e speci a lly his ,

con te mpora ries pra c tised a mili ta ry ido la try which in every
respect comprom ised them T he s ta ff as a rule ga ve th e
.
, ,

s ign a l for deser tion a nd fo r mu tiny ; in spi te of th e culp a ble

indulgence of the com manders proposa ls for th e c ashiering

of offi cers of rank were daily occurre nces We s till possess .

th e pic ture — dr a wn no t wi thou t iro ny by C a es a r s own

’

h and —Of th e s tate of m a tters at his o wn he a dqu arter s

w hen orders were given to m a rch a ga i n s t A riovis tus of ,

the cursi ng a nd weeping and prep a ri ng of tes tam e nts

, ,

a nd presen ting even of reques ts for furl o ugh I n the .

soldiery no t a tra ce of the better Cl a sses could a ny lo nger

.

be disc o vered Leg ally th e general o blig a tion to be a r

.

a r m s s till subsis ted but the levy if resor ted to alo ng side
,

of enlis ting took pl ace in the m os t irregular ma nner ;

,

num erous persons lia ble to serve were wh o lly pa ssed over ,

while those once levied we e re ta ine d thir ty yea rs a nd

r

longer be n e ath the e agles T h e R o ma n burgess c a v a lry

.
-

now m erely vegeta ted a s a sort o f m ounted noble gu a rd ,

whose perfumed cav aliers a nd exquisi te high bred horses -

only pl ayed a p art in the fes tivals of the c a pi tal ; the so

c alled burgess i nfa nt y was a tro o p of merce naries sw ep t
-
r

together fro m th e lowes t ra nks of th e burge s s p o pul ati o n -

th e subjec ts furnished th e c a v alry a nd th e ligh t troops

exclusively a nd c ame to be more a nd m ore extensively
,

e mployed also in th e infa n try T h e pos ts of cen turions

.

in th e legi o ns o n which in th e m ode of w a r fa re of th at

,

time the e ffi ciency of the divisions essen ti ally depended ,

a nd to which a ccordi ng to th e na tion al m ili ta ry cons ti tu o

 354 TH E OLD R EP U BLI C A ND noo n v
before the thir tie th ye ar three ye ars service on horseb ack ’

— th at is a s o ffi ce r—o r six ye a rs service o n foo t should be

,
’
,

required p oves indeed tha t he wished to attrac t the be tter

,
r

cla sses to the ar my ; b ut it proves wi th equ al cle arness th at

a mids t th e eve incre a si ng p eva lence of a n unwarlike spiri t
r
-
r

in the n a tion he hi m se lf hel d it no longer possible to

a ssoci ate the holdi ng o f a n h o nora ry o flice wi th th e fulfil

m ent of th e ti me of service unco n di tion ally a s hi ther to .

T his very circu m s ta nce serves to expl a in why C a es a r ma de

no a ttempt to re est ablish the R oma n burgess c ava lry
- -
.

T he levy w as be tter a rr anged th e ti m e of service wa s

,

regul ated a nd a bridged ; otherwise ma tters re ma i ned on

th e footing th a t the infa n try of the line were ra ised chie fl y

fro m th e lower orders of the R oma n burgesses the c a va lry ,

and the ligh t infa n try fro m th e subjec ts T h at no thing.

wa s do n e fo r th e reorga niz a tio n of th e flee t is surprising ,

.

I t wa s a n innova tion — h az ard o us beyond doub t eve n in

th e view of its a uthor—to which th e untrus two rthy ch a ra c ter
m erce n

of the c a valry furnished by the subjec ts co mpelled h im

( p
. th a t C a es a r for th e fir st ti m e devi a ted fro m th e o ld

R o ma n sy ste m o f never figh ti ng wi th m erce na ries a nd ln ,

co rp o ra te d in th e c a v a lry hired forei g ners especi ally Ger m a ns

,
.

A no ther i nnov a tio n w a s th e a ppoin tm en t of a dju ta n ts o f the

legi o n (leg a ti leg ionis) H i the to the m ili tary tribunes
. r ,

n o m i na ted p a r tly by th e burgesses p a r tly by th e gove rnor

,

concerned ha d led th e legi o ns in such a way th at six of

,

the m were pl a ced over e a ch legi o n a nd th e c o m ma nd ,

a l ter na ted a m o ng these a si ngle comma nda n t of the

legion w a s a pp o i nted by th e ge nera l o nly as a te mpora y r

a nd extr a ordin a y m e a s ure

r I n s ubseque nt ti mes on th e
.

o ther h and tho se colo nels or a dju ta n ts o f legio ns a ppe a r

a s a p e r m a nen t a nd org a nic i ns ti tu tio n a nd a s no m i na ted
,

no longer by th e g o vernor wh o m they obey but by th e ,

supre m e c o mm and in R o m e b o th ch a nges see m refera ble

to C a es ar s arra nge m en ts con nec ted wi th the Ga binia n la w
’
CR A P . 11 1 T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y 355

( iv. T h e re a son for the in troduc ti o n of this i m por ta n t

in terve ning s tep in th e m ili ta ry hiera rchy mu st b e s o ught

p a rtly in th e nece ssi ty for a m o re e nerge tic ce ntra liz ation o f
th e co mm a n d p a r tly in th e fel t w a nt of c a p a ble superi o r
,

o ffi cers p a rtly a nd chiefly in th e desig n o f pro viding a

,

coun terp o ise to the g o ver nor by a ss o ci ati ng wi th him one

Or m ore colo n el s n o m i nated by th e I m per a tor .

T h e m os t essen ti a l ch ange in th e m ili tary sys te m con Th e

s is ted in th e ins ti tu tion o f a per m a ne nt m ili ta ry he a d in th e

fig ggf
‘

pers o n of the I m perator who super sedi ng th e previou s h ip l

, ,
s -
n
d " ue
u nm ili tary a nd in every re spect i nca p a ble gover ning cor
p o ra tio n uni ted in his h a n ds th e wh o le c o n trol Of th e
,

a r my ,
a nd t hus c o nve ted it fro m a direc tion which for
r

th e m os t p a r t wa s m erely n o m i na l i nt o a re a l a n d energetic
suprem e com ma nd We are not pr o pe ly info r m ed as to the
. r

posi tion which this suprem e c o m ma nd occupied towa rds the

speci al com m a nds hi th e to o m nipote nt in their respec tive
r

spheres Prob a bly the a n a l o gy o f the rel ati o n subsis ti ng

.

be tween th e pra e tor a nd th e consul o r the co nsul a nd

th e dic ta tor served ge ner ally a s a b a sis so th at while the , ,

governor in his o w n right re ta ined th e supreme m ilita ry

a u thori ty in his province th e I mper ator wa s en ti tled a t
,

a ny m omen t to ta ke it a wa y fro m h im a nd a s s u m e it for

him self o r his delegates and while th e a u thori ty of th e

, ,

g o vernor wa s con fi ned to th e provi nce th at of the I m ,

p e rato r like the reg a l a nd th e e a rlie co nsul a r a u thori ty

,
r
,

extended o ver the whole e mpi e Moreover it is ex r .

tre me ly prob a ble th a t now th e no m i na tio n o f th e o ffi cers ,

both the mili tary tribunes and th e ce nturi o ns so far a s it ,

h a d hi ther to belo ged to th e governor a s well a s th e no m i

n 1
,

n atio n of th e new a dju tants of the legio n p a s sed di ec tly ,

r

into the h a nds of the I mperator a nd in like m a nner even

no w th e a r a nge m en t of th e levies th e bes to w l o f le a ve of
r
,
a

1 With th e no m ina tio n o f p art o f th e mi itar y

a l trib unes b y th e
burg es ses ( iii . 1 3) Caesar —ln this also a d e m o cr a t —did no t me ddle
.
356 T H E O L D R EP U BL I C AN D B OO KV
a bsence a nd th e m o e i mpo ta nt c i mi nal c a ses may h a ve
,
r r r ,

bee n sub m i tted to th e judg me nt of the co m m ander in -

chief W th this li m i t tion of th e po w e rS o f the g o ver nors

. i a
‘

a nd wi th th e regul a ted c o n trol of th e I m pe a tor there wa s r ,

no gre a t r o o m to a pp ehend in fu ture ei ther tha t th e ar m ies

r

migh t be u tterly dis o g a nized o r th a t they m igh t be co n

r

ver ted into re ta iners personally devo ted to their respec tive
o flice rs .

B ut, however decidedly and urge ntly th e circu m s ta nces

poi nted to mili ta ry m o na rchy and h o wever dis tinc tly C a esar
,

took th e supre m e co m m a nd exclusively for hi m self he was ,

never theless no t a t all inclined to est a blish his a u th o ri ty by

m e a ns of a nd o n th e a r my
, , N o d o ub t he dee med a
.

s ta ndi ng a rm y nece ssa y for his sta te but o nly bec a use
r ,

f o m its ge o gra phica l posi tion it required a c o mprehe nsive

r

regula tion o f the fro ntiers a nd pe ma ne nt f o ntier g arriso ns r r .

Pa r tly a t e a rlier pe i o ds p a r tly during the recen t civil w ar

r , ,

he ha d worked at the tra nquilli ing o f S p a in and ha d z ,

es ta blished s tro ng p o si tions for th e defence of the fron tie r

in Africa along the grea t desert a nd in the north wes t o f ,
-

the e m pire a l o ng th e line of th e R hine H e occupied .

hi mself with si m ila r pla ns for th e regi o ns on th e Euphra tes

a nd on th e D a nube A bove a ll he de s igned a n expedi tion
.

a g a i ns t the Pa r thi a ns to a ve nge th e day o f Carr h a e

, he
h ad des tined three ye a rs for this w a r a nd was resolved ,

to se ttle a ccoun ts wi th the s e da ngerous ene m ies once for a ll

a nd no t less c a u ti o u s ly th a n th o roughly I n like ma nner .

he ha d projected the s che m e of atta cking B ure bista s king

of th e G e ta e wh o w a s g e a tly ex te ndi ng his power on both
,
r

sides of the D a nube (p a nd of pr o tec t i ng I ta ly in th e

.

north e a s t by b o rder di stric ts si m il ar to th o se which he ha d

- -

cre ated for it in Ga ul On the o ther h a nd there is no

.

evidence at all th a t C a es ar c o n te m plated like Alexa nder

a c a reer of vic to ry ex te nding i n defini tely far ; it is s a id

indeed that he h ad in tended to mar ch fro m Pa r thia to

358 T H E OL D R EP U BL I C AN D K
B OO v

wit h a civil c o mm o nwe a l th a nd their gl o rio us n ames

,

were only perpe tu ated in newly fo u nded urba n co mm uni -

ties . T he soldiers prese nted by C a es ar wi th allo tmen ts

o f l a nd o n their disch a rge were no t like th o se of S ull a , ,

se ttled toge ther— as it were m ili tarily— in colonies of their

o w n b ut especi a lly whe n they se ttled in I ta ly were isol ated
, , ,

a s m uch a s pos s ible a nd sc a t tered through o u t the peni n

s ul a ; it was o nly in th e c a se of th e p o rtions of th e

C amp ani an l a nd th at re mained for dispo sal th at an ,

a ggreg atio n of th e old soldiers of C aes a could not be r

a voided C a es a r s o ught to s o lve th e di ffi cult ta sk of

.

keepi ng the soldiers of a s t ndi ng ar m y wi thi n th e spheres

a

o f civil life p artly by re ta i ni ng th e form er arrange m e nt

,

which pre s cribed m erely cer ta i n ye ars of se vice a nd no t r ,

a service s tric tly c o ns ta n t th a t is ,

u ni nter up te d by a ny
,
r

d isch arge ; p artly by the a lre a dy m e nti o ned shorte ni ng

o f th e ter m of service which occ as i o ned a speedier ch a nge
,

in th e person al c o m p o si ti o n o f th e a r m y ; p a tly by th e r

regula r se ttle m ent of th e s oldiers w h o h ad ser ed o ut their v

ti m e as agricul tur al colonis ts ; p ar tly and pri ncip a lly by

keepi ng the a rm y a l o of fr o m I ta ly a nd ge nerally fr o m th e
prope seats of th e civil and p o litica l life of the nati o n
r
,

a nd direc ting th e s o ldier to th e poin ts where a cc o rdi ng

,

to the opi nion of the gre at ki ng he wa s alone in his pl a ce

—to the frontier s tations that he m igh t w ard o ff the
,
“

extraneous fo e .

T he true cri teri o n a lso of th e m ili ta ry s tate— th e develop

m en t of and th e privileged posi tio n a s sig ned to th e c o rp s
, ,

of gu ards—is not to be m e t wi th in th e ca se of C a esa r .

Al though as respects th e ar m y o n a c tive service th e institu

tion of a S peci a l b o dygu a rd fo r th e gener al h a d bee n
a lre a dy long in e x is te n ce ( iii in C aes a s sys tem thi s ’
. r

fell co m ple tely into th e b a ck g rou n d h is pra e to ri a n c o h o r t

s ee m s to h ave esse nti a lly co nsis ted m e ely of orde ly o fficers r r

o r no n m ili ta ry attend a nt s a nd never to h ave b een in th e

-

,
CR A P . x1 T H E N EW M ON A R CH Y
proper sense a select corps consequen tly never a n ob j ect
,

of je alousy to the troops of th e li ne While C aes a r even

.

a s ge ner a l pr a ctic a lly dropped th e bodygu ard he s till les s ,

as king toler a ted a gua rd round his person A l though .

const an tly beset by lurking a ss a s si ns and well a ware of

it he ye t rej ecte d the propos a l o f the sen a te to ins ti tute
,

a select gu a r d dis missed as soon a s things grew in so me

,

me a sure quie t the S p a nish escort which he had ma d e use

,

o f a t firs t in th e c a pi ta l ; a nd co nte nted himself wi th the

retinue of lic to rs s an ctione d by tra di tion al us age for the

R o m a n supreme m a gis tr ates .

H owever m uch of th e ide a of his p arty a nd of his you th I mp ra cti

to found a P ericle a n govern m en t in R o m e no t by vir tue

of the sword but by virtue of th e confidence of th e n ation
,

C a es a r ha d been obliged to a b a nd o n in th e s truggle with

reali ties he re ta ined even now the fund am en tal ide a—o f
,

no t fou ndi ng a mili ta ry m on a rchy— wi th a n e nergy to which

his tory sca rcely supplies a p a rallel Cer tainly this to o w as

.

a n i m pr a c tica ble ide a l — it w as th e sole illusion in reg ar d ,

to which th e e arnes t longi ng of th at vigorous mi nd was

m ore powerful th a n its cle a r j udg m en t A govern m en t
.
,

such as C a es a r had in view wa s no t m erely of necessi ty

,

in its n ature highly person al and so li a ble to peri sh wi th

,

th e d e ath of its a u thor j us t a s th e kind ed cre a tions of r

P ericles a nd Cro m well with the de a th of their founders ;

b ut a m id st th e deeply d isorg a nized s ta te of th e na tion it
, ,

w as no t a t all credible th a t th e eigh th king of R o m e would

succeed even for his life time in ruli ng as his seve n pre de,

c e ss o r s h ad ruled his fellow burgesses merely by vir tue of

,
-

la w a nd j us tice a nd a s li ttle pr o b a ble th a t he would suc

,

c e e d in i nco por a ting th e s ta nding a rmy— a fter it had d uring

r

th e l a s t civil war le a ned its power a nd u nle a rned its rever

r

ence—once m ore a s a subservie nt elemen t in civi l society .

T o a ny one who c al m ly considered to wh a t ex ten t reverence

fo r th e law had dis appe a re d from th e lowes t a s from the
360 TH E OL D R EP U BL I C AND B OO Kv
highes t ra nks of s o ciety th e fo r m er hope m us t h ave see m ed
,

a l m os t a d e a m ; a nd if wi th th e M a ri a n refor m of th e
r ,

m ili ta ry sys te m th e s o ldier gene a lly ha d ce a sed to be a

r

ci tizen ( iii . th e C a m p a n i a n m u ti ny a nd th e b attle fi e ld -

of T ha p sus showed wi th p a i nful clea ne s s th e nature of the

r

support which the a rmy no w len t to the law Eve n the .

gre at de m ocrat could o nly wi th di fficul ty a nd i mperfec tly

hold in check the powers which he had unch ained ;
th o us a nds of swords s till a t his sign a l fl ew fr o m th e

sca bbard but they were no longer equ a lly rea dy up o n

,

th a t sign a l to re tur n to th e she a th Fate is m igh tier

.

th a n genius C a esa r desired to becom e th e res torer of

.

the ci il co mm o nwe a l th a nd bec a m e the founder of th e

v ,

m ili ta ry mo narchy which he a bhorred he over threw th e

r ég ime o f a ris tocra t s a nd b a nkers in th e s tate only to .
,

p ut a m ili ta ry ég ime in their pl a ce a nd the co mm o n

r ,

weal th c o nti nued a s before to be tyra nnized a nd wo rked

for profit by a privileged m inori ty A nd ye t it is a .

privilege of the highest n atures thus cre atively to err .

T h e brilli a n t a tte m p ts o f gre at men to re alize th e ide al ,

though they do no t re a ch their a im for m the be s t tre a sure

,

of the nations I t was owi ng to the wo rk o f C aesar th a t

.

th e R o ma n m ili ta ry s ta te did no t beco me a p o lice s ta te till -

a fter th e l a pse of sever a l cen turies a nd th a t th e R o ma n

,

I m pera to rs however li ttle they o therwise rese mbled the

,

gre at fo u nder of their s o vereignty ye t e m pl o yed the s o ldier

,

in the m a in no t a g a i ns t th e ci tizen b ut ag a i ns t th e public

fo e and es tee med b o th n ation a nd a r m y too highly to se t
,

th e l atter as cons ta ble over th e fo mer r .

Th e regul ation of fin a nci a l m a tters o cc a sio ned comp ar a

tive ly li ttle di ffi cul ty in co nsequence of th e solid found a tions

which the i mme nse mag ni tude of the e mpire a nd the

exclusion of the sys te m o f credit supplied I f the s tate .

ha d hi ther to fo u nd i tself in cons ta nt fi na nci a l e mb a a s s rr

men t th e fa ul t w as far fro m charg e able on the in a dequ acy

,
 T H E OLD R E P U BLI C AN D B OOK v

as were these de m ands ma de on the R o man exchequer ,

it w o uld s till h a ve been a ble prob a bly to m eet them ha d ,

no t its a dm inis tr a ti o n once so exe m pl a ry bee n a ffecte d

by th e univers al l a xity and dishones ty of this ag e the

p ay ments of th e tre asury were often suspended m ere ly
beca use of th e neglec t to c all up its ou ts ta n d ing cla i m s .

T he m agis tra tes pl aced over it two of th e qu a es tors

,

you ng m e n a nnu a lly ch a nge d—con te nted them selves at the

bes t wi th ina c tion ; am ong th e o ffici a l s ta ff of clerks a nd
o thers fo r m erly so j us tly held in high es teem for its in
,

tegr ity the wors t a buses now preva iled m ore especi ally
, ,

si nce such p o sts ha d c o me to be bough t a nd sold .

A s soo n howeve a s th e thre a ds o f R o m a n s tate fina nce

r -

were conce ntra ted no longe a s hi the to in the sen ate but
r r
,

in th e c a bine t of C a es ar ne w life s tricter order a nd m ore

, , ,

co m pa ct co nnec ti o n at once perva ded a ll th e wheels a nd

springs of th a t gre a t m a chi ne T he two i ns ti tutions which
.
,

origin a ted wi th Ga ius Gra cchus a nd a te like a gangrene into

th e R o ma n fin a nci a l sys te m — th e le a si ng of th e direct

ta xes a nd th e dis tribu tio n s of gra in— were p ar tly a bolishe d

, ,

partly re m odelled C aes a r wished no t like his predecessor

.
, ,

to hold th e nobili ty in check by th e b a nker a ris toc a cy a nd -

r

th e popul a ce of th e c a pi ta l but to s e t the m a side a nd to

,

deliver th e c o mm o nwe al th from all p ara si tes whether of high

or lower ra nk ; and therefore he we nt in thes e tw o i mporta nt
ques tio ns not wi th Gaius Gra cchus but wi th the oligarch
,

S ull a . T he le a sing sys tem was allowe d to con tinue for th e

i ndi ec t ta xe s in th e ca se o f which it was very old a nd
r ,

under the ma xi m of R o ma n fi na nci al ad m inis tratio n which ,

w a s re ta i n ed inviol a ble a lso by C a es a r th a t th e levyi ng of

,

th e ta xes shoul d a t any c o s t be kep t si m ple a nd re a dily

m a n age a ble —a bsolu tely could n o t be dispensed wi th B ut .

th e direc t ta xes we e thencefo r th uni ers ally ei ther tre a ted

r v ,

like the A frica n a nd S ardini an deliveries of corn a nd oil ,

as contri b u tions in kind to be direc tly supplied to the sta te ,

CH AP . xx T H E N EW M ON A R CH Y 36 3

or con erted like the revenu e s of As ia Mi no r i nto fixe d

v , ,

m oney p ay m en ts in which c a se th e collec tio n of the

,

se eral su m s pa yable was entrusted to the tax dis tricts

v -

the m selves .

T h e c o rn dis tribu tions in th e ca pi ta l h ad hi ther to bee n

-
R e for m o f
th e dis tri
looke d on a s a pr o fi ta ble prerog ative of the c o mm uni ty b utio n o f
which ruled a nd beca use it ruled had to be fed by its
, , co rn.

subjec ts T his infam ous pri nciple was se t a side by C a e sa r

.

b ut it c o uld no t be overlo o ked th a t a m ul ti tude of wholly

des titu te burgesses ha d bee n pro tec ted solely by these
l argesses of food fro m s tarv ation I n this a spect C a es a r .

re ta ined the m While a cco rding to the S e mpro nian

.

ordin ance renewed by C ato every R o m a n burgess se ttle d

in R om e had leg ally a cl a i m to bre a d corn wi thou t -

p a ym e nt this list o f recipien ts which ha d at l a s t ri s en to

, ,

th e n u m ber o f w a s reduced by the exclusion of

a ll i ndivi d u als h a vi ng m e a ns or o therwise provided fo r to

a nd this nu m ber w a s fixed o nce for a ll a s the

m a xi mu m number o f recipien ts o f free corn ; a t th e s a m e

tim e a n a nnu a l revisio n of th e lis t w a s o dered so th a t th e r ,

pl a ces va ca te d by re m ov a l o r de ath m igh t be aga in filled

up wi th the mos t needful a m o ng the a pplic a nts By thi s .

conversion of th e poli tic a l privilege into a provision for the

poor a pri nciple re ma rk able in a m o ral as well a s in a
,

his torical poin t of V iew c am e for th e firs t tim e into livi ng

operation Civil socie ty but slowly a nd gr a du a lly w o rks its
.

w ay to a percep tion of th e in terdepende nce of i nteres ts in

e arlier an tiqui ty th e state doubtless p o tec ted its m e mbers r

fro m th e public e ne m y a nd th e m urderer b ut it wa s no t ,

b o u nd to pro tect th e totally helpless fellow ci tizen fro m th e -

worse ene my wa nt by affo di ng the needful m e a ns o f

, ,
r

s ubsis tence I t was th e A ttic civiliz ation which first

.

developed in th e S oloni a n a nd pos t S o l o ni a n legi sl a ti o n

,
-

the principle th a t it is th e du ty of the c o mm u ni ty to provide

for its inv alids and in d eed fo r its poor gener ally a nd it wa s
364 TH E OLD R EP U BLI C AND B OO Kv
C aesa r that first developed wh at in the res tricte d comp ss a

of Attic li fe had re ma i ned a m unicipa l m atter in to an

organic i ns ti tution of s tate and tra nsform ed an arra nge men t
, ,

which w a s a burden a nd a disgra ce for the comm o nwea l th ,

in to the firs t of those i ns titu ti o ns—in m odern ti mes as coun t

les s as they are b e ne ficial— where th e infi ni te dep th of hu m a n
comp a ssio n con te nds wi th th e infini te dep th o f hu ma n m isery .

I n a d di tion to these fu n da m e nt al refo rm s a thorough

revision of th e inco me and expenditure took pl a ce T he .

ordin ary sources of incom e were everywhere regul ated

a nd fixe d Exe mp tion fro m ta x a tion wa s confe rred o n no t
.

a fe w co m m uni ties a nd eve n on whole dis tric ts whe ther ,

indirectly by th e bes towa l of th e R om a n or Latin franchi se ,

or d irec tly by speci al privilege ; it wa s ob tained a g by all .

th e S icili a n co mm uni ties 1

in th e fo rmer, b y th e town of
I lion in th e l atter way S till gre ater w as the nu mber of
.

those whose proportion of tribu te was lowered ; the co m

munitie s in Fur ther S p a i n for ins tance a lre a dy a fter
,
-

Ca es ar s governorship had on his sugges tion a reduc tion of

’

tribu te gr a n ted to the m by th e se nate a nd now the m os t ,

o ppressed province of A si a h a d no t o nly the levying of its

direct taxes fa cili tated b ut also a third of them wholly

,

remitted The newly a dded t axes such as those of

.
-

th e co mm u ni ties subdued in I llyri a and a bove all of the

G allic co mmuni ties — which latter toge ther p aid annu ally
sesterces —were fixed throughout
on a low scale I t is true on the o ther h and th a t v arious
.

towns such a s L it tle L e p tis in A fric a S ulcr in S ardini a a nd , ,

several S pa nish comm uni tie s ha d their tribu te raised by w ay

,

o f pen a l ty fo r their conduc t duri ng th e l a st wa r T he ve ry .

1 V arro a tte s ts th e d isco ntinua nce o f the S icilian decu mae in a

l
trea t ise p ub is h e d a fter Cice ro s d e a th ( D e R R 2 pr a ef
'
wh e re h e na m es
—
. . .

as th e cor n p ro vinces w h e nce R o me derives h er s ub sis te nce

- on y -
l
l
Afr ica a nd S a r dinia no o nge r S ici y
, l
The La tinita r . w hich S ici y
. l
l
o b ta ine d , m us t th us d o ub t es s l
h a ve inc ude d th is immunity (co mp.
366 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO Kv
in gre at p ar t ch arged once for all o n the c o ntribu tio ns in
kind from S a rdi ni a and especi a lly from A frica a nd we e , r

thereby wh o lly or fo r th e m o s t p a r t kep t sep a r a te fr o m th e

exchequer On th e o ther h a nd the r e gul ar expenditure for
.

th e m ili ta ry sys te m w a s i ncre a sed p a r tly by th e a ug m en ta

tion o f th e s ta ndi ng a r my p ar tly by th e r a isi ng of th e p ay

,

o f th e legion a ry fr o m 4 8 ses terces 0 to 9 0 0

a nnu ally . B o th s tep s were in fa c t i ndispe ns a ble T here .

was a tot a l w a n t of a ny re al defence for th e fron tiers a nd ,

an indispens a ble preli m in ary to it was a con sidera ble

increa se of th e a rmy T he doubli ng of the pay wa s
.

doub tless e mployed by C a es ar to attach his soldiers

firmly to h im ( p . b ut wa s no t i ntr o duced a s a
perm a nen t inn o a tio n o n th at a ccoun t The for m er pay
v .

of I } sesterces per day had bee n fixed in very a ncie nt

ti mes whe n m o ney ha d a n a l toge ther di ffere nt va lue from
,

th a t which it h a d in the R o m e of C a e sar s da y ; it could

’

only h ave been e ta ined down to a peri o d when the

r

co mm on day l a bourer in th e c api tal e a rned by the l a b o ur

-

of his h a nds da ily on a n a ver age 3 se sterces ( 3 d ) ,

bec ause in those ti m es th e soldier e ntered th e a r m y no t for

th e s a ke of th e p a y b ut chie fl y fo r th e s a ke of th e — ih
,

gre at m e a sure illici t— perquisi tes of mili ta y service Th e r .

firs t co ndi tion in o der to a seri o us refo rm in th e m ili ta ry

r

syste m a nd to th e g e tti ng id o f th o s e irregul a r g a ins of the

,
r

soldier which for m ed a burde n m os tly o n the provi nci als , ,

wa s a n i ncre a s e sui ta ble to the ti mes in th e regul a r p a y ;

a nd the fixi ng o f it a t 2 1; ses terce s may be rega rded

as a n equi table s tep while th e great burden thereby
,

i mposed on the tre as ury wa s a necessa ry a nd in its con ,

s equences a be nefici a l c o urse , .

Of th e a m o u nt of th e ex tr ao rdin ary expenses which

C a es ar ha d to u nder take o r vo lunta rily under took it is ,

difficul t to fo m a co ncep tio n T h e wa rs the m sel es

r . v

c o nsu med e normous su m s ; and sums perh aps not less

C H A P. x x TH E N EW M ON A R C H Y
were required to fulfil th e pr o m ises which C a es ar h a d been
o blig e d to m ake during th e civil w a r I t was a b a d
.

ex ample a nd one u nh appily no t lo st sigh t of in the

s equel th a t every c o mm on soldie
,
r e ceived for his p artici
r

p atiou in the civil w ar s e s terces every

burge s s o f the m ul ti tude in th e c a pi ta l fo r his non p ar ticip a -

tion in it 30 0 ses terces 3) a s a n a ddi ti o n to his a limen t ;

b ut C a es ar a fter h a ving once u nder th e pressure of
,

circu m s tances pledged his word wa s to o m uch of a king to

,

a b ate fro m it B esides C a es a r a nswere d i nnu m erable

.
,

de m ands of hon o ura ble liberali ty a nd put in to circul a ti o n

,

i m mense su m s for buildi ng m o re especi ally which had ,

been sh a m efully neglected during the fin anci al distress of

the l a s t ti m es of th e republic— th e cos t of his buildi ngs

execu ted p artly duri ng th e G allic c a m pa igns p artly a fter ,

wards in the c a pi ta l wa s reck o ned a t

,

ses terces T h e gener al resul t of the !

fina nci al a d m i ni strati o n of C a es a r is expressed in th e fa c t

th a t while by s a ga cio us a nd e nerge tic refo r m s a nd by a
,

righ t co mbi natio n of econ o m y and liberali ty he a m ply and

fully m e t all equi ta ble cl a i ms never theless a lre a dy in
,

M arch 7 1 0 there lay in the public tre asu y r44 .

a nd in his own se sterces ( to gether

-
a sum w h ich e xceeded by te nfold th e a m oun t of c a sh in

the trea sury in the m o s t flou ishing ti m es of the republic

r

( iii .

B ut th e ta s k of bre a king up th e old p a rties a nd furnish

nditi n
ing the new c o m m onwe al th with an a pp opri ate co nstitu f th r
co
o e
o

tion a n e fficien t a r m y and well ordered fi na nces di fficult

, ,
-

a s it w a s wa s no t th e m os t di ffi cul t p ar t of C a e s a r s work
’
, .

I f th e I ta li a n n a tion wa s re a lly to be reg e nera ted it ,

required a reorganiza ti o n which should t a nsfo rm all parts r

o f th e gre at e m pire — R o m e I ta ly a nd th e provi nces

, , Le t .

us e nde avour here also to delinea te th e old s tate of things ,

as well as the beginnings of a new a nd m ore to lera ble ti me .

 TH E OLD R EP U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
T he good s tock of the Lati n n ation ha d long since
ca pital.
wholly dis a ppe a red from R o m e I t is i mplied in the .

very na ture o f th e c a se th at a c api ta l l o ses its m unicip al

,

and even its n a tion al s tam p m ore quickly th a n a ny subor

dina te c o mm uni ty T here the upper cl asses speedily wi th

.

dra w fro m urba n public life in o d e r to fi nd their h o m e

,
r

ra ther in the s tate a s a whole th an in a si ngle ci ty ; there

a re inevi ta bly conce ntra ted th e fo reign se ttler s th e fl uctu ,

ati ng popul a tion o f tra vellers for ple a sure or business th e ,

ma ss of the in do le nt l azy cri mi nal fi na nci a lly a nd mo ally

, , ,
r

b a nkrup t and for that very rea so n c o s m o poli ta n rabble A ll

, , .

this pre e m i ne ntly a pplied to R o me

-
T he opule nt R o ma n
.

frequen tly regarded his town house m erely a s a lodging

-
.

When th e urb a n municipal o flice s were converted in to im

‘

peri al m agis tra cies 3 when the civic a sse mbly bec a me th e
a sse m bly o f burgesses of th e e m pire a nd when s ma ller

self governing trib a l or o ther a ssoci atio ns were no t tolera ted

-

within the c a pi tal : all proper c o mm u nal life ce ased fo r R ome .

F ro m th e whole co mp as s of th e widespre a d e mpire people

fl o cked to R o m e for specul a tion for deb a uchery fo r
, , ,

in trigue for tra ining in crime or even for the purpose of

, ,

hidi ng there fro m th e eye of the law .

T hese evils a rose in so m e m e a sure necess a rily from th e

very nature of a c api tal ; others m o re acciden tal and
perh a ps s till m ore grave were a ssoci ated wi th the m T here .

ha s never perh aps exis ted a grea t ci ty so thoroughly

desti tu te of th e m e a ns of support a s R o me ; i mp o rtation
on th e one h and a nd do m es tic m a nufa c ture by sl aves o n
,

th e o ther re ndered a ny free indus try f o m th e ou tse t

,
r

i mpossible there The injuri o us co nsequences of the

.

ra dica l evil pervading the poli tics of a ntiqui ty in ge neral

th e sl a ve sys te m — were m ore co nspicu o us in the c a pi tal th a n
-

a nywhere else N o where were s uch m a sses of sl av e s

.

a ccu m ul a ted a s in th e ci ty p a l a ces o f th e gre a t fam ilies or

of we al thy ups tar ts N owhere were the n ations of th e

.
370 TH E OLD R EP U B LI C AN D B OO Kv
the Mo ther of the Gods of Ceres of Apoll o of Fl o a ( iii
, , ,
r .

1 2 5 a nd of V ic tori a— l a s ted a l to ge ther six ty two d a y s

) a nd -

to the s e were a dded the gl di ato rial gam e s a nd nu mer o us

a

o ther extra ordi nary a m use m e nts T h e duty of providi ng.

grain a t low prices— which w as u navoidably n ecess a ry wi th

such a prole ta i ate living wh o lly fro m h and to m outh — w as
r

tre ated wi th the m os t u nsc upul o us f iv o li ty a nd th e

r r ,

fl uc tua tions in the price o f bre a d corn were o f a fa bul o us-

a nd inc alcul a ble descrip tio n La s tly the di s tribu ti o n s o f

1
.
,

gra i n form ed a n o ffi ci al invi tation to th e whole burges s

prole tari ate who were des ti tu te o f food and indisposed for
work to take up their a bode in the c api tal .

Th e seed sown w a s b a d and the h a rve st corresponded

, .

Th e sys te m of clubs a nd b a nds in th e sphe e of poli tics r

,

the worship of I sis a nd si mil a r pious ex tra va g a nces in th a t

o f religion ha d their r o o t in this st a te o f thi ng s

, People .

were co ns ta n tly in prospect of a dearth a nd not unfre ,

quently in u tter fam ine N owhere w as a man less secure

.

o f his life th a n in th e c api tal ; murde pro fe ssio nally r

prosecuted by b anditti wa s the si ngle tra de peculi ar to it ;

the alluring of the victi m to R o m e was the preli mi na ry to
his ass a ssi na tion ; no one ven tured in to the cou ntry in the
vicinity of the capita l wi thou t an armed re ti nue I ts o ut .

ward condi tion correspo nded to this inward diso g aniza tio n ‘
r
,

a nd see med a keen s at ire on th e a ris tocra tic govern m e nt .

N othing was do ne for th e regul atio n of the s tre a m of th e

T iber ; excep ti ng th a t they c a used th e only bridge wi th which ,

they s till m a d e shift ( iv to be cons truc ted of s to ne

.

a t le a s t as far as th e T iber isl a nd A s li ttle wa s a ny thi ng

-
.

d one towa rd the levelling of the city of th e S even H ills ,

except where perh aps the a ccu mula tion of rubbish ha d

efi e cte d so m e i mprove m en t The s tree ts a sce nded a nd
'

1 I n S i ily th
c , e t y f p d ti
co un r o th m di
ro ucw o n.l d w ithi
e o u: as so n a.
fe w y ears a t t wo a nd a t tw e nty se ste rce s ; fro m th is w e m ay g u e ss w h at
must h ave b e e n the fl u ctua tio ns o f p rice in R o me , wh ich sub sis te d o n
tra ns ma rine co rn a nd w as th e se a t o f s p e cu a tors l .
CH A P x x
. TH E N EW M ON A R C H Y
de s ce nded n arrow and a ngul a r and were wre tchedly kep t ; ,

th e fo o tp a ths were s m a ll a n d ill p a v e d T he o rdin a y . r

house s were buil t of bricks neglige ntly a nd to a giddy

heigh t m o s tly by specul ative builde s on a cc o u nt of the
,
r

s mall pro prie to rs ; by which m eans the fo r m er becam e

v a s tly rich a nd th e l atter were reduced to b e gg a y L ike
,
r .

i s o l a ted isla nds a m ids t thi s se a o f wre tched buildi ngs were
seen the sple ndid p al aces o f th e rich which cur t iled th e ,
a

s p a ce for th e s m a lle houses jus t as their owners cu ta iled

r r

th e burges s — right s o f s ma ller m e n in th e s ta te a nd be side ,

wh o s e m a rble pill ars a nd Greek s tatues the dec a yi ng

te m ples wi th their i m a ges of th e god s s till in g e a t p a r t
,
r

ca rv ed of woo d ma de a m el a ncholy figure A p o lice

, .

supervisio n of s treets of river b a nks o f fires o o f building

,
-

, ,
r

was a l m os t unhe a rd of if th e go er nm e nt t oubled i tself a t

v r

all a bou t th e inu nd a tio n s c o n fl a r tio n s

g a nd
,
fa lls of a ,

hou s es which were o f ye a rly occurre nce it wa s o nly to a sk ,

fro m th e s tate theologi a ns their r e por t a nd a dvice rega rdi ng

-

th e true i m port of s uch s ig n s a nd wond e r s I f we t y to . r

co nceive to o ur selves a L o nd o n wi th the sla e popul tion v -

a

of N e w Orle a ns wi th th e p o lice of C o ns ta n tinople wi th

, ,

the non i n du s t i l ch a r a ct er of th e m o dern R o m e

-
r a a nd ,

a gi ta ted by p o li tics a fter th e fa shion o f th e P a ris in 1 8 4 8 ,

we shall a cquire a n a ppr o xi m ate ide a of the republic a n

glory th e dep a ture o f which Cicero a nd his a sso ci a tes in
,
r

their sulk y le tters deplore .

C a es ar did no t deplore b ut he sough t to help so fa r a s C

,
'
a e sar s

tm
help wa s po s sible R o m e re m a i ned of c o ur se wh at it w a s f m tt
.
t
, ,
re a

o a
e nt

ers
-
a cos m o p o li ta n ci ty N o t o nly w o uld th e a tte mp t to in th
. e
it l
g ive to it o nce m ore a s pecific a lly I ta li a n ch a r a c te h ve p r a
ca a .

been i m pra c tica ble ; it w o uld no t have sui ted Ca es a s pl an r

’
.

J ust a s Alex a nder fou nd for his Gra cco O ie ntal e mpire an -
r

a ppr o pri a te c a pi ta l in th e H ellenic J ewish Egyp ti a n a nd , , ,

a bove all cos m o poli ta n Al exa nd i a , so th e ca pi ta l of the

r ,

new R o ma no H elle nic u niversa l e m pi e si tu ated a t the

-
r ,
 T H E OL D R EP U B L I C A N D B OO Kv
mee ting poin t of the e a st a nd the we st wa s to be no t a n
-

I ta li a n co mm uni ty b ut the de na ti o na lized c api tal of ma ny

,

n ations For this re as o n C a es a r tolera ted the wo rship of

.

th e newly se ttled Egyp ti a n god s a l o ngside of Fa ther J ovis

-

and gra n ted even to th e J ew s th e free exe cise of their r

s tra ngely foreign ri tu al in the very c api ta l o f th e empire .

H owever o fl e nsive w a s th e m o tley m ix ture of th e p ara si tic

'

—especi ally the H e lle no Orien tal— popul ation in R ome he -

nowhere o pposed its exten s ion ; it is sig nifica nt th at at his ,

popul a r fes tivals for th e c a pi ta l he ca used drama s to be per

form ed no t merely in Lati n a nd Greek b ut als o in other la n ,

gu ages presu m ably in Phoe nicia n H ebrew S yri a n S pa nish

, , , ,
.

B ut if C a es a r a ccep ted wi th the full conscious ness of

,

wh at he wa s d o i ng th e fu ndamen ta l ch a ra c ter of the c api ta l

such as he fou nd it he ye t worked energe tica lly a t the ,

i m prove m ent of th e l a m enta ble a nd di sg a ceful s tate of r

thi ngs pre a iling there vU nh appily th e pri ma ry evils were

.

the leas t c a p able of being era dic ated C a es ar could no t .

a bolish sl a very wi th its tra in of n ation a l c a l a m i ties it m ust

re ma in a n o pen ques tion whe ther he would in the course ,

of ti m e h ave atte mp ted a t le a s t to li m i t the sl a ve p o pulation -

in the ca pi tal a s he underto o k to do so in another field

, .

A s li ttle could C a es ar conj ure i nto exis te nce a free indu stry
in the c a pi ta l ; ye t the great buildi ng operations re medied -

in some m e a sure the wa n t of m e a ns of support there and ,

ope ned up to the prole tari ate a source of sm all but ho nour
a ble g a in On the o ther h a nd C a es ar l a boured e nerge tic a lly
.

to di m inish the m a ss o f th e free p ole tari ate T h e co nsta nt r .

in fl ux of persons brough t by the corn l a rgesses to R o me -

w as if no t wholly s pped a t le a s t very m ateri ally res tricted

1
,
to ,

1 I t is a fa ct no t w ith out interes t th a t a p o itica wr iter o f la ter d a te l l

l
b ut much j udgm e nt , th e a u th or o f the e tte rs a ddre sse d in th e na me o f
, l
S a llus t to Ca e sa r a dvis e s th e a tte r to tra ns fe r th e co r n d istrib utio n o f th e -

l
ca p ita to th e s e vera m u n icip za l
Th ere is go o d se nse in the a dm o nitio n ;
’

l l
I S ind ee d s imi a r ide as o b vio us y p re va ile d in th e no b e municip al p ro vis io n l
fo r o rp ha ns und er T raj an .
374 T H E O LD R E P U BL I C AN D K
BOO V

elec ti o neeri ng a nd judici al colleg a — a nd ge nerally the poli ti '

z

ca l S a tur na li a o f th e ca n zl/e—c a m e t o a n e nd o f the m selves

’

a .

Moreover th e c o mbi na ti o n s ca lled in to exi s te nce by the

Clo dian la w were broken up a nd th e wh o le sys te m of ,

a ssoci a ti o n w a s pl a ced under th e s upe i ntende nce of th e r

g o verni ng a u th o ri ties Wi th th e excep ti o n of the a ncie nt

.

guilds a nd a s so ci ati o ns of the religious unions of th e J e w s

, ,

a nd of o ther speci a lly excep ted c a tegorie s fo r which a ,

si mple in ti m a ti o n to th e sen ate see m s to h a ve su ffi ced ,

th e per m i s si o n to co n s ti tu te a per ma ne nt socie ty wi th

fixed ti mes of a s se m bli ng a nd s ta ndi ng deposi ts wa s m a de
depe nden t o n a co nces s i o n to be gra nted by the se na te ,

a nd a s a rule
,
d o ub tle s s o nly a fter th e co nsent of th e
,

m o n a rch h a d bee n ob t i ned a .

T o this w a s a dded a s tric te a d m i nis tration of cri m i na lr

jus tice and a n e nerge tic p o lice T he l aws e specia lly as .

,

rega rds the c i m e of vi o le nce were re ndered mo e s trin

r ,
r

g e nt ; a nd the ir ation al e na c tm en t of th e republic a n law

r ,

th a t th e co nvic ted cri m in a l w a s en ti tled to wi thdr a w hi m self

fro m a p a t o f th e pen al ty which he ha d incurred by self
r

ba nish m e nt w as with re a son se t a side

,
Th e de ta iled .

regul a ti o ns which C a es a r issued regardi ng th e p o lice o f

,

th e c a pi ta l a re in gre at p a r t s till p eserved

,
a nd all who r

cho o se m ay c o nvince the m sel es th at th e I mperator did v

no t disd in to i nsis t on th e hou s e proprie tors pu tti ng th e

a -

s t ee ts i nto repa i a nd p aving th e foo tpa th in its whole

r r

brea d th with hew n s tones a nd to issue appropri a te en a ct

,

ments ega di ng th e ca rying of li tters a nd the d ivi ng o f

r r r r

waggo ns which from th e na tu e o f the s tree ts were o nly

,
r

a ll o wed to m o ve freely th o ugh th e c a pi ta l in th e eve ni ng

r

and by nigh t T h e supervisi o n of th e loc a l police re ma i n ed

.

a s hi the to chiefly wi th th e four a edil e s who were ins truc ted

r ,

now at le as t if no t e a rlier e ach to superi nte nd a di stinc tly

, ,

ma rked o ff p o lic e dis tric t wi thi n th e c a pi ta l

-
.

La s tly building in the c a pi tal a nd th e p o vision co n

, ,
r
ca n . xi TH E N EW M ONA R CH Y 37 5

ne cte d herewi th of ins ti tu tio ns for the public benefi t B ildi g

t ,
u n s

received fro m C a es a r— who c o m bined in hi m self the love 2 3 2

521
for buildi ng o f a R oma n and of a n o rga nizer—a sudde n
.

sti m ulu s which no t merely put to sh am e th e mism a n age

,

ment o f th e recen t a n archic ti mes but al s o left a ll th at the ,

R o m an a ris to cra cy h a d d o ne in their bes t d a ys a s fa r behi nd

a s th e ge nius of C a es a r surp a ssed the h o nes t ende a vours of

th M a rcii a nd A e m ilii
e I t w as no t m erely by th e ex te nt
.

o f th e building s in the m selves a nd th e m a g ni tude of th e

su m s expended on the m th a t C aesa r excelled his prede

c e ss o rs ; but a genuine s ta tes m a nly pe cep ti o n of wh a t r

w as fo r th e public g o od dis ti nguishes wh a t C a es ar did

fo r th e public i ns ti tu tions o f R o m e f o m all si m il a r r

s er icesv H e did no t build like his succ e ss o rs te m ples

.
, ,

a nd o ther sple n did s truc tures but he relieved th e m arket ,

pla ce o f R om e— in which the bu ge s s a s se m blies th e sea ts r -

o f th e chief cour ts th e exch a nge a nd th e d a ily business

, ,

tr a ffic a s well a s th e d a ily idlene ss s till were crowded ,

toge the —a t le a s t f om th e a s se m blies a nd th e cour ts by

r r

c o n struc ti ng fo r th e fo m er a new th e S a e p ta J uli a

r

in th e C a m pus M a tins a nd fo r the l a tter a sep a r a te pl a ce

r ,

of judic tu e th e F o ru m Julium between th e C a pi to l and

a r ,

Pa l atine Of a kindred spiri t is th e a r a nge m en t o rig ina t

. r

ing wi th h im by which there were supplied to th e b a ths of

,

th e c a pi ta l a n nu a lly th r e e m illi on p o u n ds of oil m os tly ,

f o m A f ic a and they were the eby e na bled to furnish

r r ,
r

to th e b athers g a tui tously th e oil requi ed for the a noi nt

r r

ing of th e body — a m e a sure of cle a nli ne s s a nd s a ni ta ry

p o lic e w hich a ccordi ng to the a n cie nt die te tics b a sed

,

subs ta n tia lly o n b athi ng and a noin ti ng wa s highly judi ,

cions .

B ut these noble a rr a nge m en ts we e only th e firs t s teps r

tow a rds a c o m ple te re m odelling of R o m e P rojec ts were .

a lre a dy for m ed fo a new s en te h o use fo r a new m

r a
g ifi
n -

,
a

ce nt b az a ar fo r a the a tre to riva l th at o f P o mp e ius for a

, ,
376 TH E OL D R EP U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
public Latin and Greek libra ry a fter th e model of th at
recen tly destroye d at Alexa ndri a — th e first in stitu tion of
the sort in R o me —l a s tly for a te mple of M a s which r ,

w a s to surp a ss a ll th a t ha d hi ther to exis ted in riches a nd

glory S till more b illiant w as the idea firs t of c o nstruct

. r , ,

ing a c a n al through the P o mp tine m a rshes a nd dra wing

o ff their wa ters to T arr a cina a nd secondly
,
of al tering ,

the lower course of th e T iber a nd of le a di ng it from the

presen t P o nte M o lle not thro ugh between the Ca mpus

,

Vatica nus and th e C ampus M artins but rather round th e ,

C ampus Vatic anus and the Janiculum to Os ti a where th e ,

m isera ble r oa ds te a d wa s to gi e pl a ce to a n a dequ ate a r ti

v

ficial h arbour . B y this giga ntic pl a n on th e one h a nd the

most d angerous ene my of the c api tal the ma la ria of the ,

neighbourhood would be b a nished on th e other h and the

extre m ely limi ted fa cili ties for buildi ng in the ca pi tal wo uld
be at once enl arged by subs ti tu ti ng the C ampus Vatic a nus
thereby tra n s ferre d to the left b a nk of th e T iber for th e
C am pus M artins a nd all o wing the l atter spa cious field to
,

be applied for public and private edifices while th e c apital

would at the sam e ti m e o b ta i n a s a fe se a port th e wa nt of ,

which was so pa infully fel t I t see m ed as if th e I mperator

.

would re mo ve mou ntai ns and rivers and ven ture to contend

,

with n ature hersel f .

Much however as th e ci ty o f R o me ga ined by the new

order of things in c o mmo di o usness a nd m ag nificence its ,

poli tic al supre ma cy w as a s we h ave a lre a dy s a id los t to it

, ,

irrecovera bly thro ugh th at very ch ange T he id e a th at th e .

R o ma n sta te should c o i ncide wi th th e ci ty of R o m e h a d in

deed in th e course of ti m e beco me more a nd m ore un natural
a nd prepos terous ; b ut th e m a xi m h a d been so i nti ma tely

blended wi th th e essence of th e R o m a n republic th at it ,

could no t perish before th e epublic i tself I t wa s o nly in

r .

th e ne w s ta te of C a es ar th a t it was wi th th e excep tion per

,

h ap s of s o me legal fiction s co mpletely se t a side a nd the

, ,
378 TH E OL D R EP U B L I C AN D Kv
B OO

h n
t a th e m a no r
house now it is won t to be the reverse
-
.

I n th e do m a i n s o f T u s culu m a nd T ibu on the shores of r,

T a rra cina a nd B a i a e — whe e th e o ld L atin a nd I ta li a n r

fa mers h ad s o w n a nd re ped — there no w ro se in ba rre n

r a

splendo ur th e vill as of th e R o m a n nobles so m e of which ,

covered the sp ace of a m o de ate sized town with their r -

a ppu ten a nces of g a de n g o und s a nd

r queduc ts f esh a nd
r -
r a ,
r

s a l t wa ter po n d s for th e p eserva tio n a nd br e e di ng of ri err v

a nd m a ine fi s hes r nur s erie s of s na ils an d slugs

,
g a me ,

preserves for keepi ng ha e s rabbi ts s tags roes a nd wild r , , , ,

b o a rs a nd avi aries in which eve n c a nes a nd pe a cocks

,
r

were kep t But th e luxu y of a g e a t ci ty enriches a ls o

. r r

ma ny a n indu stri o us h a nd a nd suppor ts m o re po o r th a n ,

phil a nth o py wi th its expe ndi ture of a l m s T hose a vi arie s

r
'

a nd fi sh p o nd s o f th e gr a ndee s were of c o ur s e a s a rule

-
, ,

a very co tly i n dulgences B u t this sys te m w as c arried to

.

such an exten t a nd p o secu ted wi th so m uch kee nness r ,

th a t eg th e s to ck of a pigeo n h ouse Wa s v a lued a t

.
-

ses terces a m e th o dic a l sys te m o f fa tteni ng h a d

sprung up a nd th e m a nure g o t f o m th e a vi a ries bec am e

,
r

o f i m p o ta nce in a gricul tu e ; a si ngle bird de a ler wa s a ble

r r -

to furnish a t o n ce 5 o fi e ldfar e s fo they k new how to

oo -
r

re a r the s e a ls o — at three de n ii e a ch and a si ngle ar ,

p o ss e ss o r of a fi sh p o nd z o mu a m a e ; a nd the fishes
-
o o r

l e ft behi nd by Lucius Lucullus b o ught s es terces r

A s m a y re a dily be c o nc e ived u n der s uch cir ,

cum sta nc e s a ny o ne who fo llowed thi s o ccup a tio n i ndu s t i r

o usly a n d in tellige ntly m igh t o b t i n ve y l a ge pr o fi ts wi th a r r

a co m p a r a tively s m all o u tl a y of c a pi t l A s m all bee a .

breede o f thi s period sold fro m his thy m e ga rden no t

r -

la ger th a n a n a cre in th e neighb o u h o o d o f Falerii h o ney

r r

to a n ve ge a nnu a l a m o u nt o f a t le a s t
a ra se ste ces r

T h e iva l y of th e g o we s o f frui t wa s c a rried

r r r r

s o fa r th t in eleg a nt vill a s th e f ui t ch a m b e r li ned wi th

,
a r -

m a ble was not u nf e q ue ntly fi tted up a t th e s a m e ti m e as

r r
C H A P. x r T H E N EW M ON A R CH Y 379

a dining ro o m and so m e ti m es fine frui t a cquired by pur

-

ch a se wa s exhi bi ted there a s o f ho m e gr o wth A t this .

period the cherry fro m A si a Mi no a nd o ther foreig n fruit r

trees were firs t pl a n ted in th e g ardens of I ta ly The .

vegetable ga rdens the beds of ro s es and vi o le ts in Latium

,

a nd C a m p a ni a yielded rich pr o duce a nd th e m a rke t fo r “

, ,

d ai nties (f or um ”
by th e side of the V ia S a cra ,

where fruits honey a nd C h a ple ts we e wont to be exposed

, ,
r

for sa le pl ayed an i mp o rta n t p ar t in th e life o f the c api tal

, .

Genera lly the m a n age me nt of estates w o rked as they were ,

on the pl an ter sys te m ha d re a ched in an ec o no mic point

-

of view a heigh t sca rcely to be surp a ssed T he v alley of .

R ie ti the region r o u n d th e Fucine l ake th e dis tricts on

, ,

th e L iris a nd Vol tur nus a nd i n deed Ce ntr al I taly in ,

general were a s re spec ts husb a n dry in the m ost fl o u ishing

,
r

condi tion ; even cer tain br a nches of indus try which were ,

sui ta ble a ccom p ani m e nts o f th e m an a ge m e nt of a n es tate

by me a ns of sl aves were ta ken up by in telligen t l a ndlords
, ,

a nd where th e circu m s ta nces we e fa v o ur a ble i nns we a vi ng

,
r , ,

fac tories and especi ally brickworks were con struc ted on
,

th e es ta te T h e I ta li a n producers of wine a nd oil in

.

p a rticula r not only supplied the I tali a n ma kets but r ,

ca rrie d o n a lso in bo th a rticle s a co ns idera ble bu s iness o f

tr a ns ma rine exporta tion A ho m ely profe ssio na l tre a tise o f
.

this perio d co mp a res I ta ly to a gre a t frui t g a de n a nd th e -

r

pictures which a con tem porary poe t gives of h is bea u tiful

n a tive l a nd where th e well w a tered m e a do w the luxuri ant
,
-

co n fie ld th e ple as an t vine covered b ill a e f i nged by th e

r -

,
-
r r

d ark li ne of th e olive trees— where the orn a m en t of the -

“ ”

land s m iling in va ied ch a rm s cheri shes th e lovelies t

,
r ,

ga rdens in its boso m and is i tself wr e a thed r o u nd by fo od

producing trees — these descrip ti o ns evide ntly fai thful ,

pictures of the l a nd s c a pe d a ily prese nted to th e eye of the

poe t transpla nt us i nto th e mo s t flou i shi ng di stricts o f
,
r

T usc any a nd T erra di La voro T h e p a sto a l hu s b andry . r ,

 380 TH E O LD R EP U BL I C AN D B OO Kv
it is true which fo r re a sons for merly expl a ined w as always
,

spre a di ng fa rther e speci ally in th e south a nd sou th e a s t of -

I ta ly w a s in every respec t a re tr o gr a de m ove m en t ; b ut it

,

too p articipa ted to a certa in degree in th e general progress

of agricul ture much was d o ne for th e i mprovem e nt of the
b reeds a g a sses for breeding brough t
,
. sesterces
a nd even

T he solid I tali a n husb a n dry ob ta i ned at this period whe n ,

the ge neral develop men t of intelligence and abund ance o f

c api tal endered it frui tful far m o re brilli an t resul ts th a n
r ,

ever the old syste m of s mall cul tiva to rs c o uld h ave given ;
a nd wa s c a rried even alre a dy beyond th e bounds of I taly ,

fo r th e I tali a n agricul tu rist tu rned to a ccoun t l a rge tr a cts

in the provinces by e a ri ng cattle and even cul tivating corn
r .

M oney I n order to show wh at di mensions m oney de a li ng -

a ssu m ed by th e side of this es tate husb a nd y unn a tur a lly

-
r

p rospering ove r: th e ruin of th e s m all fa rm ers how th e ,

I tali a n merch a n ts vying wi th the J ews poured the mselves

into all th e provinces a nd clien t s tates of th e e m pire and
-

h o w all c apit al ul ti m a tely fl owed to R o m e it will be ,

s u ffi cie nt a fter wh a t h as been a lre a dy s a id to poin t to th e

, ,

single fa ct th at in the m oney m arket of the c api tal th e

-

regul ar r ate of i nterest at this ti m e was six per cen t and ,

consequen tly m o ney there was che aper by a h alf th a n it

w a s on a n a vera ge elsewhere in a n tiqui ty .

I n consequence of this econo m ic syste m b a sed bo th in

its a g a i an a nd m erc a n tile a spec ts on m a sses of c a pi ta l
r r

a nd o n specul a tion there a rose a mos t fe a rful dispropor tion

,

in th e dis t ibution o f we al th T he often used and ofte n

r .
-

a bused phra se o f a c o m m o nwe a l th co m p o sed of m illion a ire s

a nd begg a rs a pplies perh a ps nowhere so co m pletely as to

th e R o me of th e l a s t ag e of th e republic ; a nd nowhere
perh a ps has the esse ntia l ma xi m of the sl a ve s tate—th a t -

th e rich man who lives by th e exer tions of his sl a ves is

nece ssa ily respec table and th e poor m an who lives by the
r ,
 T H E OL D R EP U B LI C AN D BOO K v

of this sor t was the T i tus Po mp o nius Atticus frequen tly

m en tioned in th e a ccou nts of this period H e a cquired .

a n i mm e nse fo tune p a tly fro m th e gre at es ta te fa m i ng

r r -
r

which he pro s ecu ted in I taly a nd Epiru s pa r tly from his ,

m o ne y tra nsa ctio ns which ra m ifi e d throughou t I ta ly Greece

~
, ,

M a cedo ni a a nd A si a Mi no r ; but at th e s am e tim e he

,

c o n tinued to be through o ut th e si mple man of bu s iness ,

did no t a llow hi m self to be seduced in to s o lici ti ng o flice

or even in to m o ne ta ry tra ns a ctions with the st ate a nd , ,

equ ally e m o te from the a varici o us nigga rdliness a nd fro m

r

the prodiga l a nd burde nso m e luxury of his ti me—his ta ble ,

for in sta nce wa s m a i ntai ned at a da ily cos t of 1 0 0 ses terces

—co ntented hi m self wi th an e a sy exis tence appro pri
,

a ting to i tself th e ch a r m s of a coun try a nd a ci ty life t he ,

ple a sures of in tercourse wi th the bes t socie ty o f R ome a nd

Greece and all th e e nj o ymen ts of li ter ature and art
, .

More nu mero us a nd m ore s o lid we e the I t ali an l and r

holders o f th e o ld type Con te m p o rary litera ture preserves

.

in the descrip tion Of S ex tus R oscius who wa s m urdered ,

a m ids t th e pr e scr ip tio ns of 6 7 3 th e pic ture of such a rur a l

,

noble man ( pa tor f a mzlza s r us tzoa uus) his we al th es ti mated

’ ’ '

at ses terces is m a i nly invested in

his thi tee n l anded est ates ; he atte nds to th e ma n a ge me nt
r

of it in pers on sys te ma tically a nd wi th en thusi a sm ; he

co mes seldo m or never to the c api tal a nd when he does , ,

a ppe a r there by his clownish m a nners he con tra s ts no t less

,

wi th th e poli shed se nato r tha n th e in nu mera ble hos ts of

his uncou th rura l sl a ve s wi th the elegan t tra in o f do m es tic
sla ves in th e c a pi ta l F ar m o re th an the ci cles o f the
. r

nobili ty wi th their c o s mo poli ta n cul tu e a nd th e m erc a ntile

r

cla ss at ho me everywhere a nd nowhere these l andlords ,

a nd the cou ntry towns to which they es s en ti ally ga e

“ ”
v

tone ( mu t ualbid r ustfoa na ) preserved as well the di scipli ne

/

and ma nners as th e pure a nd noble l a ngu age of their

fath ers. The ord er of l a ndlor d s was reg a rd e d as the

C H A P . it ! T H E N E W M ON A R C H Y 383

fl o wer of th e n atio n ; th e specul ator who ha s m a de his

,

fo rtu ne and wishes to appe a r a m o ng the no tables of th e

l a nd buys an e state a nd seeks if not to becom e himself
, ,

th e squire a t a ny r a te to re a r his son wi th th a t view

,
We .

mee t th e tra ces of this cl a ss of l an dl o rds wherever a ,

na ti o n a l m ove m e nt a ppe a rs in poli tics a nd wherever ,

li terature pu ts fo r th a ny fresh growth fr o m it th e p a triotic

o pposi tion to th e new mon a rchy drew its bes t stre ng th ;

to it belo nged Va rro L ucre tius C a t ullus

, , a nd nowhere

perh aps does th e comp a ra tive freshness of this la ndlord life -

c o m e m ore ch a ra cteris tically to ligh t th a n in th e gr aceful

A r pi nate in troduc tion to th e second book of Cicero s
’

tre atise D e L eg zous —a green o a sis a m ids t the fe a rful desert

'

of th at equ ally e m p ty a nd volu minous wri ter .

B ut th e cul tiva ted cl a ss of m erch a n ts a nd th e vigorous

order of l a ndlords were far overgrown by th e two cl a s s es
th a t g a ve tone to s o cie ty— th e ma ss of begg ars a nd th e ,

w orld of qu a li ty pr o per We h ave no s tatis tica l figures to

.

i ndicate precisely the relative propor tio ns of poverty a nd

riches for this epoch ; ye t we may here perh a ps again rec all
th e expression which a R o ma n s ta tes ma n employed some
fifty ye ars befo re ( iii 38 0 ) — th a t th e nu mber of fa milie s of
.

fi r mly es tablished riches a m ong th e R o m a n burgesse s did

-

no t am o unt to 2 0 0 0 T he burge s s body h a d since then

.
-

beco me di fferen t ; but cle ar indic ati o ns attes t th at the

disprop o rtio n be tween poor a nd rich ha d rem aine d at lea s t
as gre at T h e i ncre a si ng i m poverish m en t of the m ul ti tude
.

shows i tself only to o pl a i nly in their crowding to the corn

l argesses a nd to enlistm en t in th e a rmy ; the corresp o ndi ng
incre a se of riches is attes ted expre ssly by a n a u thor of this
g ener ati o n when , spe a king of th e ci r cu m s ta nces of th e
,

M a ri an peri o d he describes an es ta te of
, ses terces
as riches a ccordi ng to the circu m s ta nces o f
th at day a nd the s tate m e nt s which we fi nd a s to th e
”

p roper ty of individu a ls le a d to th e s am e conclusion T he .

384 T H E OLD R EP U B LI C AN D BOO K v

very rich Lucius D om i tius Ahe no ba rbus pro mi se d to twen ty

thous a nd soldiers four zag or a of l a nd e a ch o ut of his own
'

property ; the es ta te of P o mp eius a mo un ted to

se s terce s th a t of A e so p us th e a c tor to
M arcus Cra ssus th e riche st of ,

th e rich p o ssessed at th e ou tse t of his c a reer

, ,

a t its close a fter l a vishing en o r m ous su m s on

,

th e people ,
ses terces T he
e ffect of such poverty and such riches was on both sides
a n econo m ic a nd m or a l disorg a niz a tio n ou twa dly di fferen t r
,

but a t botto m of the s am e cha ra cter I f the c o m mon .

man was s a ved from s ta rv a tion o nly by support from the

r esources of th e s ta te it wa s th e necess a y consequence
,
r

of this m e ndica n t m isery — a l though it also rec ipr o cally

a ppe a rs a s a c a use of it—th a t he a ddic ted hi mself to th e

begga r s l aziness a nd to the begg ar s good cheer T h e

’ ’
.

R o ma n plebei a n w a s fon der of g a zi ng in th e the atre th a n

of worki ng ; the ta verns and bro thel s were so fre quen ted ,

th at the de magogues fo u nd their speci a l a ccoun t in ga ini ng

th e possessors of such es tablish m en ts over to their in teres ts .

T he gla dia tori a l g a m es —which reve aled a t th e s a m e ti m e

,

th at they fostered th e wors t de m ora liz ati on of th e a ncient

,

world—h ad become so fl ourishing th at a lucra tive business

wa s d o ne in the s ale of th e prog a m m es for the m
r a nd it

was a t this ti m e th a t th e horrible innov a ti o n w as a dop ted

by which the decision a s to th e life or dea th of th e
va nquished beca m e depe nden t no t on the law of duel or
,

on the plea sure of th e vic tor b ut on the c aprice of the

,

onlooking public a nd a ccording to its sign a l the vic tor

,

e i ther sp a red or tr a n sfixed his pros tra te a nta go nis t Th e .

tr a de of figh ting ha d so risen or freedo m h a d so fa llen in

va lue tha t th e in trepidi ty a nd the e m ul tio n which were
,
a ,

l a cking on th e b attle fi elds of this ag e were u nive s a l in

-

,
r

th e a r m ies of th e a re na a nd where th e la w o f the duel

, ,

required every gl a di ator a llowed hi mself to be sta bbe d

,
386 TH E OL D R E P U B LI C AN D Kv
B OO

ne ar the c apita l a nd a sec o n d in th e vicinity of the

,

C a m p a nia n b a ths — a nd in a ddi tio n if p o ssible a g arden

i mm edi ately o u tside of th e gates of R om e S till m ore .

irra tio na l th a n these vill a p al ace s were th e p al a ti al

-

sepulchre s severa l of which s till exi sti ng at th e prese nt

,

da y a ttes t wh a t a lofty pile o f ma s o nry the rich R o m a n

needed in order th at he m igh t die a s bec am e his ra nk .

Fa nciers of horses a nd d o gs to o were no t wa n ti ng ;

ses terces w a s no u nco m m on p ice for a sh o w y r

horse T hey indulged in furni ture of fi ne wood — a

.

ta ble o f A fric a n cypress w o od cos t -

ses terces
in dresse s of purple s tu ffs o r transp a e nt r

g a uzes a cc o m p anied by a n elega n t a djus tment of thei r

folds befo re the m irror—th e o rator H o rt e nsius is s aid to

h ave brough t a n a ction of d amage s aga inst a c o lle ague
bec ause he ru ffled his dress in a cro wd in preci o us sto nes
a nd p e a rl s whi c h firs t a t this pe i o d to o k th e pl a ce of th e
,
r

fa r m o re be a u tiful a nd m o re a tis tic o rn a men ts of gold— it

r

w as a lre a dy u tter b a rb a ris m when a t the triu m ph of

,

P o mp e ius over M ithra da te s th e i m age of th e vic tor

a ppe a red w ough t wh o lly o f pe a rls
r a nd w h e n th e so fa s,

a nd th e shelves in th e dining h a ll were silver m o u nted a nd

- -

eve n the ki tchen u te n sils we e m a de of silver I n a si m il ar

-
r .

spiri t the collec to s o f this period took o ut the ar tis tic

r

m ed alli o ns fro m th e o ld silver cups to se t the m anew in ,

vessels of g o ld N o r was there any l ack o f luxury also

.

in tra velling .
“
Whe n the go vernor travelled Cicero tells ,

us as to one of th e S icili a n gover nors which of course he ,

did no t in wi nter but o nly at th e begi nni ng o f spri ng— no t

,

th e spri ng of th e c a le n d a b ut th e begi n ni ng of th e s e a son

r

of ro ses — h e h a d hi ms elf c o nveyed as wa s the cus to m wi th ,

th e king s o f B i thyn i a in a li tter wi th eigh t be a rers si tti ng

, ,

on a cushio n of M a l tese g uze s tu ffed wi th r o se le a ves

a -

wi th o ne ga rl a nd on his he a d a nd a seco nd twined r o u nd

his neck applying to his nose a li ttle s melling b ag of fine
,
-
CR A P . xx T H E N EW M ON A R CH Y 38 7

li nen wi th m i nu te meshes filled wi th roses a nd thus he

, ,

h ad hi m self c a rried e en to his bed ch a mber v -

.

B ut no sor t o f luxury fl o uris h ed so m uch as th e co arse s t T b l a e

of all— th e luxu y o f the table T h e whole vill a a rrange

r .

men ts a nd th e whole vill a life h a d ul ti m a te reference to

di ni ng no t only had they di ff e ren t di ni ng r o o m s fo r winter -

a nd su mm er b ut dinner w a s served in th e pic ture g allery

-

, ,

in th e frui t ch am ber in th e avi a ry or on a pl a tfor m erec ted

-

, ,

in the deer p ark a rou nd which when th e be s poken

-

, ,

Orpheus a ppe a red in the a tric a l cos tu m e a nd blew his

“ ”

fl ourish the duly tr a ined roes a nd wild bo ars congrega ted

,
-
.

S uch wa s th e c a re bes towed o n decor a tion but a m ids t a ll

this th e re ali ty w as by no m e a ns fo rgo tten N o t only was .

th e cook a gra du a te in g a s tro n o my b ut th e m a s ter himself ,

often a cted a s th e i nst uc tor of his co o ks The roa st h ad

r .

been long ag o throw n i nto the sh a de by ma rine fishes and

oys ters ; now th e I ta li an river fish e s were utterly b a nished -

from good tables and I ta li a n delic a cies and I tali a n wines

,

were lo o ked o n as a l m o st ulga r N o w even a t the v .

p o pul a r festiv als there were dis tribu ted besides the I talia n
Fa leri a n three s o r ts o f foreign wine—S icili an L esbia n
,

, , ,

Chi a n while a generatio n before it had bee n su fficient even

,

a t gre a t b a nque ts to send r o und Greek wine once ; in th e

cell a r of the ora tor H o r ten s iu s there was fou nd a s tock of

j ars (at 33 qu ar ts) o f fo reign wine I t w as no .

w o nder th at th e I tali a n wi ne growe s bega n to co m pl ain o f -

r

th e co m pe ti tion of th e wines fro m th e Greek isl a n ds No .

n a turalis t c o uld ra ns a ck l a nd and se a m ore ze a l o usly for

new a ni m als a nd pl a n ts th a n th e e picures of th at da y ,

ra ns cked them for new culin a ry d a i ties T he circu m

1
a n .

1 We h a ve s till ( M a cr o b ius , iii 1 3) th e b ill o f fa re o f th e b a nque t

,

l
which M u cins Le ntu us N ige r gave b e fore 6 9 1 o n e nte r ing o n h is p o n tm 0 3
— l l
,

ca te , a nd o f w h ich th e p o nt ifi ces Ca e sar inc ude d— th e V e sta V ir gi ns ,

l
a nd so m e o th e r p rie sts a nd a die s ne ar y r e a te d t o th e m p a r to o l
B efo r e l k .

the dinner p ro per ca m e se a h e dge h o g s ; fre sh o y ste r s as ma ny a s th e

-

l l
g ues ts wish e d ; arg e mus s e s ; s p h o ndy li , fi e ldfa re s with as p ar a g us ;
 388 T H E OL D R E P U BL I C AND B OO Kv
st ance of the gues t ta ki ng an e me tic a fter a b anque t to ,

a void th e c o nsequences of th e v a ied fa re s e t before h im r ,

no lo nger cre a ted surprise D eb a uch e ry o f every sor t .

beca me so sys te matic and aggra v a ted th at it fo und its

profess o rs who ea rned a livelihood by serving a s i nst uc tors
,
r

of the you th of qu ali ty in the theo y and pr c tice of vice r a .

De bt. I t will no t be necess a ry to dwell lo nger on this c o nfused

picture so mo no tonous in its va rie ty ; a nd th e less so tha t
, ,

the R o ma ns were far from origin a l in this respect a nd co n ,

fi ned the mselves to exhibi ting a copy of the H e lle no Asi atic -

luxury s till m ore ex aggerated a nd stupid th a n their m o d el .

P lu tos n atura lly dev o urs his children a s well as K ronos ;

the com pe ti tion for all these m o stly worthless o bjec ts of
fa shi o na ble longi ng so forced up p ice s tha n th o se who r ,

swam wi th the s trea m fo und the m os t c o l o ss a l es ta te m el t

a w a y in a shor t ti m e a nd even th o se who only fo r c redi t s
’
, ,

sa ke joined in wh a t w as m os t necess a ry sa w their inherited ,

a nd fi rmly es ta blished we a l th ra pidly under m ined

-
The .

c a nva ss fo r the consulship for insta nce was the usu al , ,

highwa y to ruin for houses of dis tincti o n ; a nd nea rly the

s ame description a pplies to th e ga m es th e gre a t buildi ngs , ,

a nd all those o ther ple a s an t d oub tless b ut expensi e , ,

v

pursui ts Th e princely we al th of th at peri o d is only

.

surp a ssed by its s till m ore princely liabili ties Ca es ar owed

a bou t 6 9 2 a fter deducting his as se ts 2
,
se s terces ,

fa tte ne d l l
fo w s ; o ys te r a nd m us se p astie s ; b a c a nd w h ite se a a co rns ; l k -

g l
s ph o ndy li a ain ; g ly cim arides ; sea ne tt es ; b e cafi co e s ; ro e rib s ; b o ar s
-
’
-

l
r ib s ; fo w s dre sse d w ith fl o ur ; b e ca fi co es ; p ur p e s h e l
fi s h o f tw o so rts ll-
.
'
d '
Th e dinner i tse lf co nsiste o f s o w s ud er ; b o a r s - h ea d ; fi s h p as ties ; d -

b o ar p as ties ;
-
d
uc s ; b o i e k ld
te als ; h ar es ; ro as te fo w s ; star ch p as try ; d l -

P o ntic p as try .

ll g g d g
T h e s e a r e th e co e e b an que ts r e a r in w hich V arro (D e R R . iii
-
. .

2 . 1 6 ) s a y s th a t th e y fo r ce d up th e p rices o f a ll de ica cie s V a rr o in o ne l .

ll g
o f h is s a tires e num e r a te s th e fo o w in as th e m o s t no ta b e fo re i n de ica cies l g l
k
p e a co c s fro m S a m o s ; g r o us e fro m Ph r y ia ; cra nes fr o m M e o s ; ki s g l d
fro m A mb ra cia t unny fi s h e s fr o m C h a ce do n l
m ura e nas fr o m th e S tra its
of G a de s ; b ea l k
fish e s a s e lli fr o m P e s sinus
-

T ar entu m ; s tur e o ns
) o y s t e r s a n d sca l o p s fro r
'
l
g d
fr o m R h o e s ; sca m s fi s h es ( P) fro m Cilicia ; -

nuts fro m Thas os d

a tes fro m E yp t g
a co r ns fro m S p a in.
 390 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO Kv
a nd s till m ore d efini tely of C atilin a of Co e lius of D olabella
, ,

en tirely rese mbli ng the b a ttles be tween th o se wh o ha d a nd

th o se who h a d no t which a ce ntury be fore a gi tated th e
,

H elle nic w o ld (ii r . T h a t a m ids t so r o tten a n

eco nom ic co ndi tion every fi na nci al or poli tic al crisis should
occa si o n th e m o st dre a dful c o nfusion was to be expected ,

fro m the n ature o f the ca se ; we need h a rdly m en tion th at

th e usu a l phe no m en a—th e dis a ppe a ra nce of c a pi ta l th e ,

sudde n depreci a tio n o f l a nded es tates i nnu m erable b ank ,

rup tcie s , a nd a n a l m o s t u nivers a l insolvency— m a de their

a ppe a ra nce n o w during th e civil w ar j us t as they h a d done

,

duri ng the S oci al and Mi thra datic w ars (iv .

U nder such circu m s ta nces as a m atter of cou se

,
r ,

mora lity a nd fam ily life were tr eated a s an tiqu ated things
a m o ng a ll ra nks of socie ty T o be p o or was not merely
.

the sores t disgr a ce a nd the wors t cri m e but the only ,

disg ra ce a nd th e only c i m e : for mo ney th e s ta tes man sol d

r

the s tate a nd th e burgess sold his freed o m ; th e post of

,

th e Officer a nd th e vo te of the jury m a n were to be h a d for

m o ney ; for m oney the l a dy of qu ali ty surrendered her

person as well a s the c o mmon c o ur tes a n ; falsifying of
docu me nts and perjuries h a d becom e so co mm o n th at in
a popul a r p o et of this ag e a n o a th is c a lled th e pl a ster
“

fo r debts .Men ha d fo rgotten what hones ty wa s ; a

pers o n who refused a bribe wa s rega rde d not as an uprigh t
ma n but as a pers o n al foe
,
T h e cri m in a l s ta ti stics of all
.

ti mes a nd coun tries will h a rdly furnish a p a r a llel to th e

dre a dful pic ture of cri mes—so varied so horrible and so , ,

u nna tural — which th e tri a l of A ulus Clue ntius unrolls

befo re us in the boso m of o ne of the mos t respected
fa m ilies Of an I talian c o un try town .

F i nd hip
r e s . B ut while a t th e bo tto m of th e n a ti o n a l life th e s li m e
w a s thus cons ta n tly a ccu mul a ting m ore a nd m ore dele teri
o usly a nd deeply so m uch th e m ore s moo th a nd gli ttering
,

was the surface overl a id wi th th e varnish of polishe d

,
CR A P . x i T H E N EW M ON A R C H Y
ma nners a nd universal frie nd ship All the world i nter
.

ch a nged visi ts ; so th at in th e houses o f qu ali ty it wa s

necessa ry to a d mi t the per s ons prese nti ng the m selves eve y r

m o rni ng for th e levee in a cer ta i n o der fixed by the m a s ter

r

or occ a sion ally by th e a tte nd a nt in wa i ti ng a nd to give ,

a udience only to th e m ore n o ta ble o ne by o ne while th e ,

res t were m ore su m m a ily a d m i tted p a r tly in gr o ups p artly

r
,

en m sse a t th e Close — a dis ti nc ti o n which G a ius Gr a cchus

a ,

in this to o pa vi ng the wa y fo r the ne w m on a rchy is s a i d ,

to h a ve in tro d uced . T h e i nterch a nge of le tters of cour tesy

wa s c a rried to a s g e a t a n ex te nt a s th e visi ts of cour tesy ;
r

“
friendly let ters flew over l a nd a nd s e a between per sons
”

who had nei ther person al rel a tions nor business wi th e a ch

o ther where as proper a nd form a l business le tters scarcely
,
-

occur excep t where th e le tter is a ddressed to a corp o ra tion .

I n like m a nner i nvi ta tions to di nner th e cus to m a ry new ,

ye a r s presen ts the dom es tic fe s tiv a ls were dives ted of

’
, ,

their proper ch a r a c ter a nd conver ted a l m o s t in to public

cere m o ni als eve n de ath i tself did not relea se th e R o ma n

from these atte ntio ns to his coun tless neighbours but in ,
”

o rder to die wi th due respec ta bili ty he h a d to provide e a ch

of them at a ny ra te wi th a keeps ake J us t a s in certa in .

circles of our m erca n tile w o rld th e ge n ui ne i nti ma cy of

,

fa mily ties a nd fa mily friendships h ad so tot ally va nished

from the R o me of th at da y th at th e whole in tercourse of
business a nd a cqu a i nta nce could be ga rnished with form s
a nd fl ourishes of a ff ec tion which h a d los t a ll m e a ni ng a nd ,

thus by degrees th e re a li ty c a m e to be super s eded by th at

s pec tra l sh a dow of friendship which hold by no m eans
,
”
s

the le a s t pl a ce a m o ng th e v a rious evil spi i ts brooding over r

th e proscrip tio n s a nd civil w a rs Of t his a g e .

A n e q u ally ch a ra c te is tic fe a ture in th e brilli a n t dec a y

r Wome n
.

of this period was th e e m a ncip atio n o f w o men I n a n .

economic poin t of view th e wom en ha d lo ng si nce m a de

the m se lve s indepen d e nt ( iii . in the present epoch
 T H E OL D R EP U B L I C AND BOOK V

we even m ee t wi th solici tors a c ti ng speci a lly for women ,

who o flicio usly lend their a id to soli tary rich l a dies in

the ma na ge m en t of their property a nd their l a wsuits m a ke ,

a n i m pres s io n o n th m by their knowledge of business a nd

e

la w a nd thereby p o cure for the m selves a mpler perquisi tes

,
r

a nd leg a cies th a n o ther loungers on the exch a nge B ut it .

w as no t m erely f o m th e econo m ic gu a rdi a nship o f fa ther

r

or husb a nd th at wo men felt the m selves e mancipated .

L ove i ntrigues of a ll sor ts were consta n tly in progre s s

-
.

T he b a lle t d a ncer s (mzma o) were qui te a ma tch for those

’

of th e presen t day in th e va rie ty of their pursui ts and the

skill wi th which they fo ll o wed the m o ut ; their pri ma
d o nna s Cytheri s a nd th e like pollu te even the p ages of
, ,

his to ry B ut their a s it were licensed tra de w a s very

.
, ,

ma te i a lly i njure d by the f ee art of the la dies of a ris to

r r

cr a tic circles L i a is o ns in th e firs t houses h a d beco m e so

.

freque nt th at o nly a sc a nda l a l toge the excep ti o na l c o uld

,
r

m ake the m th e subjec t of speci a l ta lk ; a judic i a l in ter

ference see med no w al m o s t ridicul o us An unp ara lleled .

sc a n dal such a s P ublius Clo dius produced in 6 9 3 at th e

,

women s festival in the house of the P on tifex M axi mus

’
,

a l though a thous a n d times w o r s e tha n th e occurrences

w hich fi fty ye a rs before h a d led to a series of c a pi t l a

sen tences (iv pa ssed al mos t wi th o u t inves tigation

.

a nd wholly withou t punish men t The watering pl a ce .

-

se a son — in A pril when poli tica l bu si ness w a s suspe nded

,

a nd th e w o ld of qu a li ty congrega ted in B a i a e a nd P u te o li
r

—derived its chief charm fro m th e rel atio ns lici t and illici t
which a long wi th m usic and song and elegan t bre ak fa s ts
,

on bo ard or o n shore e nlivened the gondol a voyages , .

T here th e l a die s held absolu te sw a y but they were by no

m e a ns c o nte nt wi th this do ma i n which righ tfully belo nged
to the m ; they a ls o a c ted a s p olitici a ns a ppe a red in p ar ty ,

co nfere nces a nd to ok p a rt wi th their m o ney a nd their

,

in trigues in the wild co terie d o i ngs of the time A ny o ne -

.
39 4 T H E OLD R EP U B LI C AND B OO Kv
m uni ty g ew i nto a n e mpire e m bra ci ng ma ny n a ti o ns the
r
,

m ore the gove ni ng a i s tocr a cy l o s t the h a bi t o f l o oki ng

r r

on I ta ly a s their exclusive h o m e while of the me n levied

or enlis ted for ser ice a co nsidera ble portio n perished in
v

th e m a ny wa s especi a lly in th e bl o ody civil w a r a nd

r , ,

a no ther p o r tio n bec a m e wholly es tr a nged fr o m their na tive

c o un try by th e l o ng peri o d of service which s o m etimes ,

la s ted for a ge ne a ti o n I n like ma nner wi th th e public

r .

service specul ation kep t a porti o n o f th e la ndh o lders a nd

,

a l m os t the wh o le body of m erch a nts a ll thei lives or a t r

a ny r a te for a l o ng t i m e o ut of th e cou ntry a nd th e de ,

m or alisi ng i ti ne a nt life o f tr a di ng in p a r ticul a r es tra nge d

r

the l atter al to ge ther fro m civic exis tence in th e mother

coun try a nd f o m th e va rious c o ndi ti o n s of fa m ily life
r .

A s a co mpe nsatio n for these I taly ob ta i ned on th e o ne ,

ha nd th e prole ta ri ate of sl aves a nd freed m en on the other ,

h and the cra fts m en a nd tra ders fl o cki ng thi ther f o m A si a r

Minor S yri a and Egypt who flouri shed chiefly in the

, , ,

capi ta l a nd s till m o re in th e s e a p O rt towns o f Os ti a Pu teoli , ,

a nd B ru n disiu m (iv I n th e l arges t and m os t im

.

portan t p a rt o f I ta ly however there was no t eve n such a ,

subs ti tu tion of i mpure ele m e nts for pure ; but the p opula
tion was visibly on th e decli ne E speci a lly w a s this true .

O f th e p a s to ra l di s t ic ts such as A puli a th e ch o se n l a nd of
r ,

c a ttle breedi ng which is c a lled by co nte mpora ies th e m o st

-
,
r

de s erted p ar t of I taly a nd of th e regi o n a ro und R o m e

, ,

where th e C am p a gn a w a s a nnu ally beco m i ng mo re des o l ate

u nder th e cons ta nt recipr o c al a c ti o n of th e re trogra de
a gricul ture a nd th e i ncre a si ng m a l a ri a L a bici Ga b ii .
, ,

B o villa e o nce chee ful li ttle c o un try to w ns we e so de

,
r ,
r

c a y e d th a t it w a s di fficul t to find rep ese nta tives o f the m

,
r

fo the cere mo ny of th e L a ti n fes tiv al

r T u s culu m a l th o ugh
.
,

s till one of the m o s t es tee m ed co mm u ni ties of La tiu m ,

c o ns is ted a l m o st s ol e ly o f so m e ge nteel fa m ilies w h o lived

in the c api ta l but re ta i ne d their na tive T u scul a n franchise ,

 T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y
’

CR AP . xi 39 5

a nd wa s fa r inferior in th e nu m ber of burgesses en titled to

v o te even to small c o mmu ni ties in th e i nterior of I taly .

T he s tock of m e n c a p a ble of a r m s in this dis tric t on which ,

R o m e s a bili ty to de fend herself h a d once m a i nly depended

’
,

h ad so to tally v a nished th a t people re a d wi th a s to nish m ent

,

a nd perh a ps wi th h o rror th e a cc o u nts of th e a nn a ls

sou nding fa bulous in co mp arison wi th thi ngs a s they s tood

respecting the A e quia n a nd Volsci a n wa r s M atters .

w ere not so b a d everywhere especi a lly in th e o ther portions

,

of Cen tral I ta ly and in C a m p a ni a ne ertheless a s Va rro v ,

com pl ains th e once populous ci ties of I taly in general

,
“
,
”

“
s tood d esol ate .

I t is a dre a dful pic ture— this picture of I ta ly under th e

rule of the olig archy T here was nothing to bridge over o
. r

soften th e fa tal con tra s t be tween the w o rld o f the begga rs

a nd th e world of th e rich T h e m ore cle a rly a nd p ai nfully
.

this c o n tr a s t w as fel t on bo th sides—th e giddier the height

to which riches rose th e deeper th e a byss of poverty

,

ya wne d— the m ore frequen tly am ids t th at ch a ngeful world ,

of speculation and pl aying at h azard were i ndividu als ,

tossed from th e bo tto m to th e top a nd a g a in fro m th e to p to

the bottom The wider th e ch a sm by which th e two worlds
.

were extern ally divided the more co mple tely they coincided
,

in the like a nnihila ti o n Of fam ily life— which is ye t the

germ and core of all n atio nali ty—in th e like la ziness and
luxu ry the like unsubsta n ti al ec o n o my the like un ma nly
, ,

dependence the like corrup tion differing o nly in its ta iff

,
r ,

the like cri m i na l demoraliz ation th e like lo ngi ng to begin ,

the war wi th property R iches a nd misery in cl o se le ague

.

drove th e I tali a ns o ut of I ta ly and filled the pe ni ns ul a ,

p ar tly with swa r m s of slaves p a r ly wi th a wful silence I t

,
t .

is a terrible pic ture b ut no t one peculi a r to I ta ly ; w h e r

,

e ver th e govern m en t o f c a pi ta lists in a sl a ve —

s tate ha s fully
d evelope d i tself it h as desol a ted God s fa ir wo ld in th e
,
’
r

sa m e way As ri ve rs g lis ten in differe nt colours b ut a ,

 T H E OL D R E P U B LI C AN D B OO K v

comm on sewer everywhere lo o ks like i tself so th e I t aly o f ,

th e Ciceronia n ep o ch rese m bles substa n ti a lly th e H ell a s of

P olybius a nd s till m ore decidedly th e C a rth a ge of H a n niba l s
’

ti me where in exa c tly si m il a r fa shion the all powerful rule o f

,
-

c a pi tal ruined the m iddle cl a ss raised tra de a nd es ta te

,

fa r m ing to the highes t prosperi ty a nd ulti ma tely led to a ,

—hypocri tica lly wh i tewa shed— m o ra l and poli tica l cor up tion r

of the n a tion All the a rra nt sin s th at ca pi tal has been

.

guilty of aga ins t n ation and civiliza tion in th e m odern

wo ld re ma in as fa r inferior to the a bo min ations of the
r ,

a ncien t c a pi talis t s ta tes a s th e free man be he ever so p o or

-

, ,

re ma ins superi o r to th e sl a ve ; and not un til the dra gon

seed of N orth Am erica ripens will th e world ha ve again ,

si m ilar frui ts to rea p .

T hese evils u n der which th e n a tion a l econo m y of I taly

,

la y p o s tr a te were in their deepe st essence irre m edi a ble

r , ,

a nd so m uch of the m a s s till a d m i tted of re m edy depended

essenti a lly fo r its am e nd m en t on th e people a nd on ti me

for th e wi s es t govern m en t I S a s li ttle a ble a s the m ore
skilful physici an to give fresh ness to the corrup t j uices o f
the org a nis m or to do m ore in the c a se of the deeper
,

ro o te d evil s tha n to preven t those a cci de nts which ob struct

th e re medi a l power of nature in its working The .

pea ceful energy of th e new rule even of i tself furnished

such a preventive for by its m e a ns som e of the worst
,

excrescences were done awa y such a s the a rtifici a l ,

p ampering of the prole tari a te the i mpuni ty of cri m es, ,

th e purch a se of o ffices a nd v a rious

,
others But the .

govern m en t could do som e thing m ore than si mply

a bs ta in fro m h a rm Ca es a r wa s no t one of those
.

over wise people who re fuse to emba nk the se a b e

-
,

c a use forsooth no dike can defy s o me sudden i nflux of

th e tide .I t is be tter if a n ation a nd its econo my follow
,

spo nta neously the p ath pre s c ibed by n ature ; but seeing
r ,

th at they had got out of this path C a es ar applie d all his ,

 39 8 TH E OL D R EP U B L I C A N D BOO Kv
h ar dly more coul d be a cco m plishe d th an th e c o mpelli ng
luxury to re ti e s o m ewh at m ore in to co nce a lm en t ; but if
r ,

hyp o crisy is th e ho mag e which ice p ays to vir tue under v ,

th e circu ms ta nce s of th e ti m es eve n a s e m bl a nce of

proprie ty es ta blished by p o lice me a sures wa s a s tep towa rds

i m pro e men t no t to be despi s ed
v .

The de b t T he m e asures of C a es a r for th e be tter regul ation o f

I tali an m o ne tary a nd a gr icul tura l rel a tio ns were o f a gr aver
ch a ra c ter and prom ised gre ater resul ts Th e fir st question .

here rel a ted to te m porary e na c tm e nts respec ti ng th e sca rci ty

of money a nd th e deb t cri sis gener ally T h e law called fo rth
-
.

by the ou tcry a s to locked—up ca pi ta l — th a t no one should

h ave on h and m o re th a n sesterces in g o ld
a nd silver c a sh — w a s prob a bly o nly is s ued to a lla y the

i ndig na tio n o f th e bli nd public a ga i ns t the usurers ; the

fo rm Of publica ti o n which pro ceeded o n the ficti o n tha t
,

this w as m erely th e renewed e n forci ng of a n e arlier law th a t

h a d fallen in to oblivio n shows —th a t C a es a r w as a sh a m ed
,

of this e na c tm ent a nd it can ha dly h ave p a ssed i nto

,
r

a c tu al a pplic a tio n A far m ore se ious ques tion w a s th e

. r

tre a tm e nt o f th e pendi ng cl a i m s fo r deb t the co mple te ,

re m ission of which wa s vehem en tly de ma nded f om C a e s a r r

by th e p a r ty wh ich called i tself by h is n a me We h a ve .

a l e a dy m en tioned th a t he did no t yield to this de ma nd

r ,

( p
. b ut tw o i mp o r ta nt concessi o ns were m a de to

49 . th e deb tors and th a t as e a ly a s 7 0 5

,
r Firs t the in tere st .
,

in arre ar was s truck off and th at which was pa id

1
,

w a s deduc ted fro m the c a pi ta l S eco n dly th e credi to r

.
,

w as compelled to a ccep t th e m ove a ble a nd i m m ove a ble

property of the deb tor in lieu o f p ay m e nt at the es ti mated
value which his e ffects had before the civil war and th e

l
Th is is no t s ta te d b y o ur a uth o ritie s b ut it ne ces sa ri y fo o w s fro m th e
1
, ll
pe rm is sio n to d e duct th e inter es t p a id b y cas h o r as s igna tio n (sz qu id
'

'

us u r a e no mm e u u me r a tu m a u t p er scr zp t u m f u zsset ; S ue to n Cae s as . .

pa id co ntra ry to la w , fr o m th e ca p ita l .
CR A P. x x TH E N EW M ONAR CH Y
genera l depreci ation which it ha d occ a si o ne d The latter .

e na ctm ent wa s no t unre a sona ble ; if the credi tor was to be

l o oked on de fa cto a s the owner of th e property of his
debtor to the a moun t of the sum due to him it was doubt ,

less pr o per th at he should be ar his sh are in the genera l

depreci a ti o n of the proper ty On the o ther h a nd the
.

c a ncelling of th e pa ym en ts of i nteres t ma de or ou tsta n ding

— which pra c tic ally am ou nted to this th at the credi tors
,

los t be s ides th e i nteres t i tself on a n aver age 2 5 per cent

, ,

of wh a t they were en ti tle d to cl a i m a s c a pi ta l at th e time of

th e issui ng o f th e law — wa s in fa c t n o thing else tha n a

pa r ti al c o ncession o f th a t c a ncelling of cre ditors clai m s ’

springing o ut of l o ans for which the de m ocrats ha d

,

cla m oured so vehe m e ntly ; a nd however ha d may h a ve

,

been the co nduc t of th e usurers it is no t possible thereby

,

to jus tify th e re trospec tive a boli tion of all cl a i m s for in teres t

w i thou t dis tinc tion

. I n order a t le a s t to unders ta n d this
a gi ta tio n we m us t recollec t how th e de m ocr a tic p a r ty s too d

t owa rds the ques ti o n of i nteres t T he leg al pr o hibi ti o n

.

ag a i ns t ta ki ng in teres t which th e old plebei a n opp o si tion

,

ha d ex tor ted in 4 2 (i
1 . h ad no d o ub t been p racti 342
ca lly disreg arded by the n o bili ty which con tr o lled the
civil pr o cedure by m e ans of th e pra e torship b ut ha d ,

s till re ma ined since th a t period fo ma lly va lid ; and the

r

democra ts o f the seven th cen tu y who rega rded the m selves

r ,

thr o ugh o u t a s th e co n tinuers of th a t old a gi ta ti o n as to

privilege a nd soci al posi tion (iv . ha d m a in ta ine d th e
illega li ty of p a y m en t of i nteres t a t a ny ti m e and even ,

a l e a dy pra c tic a lly enfo rced th a t principle

r a t le a s t te m
,

p o rarily in th e confusi o n of th e M a ri a n peri o d (iii

, .

I t is no t credible th a t C a e s a r sh a red th e crude views of his

p a ty o n th e i nteres t question ; the fa c t th at in his a cc o u nt
r ,

of th e m a tter of liquidatio n he m en tio ns th e en a ctm ent as

to th e surr ender of th e proper ty of th e deb to r in lieu of

p a y m ent b u t is silent a s to th e c a ncelling of the in teres t is ,

 TH E OL D R EP U BLI C AN D BOO Kv
perh aps a taci t self repro a ch B ut he was like eve y p a rty
-
.
,
r

lea der dependen t on his p ar ty and could no t direc tly

,

repudi ate the tra di tio na l m a xi m s o f the de mocra cy in the

ques tio n of in teres t ; th e mo re especi ally when he ha d to
decide this ques ti o n no t a s th e all powerful co nquer o r of
,
-

P h ars alus b ut eve n before his dep r ture for E pirus

, B ut a .
,

while he per m i tted perh a ps ra ther th a n origi nated this

viol ation of lega l o rder and of pr o perty it is certa i nly his ,

meri t th at th at mo ns tro us dem and fo r the a nnulling of all

cl a i ms arisi ng fro m lo ans wa s rejec ted a nd it m ay perh a ps
be l o oked on as a s a vi ng of his h o nour th a t th e deb tors ,

were far m ore i ndig na nt a t th e — a cco rdi ng to their view

ext emely unsa tisfa ctory — concessi o n given to the m th a n
r

the injured credi tors a nd ma de u nder Ca e lius a nd D ol a

,

bella those foolish and (a s alre a dy m e ntio ned) speedily

frus trated a tte m pts to extort by riot a nd civil war what
C a esa r refu sed to them .

But C a es a r did no t confine hi m self to h elp ing the

d eb tor for the m o ment he did wh at a s legisl a to r he could ,

per ma nen tly to keep d o wn the fe arful o m nip o tence of

ca pi tal First of all the gre at lega l m axi m was pro cl ai me d
.
,

that freedo m is not a possession co mm e nsura ble wi th

property but a n e ter nal righ t of man of which the s tate is
, ,

en ti tled judici a lly to deprive the cri m in a l alo ne no t the ,

deb tor I t wa s C a es ar who perh a ps s ti m ula ted in this

.
, ,

ca se a lso by th e m ore hu ma ne E gyp ti a n a nd Greek legis

l ation especi ally th at of S olon i ntroduced this principle

,
1
,

di a metrically opposed to the m a xi m s of the e a rlier ordi

n ances as to b ankrup tcy — in to th e c o m m on law where it ,

h as since re ta ined its pl a ce u ndispu ted A ccordi ng to .

R o ma n la w th e deb tor un a ble to pa y bec am e th e se rf of

1Th E gy p ti
e y l l w (Di d
an ro a i 7 9 ) nd l k w i
a s oth l gi l
o r us , . a i e se e e s a

ti on of S l ( P l
o on t h S l 3
u ar c 5 )
,
f bod b
. 1d i w
,
h i
1 h h l or f h a e on s n c t e o ss o t e

p l
e rso na lib t y f th
er d b
o t w e m d
e h or
p l ty f
as p y m t
a de t e e na o no n -
a en an

a t l t th
ea s l t imp d
e at er h d bt
os e i th on t t f b e k pt y n
e or n e e ve n o an ru c o

m o reth th
an i f h i wh l
e ce s s o n o t s o e a ss e s.
 TH E OLD R EP U BL I C A ND BOO K v

to bec o m e a t the s am e ti me a n I ta li an l andholder a nd the ,

cl a ss of c api talis ts subsis ting merely on their in terest woul d

d is a ppe a r wh o lly fro m I taly I ndirec tly too the no less .

injuri o u s category of insolven t la ndow ners who prac tically

m a n aged their es ta tes m erely for their creditors was by
this m e a ns m a teri a lly curta iled ina smuch a s the cre d i tors , ,

if they desired to conti nue their lendi ng business were ,

co m pelled to buy for the m selves From this very fa ct .

besides it is pl ain th at Ca es ar wished by no m e ans simply

to renew th at naive prohibi tion of in teres t by th e old
p opul a r p a r ty b ut on th e con tra ry to a llow the taking of
,

in terest wi thin cer ta in li m i ts I t is very prob able however .

th at he did no t confine hi mself to th at inj unction — which

a pplied m erely to I ta ly — o f a m a ximu m a m ount of su m s

to be len t but also esp e ci ally wi th respect to th e provinces

, , ,

prescribed ma xi mu m rates for in teres t i tself The en a ct .

men ts— th at it was illegal to take higher in terest th an 1

p e r cen t per m o n th o r to ta ke in terest on a rre a rs of
,

in teres t or in fi ne to m ake a judici a l cl a i m for a rre a rs o f

,

in teres t to a gre ater a m ount th a n a sum equ a l to th e

c a pi tal — were prob a bly also a fter the Grae co Egy ptia n
,
-

model firs t in troduced in th e R om a n e mpire by Lucius

1
,

L ucullus for A si a Minor and ret a i ned there by his be tter

s uccessors ; soon a fterwa rds they were tr a nsferre d to other

provi nces by edicts of the governors and ul tima tely a t ,

le a s t pa rt of the m wa s provided wi th the force of law in

a ll provinces by a decree of th e R o m a n sen a te of 7 0 4 .

T he fa c t th a t these L ucull a n en a c tm en ts a fterw a rds a ppe ar

in all their co m p a ss as i mperi al la w a nd h a ve thus become
the b a sis of the R om a n a nd indeed of m odern legislation
a s to in teres t m ay also perh aps be tr a ced b a ck to a n
,

ordi na nce of C a es ar .

1 At l t th l tt l
e as e i th
a ld Eg yp ti n
e r ru e o ccurs y l l w ( Di n e o a ro a a s o‘
dorus , i . O h th h d th S l
n t e i l gi l ti n k w
o er an e o o n an e s a o no s no
t i ti
res r c o ns o n i t b th
n er es t,t y p ly ll w int t t b
ut o n e co n ra r ex re ss a o s eres o e
fi d f ny m
xe o a t a plo un at e a sur e .
C R AP . xx TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y 40 3

H an d in h and wi th these e ffo r ts to gu a rd a ga i ns t the El ti n e va o

a sce ndency of c a pi tal we nt the ende a vours to bring b a ck

235:
a g icul ture to the p ath which wa s m os t a dv an ta geous for
r

th e c o mmo nwe al th For this purpose th e i mprove m en t of

.

the a d m i nis tr a tion of jus tice a nd of p o lice w as very

essen ti al While hi therto nobo dy in I taly h a d been sure

.

of his life a nd of his moveable or i mm ove able pro perty ,

while R o ma n ooua ottzem for i nst ance at the in tervals when

' ’ ’

their ga ngs were not helping to m an a ge the poli tic s of th e

c api tal a pplied themselves to robbery in the fores ts o f
,

E t uri a or r o unde d 0 3 the coun try es ta tes of their pay

r

m a s ters by fresh ac q uisi ti o ns this sor t of club la w wa s now

,
-

at a n end ; a nd in p a r ticul ar the a gricul tura l popul at ion of

a ll cl a sses m us t h a ve felt th e benefici a l e ffec t s of the

ch a nge The pl a ns o f C a esar for gre a t works als o which

.
,

we e not at all li mi ted to th e capi tal were intended to tell

r ,

in this respec t ; the cons truc ti o n fo r ins ta nce of a con

, ,

ve nie nt high ro a d fro m R o m e through th e p a sses of th e

-

A pennines to the A dri atic wa s designed to stimula te th e

internal traffi c of I taly a nd the lowering th e level of th e
,

F ucine l ake to benefi t the M a rsi a n fa r m ers B ut C a es a r .

a lso sough t by m ore direc t m e a s ures t o influence th e s ta te

of I ta li a n husb a ndry Th e I ta li a n gra ziers were required

.

to ta ke at lea st a third of their herds m en fr o m freeborn

a dul ts whereby brig and age wa s checked and a t the s a m e
,

time a source of g ain was ope ned to the free prole ta ri ate .

I n th e a gr a ri a n q ues tion C a e sa r who a lrea dy in his firs t Di t ibu

,
s r

c o nsulship had been in a posi tion to regul ate it ( iv .

more j udicious tha n T iberius Gracchu s di d no t seek to ,

res tore the farmer syste m a t any price even at th a t of a t e

-

volu tion—conce a led un der j uris tic cl auses —directed a g ains t

,

p roperty by him on the con tr a ry as by every o ther genuine

,

st ates man the security of th a t which is pr o perty or is at

,

any rate rega r d ed by th e public as pr o per ty w as es tee m ed

as the fi rs t and m o st in viol a ble of all poli tica l maxims and ,

40 4 T H E O LD R EP U BL I C AN D ao o x it

it w as o nly wi thi n the li m i ts a ssigned by this ma xi m th at

he sought to a cc o m pli s h th e el e va ti o n o f th e I talia n s mall
holdings which al s o a ppe ared to h im a s a vi tal ques ti o n for
,

the n atio n . Even a s it was there w as m uch s till left for

,

him in this respect to do Every priva te right whe ther it

.
,

wa s c alled proper ty or en ti tled heri ta ble p o s se s sion whe ther ,

tr a ce a ble to Gra cchus or to S ull a w as unc o n di ti o na lly r e

,

sp e cte d by h im . On th e o ther h a n d C a es a r a fter he h ad in

,

his s tric tly economic al fa shi o n — which tolera ted no w aste

and no neglige nce even on a s m a ll sc a le — ins ti tu ted a gener a l

revision of th e I ta li a n ti tles to posse ssion by the revived

co mm ission of T we nty ( iv . des tined the whole a c tu al
doma in la nd o f I ta ly (includi ng a c o nsider able portion of
the re al es ta tes th at were in the h a nds of spiri tu al guilds
b ut leg a lly belo nged to th e s ta te ) for dis tribu tion in the
Gracchan fa shio n so fa r o f course a s it w a s fi tted fo r
, , ,

a gricul ture th e A puli a n s u mm er a nd the S a mni te win ter

p astures belonging to th e s ta te con tinued to be d o m ain ;
and it w as at le a s t th e design of th e I m pe a tor if these r ,

do ma ins should no t su ffi ce to procure the a ddi tion al la nd

,

requisi te by the purch a se of I tali a n es tates fro m the public

funds I n th e selec tion of the new far mers provision wa s
.

na turally m a de firs t of all for th e ve ter a n soldier s a nd as ,

far as possible th e burden which the levy i mposed on the

,

m o ther coun try wa s conv e rted in to a benefi t by th e fa ct

,

th a t C a es a r g ave th e prole tari a n who wa s levied from it a s

,

a recrui t b a ck to it a s a fa r m er ; it is re m a rk a ble a lso th a t

,

the des o l a te L atin co mm u ni ties such a s Veii a nd C a pen a

, ,

see m to h ave been preferen ti ally provided wi th new colonis ts .

The regul a tion of C a es a r th a t th e new owners should no t

be en ti tled to a lien a te th e l a nds received by the m till a fter
twen ty yea rs was a h a ppy m ediu m be tween the full bes towa l
,

of the righ t of a lien ation which wo ul d h ave brought the

,

la rg e r portion of the di s tribu ted l a nd speedily b a ck in to

th e h a n d s o f th e gre a t c a pi talis ts a nd the per ma nen t 0
,
“
 40 6 TH E OLD R EP U B LI C AN D noo x v

th at where a man like S ull a d esp a i ing of remedy h ad

, ,
r
,

co nte nted hi m self wi th a mere forma l re o rganiz ation th e ,

evil was seized in its proper se at a nd grappled wi th there ;

and we may well conclude th at C a es a r wi th his refo r m s

cam e a s ne ar to th e m ea sure of what was possible as it wa s

given to a s tates m a n and a R om an to co me H e could .

not a nd did not expec t fr o m the m the regenerati o n of I taly

b ut he sough t on th e co ntra ry to atta in this in a very
di fferen t way for th e righ t a pprehension of which it is
,

necess ary fi s t o f all to review the condi tion of the pro vinces
r

a s C a es a r found the m .

Pro vinces. T h e provin ce s which C a e sa r foun d in exis tence were

, ,

four tee n in nu mber : seven Europe a n — th e Further and

the H i ther S pa in Tra ns a lpine G aul I ta li an Ga ul wi th
, ,

I llyricu m M a cedoni a wi th Greece S icily S ardini a wi th

, , ,

Corsic a ; five A si atic—A si a Bi thyni a a nd P o n tus Cilici a , ,

wi th Cyprus S yri a Crete ; a nd two A fric a n — Cyrene a nd

, ,

A fric a . T o these C aes a r a dded three new o nes by th e

erecti o n of th e tw o ne w governorships of Lug dune se G aul
and B e lgic a ( p 9 5 a nd by c o ns ti tu ting I llyricu m a province
) .

by i tself 1
.

I n th e a d m inis tr ation of these provinces oligarc h ic

m isrule h a d re a ched a p o in t which no twi ths ta nding v a rious ,

n o tew o r thy performa nces in this li ne no sec o nd govern ,

m en t h a s ever a tta i ned a t le a s t in th e wes t a nd which ,

a cc o rdi ng to our idea s it seems no lo nger p o s sible to

surp a ss . Cer ta i nly th e respon sibili ty fo r this res ts no t
on the R omans alo ne Al mos t everywhere before their .

da y the Greek Phoe nici a n or A si a tic rule h a d a lre a dy

, ,

d riven o ut of the nations the higher spiri t a nd the sense

1
As a cco r ding to C ae sar
'
s or d ina nce
pro p ra e tors and
a nnu a lly s ixt ee n

tw o p ro co ns uls divide d th e go ve rn o rs h ip s a m o n g t h e m , a nd th e la tter

re m ai ne d tw o y e a rs in o ffice ( p w e m ig h t co nc ud e th a t h e inte nde d
. l
to b ring th e nu mb e r o f p ro v ince s in a ll up to t w e nty Cer ta inty is , h o w .

l l
ever, th e es s a tta ina b e as to th is , s ee ing th a t C a es ar pe rh a p s d esigned y l
ins titute d fe we r o ffi ces th a n ca ndid a tur es .
CR A P. xx TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y
o f ri gh t a nd of liberty belongi ng to be tter ti mes I t was .

doub tless ba d th at every a ccused provinci al was bound

, ,

when a sked to appear person ally in R o me to a nswer for

,

hi mself ; th a t th e R o ma n governor in terfered a t ple a sure

in the a dm inis tration of jus tice and the ma n age ment o f
the depende nt co mm uni ties pronounced c a pi tal sen tences , ,

a nd c a ncelled tra ns a c tions of th e m unicip a l cou ncil ; a nd

tha t in c a se of war he tre a ted the mili ti a as he chose and

ofte n infa m ously as a g when Cot ta a t the si e ge of th e
,
.

P o n tic H era cle a a ssigned to th e m ili ti a a ll th e pos ts of

danger to sp are his I ta li a ns and on the siege no t going
, ,

a ccor d ing to his wish ordered th e he a ds of his engineers

,

to be l a id a t his feet I t wa s d oub tless b a d th at no rule

.
,

of m ora li ty or of cri m in a l law bound ei ther the R om an

a dminis tr a tors or their re tinue a nd th a t violen t ou tra ges , ,

ra pes and m urders wi th or wi thou t fo rm of law were of

,

d a ily occurrence in the provinces But these things were .

a t le a s t no thing ne w ; a l m os t everywhere m e n h a d long

been a ccustom ed to be tre ated like sla ves and it signified ,

li ttle in the long run whether a Ca rth agini an overseer a ,

S yri a n s atra p or a R om a n proconsul a cted as th e loc al

,

tyr a n t T heir m a teri a l well being a l m os t the only thing

.
-
,

for which the provinci als s till ca red was far less dis turbed ,

by those occurrences which a l though numerous in pro

,

portion to the m a ny tyra nts ye t a ffec ted merely isol ated

individua ls th a n by the fin a nci a l exa c tions pressing hea vily
,

on all which had never previously bee n prosecute d wi th

,

s uch energy .

T he R o ma ns now ga ve in this dom a in fe arful proof of

t heir old ma stery of money ma t ters We h ave alre a dy
-
.

e ndeavoured to describe the R om a n sys te m of provincia l

o ppression in its m odest a nd r a tion a l fo und a tions a s well

as in its grow th a nd corrup tion iv 1 5 7 1 6 6

( ) as a m atter .
-

of co urse th e l atter wen t o n incre a sing T he ordin ary

, .

t axes beca me far more oppressive fro m the ine qu ali ty of

 TH E OLD R EP U B LI C AN D B OO K v

t heir d is tribu tion a nd from th e prep o s terous syste m of

levying the m tha n fro m their high a m oun t As to th e .

burden of qu a r tering tro o ps R o m a n sta tes m en the mselves

,

expres sed th e o pinion tha t a tow n su ffe ed ne a rly to the r

s a me exte nt whe n a R o ma n a rm y took up winter qu a rters

in it a s when a n ene my took it by s tor m While the ta xa .

ti o n in its o igin a l ch a a c ter ha d been a n inde m nific a ti o n

r r

fo r th e burde n of m ili tary defence u nder ta ken by R o m e ,

a nd th e c o m m uni ty p a ying tribu te ha d thus a righ t to

re main exe m p t fro m ordi na ry service garrison service w as ,

-

n o w — a s is a ttes ted e g in the c a se of S a rdinia — fo r th e

. .

m os t p ar t i mp o sed on th e pr o vi nci a ls a nd e en in the ,

v

ordin a ry a rm ies besides o ther du ties the wh o le hea vy

, ,

burden of th e c ava lry service was devolved on the m The

-
.

extra ordi nary con tribu tio ns de ma nded — such a s the deli ,

ve r ie s of gr a in for li ttle or no co mpe n s a tion to be nefi t th e

prole ta ria te of the ca pi tal ; the frequen t and c o s tly nav a l

a r ma m en ts and co a s t defences in order to check pira cy ;
-

th e ta sk o f s upplying works of a rt wild be a s ts or o ther , ,

dem a n d s o f th e ins a ne R om a n luxury in the thea tre a nd

the ch a se ; the m ili tary requisi tions in cas e of w ar— were
j ust a s frequen t a s they were o ppressive a nd inc a lcul a ble .

A single i ns ta nce ma y show h o w fa r thi ngs were c a rried .

D uring th e three ye a rs a d m inis t a ti o n of S icily by G a ius

’
r

Verres th e nu m ber of fa r m ers in L e o ntini fell fro m8 4 to

3 2 in Mo tuc a fr o m 1 8 7 to 8 6 in H e b ita fro m
, , 5 2 to
r 2

1 2 0 in Ag yrium fro m 2 5 0 to 8 0 so th at in four of the

,

mo s t fertile dis tric ts of S icily 5 9 per cen t of th e l a nd

holders preferred to le t their field s lie fa llow tha n to
cul tivate the m under such g o ve nm en t And these l a nd
r .

holder s were a s their sm all nu mber i tself sh o ws a nd a s

,

is expressly stated by no m e a ns s m a ll fa rm ers but re spec t

, ,

a ble pl a nters a nd in gre a t p a r t R o m a n burgess e s

I n the clie nt s ta tes th e fo r m s of ta xa t i o n we e s o m ew h a t

-
r

di fferent b ut the burde ns the mselves were if possible s til

,
i
41 0 T H E OL D R EP U B LI C A ND n oon v
G a ul wi th an a re a am oun ti ng to ne arly twenty s qu are
miles U sury fl o u ishe d a s it h a d never flourished befo re
. r .

T h e s m a ll l a ndow ners in I llyricu m A si a a nd Egyp t m an , ,

a ged their es ta tes even in Va rro s ti m e in gre a t p a r t

’

pra cti
c a lly as the deb tor sl ve s o f their R o man or non R oman
-
a -

credi tor s j us t a s th e plebei a ns in former d ays for their

,

p atrici an lords C a ses occurred of c api tal being len t even

.

to urb a n co m muni ties at fou per cen t per m o nth I t was r .

no u nusu al thi ng for an e ne ge tic a nd influen ti al ma n of r

busi ness to g e t either th e ti tle of envoy 1 give n to him by

the sen ate or th a t of o ffi cer by th e g o vernor a nd if , ,

possible to h a ve me n put a t his service for the be tter

,

prosecution of his a ffa irs ; a ca se is n arrated o n credible

a u th o ri ty where one of these ho no ura ble m a r ti a l b a nkers
,

o n a ccoun t of a cl a i m a g a ins t th e tow n o f S a l a m is in

Cyprus kep t its m unicip al council bl o ck a ded in th e town

house un til five o f the m e m bers h a d died of hu nger
, .

To these t wo mo d es of o ppre ss ion e a ch of w hich by ,

i tself was in tolerable and which were a lwa ys beco mi ng

be tter arranged to work in to e a ch o ther s h a nds were ’
,

a dde d th e ge ner a l c al a m i ties for which th e R o ma n govern ,

m e nt w a s a ls o in gre a t p a rt at le a st indirec tly responsible , , .

I n th e va rious wa rs a l a rge a m oun t of c a pi ta l wa s dra gged

a w a y from the coun try a nd a l a rger a m oun t des troyed
so me ti m es by the b a rb a ri a ns s o m e ti mes by th e R oma n ,

a r m ies Owi ng to th e wor thless ne s s of th e R o m a n l a nd

.

a nd m a ri ti m e police brig a nds a nd pir a tes swa rmed every

,

where I n S ardi ni a a nd th e in terior of A si a Min o r briga n d

.

ag e w as ende m ic ; in A fric a a nd Fur ther S p a in it bec a m e

‘

necess ary to for tify all buildi ngs cons truc ted o u tside of the
ci ty enclosures wi th walls a nd to we rs T he fe arful evil of
-
.

piracy h a s been alrea dy desc ibed in ano ther con nec ti o n r

iv
( 3 . 0 7 T h e p a na ce a s of th e pr o hibi tive syste m wi th ,

1
Th i i th sll d f s mb
e y ( I ib
so - ca e lg t ) m ly n
ree e as s er a e a ta
'

,
na e a
e mb y W th t
a ss y p p p b li
i oumm i
an t
ro t d tert u c co iss o n e n r us e o i .
CR A P . xx TH E N EW M ONA R CH Y 41 1

w hich th e R o ma n governor w a s won t to i nterp o se when

sc a ci ty of m o ney o r de a r th o ccurred a s under such
r ,

circum sta nces they c o uld no t fa il to do th e prohibi tion -

of th e export of gold o r gra in f om th e pr o vi nce — did r

not mend the matter T h e co mmun a l affa irs were a l m os t

.

everywhere e mb a rra ssed in a ddi tion to the ge neral dis tress

, ,

by local dis o rders a nd fra uds o f th e public Offici als .

Where such grievances afllicte d c o mm u ni ties a nd indivi

du als no t te mpor arily but for ge nerations wi th an inevi table ,

s tea dy a nd yearly i ncre a si ng Oppressi o n th e bes t regul a ted

-

public or priva te eco nom y could not b ut succu m b to the m ,

a nd th e m os t unspe a k a ble m isery could no t b ut ex tend over

a ll th e n a tio n s fro m the T a gus to th e E uphr a tes A ll the .

communi ties it is s a id in a tre atise published as e arly a s

,
”

are rui ned ; th e s a m e tru th is speci a lly a ttes ted as

”
6 84 ,

reg ar ds S p a in and N arbo nese Ga ul th e very provi nces ,

which compar atively spe a ki ng were s till in the m os t

, ,

t oler a ble econ o m ic p o si tion I n A si a Minor even towns

.

like S am os a nd H a lic arn a ssus s tood al mo s t e mp ty ; leg al

sl avery see m ed here a h aven of res t c o m p a ed wi th th e r

to r men ts to which th e free provi nci a l succu mbed a nd even ,

th e p a tie nt A si a tic ha d beco m e a ccordi ng to th e de scrip

,

tions of R o m a n s ta tes m en the m selves we a ry of life A ny, .

o ne wh o desires to fa tho m th e dep ths to which m a n ca n

sink in th e crimi nal inflictio n a nd in the no less cri min a l

,

e ndura nce of all conceiva ble i njus tice m ay gather to gether

, ,

f o m the cri m i na l rec o rds of this pe iod th e wrongs which

r r

R o m an gr a ndees could perp e tra te a nd Greeks S yri a ns a nd , ,

P h o e nici a ns could su ffer E ve n th e s tate s m en o f R o m e

.

he self publicly and f a nkly conceded th at the R o ma n

r r

n a me w s u nu ttera bly odious thro ugh all Greece and

a

A si a ; a nd whe n th e burgesses o f th e P o ntic H e cle a

,
ra

o n o ne occ a si o n p ut to de a th th e whole o f th e R o m a n tax

collec tors th e o nly matter fo r reg e t was th at such thi ngs

,
r

did no t occur o ftener .

 T H E OL D R E P U B LI C AND B OO KV
Th e Op ti m a tes sc o ffe d at th e new mas ter who wen t in
person to i nspec t his fa rm s one a fter the o ther ; in
“ ”

reali ty th e co ndi ti o n of th e se era l provi nces de ma nded all

v

the e a r nes tness a nd all the wisdo m of o ne o f those r are

me n w h o redee m th e n a m e of ki ng fr o m being rega rde d
,

by the na tions a s m erely a c o nspicu o us ex ample of hu ma n

i ns u fficie ncy T he wounds inflic ted ha d to be he a led by
.

ti m e C a es ar took c a re th a t they m igh t be so he a led and ,

th a t there s h o uld b e no fresh infl ictio ns .

T h e sy s te m o f a d m i nis tr a ti o n w as thoroughly re m odelled .

The S ull a n pr o c o n suls a nd pr o pra e to s ha d bee n in their

r

provinces es se nti ally s o ereig n a nd prac tic a lly subjec t to no

v

c o ntro l ; those of Ca esa r were th e well disciplined serva nts

-

of a s tern ma s ter who fro m the very uni ty a nd life te nure

,
-

of his power su s ta ined a m ore n a tural and m o re tolera ble

rel ation to the subjects tha n thos e nu m erou s a nnu ally ,

ch a nging pe tty tyra n ts T h e go vern o rships were no doub t

,
.

s till dis tribu ted a mo ng the a nnu ally reti i ng tw o consuls

-
r

a nd six teen pr a e to rs b ut a s th e I m per a tor direc tly no m i

, ,

nate d eigh t of th e l atter a nd th e dis tribu tion of th e provi nces

a m o ng th e com pe ti tors depended s o lely o n h im p

( .

they we e in re a li ty bes towed by the I m perator

r . Th e
fu nc ti o ns a lso of the go er nors were pra c tically res tricted
v .

Th e superi nte nde n ce of th e a d m i nis tra tion of jus tice a nd

th e a d m i ni stra tive con tr o l of th e c o m m u ni ties re ma i ned in
their h a nds but their c o m m a nd was p a ra lyzed by th e new
supre me co mma nd in R om e a nd its a dju ta nts a ssoci ated
wi th th e gover nor ( p . a nd th e r a isi ng o f th e ta xes w a s

proba bly eve n no w c o mm i tted in th e pro vinces subs ta ntially

to i m peri a l o ffici a ls ( p. so th a t th e g o ver nor wa s the n ce

forwa rd surro unded wi th a n a uxili ary s taff which was a bs o

lute ly d ependen t on th e I m pe a tor in vir tue ei ther o f th e
r

la ws of th e m ili ta ry hier a rchy o r of th e s till s tric ter l a ws o f

do mes tic discipline While hi th e to th e pr o c o nsul a nd his
. r

qua es tor had a ppe a red as if they were m e mbers of a ga ng

 T H E OL D R E P U BL I C AND BOO Kv
oppressive a sce nde ncy of R o m a n c api tal I ts power could .

no t be direc tly br o ken wi th o u t a pplyi ng m e a n s which were

s till more d angero us th an th e evil ; th e g o vern me nt c o uld

fo r the ti me bei ng a b o lish only isol a ted a buses — a s when
Ca es ar for i ns ta nce prohibi ted the e mpl o y m e nt of th e ti tle
o f s ta te envoy for fi na nci a l purposes
-
a nd m ee t m a nife s t
-

a cts of violence a nd p a lp a ble usury by a sh a p a pplic a ti o n r

of the ge nera l pen al l a ws a nd of the l aws a s to usury which ,

exten ded also to th e pr o inces (p 4 1 0 ) but a m ore ra dic al

v .

cure of the evil was only to be expected from th e reviving

prosperi ty of the provinci als under a be tter a d minis trati o n .

T e mpora ry e n a c tm e nts to relieve th e i nsolve ncy of p a rt i

,

cular provinces h a d been issued on se era l occ a si o ns in

,
v

recen t ti mes C a es ar hi mself ha d in 6 9 4 when go vernor

.

of Further S pa in a ssig ned to th e credi tors two thi ds o f th e r

incom e of their deb tors in order to pay the m selves fro m

th at source . Lucius L ucullus likewise whe n g o vern o r of
A si a Minor ha d direc tly c ancelled a por ti o n of th e ar e ars r

of in teres t which ha d swelled bey o nd m e asure a nd ha d ,

fo r the re m a i n i ng por tio n a ssigned to th e credi to rs a fourth

p art of the produce of th e l ands of their deb tor s a s well a s ,

a sui ta ble proportion of th e profi ts a ccrui ng to the m from

house ren ts or sl a ve l abour We are not expressly info rmed

- -
.

th at C a es a r a fter th e ci il wa r ins ti tu ted si m il a r ge nera l

v

liquid ations of deb t in th e provi nces ; ye t fr o m wh a t ha s

j us t b een re marked a nd fro m wh at w as d o ne in the ca se of
I taly ( p . it ca n h a rdly be doub ted th a t C a es a r likewise
direc ted his e fforts towards this object or at le ast that it ,

for med p ar t of his plan .

While thus the I mpera tor as far a s lav w ithin hu man

,

power relieved th e pr o vi nci a ls f om th e Oppressions of the

,
r

m a gis tra tes a nd c a pi ta li s ts o f R o m e it m igh t a t th e s m e

,
a

ti m e be wi th cer ta in ty expec ted fro m th e g o ver nm e nt to

which he i m p arted fresh vig o ur th at it would sc a e o ff th e
,
r

w il d b or d er peoples a nd disperse th e freeboo ters by l a nd

-
C R A P. x x T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y 41 5

and se a, as th e risi ng sun ch a ses a wa y the m is t H owever .

th e old w o unds migh t s till s m ar t wi th Ca esar there

,

a ppe a red for th e sorely tor tured subjec ts th e da wn of a

-

m ore to lerable epoch th e fir st i ntelligen t a nd hu ma ne

,

governm e nt that ha d a ppe ared for ce nturies and a policy ,

of pe a ce which res ted no t on cowardice b ut on s tre ngt h .

Well migh t th e subjec ts a bove all m o urn along wi th the

best R o m a ns by the bier of the g re at libera tor .

B ut thi s a b o li ti o n of exis ting a buses wa s no t the m ai n Th e

b g inning :
ma tter in C a es a r s provi nci al refor m I n th e R o ma n f th
’ e
.
o e

republic a ccordi ng to th e view of the a ri stocra cy and H ll n e e o

I t li
,
a c
de m ocra cy alike th e provinces had been no thing but
, t t s a e.

wh a t they were frequen tly c alled— coun try es tates of the -

R o ma n people a nd they were e m ployed a nd worke d o ut as

,

such T his view had now p a ssed a wa y T he provinces a s

. .

such were gr a du ally to dis appea r in o rder to prep a re for

,

th e renova ted H e lle no I talic n ation a new a nd m ore

-

sp acious ho m e of whose severa l comp o nen t p arts no one

,

existed merely for th e s ake of a nother b ut all for e a ch and

each for a ll th e ne w existence in the renovated ho m e the ,

fresher broa der gr ander n ati o n al life wa s of i tself to over

, , ,

be ar the sorrows a nd wro ngs of the n a tion for which there

was no help in th e old I ta ly T hese ide a s a s is well
.
,

known were not new T he e m igrati o n from I taly to th e

,
.

provi nces th a t ha d bee n regula rly going on for cen turies

h a d long si nce though unconsciously on the p a rt of th e
,

e migra n ts the m selve s p a ved the w ay for such an ex tensi o n

,

of I taly The firs t who in a syste matic w a y guided the

.

I ta li a ns to se ttle bey o nd the b o unds of I ta ly wa s Ga ius

G ra cchus th e crea tor of th e R o ma n de mocra tic m on a rchy
, ,

the a u thor of th e T ra n salpi ne conques ts th e fo under of the ,

colonies of Ca r th age and N a rb o T hen th e second s ta tes

.

ma n o f genius produced by th e R o ma n de m ocra cy Qui ntus ,

S ertorius beg a n to in troduce th e b a rb arous Occiden ta ls to

,

La tin civil iza tio n ; he g ave to th e S p a nish yo uth of ra n k

41 6 T H E OLD R EP U BL I C AN D B OO K v

the R oma n dress a nd urged the m to spea k Latin a nd to

,

a cquire th e higher I ta li a n cul ture at th e tra ining ins ti tu te

fou nded by him in Osca Wh e n C a es ar en tered on th e

.

gove nm en t a la rge I t ali a n popul a tio n— though in g e a t

r , ,
r

pa r t l a cki ng s ta bility and concen tration — a lre a dy exis ted

,

in all the provinces and client s ta tes To say nothi ng of-

.

the for mally I ta li a n t o wns in S p a i n a nd sou thern G a ul we ,

need only recal l the nu mero us tr o o ps of burgesses ra ised

by S er torius a nd P o mp e ius in S p a in by C a es a r in G a ul , ,

by J uba in N u midi a by the c o ns ti tution al p a rty in A f ica

,
r ,

M acedoni a Greece A si a Minor and Cre te ; the Latin lyre

, ,

ill tu ned d oub tless—o u which th e town poets of Corduba

,

— - -

as e a rly a s the S e rto ria n wa r s a ng th e pr a ises of the R o m a n

generals ; and th e tra nsl ations of Greek poetry valued on

a ccoun t of their very eleg a nce of l a ngu a ge which th e ,

earlies t extra I talia n poe t of no te th e Tra ns alpi ne P ublius

-
,

T e re ntius Va rro of th e A ude published shor tly a fter ,

C a es ar s death
’
.

On the o ther h a nd the interpene tr ation of th e Latin a nd

H ellenic ch ara c ter w as we m igh t say a s old as R o m e
, , .

On occ a sion of th e union of I taly th e conquering L atin

n ation ha d a ssi mil ated to i tself all th e other conquered
n ation ali ties excep ting only th e Greek which was received
, ,

jus t as it s tood wi thout any a tte mp t at ex terna l ama lga ma

tion Wherever the R o ma n legi o na ry we nt the Greek
.
,

school ma s ter no less a conqueror in his own way followed ;

, ,

a t a n e a rly d ate we find fa m ous te a chers of th e Greek

l a ngu age se ttled on the Gua da lquivir a nd Greek wa s as ,

well taugh t as La tin in th e ins ti tu te o f Osca T he higher .

R o ma n cul ture i tself w as in fa c t no thi ng else th a n the

procl amation of the great go spel of H elle nic m a n ners a nd
art in th e I ta li a n idio m a g a ins t th e m odes t pre te ns i o n of

th e civilizing co nquer o rs to procl a i m it firs t of all in their

own l angu age to the b a b a ri a ns of the wes t the H elle ne at
r

le ast co ul d no t loudly pro tes t A lrea dy th e Greek every

.
41 8 TH E OLD R EP U BL I C AND B OO K v

P arthi a n the whole R o man e mpire Wi thin the ci ties

a nd .

of Alexa ndri a especi ally and of Cyrene th e J ews fo rm ed

speci al co m muni ties a d m inis tratively a nd even loca lly
distinct no t unlike th e J ews qu arters of our towns but
,
“ ’
,

wi th a freer posi tion a nd s uperin te nded by a ma s ter o f “

the people as superior j udge a nd a d m inis tra tor

”
H ow .

numerous eve n in R ome the J ewish popul ation was a lre a dy

before C aes ar s ti m e and how closely at th e s ame time th e
’
,

J ews even then kept t o gether as fellow cou ntrymen is -

shown by the rem ark of a n a uthor of this period th at it ,

was d a ngerous for a governor to o ffe n d th e J ews in his

province beca use he m igh t then cer ta inly reck o n on being
,

hissed after his re turn by the popul ace of the c api tal .

Even at this time the predo m i na nt busine ss of the J ews

w as tra de ; the J ewish tra der m oved everywhere wi th the
conquering R o m a n m erch a n t then in th e s a m e w a y as he ,

a fterw ards a cco m p a nied the Genoese a nd the Vene ti a n a nd ,

c api ta l flowed in on all h ands to the J ewi sh by the side of ,

th e R o m a n m erch a n ts ,
A t this period to o we encou nter
.

the peculi a r a n tip athy of the Occiden tals towards this so

thoroughly Orie ntal ra ce and their foreig n opinions and
cus to ms T his J uda is m al though not th e m o st ple asing
.
,

fe ature in th e nowhere ple a si ng pic ture of th e mix ture of

na tions which then preva iled was never theless a his to rica l
,

ele m en t developing i tself in th e na tural course of thi ngs ,

which th e s tates ma n could nei ther ignore nor comb at a nd ,

which C a es a r on th e con tra y jus t like his predecess o r

r ,

A lexa nder wi th correc t discer n

,
men t of the circu m sta nces ,

fo s tered a s fa r a s pos sible While Al ex a nder by la ying th e

.
,

fou nda ti o n o f Alexa ndri a n J uda is m did no t m uch less for the
,

na tion th a n its o w n D a id by pl a nni ng th e te m ple of J eru

v

s ale m C a es a r a ls o a dva nced th e in teres ts o f th e J ew s in Alex

,

a nd i a a nd in R o m e by speci a l fa vou s a nd pri ileges a nd

r r v ,

pro tected in p a ticul ar their peculi a r wo ship a ga ins t th e

r r

R o man a s well a s a g a ins t th e Greek loc al pries ts T he .

 CR AP . xx TH E N EW M ON A R CH Y 41 9

two great men of c o urse did no t co nte mpl te pla ci ng the a

J ewish n ation ali ty on a n equ a l footing wi th the H el le nic or

I ta lo H elle nic
-
. B ut th e J ew w h o h a s no t like th e Occi
dental received th e P andor a s gift o f poli tica l organiza tion
’
,

a nd s ta n ds subs tanti a lly in a el a tion o f indi ffe re nce to the

r

s ta te who m oreover is a s reluc ta n t to give up th e essence

of his na tiona l idiosyncra sy a s he is re a dy to clo the it wi th
,

a ny n a ti o na li ty a t ple a sure a nd to a d a p t hi m self up to a

cert ain degree to for e ign h a bi ts—the Je w wa s fo r this very

r e a son a s it were ma de fo r a s tate which was to be built on
,

th e ruins o f a hu n dred livi ng poli ties a nd to be endowed

wi th a som ewh at abs tra ct a nd from th e ou tse t to ned down
, ,
-

n a tio nali ty Even in th e a ncie nt wo rld Juda ism wa s an

.
‘

e ffective leaven of cos m o p o li ta nis m and of n ati o n al de co m

posi tion a nd to th at exten t a speci ally privileged me mber
,

in the C a es a i a n s ta te the poli ty of which w as s tric tly

r ,

spe a ki ng n o thi ng but a ci tize nship of th e wo ld a nd the r ,

n a ti o nali ty of which w a s at b o tto m nothing but huma ni ty .

B ut th e L a ti n a nd H ellenic n a tion li ties con ti nued to be H ll

a e e nis m
.

exclusively th e p o si tive ele m en ts of the new ci tizenship .

T h e dis ti nc tively I talia n sta te of th e republic w a s thus a t a n

e nd ; b ut th e ru m our th a t C a es a r wa s ruining I ta ly a nd

R o m e o n purpose to tra nsfer th e cen tre o f the e m pire to

the G eek e a s t a nd to ma ke I lio n or A lex a ndri a its c a pi tal
r
,

wa s no thing b ut a piece o f ta lk — very e a sy to be a ccou n ted

for but also very silly— o f th e a ng y n o bili ty On the
,
r .

c o n tra ry in C a es a r s o rga niz a tions th e La tin nati o n ali ty

’

a lwa ys re ta ined th e p ep o nde a n ce ; a s is indic a ted in th e

r r

v ery fa c t th a t he issued a ll his e na c tm en ts in L a ti n a l though ,

those des tined fo the Greek spe aki ng c o u nt ies were a t th e

r -
r

s a me ti m e issued in Greek I n ge ne al b e a a nged th e

. r rr

rel ati o ns o f th e tw o gre at n a ti o ns in his m on a chy jus t a s r

his republic a n predecessors had a rr ang e d the m in th e u ni ted

I taly ; th e H elle nic na tion ali ty w as pr o tec ted where it ex
iste d th e I tali a n w a s exte nded as fa r as circu ms ta nces per
,
42 0 T H E OL D R E P U BLI C AN D B OO Kv
mitte d, a nd inhe i ta nce of the ra ces to be abso bed was
th e r r

des ti ned for it T his wa s nece ss a ry bec a use an entire

.
,

equa lizi ng of th e Greek a nd La ti n ele men ts in th e s ta te

would in all pro b abili ty h a ve in a ve y short ti me occa sioned r

th a t c a ta s trophe which Byz anti nis m br o ugh t a bou t seve a l r

ce ntu ie s later ; for the Greek ele m e nt wa s superi o r to th e

r

R o m a n no t m e ely in all in tellec tu a l a spec ts but a lso in

r ,

the m e a sure o f its pred o m i na nce a nd it h a d wi thin I taly ,

i tself in the hos ts of H ellenes a nd ha lf H elle ne s who -

m igr a te d co m pulsorily or v o lu nta rily to I taly a n endless

nu m ber of a pos tles a ppa en tly i nsig nifica n t but wh o se in
r ,

fl ue nce could no t be es ti mated to o highly T o m e ntio n .

o nly the m o s t c o n picuou s phe no m e no n in this respect the

s
,

rule of Greek l ackeys o er th e R o man m on archs is as o ld

v

a s th e m o na rchy The firs t in th e equ ally lo ng a nd re pul

.

sive lis t of these pers o na ges is the c o nfiden ti al ser a nt of v

P o m p e ius T he o ph an es of My tile ne who by his power o ver

, ,

his we ak ma s ter co ntribu ted p o b a bly m ore th a n a ny o ne r

else to the ou tbre a k of the war be twee n Po mpe ius a nd

C a es ar N o t w h olly wi thou t re a son he wa s a fter his death
.

tre a ted wi th divi ne ho no urs by h is c o un try me n ; he co m

m e nce d fo rs o o th th e va let a o ma ma” gover nm en t of th e
, ,
’

i mperi al period which in a cer ta i n m e asure w a s jus t a

,

d o m i ni on of th e H elle nes over the R om ans T h e g o vern .

m e nt ha d a ccordi ngly e ery r e a s o n no t to e ncour age by its

v

fo s teri ng a c ti o n the spre a d of H ellenis m a t le a s t in the we st .

I f S icily w a s no t si m ply relieved o f the pre s sure of th e

deeuma e b ut ha d its co mm u ni ties i nves ted wi th La ti n righ ts ,

which wa s presu m a bly m e a n t to be followed in due ti m e by

full equ a liz ation wi th I taly it ca n o nly h a e bee n C a e sa s
,
v r
’

design th at this gl o rious isl and which wa s at tha t ti m e ,

desol a te a nd ha d a s to ma n age m e nt p a ssed fo r th e gre ter a

p a r t in to I talia n h a nds b ut which na ture ha s des ti ned to be

,

no t so m uch a neighbouri ng l a n d to I ta ly a s r a ther th e

finest of its pr o vince s sh o uld bec o m e a l to ge ther m erged in

,
 TH E OL D R EP U BL I C AND BOO Kv
chie fl y ag icul tural popul ation was even b e fore C aesa r s ti m e
r
’

in rea li ty a n I ta li a n cou ntry a nd re ma i ned for ce nturies ,

the true a sylu m o f I tali a n m a n n ers a nd I tali a n cul ture ; in

deed the te a chers o f L atin li terature fo und nowhere else

o ut o f th e c a pi ta l so m uch encour age m en t a nd a pprob a tion .

Th e While Ci sa lpi ne Ga ul was thus subs ta nti ally m e ged in r

p ro vince f
I ta ly th e pl a ce which it h a d hi therto o ccupied wa s taken
o
N arbo .
,

by th e Tra ns alpi ne province which ha d been c cnve rte d by ,

th e conques ts of C a es ar fro m a fro ntier in to a n inl a nd

province and which by its vici ni ty as well a s by its clim te
, a

w as fi tted bey o n d a ll other regi o ns to beco m e in due

course of tim e likewise a n I ta li an la nd T hi ther princi .

pally a ccording to th e old aim of th e trans m a ine se ttle

,
r

men ts of the R oma n de m o cra cy w a s th e s tre am of I tali a n ,

e mig a ti o n directed T here the a ncie nt col o ny of N a rbo

r .

wa s rei nforced by new se ttlers a nd four new bu gess — colonies ,

r

were i ns ti tu ted a t B a e te rra e ( B eziers) no t far from Narbo ,

a t A r e late Ar les a nd A ra usio r ange ) on th e R hone a nd

( ) ( O ,

at the new se a por t Foru m Julii Fr ejus ) while n a m es

( th e

a ssigned to the m a t th e s a me time preserv ed th e m e m ory

of th e bra ve legi o ns which had a n nexed nor thern Gaul to

th e e m pire 1 T he townships no t furni shed wi th col o nis ts
.

a ppe a r at le a s t fo r th e m os t p a r t
,
to h a ve been led o n ,

t o wa rds R o ma niza tion in th e s am e way as Tra nsp ad ane

Ga ul in form er ti m es (iii 5 1 7) by th e b es towal of La tin .

urb a n righ ts in p ar ticul ar N e mausus (N imes ) a s th e chief ,

1
N b w
ar l l d th
o as l y f th D im i B t
ca e e f th
co o n o e ec an , a e e rra e o e

S p tim i F
e an m J l ii f th O t
, o ru i A l t u f h S
o t i A e i fc a va n , re a e o t e e x an , ra us o o

th Se d i
e cun Th ani th l g
. i w i g b e n n h dd g e d t
io n s a nt n , e ca u se i t a is ra ce i s

nu mb b y th m i y f P l
er e (p ut n Th o h l i f th a ce ntia . at t e co o n s ts o e se

l i b l g d h l gi f m w h i h th y t k th i m i t
co o n e s e on e to t e e o ns ro c e oo e r na es , s no
s ta te d d an t d bl
is no th t th m l
cr e i w
e t l t th g e ve e ra ns
t e s e ve s e re , a e as e r ea
m j ity f h m t l d i I t ly ( p m p l i t th t C
'
a or o t e , Ci
se t e n a . ce r o s co a n ,
a a e sa r

t d wh l p bl w (D Of ii 7
”
h d a fi
co n s ca e i d di i t t
o e r o v nce s a n s tr c s a a o e . .
,

2 7 ; m p s l pp
co . iii 5 3
'

3 )
z
’

l . b y
x d d bt
. 1 it, l 1 , 2 re a tes e on ou , as s c o se
i
co nne ct o n w ith h f th t i m p h
t e ce ns ure o h M ili t p e r u o ve r t e ass o s ro ve s , to
th fi
e co n ti s ca f l d m d
o ns o t f th
an l i i th N a e o n a cco un o es e co o n e s n e ar

b o ne sep i d p im
r o v nce ly t th l an f t rt y imp ar i d n o e oss es o erri o r o se o
M as silia .
C R AP. x x TH E N EW M ONA R CH Y
pl ace of the territory ta ken fro m the M assiliots in couse
q ue nc e of their revol t a ga ins t C a es a r p
( w a s conver ted .

from a M assiliot vill a ge in to a L atin urb a n co mmuni ty a nd ,

en d owed wi th a considerable territory a nd even with the

righ t of coin age While Cis alpine Ga ul thus a dva nced
1
.

fro m the prep ara tory st age to full equ a li ty wi th I t aly th e ,

N arbonese province a dva nced at th e s a m e ti m e into th at

p ep aratory s ta ge ; j us t as previ o usly in Cis alpine Gaul the
r ,

m ost considera ble communi ties there ha d the full fra nchise ,

the res t La tin righ ts .

I n the o ther no n Greek a nd no n L a tin region s of the

- -

e mpire which were s till m ore re m ote fro m the in fl uence of

,

I ta ly and th e process of a ssi m il a tion C a esa r confined h im ,

self to the es tabli s h ment of sever al centres for I ta li a n

civiliz ation such as Na rbo h ad hi therto been in Gaul In ,

o rder by their m e a ns to p a ve th e w ay for a fu ture co m ple te

equ aliza tion S uch ini ti al s teps ca n be poi nted out in all
.

th e provinces o f th e e m pire wi th th e excep tion of the ,

po o res t a nd lea st i mport a nt of all S ardini a H o w C a es a r , .

proceede d in N orthern Gaul we h ave alrea dy se t fo r th N , o rth ern

p a ti n l a ngu a ge there obta ined throughou t

G a ul.
( .
9 6 ) t h e L
o flicia l rec o gni tion though no t y e t e mpl o yed for all
,

bra nches of public in tercourse a nd the colony of N ovio ,

du nu m ( N yon ) a rose on the Le ma n lake as the m ost

northerly town wi th an I tali a n co ns ti tu tion .

I n S p a in which wa s presu ma bly a t th at time th e m ost S p

, ain.

densely peopled coun try of th e R o ma n e m pire no t merely ,

1 We ly
info rm e d fr o m w h o m the L a tin righ ts o f th e
are no t e x p re s s
l
no n co o nize d to w ns h ip s o f this r e gio n a nd e s p e cia y o f N e ma us us pro
-
ll
ce e de d . l
But a s C a e s a r him se f ( B C i 35 ) v irtua y s ta te s th at N e ma usus
. . . ll
ll
u p t o 7 0 5 wa s a M a ss ilio t Vi a g e ; as a cco rding to L ivy s a cco unt D io
( 49
’

, .

xli 2 5 ; F 10 1
. ll 1 3 ; Or o s vi 1 5 th is ve ry p o r ti on o f te rr ito r
. .
) . .
y w as ta e n k
fr o m th e M a s s ilio ts b y C aesar a nd a st y a s e ve n o n l l
p r e A u gusta n co ins
-

a nd th e n in S tra b o th e to wn a p p e ar s a s a co mmunity o f L a tin rig h ts ,

l
C aesa r a o ne ca n ha ve b e e n th e a uth o r o f this b e s to wa o f L a tinity As l .

ll
to R uscino ( R o uss i o n ne a r Pe r p ign a n) a nd o th e r co m m unities in N ar
b o nes e G l l
a u w h ich e ar y a tta ine d a La t in urb a n co ns titutio n, we ca n o nl
y
co nj e ctur e th a t th ey re ce ive d it co nte mp ora ri y with N e ma usus l .
 T H E OL D R EP U BLI C AND BOO Kv
were C aesa ri a n col o nis ts s e ttled in th e i mpor ta n t H e lle no
I beri a n se a por t to wn of Em p o ria e by th e side of the old
p o pula ti o n b ut a s recen tly di scovered rec o rds h a ve shown
,
-

a nu m ber o f c o l o nis ts pr o b bly ta ken pred o m in an tly from a

th e prole ta ri a te of th e c a pi ta l we e provided for in the r

tow n o f U 1 5 0 ( Osu na) no t fa r fro m S eville in the he a rt of

,

A nd a lusi a a nd perh a ps a l s o in several o ther t ownships of

,

this provi nce T he a ncie nt a nd wea l thy m er c a n tile ci ty

.

of Ga des whose m unicip a l sys tem C a es a r even whe n

,

prae tor had re m odelled suitably to the ti mes now ob ta i ned ,

fro m the I mperato r th e full righ ts o f th e I tali a n mumozp za ' ' '

bec e — wh a t T usculu m had been in I taly

( 7 5)0 a n d a m
i( 4 4 8 ) — the firs t ex tra I tali a n c o mmuni ty no t foun ded by
.
-

R o m e which was a d m i tted i nto the R o ma n burgess u nion -

.

S o m e ye a rs a fterw a rds ( 7 9 ) si m il a r righ ts were conferred

0

a lso o n so m e o ther S p a nish co m m u ni ties a nd La tin righ ts ,

presu ma bly on s till m o re .

Ca rtha ge. I n A fric a th e projec t which G aius G r acchus had no t

,

been a ll o wed to bri ng to a n issue was now ca rried out , ,

a nd on th e spo t where th e ci ty of th e heredi ta ry fo es of

R ome ha d s tood 30 0 0 I tali a n colo nis ts a nd a gre a t

,

number of the te nan ts o n le a se a nd su ffera nce re si de nt in

the C a rth agini a n terri tory were se ttled ; a nd th e ne w
Venus colony the R o man C ar th age throve wi th a m azi ng
-

,
”
,

r apidi ty under th e i nc o m pa ra bly fa v o urable circu msta nces

of the loc ali ty U tic a hi therto th e ca pital a nd firs t c o m
.
,

me rcia l town in th e provi nce ha d alre a dy been in s o me ,

me a sure co mpe nsated befo eh and app are ntly by th e be r ,

sto w a l of L ati n igh ts for th e reviv a l of its superi o r riva l

r , .

I n th e N u m idi a n terri to y newly a nnexed to the empirer

the i mporta n t Cirta a nd th e o ther co m m uni ties a ssigned to

th e R o m a n eoua ottzer e P ublius S ittius for hi m self a nd his

’
’

tr o ops ( p 30 ) ob t i ned th e leg a l posi ti o n of R o m a n m ili ta ry

. 0 a

col o nie s The sta te ly p o i nci al towns i ndeed which the

. r v ,

insane fury of J ub a and of the desperate re mn ant of the

 T H E OL D R EP U BL I C AN D B OO K v

of th e provi nce T h e forma lly a u tono m ous Latin a nd the

.
1

o ther e ma ncip a ted co mm uni ties—thus i ncludi ng all th o se

of S icily and of Na rbonese G a ul so far as they were no t ,

burgess communi ties a nd a co nsidera ble nu m ber a lso in

-
,

th e o ther provi nces — h a d no t m erely f ee a d m inistra ti o n r

,

b ut prob a bly u nli m i ted jurisdic tion ; so th at th e governor

w a s o nly en ti tled to i nterfere there by vir tue of his
cer ta inly very a rbi tra ry —a d mi nis tra tive con trol N o d o ubt .

eve n e arlier there ha d been communi ties of full burgesses

within the pro vi nces of governors such as Aquilei a and , ,

N a rbo a nd whole g o ver nors pr o vi nces such a s Cis alpine

’
, ,

Ga ul ha d co ns is ted of commu ni ties with I tali a n co nstitu

,

tion but it w as if not in law at le as t in a poli tic al poin t

, ,

of view a si ngul arly i mporta nt i nn o vatio n th at there was ,

now a provi nce which as well as I taly was peopled solely

by R oma n burges ses and th at others pro mised to beco me
2
,

such .

1 Tha t no co m munity o f l
fu l b ur ge sse s ha d m or e th a n limite d j uris dic
tio n, is ce r tain B u t th e fa ct, wh ich is dis tinct y a p p ar e nt fro m th e
. l
l
C ae sa r ia n m unicip a o r dina nce fo r C is a p ine G a u is a sur p rising o ne l l ,

l
th a t th e p ro ce ss e s y ing b e y o nd municip a co m p e te ncy fr o m th is p ro vince l
w e nt no t be fore its go ve rno r , b ut b e fo re th e R o ma n pr a e tor for in o th er
ca se s th e g o ve r no r is in h is p r o vince quite as m uch r e p re s e nta tive o f th e

p ra e to r w h o a dm inis ters j ustice b e tw ee n b ur ge sse s as o f th e p rae tor w h o

a d m inis ters j us tice b e tw e e n b urge ss a nd no n b urge ss , a nd is th o r o ugh y -
l
co m p e te nt to de te rm ine a ll p ro ce ss e s B e y o nd do ub t this is a re m na nt o f
.

ll
th e a rra nge m e nt b e fo r e S u a , unde r w hich in th e w h o e co ntine ntal l
l l
_

territory as far as th e A p s th e urb a n m a g is tra tes a o ne w ere co m p e te nt,

a nd th us a ll th e p r o ce s se s th e re w h e re th e y e xcee d e d m u nicip a co m p e t e ncy ,
, l
l
ne ce ss ari y ca m e b e fo r e th e p r a e to r s in R o m e I n N arb o a ga in G a d es . . .

Car th a ge , Co rinth , the p ro ce sse s in such a cas e w e nt ce r ta in y to th e l

go ve rno r co nce rne d ; as inde e d e ve n fro m p r a ctica co nside ra tio ns th e l
car ryi ng o f a s uit to R o m e co u d no t w e l
b e th o ugh t o f ll .

2
I t is diffi cul t to s e e wh y th e b e s to w a o f th e R o m an fra n chise o n a l
ll l
p r o v ince co e ctive y a nd th e co nt inua nce o f a p ro vincia a dm inis tra t io n
, l
l ll
fo r it s h o u d h e us ua y co nce ive d a s co ntr as ts e x c uding e a ch o th e r
, l .

l l l
B e s ide s , C isa p ine G a u no to rio us y o b ta ine d th e ciu ita s b y th e R o scia n
l
de cre e o f th e p e o p e o f th e 1 1 th M a r ch 7 0 5 w h i e it re m a ine d a p ro vince , l
as l
o ng as C a e sa r l l
ive d a nd w as o n y u nite d w ith I t a y a fter h is d ea th l
, l
( D io x viii 1 2 ) th e go ve rn ors al so ca n b e p o inte d o ut do w n to 7 1 1
. .

T h e v e ry fa ct th a t th e C a es ar ia n m unicip a o r dina nce ne ver de sign a te s th e l

co u ntry as I l l l
ta y , b ut a s Cis a p ine G a u , o ugh t to h a ve le d to th e righ t
Vie w.
 CR A P. x x T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y
Wi th this dis appea red th e firs t g e a t pra ctical dis tinc tion
r

th at sep ara ted I ta ly fro m th e pr o vinces ; a nd th e sec o nd

tha t o din a rily no tro o ps were s ta ti o ned in I taly whil e

r ,

they were s ta tio ned in th e pr o vi n ces — w a s likewise in th e

c ourse of dis a ppe a ri ng ; troops were n o w s ta tio ned only

where there was a fr on tier to be defe nded a nd th e co m ,

m a nda n ts of the provinces in which thi s w as not the ca se ,

such as Na rbo and S icily were o ffi cers o nly in n a m e The

, .

formal contra st be tw een I taly a nd the pro inces which h a d

v ,

a t a ll ti m es depended o n o ther dis tinc tions iii con

( .

tinned cert ainly even now to subsis t for I taly wa s the sphere
,

of civil jurisdic tion a nd of co nsuls a nd pr a eto rs while the ,

provinces were districts under the j urisdicti o n of m a rtia l la w

and subjec t to proconsuls a nd propra e tors but the pro
cedu t e a ccordi ng to ci il a nd accordi ng to m a ti al law h ad
v r

fo r long been pra c tica lly coinciden t a nd th e di ffere nt ti tles

,

of the magistrates signified li ttle a fter th e one I mperator

w a s over all .

I n a ll these v a rious m unicip al found ations a nd ordin ances

—which are traceable at le a s t in plan if no t perh aps all in
,

execu tion to C aes ar —a defini te sys te m is app a ent I taly

,
r .

was conver ted fro m th e m is tress of th e subjec t peoples in to

the m other of the renov a ted I ta lo H ellenic n a tion
-
T he .

Cis alpine province completely equ alized wi th the m other

c ountry was a promise a nd a gua ran tee th at in the ,

mon a rchy of C aes ar jus t as in the hea l thier ti mes of the

r epublic eve ry La tinized dis tric t m igh t expect to be pl a ced
,

o n a n equ al foo ting by the side of its elder sis ters a nd of

the m o ther herself On the threshold of full n ation al a nd

.

p oli tic al equ aliz ation wi th I taly s tood th e a djoining l a nds ,

th e Greek S icily a nd the sou t h of G a ul which was r a pidly

,

becomi ng L atinized I n a m o re re m o te s ta ge of prep a a

. r

tion stood the o ther provinces of the e m pire in which , ,

j ust as hi therto in sou thern Ga ul N a rb o h ad been a R o ma n

co lon y the gre a t m a ri time ci ties — E m po riae
, Gades, Car
,
e
42 8 TH E OL D R EP U B L I C AN D B OO K v

th ag e , Corin th H eracle a in Pontus S inope B erytus

, , , ,

A lexa ndri a — now bec am e I tali an or H ellen e I talia n co m -

m unitie s the cen tres of a n I tali a n civiliza tion even in the

,

Greek ea s t the fu nd a menta l pilla rs of the future n ation al

,

a nd poli tic a l levelling of th e e m pire Th e rule of the .

urba n c o m muni ty of R o m e over the shores of th e Medi

terra ne a n was a t a n end in its s tea d ca me the new Medi

terra ne an s tate and its first act was to atone for the two
,

gre atest outrages which th at urb a n co m m unity had pe rp e

tra te d on civiliza tion While the des tructi o n o f the two
.

greatest m ar ts of commerce in the R o ma n do m inions

m arked the turning point at which the protectora te of the
-

R om a n co mm uni ty degener ated into poli tic al tyr a nnizi ng

over and fina nci al exa c tion fro m the subj ect l a nds the
, , ,

p ro m pt a n d brilli a n t res toration of C a r th age a nd Cori nth

m arke d th e foun d a tion of the new gre a t co mm onwe a l th
w hich w as to tr a in up all th e regions on the Medi terr a ne a n
to n a tion a l a nd poli tic al equ al ity to union in a genui ne
,

s tate Well migh t C aes ar bes tow on the city of Corin th

.

in a d d i tion to its far fa med a ncien t n a me the new one of

-

H onour to J ulius ( LA vs JVL I ) .

While thus the new united e mpire was furnishe d with a

n a tion al ch ara c ter which d oub tless necess ar ily lacked indi
,

viduality a nd was r a ther a n in a nim a te pro d uc t of art th a n

a fresh grow th of n a ture it further ha d need of unity in

,

those ins ti tu ti o ns which express the general li fe of n ations

-
in co n s ti tu tion a nd a d m inis t a tion in religion a nd juris
r ,

pru dence in m oney mea sures and weigh ts as to which of

, , , ,

course loc al d iversi ties of the most varied cha ra c ter were
,

quite co m p atible wi th essenti al union I n all these dep art .

.

men ts we can only spe ak of the ini ti a l s teps for the thorough ,

formatio n of th e m on archy of C a esa r in to a n uni ty was the

work of th e future a nd all th at he did wa s to lay th e fo unda
,

tion fo r th e buildi ng of cen turies B ut of the lines which

.
,

th e g rea t ma n drew in these depa r tments s e vera l ca n still ,

 430 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO K v

him to c o mple te in proper ti m e the general lis t of R o ma n

burgesse s a nd of R o man prope ty T h a t it wa s C aes ar s
r .
’

in te nti o n to in tr o duce si m ila r i nsti tu ti o ns a l so in the p ro

vi nces is a ttes ted p a r tly by th e m e a surem en t a nd survey
of th e wh o le e mpire o rdered by him p a rtly by the n a ture
,

of the a rra nge m en t i tself ; fo r it in fac t furnished the

ge neral in st u m e nt a ppropri a te for procuri ng as well in
r ,

th e I ta li a n a s in th e no n I tali a n c o mm u n i ties of th e s tate

-

th e i nfor m ati o n requisi te fo r th e ce ntr a l a d m i nis tra tion .

Evid e n tly here to o it w as C a es a r s i nte nti o n to rever t to

’

th e tra di ti o ns of th e e a rlier epublic a n ti mes a nd to

r ,

rei ntroduce the cen sus o f th e e mpire which th e ea lier , r

republic had e ffected — essen ti ally in th e s a m e way as

C a es ar e ffected th e I t li an — b y a n a l o gous extension of
a

t h e i nsti tu tio n of th e urb a n censorship wi th its se t term s

a nd o ther essen ti a l rules to all th e subjec t co m m u ni ties

of I taly a nd S icily ( 1 1 5 8
.
,
T his h a d been o ne of th e
firs t i ns ti tu tions which the torpid aris to cra cy a llowed to
dro p a nd in this wa y deprived th e sup e m e a d mi nis tra
,
r

tive a u thori ty of a ny view of th e res o urces in me n a nd

ta x a ti o n a t its dispos a l a nd co nsequen tly of a ll p o s sibili ty

of a n effective c o n tro l ( iii . T he indic a ti o n s still
exta n t a nd the very co nnec tio n of thi ngs show ir e frag
, ,
r

a bly th a t C a es a r m a de p ep a ra ti o ns to re new th e ge nera l

r

censu s th at ha d bee n o b s o le te for ce nturies .

We need sca rcely say tha t in religi o n and in jurisprude nce

no thorough levelling c o uld be th o ugh t of ye t wi th a ll
tolera ti o n t ow a ds l o c a l fa i ths a nd m unicip a l s ta tu tes the
r

new s ta te needed a comm on worship c o rrespo nding to the

I talo H elle nic n a tio na li ty a nd a gener a l c o de of la w superi o r
-

to th e m unicip al s ta tu tes . I t n eeded the m fo do f a oto r

bo th were a l ea dy in exis te nce I n the field o f religi o n

r .

m e n h a d for cen turies bee n busied in fu s i ng toge ther th e

I ta li a n a nd H elle nic w o ships p ar tly by ex te na l a d o p ti o n
r r ,

p ar tly by in ter nal a djus tmen t of their respec tive concep tions
C R A P. x x TH E N EW M ON AR CH Y
of th e gods a nd owi ng to th e p li a nt fo mless ch ara cter of r

the I tali a n gods there h a d bee n no gre a t di ffi cul ty in

,

resol i ng J upi ter i nto Zeus Ve nus in to Aphrodi te and so

v , ,

every esse nti al idea of th e La ti n fa i th in to its H ellenic

c o un terp art T he I talo H elle nic religion stood forth in
.
-

its ou tli nes re a dy m a de how m uch in this very dep art

-

m e nt men were co nscious of h a ving go ne beyo nd th e

specifically R o ma n p o i nt of V ie w a nd a dv a nced towar d s
a n I ta lo H elle nic qu a s i n a ti o na li ty
- -
is shown by the dis
,

tinctio n m a d e in th e a lre a dy m en tioned theology of Va rro

-

be tween the co mm on gods th at is those a ck nowledged

“ ”
, ,

by R oma ns and Greeks and the speci al gods of the R oma n

,

co mm uni ty .

S o far a s concerns th e field of crimi nal a nd police la w ,

where the gover nmen t m o re directly in terferes and the ne

ce ssitie s of th e c a se ar e subs ta nti a lly m e t by a j udici o us

legisl ation there was no di ffi cul ty in atta ining in th e way of

, ,

legisl ative a c ti o n th at degree of m ateri al u nifo rm i ty which

,

certa inly was in this dep a rtm en t needful fo r th e u ni ty o f the

empire I n the civil law ag a in where th e ini tia tive belongs to
.
,

com merci al in tercourse a nd m erely the fo r mal sh a pe to the

legislator the code for the u ni ted empire which th e legis
, ,

l ator certa i nly could no t have cre ated ha d bee n al e a dy l o ng ,

r

since developed in a n a tura l w ay by co mm erci a l i ntercourse

i tsel f Th e R o m a n urb a n law w a s s till indeed lega lly b a se d
.

on the em bodi m e nt of th e Latin n a tio nal law co nta i ned in

th e T welve T a bles L ater l a ws h a d doub tless i ntr o duced
.

va rious i m prove m ents of de ta il sui ted to the ti me s a m o ng ,

which th e mos t i m portant wa s prob a bly the a boli tion of the

old inconvenien t m ode of c o m m enci ng a pr o ce s s thr o ugh
s ta ndi ng forms of decl ar a tio n by th e p a rties (i 2 0 2 ) a nd .

th e subs ti tu tion of a n instruc tion dr awn up in wri ti ng by

th e presidi ng m agis tr a te for th e si ngle jury ma n ( for mula :

)
b ut in the m a in th e popul a r legisl a tion ha d only piled upo n
th at venera ble foun dation a n endless ch a os of speci al l a ws
4 32 T H E OL D R EP U BLI C AN D BOO Kv
long since in gre at p a r t a n tiqu ated and fo go tten which r ,

ca n only be co m p a red to th e E nglish s ta tu te la w The -

.

a tte mp ts to i mp a r t to the m scie ntific sh a pe a nd sy ste m h a d

c e rtai nly rendered th e tor tuous p a ths of th e ol d civil law

a ccessible a nd t hrown ligh t upon them
, ( iv 2 5 2 ) but .

no R om a n Bla cks tone c o uld re m edy th e fund am e ntal

de fect that an urb a n code c o mp o sed four hundred ye a rs
,

ag o wi th its equ a lly di ff u s e a nd co nfused supple m en ts w a s

now to serve a s the la w of a great s tate .

Com mercia in tercourse provided for i tself a m ore

l

thorough re m edy The lively in tercourse be twee n R om a ns

.

a nd non R o ma ns ha d l o ng a g o devel o ped in R o m e a n

-

in tern ation al private la w (zus g entium i '

th a t is to
'

say a body of m a xi m s especi a lly rel ating to co mm erci a l

,

m atters a ccordi ng to which R o ma n judges pronounced

,

j udgmen t when a c ause could no t be decided ei ther

,

according to their own o r a ny o ther n a t ion a l code a n d

they were co mpelled — setting a side the peculia ri ties of

R om an H elle nic P hoenici a n a nd o ther law —to rever t to
, ,

the co mmon views of right underlying all de ali ngs T he .

for mation of the newer la w a t tached i tself to this b a sis I n .

th e firs t pl a ce a s a s ta nd a rd for the lega l de alings of R o ma n

b urgesses wi th e a ch o ther it de f a cto subs ti tu ted for the

,

o ld urb a n la w which had become pra ctically useless a

, ,

new code b ased in substa nce on a compro m ise be tween

th e n a tion a l law of th e T welve Ta bles a nd th e in tern a ti o na l

law or so c a lled la w of n ations

-
T h e form er w as essen ti a lly
.

a dhere d to th o ugh of course wi th m odific atio ns sui ted to

,

th e ti m es in the law of m a rri a ge fa m ily a nd inheri ta nce ;

, , ,

wherea s in all regula tions which c o ncerned dea li ngs wi th

property and c o nseque ntly in refere nce to ow nership a nd
,

co ntra cts the i ntern ationa l la w was th e s ta nda rd ; in these

,

m atters i ndeed v a i o us i m p o r ta nt a ra nge m e nts were

r r

borrowed even fr o m l o ca l provi nci a l la w such as the legisl a ,

tio n as to usury (p a nd th e ins ti tu tion of lz

.
yp otlze oa .
4 34 T H E OL D R EP U BL I C AN D BOO Kv
a fter th e m od e l
of th e u b an edic t th o ugh no t a pplicable
r ,

o these c a s es b o t h in I ta ly a nd in th e pr o vinces
j
’
ao u e
r t , .

T h e l w o f th e u b a n edic t h a d thus e s se nti ally th e s am e

a r

p o si ti o n n th a t a g e w hich th e R o m a n la w h as occupied in
i

ou r p o li tic al devel o p m en t ; thi s a l s o is so far as such ,

opp o si tes can be c o m bi ned at o nce a b str act and p o si tive ;,

this a l s o reco m m e nded i tself by its ( c o mp a ed wi th th e r

.
ea rlier leg al cod e ) flexible fo rm s of i ntercourse a nd to o k ,

its pl a ce by th e side o f th e loca l s ta tu te s a s u nivers a l

subsidi a ry law B ut th e R o ma n leg a l develop m e nt ha d a n
.

esse nti a l a dvantage o ve ours in this tha t the de nati o n aliz ed

r ,

legisl a ti o n ppe a red no t as wi th us pre m a turely a nd by

a , ,

a r tifici a l birth but a t the right ti me and agree a bly to

,

na ture .

S uch w a s th e s ta te of the law a s C a es a r found it If .

he projec ted the pl a n fo a new code it is no t diffi cul t to r ,

s ay wh a t were his i nte nti o ns T his code could o nly co m .

prehe nd th e law of R o ma n bu gesse s a nd could be a r ,

ge nera l code for the e m pire m erely so far a s a c o de of th e

ruling n atio n sui ta ble to th e ti m es c o uld no t b ut of i tself
becom e gene al sub sidi ary law thr o ughou t the co mp a ss of th e
r

e m pire I n cri m i na l la w if th e pl an e mbra ced this at all

.
, ,

there w as needed o nly a revision a nd a djus tm e nt of th e

S ull an ordin a nce s I n civil la w fo r a s tate whose na ti o n

.
,

a li ty w as pr o perly hu m a ni ty th e necess a ry a nd o nly po s sible

,

fo r mal sh ape w a s to i n es t tha t urb an edict which had v ,

a lre a dy sp o nta ne o u sly g o wn o ut of l awful c o m m erce

r wi th ,

th e securi ty a n d p eci s io n of s ta tu te la w
r T h e firs t s tep -
.

tow a rds this h a d been t a ken by th e Cor neli a n la w of 6 8 7 ,

when it enjoined th e judge to keep to th e maxi m s set forth

a t th e begi nning of his m a gi s tr a cy a nd no t a rbi tr arily to

a d mi nis ter other law (iv 4 5 7 ) — a regul ation which may .

,

well be com pa ed wi th th e la w of th e Twelve T ables a nd

r
,

which bec am e a lm o s t a s sig nific ant for th e fixing of the

l ater urb an law as that collec tio n for the fixing of the earlier .
CH A P . xi T H E N EW M ON A R C H Y 435

B ut a l th o ugh a fter the Corneli a n decree of the people the

edict w as no longer sub o rdi nate to th e ju dge but the judge ,

w a s by la w subject to th e edic t a nd th o ugh th e new code

ha d p a c tic ally di spossessed th e old urb a n law in judici al

r

us age a s in leg al ins truc tion—e very u b a n judge was still r

free at h is e ntra nce o n offi ce abs o lu te ly a nd a rbi tr a rily to

a l ter th e edic t a nd th e la w of th e T welve T a bles wi th its
,

a ddi ti o ns s till a lw a ys o u t weighed for m a lly th e u b a n edic t r ,

so that in ea ch i ndi idu al ca se of collision th e a n tiqua ted

v

rule ha d to be s e t a side by arbi trary in terfere nce of the

ma gis tra tes a nd therefo re s tric tly spe aki ng by vi o l ati o n of
, , ,

fo m al law Th e subsidi ary a pplic a tio n of the urb a n edict

r .

in th e court of the p a eto p er eg zuus a t R o m e a nd in the

r r r
’

di fferen t provinci a l judic ature s was e ntirely subjec t to the

a rbi tr a ry ple a sure of th e indi vidu a l presidi ng m a gis tra tes .

I t w as e iden tly necess a ry to se t a side defi ni tely th e old

v

urba n law so far as it h a d no t been tra nsferred to the

,

newer a nd in th e ca se of the la tter to se t sui ta ble li mi ts to

,

its a rbitra ry a l teration by e a ch individu al urb n j u dge a ,

p o ssibly also to regul ate its subsidia ry a pplic atio n by the

side of th e l o c al s ta tute s T hi s w a s C a es a r s design when
.
’
,

he p ojected th e pl a n fo r his code ; for it could no t h ave

r

bee n o the wise T he pl a n w as not execu ted ; and thus

r .

th a t tr o uble s o m e s tate o f tr a n si tion in R o m a n j urisprudence

w a s perpe tu a ted till thi s n ecess a ry refo m w as a cco m plishe d r

six cen turies a fterwards a nd the n but i m perfec tly by one of

, ,

th e successor s of C a es a r th e Em peror J us tini a n , .

La s tly in m o ney m e a sures a nd weigh ts th e subs ta nti a l

, , ,

e qualiza ti o n of th e Latin a nd H elle nic sys te ms had long

been in p o gress I t w as very a ncie nt so far as c o ncerned
r .

th e defi ni ti o ns of weigh t a nd th e m e a sures of c a p a ci ty a nd

of le ng th i ndi pens a ble fo r tra de and com m erce (i 2 6 3 f )

s .
,

and in th e m o ne ta ry sy s te m li ttle m ore rece nt th a n th e

in troduction of the silve c o i na ge ( iii r B ut the s e older .

e q u ations were no t su fficien t bec ause in the H ellenic ,

 TH E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D BOO K v

world i tself the m os t v a ried m etrica l a nd mo netary sys tem s

subsis ted side by side ; it was necess a ry a nd for m ed p art ,

doub tless of C a e sa r s pla n now to in t oduce everywhere in’

,
r

th e new uni ted e mpire so far a s this h a d no t been do ne ,

a lre a dy R o ma n m oney R o ma n m e a sures and R o m a n

, , ,

weigh ts in such a manner th at they alone should be

reck o ned by in offi ci a l i ntercourse a nd th at th e no n R o ma n ,
-

sys te ms sh o uld be res tric ted to l o ca l currency or pl a ced in

a — —
once for all regul ated ratio to th e R o man The 1
.

a c tion of C a es a r h o wever can o nly be poi nt e d o ut in two

, ,

of the m os t i mp ortant of these dep ar tm en ts the moneta ry ,

sys tem and th e c alenda r .

T h e R o ma n m onetary syste m was b a se d on the two

precious metals circul ating side by side a nd in a fixed
rel ation to e ach other gold bei ng given and taken a ccordi ng ,

to weight 2
silver in the for m of coin ; b ut pra ctic a lly in
,

consequence of th e extensive tra nsm a ri ne in tercou se th e r

gold far prepondera ted over the silver Whe ther th e .

a ccep tance of R o m a n silver m oney was not even at an

e arlier period obligatory throughou t the empire is uncert ain ,

a t a ny r ate unc o i ned gold essen ti ally supplie d the pl a ce of

imperi a l m oney thr o ugh o u t the R o ma n terri tory the m ore ,

s o as the R o m a ns ha d prohibi ted th e coini ng of gold in all

the provinces a nd client s tates and th e dena r ius ha d in -

, ,

a ddi tion to I ta ly a o j ur e or do f a oto n a tura lized i tself in

’

Cis a lpine Ga ul in S icily in S p a in a nd va rious o ther

, ,

pl a ces especially in the west ( iv

,
B ut the imperi a l .

c oin a ge begin s wi th C a es a r E x a c tly like A lex a nder he .

,

1 W ight e tly b gh t t l igh t t P m p

s rece n gg t th hy p th i
rou o a o e ii s u es e o es s

th t t th
a a mm m
e co f th im p i l p i d l
e nce g id f h R m n
e nt o e er a er o a on s e o t e o a

p nd th A tti m i
ou e (p m b l y i th
c na ti f 3 4) p
re s u d t a n e ra o o : as se curr e n as a
seco nd im p l w igh t ( H m
e r ia ie er es , x v .

2
Th g l d p i
e w hi h S ll ( i
o 7 9)
e ce s , d t mp c ily P m p i
u a v. 1 an co n e o r ar o e us

ca use d t b t k b h i m ll q
o e s ruc ity d
, t i
ot l d th i p p i
n s a ua nt , o no nva i a t e s ro os

ti
on ; f th y p
or b b ly e m b t k
ro a l ly b y w igh t j t lik th
ca e to e a e n so e e us e e
g l d Phillip p i w h i h w
o en i Ci
e l ti cd w t C
ere tim n rcu a o n e ve n o n o a e s ar s
’
e.
Th y e t i ly
a re m k bl
cer a n b th y
re ti ip t
ar h Ca i n e, e ca us e e an c a e t e a e sar a

in p i l g ld j t S ll g y ti p d th w m
’

er a o us as u a s re hy e nc an ci a te e ne o narc .
 T H E OL D R E P U BLI C AN D BOO Kv
were in circul ation and the S yri a n comm e ci a l ci ties would
,
r

h a ve fel t very severely th e w ant of their previ o u s n ational

coin a ge c o rre s po nding to the Mes o p o ta mi a n currency We .

find here subsequen tly the a rra nge m e nt th a t th e de na ius r

h a s everywhere leg a l cu re ncy a nd is th e o nly m ediu m of

r

o ffici a l reck o ning 1 while th e loc a l coi n s h a ve leg a l cu rency

, r

wi thin their li m i ted ra nge b ut a cc o rdi ng to a ta i ff unfa vour r .

a ble fo r the m a s c o m p a red wi th th e a oua n us f T his w as

’
’
’

prob a bly no t in troduced all at once a nd in p art perh a ps ,

may h a ve preceded C a e s a r ; b ut it w a s a t a ny ra te the

essen ti al com ple me nt of th e C aes a ri a n arra ngem en t as to
th e i m peri al c o i na ge whose new gold piece fo u nd its
,

immedi a te mo del in th e al m o st equ ally he a vy coin o f

Alex a nder a nd w as doub tless c alcul a ted especi a lly for
circulatio n in the e a st .

Of a ki ndred n ature wa s th e refo r m of th e cale nd ar .

The republic a n c a len da which s tra ngely enough was s till

r,

the old dece mviral ca lend a r—nu im perfec t a d o p tion of th e

oota oter zs th a t preceded Me ton ( ii h a d by a co m
'
2 1 6) .
-

bin ation of w e tched m athe ma tics and wre tched a d minis tra
r

tion co m e to a n ticipa te th e true ti m e by 6 7 wh o le d a ys so ,

th a t o g th e fe st iva l of Flo a w a s c elebr ated on the r 1 th

. . r

J uly i ns tea d of th e 8 th A pril C a esa r fin ally re moved

2 .

this evil a nd wi th th e help o f th e Greek ma the matici a n

,

S osigenes in tr o duced th e I ta li a n fa r m er s ye a r regul a ted

’

a ccordi ng to th e E gyp ti a n c a le nd a r of E udoxu s a s well a s ,

a r a tion a l sys te m of in terc a l a tio n i nto religious a nd offici a l

,

use ; while at th e s am e time the begi nning of the ye ar o n

1 l
Th ere is p ro b ab y no inscri p tio n o f th e I m p e rial perio d , wh ich
s p e cifi e s s ums o f m o ne y o th e r w ise t h a n in R o m a n co m .

2 l l
T h us th e A t tic dr a o/zma a th o ugh se nsib y h e a vier th a n th e de n a r ius.
,

k
w as ye t re c o ne d e qua to it l t h e tot r a a
’
r a clzm on o f A ntio ch , w e ighing o n

l
a n a ver a ge 1 5 gra m m e s o f S i ve r , was m a de e qua l
to 3 R o ma n de na r ii,
l
w h ich o n y w e igh a b o ut 1 2 gr a m m e s th e o zs topkor u s o f A s ia M inor w as
’

l l
a cco r ding to th e va u e o f s i ve r a b o v e 3 a cco r ding to th e
, e ga ta r ifi : 2 } l l '

l
de na r ii th e Rh o dia n h a f dr a c/zma a cco xding to th e va ue o f Silver z i , l
l
acco r d ing to th e e gal ta r iff z ? o f a de n a r iu s a nd s o o n , .
C R AP . x x T H E N EW M ONA R CH Y 4 39

the r st M arch of the old c alend ar w as a bolish e d a nd the ,

da te o f th e r st J a nu ary— fix e d at fir st a s th e o ffi ci a l ter m for

cha ngi ng th e supre m e magis tra tes a nd in co nsequence of ,

thi s l o ng since prev a ili ng in civil life

,
w a s as su m ed a lso a s -

the ca lenda r period for co mm encing th e ye ar B oth-

.

ch a nges ca me in to e ffec t o n th e r st Ja nu a ry 7 0 9 a nd 45 ,
.

a l o ng wi th the m th e use of the J uli a n c a le n d a r so n am ed

a fter its a u th o r which lo ng a fter th e fa ll of th e m o n archy ,

of C a es a re ma i ned the regul ative s ta nda rd of th e civilized

r

wo ld a nd in the ma in is so s till B y w ay of expl a nati o n

r .

there w as a dded in a de ta iled edic t a s ta r c a le n d a r derived -

fro m the Egyp ti an a s tronomic a l observa tions a nd trans

ferred — no t i ndeed very skilfully — to I taly which fixed ,

th e rising a nd se tti ng of th e s tars na m ed a ccordi ng to d a ys

of the c alenda r 1 I n thi s do m a i n also th e R o ma n and .

Greek worlds were thus pl a ced on a p ar .

S uch were th e fo u nd a tions of th e Medi terra ne a n mon C a e sar

archy of C a es ar For the second ti m e in R o me th e soci al

.

ques ti o n h ad re a ched a crisis at which th e a ntag o nisms not ,

o nly appe ared to be b ut a c tu ally were in th e for m of their , ,

exhibi ti o n insoluble a nd in th e form of their expression

, , ,

irreconcil a ble On th e fo rm er o cc a si o n R o m e ha d been

.

s aved by th e fa c t th at I taly was m erged in R o m e a nd R o me

in I ta ly and in the ne w e nl arg e d a nd a l tered h o me those
,

old an tag o nis m s were not reco nciled but fell in to abeyance , .

N o w R o m e wa s once m ore s a ved by th e fa c t th at the coun

tries of th e Medi terra ne a n were merged in it or bec a me
prep ared for m erging ; the war be twee n th e I tali a n p o or
1
Th id tity ef th i di t d w
en p p h p by M o Fl i s e c ra n u er a s a rcus a v us

(M b S t i
a cro 4 .
) d th
a ll g d
. ti
. f C 1 D S t lli i
, 2 an e a e e trea se o a e s ar , e e s, s
sh w b y th j k
o n f C ( Pl t h C
e o
5 9 ) th t
e o w th Ly ice ro u ar c , a os. a no e r e r is es

a cco rdi g d t n to e ic .

W m y dd th t it w k w
e a a b f C th t th
a l y as no n e ve n e o re a esar a e s o ar e ar

o f 36 5 d y 6 h whi h w
a s th b i f th E gy p ti
o urs , l d d c as e as s o e a n ca e n ar, a n
wh i h h m dc h b e f hi w
a m wh t t
e t l g Th m t
e as xs o
t s, a s so e a oo on . e os e xa c
l l ti f th t p i l y w h i h th
ca cu a on o ei t w ld w q i t d
ro ca ea r c e a nc e n or as a c ua n e
w th th t
i , f H ip p ha p t it t 36 5 d 5 h 5
o
'
th t
ar c l gth us , u a . . 2 e rue en
is 36 5 d .
5 h 48 .
’
440 T H E OLD R EP U BLI C AN D B OO K v

a nd rich which in th e o ld I t ly c o uld o nly e nd wi th th e

,
a

des truction of th e nati o n ha d no l o nge a b attle fi e ld or a

,
r -

m e a ning in th e I taly of three c on tine nts T h e L ati n .

colonies closed th e g ap which thre a tened to swa ll o w up th e

R o m a n c o m m u ni ty in th e fifth ce ntu y ; th e deeper ch a s m r

o f th e sev e nth ce ntury w a s filled by th e T ra ns a lpi n e a n d

tra ns ma i ne c o loniz a ti o ns of G a ius Gr acchus a nd C a es a r

r .

For R om e al o ne his tory no t me e ly perfo r med m ira cle s but r ,

a lso repe ated its m i ra cles a nd t wice cured th e i ntern al

,

crisis which in th e sta te i tself wa s i ncura ble by rege nerati ng

, ,

th e s tate T here w a s doub tless m uch co rup tio n in this

. r

regeneratio n a s th e u nion of I ta ly w as a cc o mpli hed over s

the ruins of th e S am ni te a nd E trusc an n a ti o ns so the ,

Mediterra ne a n m o n a chy buil t i tself o n th e ruins of c o u nt

r

less sta te s a nd tribe s once livi ng a nd vigo rous ; b ut it was

a corrup ti o n o ut o f which spra ng a fresh grow th p ar t o f ,

which e mai ns gree n at th e prese nt day Wh at w a s pulled

r .

down fo r th e s ake of th e new building wa s m erely th e “

,

secondary n ati o na li ties which h a d l o ng since bee n ma ked r

o ut fo des t ucti o n by th e levelli ng h and of civiliz a tion

r r .

C a esa wherever he c am e forw ard a s a destro yer only

r, ,

c arried o ut th e p o no unced verdict o f his to ical dev e l o p

r r

me nt ; but b e protec ted th e germ s of cul ture where a nd a s ,

he fo u nd the m in h is o wn la nd a s well a s a mo ng th e sis ter

,

n ation of th e H elle nes H e s a ed a nd re newed th e R om an

. v

type ; a nd no t o nly did he sp are the G eek type but wi th r ,

th e s am e self relyi ng genius wi th which he a cc o m plished

-

th e re newed fo u nd a ti o n o f R o m e he under to o k a lso th e

reg e nera ti o n of the H elle nes a nd resu med th e in terrup ted
,

wo k of th e gre a t Alexa nder whose i mage we may well

r , ,

believe never was a bse nt f o m C a es a s soul H e solved

,
r r
’
.

these tw o gre a t ta sks n o t m erely side by side b ut th e ,

one by m e ans of th e o ther T h e two g e at esse nti ls o f

. r a

hu m a ni ty— genera l a nd i ndividu al devel o p m e nt or s ta te a nd ,

cul ture — once in e m b yo u ni ted in th o se old G rae co I talia ns

r -
44 2 T H E OL D R EP U BLI C AN D N EW M ON A R CH Y BK . v

ch aple t o n the vic to r wi th i mp ovised verses The r apidi ty

r .

an d s elf precisio n wi th which th e pl a n w a s execu ted pr o ve

-

th a t it h a d been long m edi ta ted th o r o ughly a nd a ll its p ar ts

settled in de ta il ; but even thus they re ma in not m uch less
, ,

wo nderful th a n th e pl an i tself T he ou tli nes were l aid

.

d o wn a nd thereby the new s tate w as defined for a ll co ming

ti me ; the b o u ndless future a lo ne could c o m ple te th e
s truc ture S o far Caes a r migh t say that his aim was at
.
,

ta ine d a nd this w a s p ob a bly th e me a ning of the w o rd s

r

which were some ti mes he a rd to fall from him— th a t he had

“
lived enough B ut precisely bec a use th e building w as
.
”

an endless o ne th e ma s ter as long as he lived res tlessly

,

a dded s tone to s to ne wi th a lw a ys th e s a me dex teri ty a nd

,

a lw a ys th e s am e el a s tici ty busy at his work wi thou t ever ,

overturning or p o s tpo ni ng jus t a s if there were for him

,

m erely a to day a nd no to morrow

-
T hus he worked a nd
-
.

cre ated a s never did any m ortal befo re or a fter him ; and
as a worker a nd cre a tor he s till a fter well nigh t wo thous a nd
,

ye ars lives in th e m e mo ry of th e nations —th e firs t and

, ,

wi thal unique I mperator C a es a r

,
.
 C H A P T E R XI I

L I L
R E I G ON , CU T U R E, LI TER AT U R E , AN D A R T

I N th e develop m e nt of religion and philos o phy no new

elemen t appe ared duri ng this epoch T h e R o m a no
.

H ellenic st a te religi o n a nd th e S to ic s ta te philosophy

- -

insep a ra bly co m bi ned wi th it were for every g o vernmen t

- oligarchy de m o cra cy or m on archy— no t m erely a con
,

ve nie nt ins tru m e nt b ut qui te i ndi s pe nsa ble for the very
,

re a son th at it wa s jus t a s i m possible to co ns truc t the

s tate wholly wi thou t religious ele m en ts as to disc o ver a ny

new state religion fi tted to take the pl a ce o f the o ld S o

-
.

the besom o f rev o lu tion swept doub tless a t ti m es very

roughly through the c o bwebs of th e ug ura l bird l o re
a chin ?
-

( p
. I I I
) ; never theless th e ro tten m cre a king a t every

joint survived th e e arthqu ake which swallowed up the

republic i tself and preserved its insipidi ty a nd its a rr o ga nce
,

wi thou t di m inu ti o n for tra nsference to th e new m o narchy .

As a m a tter of course it fell m ore a nd m o e i nto disfa vour

,
r

wi th all those who preserved their f eedom o f judgm en t

r .

T ow ards th e s ta te—religi o n i ndeed public Opi ni o n m a in ta ined

a n a tti tude esse ntia lly indi fferen t ; it w a s o n all sides
recognized a s a n i ns ti tu tion of poli tic al conve nience and ,

no one speci ally tro ubled hi mself a b o u t it wi th th e exception

of political a nd a n tiqu ari a n li terati B ut to wards its philo
.

sophic al sis ter there gr a dua lly spra ng up a m o ng th e unpre

j udice d public that hos tili ty which th e e m p ty a nd y e t per
,
 R E LI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
fi dio us hypocrisy of se t phra ses never fa ils in the long run
to a waken T h at a prese nti m en t of its own wor thlessness
.

bega n to da w n o n th e S to a i tself is sh o wn by its a ttemp t

,

ar tifici a lly to infuse i nto i tself so m e fre sh spiri t in th e way

of syncr e ti s m A n ti o chus of A scalo n (fl o u i shing a bou t

. r

who professed to h ave p atched to ge ther th e S to ic a nd

Pl a tonic Aris to teli a n sys te m s i nto o ne o g a nic uni ty in
-
r ,

re a li ty so far succeeded th at his m i ssh apen d o c trine bec am e

th e fa shio na ble phil o s o phy of th e co n ser a tives of h is ti me
v

a nd w a s c o n scie nti o u sly s tudied by the ge nteel dile tta nti

a nd li tera ti o f R o me Every o ne w h o displ a yed a ny

.

in tellec tu a l vigour opposed the S toa o r ig no red it I t was

, .

principally a ntip a thy towards th e bo a s tful and tire s o m e

R o ma n P h a risees C oupled d o ub tless wi th th e i ncre a si ng
,

disposi tio n to take refuge fro m p a ctic a l life in indo len tr

a p a thy or emp ty irony th a t occ a si o ned during this epoch

,

th e ex tension of th e sys te m of Epicurus to a l a rger circle

and th e n a tur a liz a tion of th e Cy n c phil o s o phy o f D iogenes

i
in R ome H owever stale and p oor in th o ught the fo r mer
.

migh t be a philo so phy which did no t seek th e w ay to

, ,

wisd o m through an a l tera tio n of tra di tio nal te m s but r

con ten ted i tself wi th th o se in exis tence a nd thro ughou t ,

recog nized o nly lhe percep tions of sense as true wa s ,

a lwa y s be tter th a n th e ter m i n ologic a l jingle a nd the h o llow

c o ncep tion s of the S toic wi s dom ; a nd th e Cynic philo ”

sophy was of all the phil o s o phica l sys te ms of the ti mes

in so far by m uch th e be st a s its system was co nfined to
,

th e h aving no sys te m a t all a nd sneeri ng a t all sys te m s a nd

a ll sys te m a tizers I n bo th fields w ar wa s w aged a ga in s t

.

the S to a wi th ze a l a nd success ; for seriou s m e n th e ,

E pi cure an L ucre tius pre a ched wi th the full a ccen ts of

he artfel t convic tion and o f holy zeal aga inst the S to ica l
fa i th in the gods and providence and the S toical doc tri ne
of th e i mmortali ty of the soul ; for the great public rea dy
to la ugh the Cynic Va rro hit the mark still more sharply
,
 R EL I G I ON , CU l T R E , U B OO Kv
a nd ha d b e e n t a nsfe red by Zarathus tra to the s econd—the
r r

sun g o d Mi thr a
-
.

B ut th e brigh ter a nd ge ntler celesti al for m s of th e

P ersi a n religio n did no t s o r pidly g a in a fo o ti ng in R o m e
a

a s th e we a ris o m e m y s tic a l h o s t o f the gro te s que divi ni tie s

of Egypt— I sis the m o ther of n a ture wi th her wh o le tram ,

th e c o ns ta ntly dyi ng a nd co ns ta ntly reviving Osiris th e ,

gl o omy S arapis the ta ci tur n and grave H a rpo cra tes the
, ,

do g he a ded A nubis
-
I n th e ye ar whe n Clo dius e m a nci
.

p a ted the club s a nd conventicles an d doub tles s in

conse quence of thi s very e ma ncipation of the p o pula ce ,

th a t hos t ev e n prep a red to m ake its e ntry in to th e old

s tro nghold of the R o ma n j upi ter in th e C a pi to l a nd it w a s ,

wi th di fficul ty th at th e i nv asi o n wa s preven ted a nd th e

inevi table te mples were b anished at le a s t to th e suburbs of
R ome . N o w o r hip w a s equ a lly p o pul a r a m ong th e l o wer
s

o rders o f th e popul a tion in th e c a pi ta l when th e sen a te :

ordered the tem ples of I sis c o nstructe d wi thi n the ri ng wa ll -

to be pulled d o w n no l a bou er ve n tu e d to lay th e firs t

,
r r

h a nd o n the m a nd th e consul Luciu s P a ullu s was hi mself

,

o bliged to a pply th e firs t s troke of th e a e ( 7 0 4 ) a w ag e r x

m igh t be l a id th a t th e m ore l o o se a ny wo m an w a s th e
, ,

m o re pi o u sly she worshipped I si s T h a t th e c as ti ng o f .

lots the in te pre tation of d ea m s a nd si m ila r libera l a r ts

,
r r ,

supp o r ted their pr o fe s s o rs wa s a ma tte r w f cours e T he

,
‘

c a s ti ng of horoscopes was alre a dy a scien tific pur s ui t ;

L ucius T arutius o f Fir m u m a respec ta ble a nd in his o w n
,

w a y le a r n ed m a n a friend o f V a rr o and Cicero wi th a ll

, ,

gr a vi ty c a st th e nativi ty of ki ngs R o mulus a nd N u m a a nd

of th e ci ty of R om e i ts e lf a nd fo r th e e dificatio n o f th e
,

credul o us o n ei ther side c o nfi m ed by m ea ns o f his r

Cha lda e a n a nd Egy p ti a n wisdo m the a cco u nts o f th e R o m a n

a nn als .

B ut by fa r th e m os t re m a k able phe no m eno n in this r

d o ma i n was the firs t atte mp t to mingle crude fai th wi th

CR A P . xxx LI T ER A T URE , AN D A R T

specul ative though t th e firs t a ppea ra nce of those tendencies

, ,

which we are a ccusto m ed to describe a s N e o P l a tonic in -

,

th e R o ma n world T heir o ldes t a pos tle there was P ublius Nigidiu

. s
F g fl
N ig idius F ig ulus a R o m a n of ra nk belonging to the s tric tes t
‘ ‘ us '
,

sec ti o n o f the aris tocra cy who filled the prae torship in 6 9 6 58

,
.

a nd died in 7 0 9 a s a poli tic a l exile beyond th e bounds of 45 .

I taly . Wi th a stonishing c o piousness of le a rning a nd still

m o re a s tonishing s tre ngth of fa i th he cre ated out of the
m os t dissi m ila r ele m en ts a ph ilo s o p hico religious s truc ture
-

the si ngul a r o u tli n e of which he prob a bly developed s till

m ore in his ora l disc o urses th a n in his theologica l a nd
physic a l wri tings I n philosophy seeking deliverance from
.
,

th e skele tons of th e curren t sys tems a nd a bs tra ctions he ,

recurred to the neglec ted fou nta in of th e pre S ocratic -

philosophy to whose a ncien t s ages though t ha d s till pre

,

sen ted i tself wi th sensuous vividness Th e resea rches of .

physic al s cie nce which sui ta bly tre ated afford even now
fl

, ,

so excellen t a h andle for mys tic delusion a nd pious sleight

of h and and in a n tiqui ty wi th its m ore defective insigh t
,

i nto physica l la ws le nt the mselves s till more e a sily to such

obj ec ts— pl a yed in this ca se a s m ay re a dily be conceived
, ,

a considera ble p a r t H is theology was b a sed essen ti a lly

.

o n th at str a nge m edley in which Greeks of a kindred

,

spiri t h ad in termingled Orphic a nd other very old or very

n e w indige nous wisdo m wi th P ersi a n Ch a lda ea n and, ,

E gyp ti a n secre t doctrines a nd wi th which F ig ulus incor

,

p o ra te d t h e qu a si resul t s of
-
th e T usc a n inves tigation in to
nothingness a nd o f the indigenous lore touching the fl igh t
of birds so as to produce further h a rm onious co nfusion
, .

T he whole sys te m ob ta ined its co nsecr ation — poli tic al ,

religious and na tion al — fro m the n ame of Py thagora s th e

, ,

ul tra conserva tive s ta tes m a n whose supreme principle w a s

-

to pro m ote order a nd to check disor d er the mira cle

“ ”
,

worker and necrom ancer the pri m eva l sa ge who wa s a

,

na t ive of I ta ly w ho wa s in terwoven even wi th the legen d ary

,
44 8 R EL I G I ON , CU LT URE , B OO Kv
his tory of R om e a nd whose s tatue w as to be seen in th e
,

R om a n Fo ru m A s bir th a nd de a th are kindred wi th e a c h

.

o ther s o — it see m ed—P y th a gora s w a s to s ta nd no t m erely

,

by th e cra dle of the republic as f ie nd of the wise N u ma r

a nd colle a gue of th e s aga cious m o ther Ege i a b ut a lso by r ,

its gra ve as th e l a st pro tector o f th e s a cred bird l o re B ut -

.

th e new sys te m w as not m erely ma rvell o us it a lso w o ked ,

r

marvels ; N ig idius a n nou nced to th e f ther of th e s ubs e a

quent e mperor A ugus tus on the very d y when the l atter

,
a

w a s born the fu ture gre a tness of his s o n

, nay th e prophets

conj ured up spiri ts fo r the credul o us a nd wh a t w a s of , ,

more momen t they poin ted o ut to the m the pla ces where
,

their los t m oney la y T he new a nd old wis d om such as it

.
- -

w as ma de a profound i mpressi o n on its con te mpor a ies ;

,
r

men of th e highest rank of th e gre a tes t le arning of th e

, ,

most solid abili ty belonging to very di ffer e n t p a rties— th e

,

consul of 7 0 5 Appius Cl audius the le arned M a rcus Va rro

, , ,

the bra ve o fficer P ublius V a tinius to o k pa r t in the ci ta ti o n

‘

of spiri ts and it even appears th at a p o lice in terferenc e

,

w a s necess a ry aga ins t th e proceedings o f these socie ties .

T hese l a s t at te m p ts to s a ve th e R o ma n theol o g y like the ,

kindred e fi orts of C ato in th e field of p o li tics produce at

'

once a comical and a mela nch o ly impressi o n ; we may

smile at the creed a nd its prop agato rs b ut s till it is a gra ve ,

m atter when even a ble men begin to a ddict the m selves to

a bsurdi ty .

Th e tr a ining of you th followed as may n atura lly be ,

supp o sed the course of bilingu al hu ma ne cul ture ch alked

,

o ut in th e previ o us ep o ch a nd th e ge ne a l cul ture a lso o f

,
r

the R o man world c o nform ed more a nd m ore to th e fo rm s

esta blished fo r th at purpose by the Greek s Even the .

bodily exerci s es a dv a nced from b a ll pl a ying run ni ng and -

, ,

fenci ng to the m o re ar tis tic ally devel o ped Greek gy mnastic

-

con tes ts ; th o ugh there were no t ye t a ny public ins ti tu tions

fo r g y m n a stics in th e princip al cou ntry h o uses the p a la est a
,
-
r
 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO K v

In com p a ris o n wi th th e pre ious epoch th e Greek as v

well as th e L ati n tr a ining i mproved in exte nt and in

schol astic s trictness qui te a s m uch a s it declined in puri ty
a nd in refi ne m en t Th e i ncre as i ng e ager ne s s a fter Greek
.

lore g a ve to i ns truc tion o f i tself a n erudi te ch ara cter T o .

expl a in H o mer or Euripides wa a fter all no art ; te achers s

a nd s ch o l a rs found thei a cc o u nt be tter in h a ndli ng th e

r

A lex a ndri a n poe m s which besides were in their spiri t fa r

, , ,

m ore co ngeni a l to the R o m a n world of th at da y th a n th e

ge nuine Greek n ation a l p o e try and which if th e y were no t , ,

qui te so ve ner able a s the I lia d possessed at any rate an ,

ag e su fficie ntly respec table to p a ss a s cl a ssic s wi th scho o l

m a s ters . Th e love p o e m s of E uphorio n th e

-
C a uses o f ,
“ ”

C alli m a chus and his I bis the comic ally o b scure Alex
“
,
” “

a nd a of Lyc o phro n con tai ned in rich abu nd ance ra re

”
r

v o c a bles (g imm ) sui ta ble fo r bei ng ext a c ted and i nterpre ted
e r ,

sen te nces l a boriously i nvo lved and di fficul t of a na lysis ,

prolix dig essi o ns full of m ystic c o m bi nati o ns of antiqu ated

r

m y ths a nd ge ner ally a s to re of cu m berso m e e udi ti o n o f

,
r

all sor ts I n s truc tio n needed exercises m o re a nd m ore

.

di ffi cul t ; the s e productio ns in gre at p art m odel e ff orts of

,

school ma ster s were excellen tly a d a p ted to be lessons fo r

,

m odel sch o l a rs T hus th e A lexa ndri a n poe m s to o k a

.

perma ne nt pl ace in I ta li an sch o l astic inst uc ti o n especi ally r ,

as tri a l —the m es and cer ta i nly pr o mo ted knowledge al though

, ,

at th e expen s e of ta s te a nd o f di s cre tion T he s am e un .

,

heal thy a ppe tite fo r cul ture m o re o ver i mpelled th e R o m a n

yo uths to derive their H elleni sm a s m uch a s p o ssible from
th e foun ta i n he a d -
T he cour s es of th e Greek m a s ters in
.

R o m e su fficed o nly fo r a fir st s ta r t eve y one who wished r

to be a ble to co nverse he a rd lec ture s o n Greek phil o so phy

a t Athe ns a nd o n Greek
,
h e toric a t R hodes a nd ma d e a
r ,

li terary and a r tis tic to ur thro ugh A si a Mi nor where mo st ,

of th e o ld a t t e a su es o f th e H ellene s we e s till to be
r -
r r r

fou n d on th e s p o t a nd th e cul tiva ti o n o f th e fine a r ts ha d

,
ca n . x xx L I TER A T URE , AN D A R T

bee n con tinued al th o ugh a fter a m ech anical fa shion ; wherea s

,

A lex a n dri a m ore dis ta nt a nd more celebr a ted a s th e sea t

,

of the exa ct sciences w as far m ore rarely th e poi nt whi ther

,

young me n desirous of cul ture di ec ted their travels r .

Th e a d v a nce in La tin ins truc ti o n w a s si m ila r to th at of

sw a m
Greek T his in p ar t resul ted from th e m e e re fl ex influ
. r

e nce of th e Greek from which it in fa ct essen ti ally borrowed

,

its m e thods a nd its s ti m ul a n ts Moreover the rel ations of

.
,

politics the i mpulse to m oun t the orators pl atform in the

,
.
’

Foru m which was i mp a rted by the de m ocra tic d o ings

to an ever widening circle co ntribu ted no t a li ttle to
-
,

the di ffusion a nd enh a n cement of o r atoric a l exercises ;

“
wherever one c a s ts his eyes s a ys Cicero every pla ce is
,
”
,
“

full of rhe toricia ns B esides the wri tings of the sixth

.
”
,

cen tury th e far ther they receded i nto the p a s t bega n to be

, ,

m o re decidedly rega rded as cl a ssic al texts of the golden

a g e of L atin li tera ture a nd thereby g a ve a gre a ter pre
,

p o nderance to th e i ns truc ti o n wh ich wa s esse nti ally co nce n

tra te d upo n the m L a s tly th e i mm igr atio n a n d spre a di ng
.

of b arb a ri a n ele me nts fro m m a ny qu a rters and the incipien t

L a tinizing of ex te n sive Celtic an d S pa nish dis tric ts ,

n aturally ga ve to La ti n gramma r a nd Latin instruction a

higher i mport ance th a n they could h a ve had so long as ,

La tiu m only spoke L atin ; th e te acher of Latin li tera ture

ha d from th e ou tse t a di ff e e n t posi tion in Comu m a nd
r

N a rbo th a n he h ad in P ra enes te a nd A rde a T a ke n a s a .

whole cul ture w a s m ore on the wane th a n o n the a dva nce

, .

T he ruin o f th e I ta li a n co un try to wns th e ex tensive ,

i ntrusion of foreign ele m en ts the poli tic al e c o no mic a nd

, , ,

m or a l de terior ation of th e nation a bove a ll th e dis tra c ting

, ,

civil wars in fl icted m o re injury on th e l angu age th an all

th e school m a s ters of th e world could rep a ir T he closer .

c on ta c t wi th th e H ellenic cul ture of th e p e s e nt th e m ore r ,

deci d ed i n flue nce of th e talk ative A the ni a n wisd o m a nd of

the rh e toric of R hodes a nd A si a Mi no r supplied to the ,
4 53 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
R o ma n you th j us t th e very ele men ts th at were most per ~

nicio us in H elle nis m T h e pr o p aga n dis t m ission which

.

L a tiu m under to o k a m o ng th e Cel ts I beri a ns a nd L iby ans

—proud as th e ta sk w as —
, ,

could no t b ut have the like con

sequences for the Lati n l a ngu age a s th e H ellenizi ng of th e
e a s t h a d ha d for th e H ellenic T he fact th a t the R oma n .

public of this pe iod a ppla uded the well a rra nged and
r

rhy th mically b al a nced periods of th e ora t o r a nd a ny o ffence ,

in l angua ge or m e tre cos t the a c tor de ar doub tless shows ,

tha t the insigh t i nto th e m other to ngue which wa s the

re fl ec tion of sch o l a s tic tra i ni ng w as bec o m i ng th e co m m on

possession of a n ever wide ni ng circle B ut at the sam e

-
.

ti m e con te m po a ries c a p a ble o f judging co m pl a in th at th e

r

H elle nic cul tu e in I ta ly a bou t 6 9 w a s at a far lower level

r 0

th a n it h a d bee n a genera tion befo e th at oppor tuni ties o f r

heari ng pure a nd g o od Lati n were but ra re a nd these ,

chiefly fro m the m ou th of elderly cul tivated l a dies ; th at

th e tra di ti o n o f genui ne cul ture t h e good o ld L atin m other ,

w it th e Lucilia n polish th e cul tiva ted circle o f re a ders o f

, ,

the S cip io nic a g e were gra du a lly di sa ppe a i ng T he r .

circu m s tance that th e ter m u ba m ta s a nd the ide a of a r

’

polished nation al cultu e which it exp ressed aro se du i ng

r ,
r

this period pr o ve s no t th a t it w a s prev a l e n t b ut th at it

, , ,

w a s o n th e w a ne a nd th at pe o ple were keenly a live to th e

,

a bse nce of thi s u é m z s in th e l ngu a g e a nd th e h abi ts o f

'
‘
r a a a

th e L a ti nized b a rb a ri a n s or b a ba rized La tins Where wer .

s till m ee t wi th th e u b a ne to ne o f c o nvers a tio n a s in Varro s

r ,
’

S atires a nd Cicero s L e tte s it is a n ech o of the o ld fa shi o n

’
r ,

which wa s no t ye t so ob s o le te in R ea te a nd A rpinum a s in
R o me .

T hus th e previ o us cul ture of you th re ma ined s ub sta n

t ially u nch a ng e d excep t th a t — no t so m uch fro m its o w n
,

deteri o a ti o n a s fro m the gener al decli ne o f th e na ti o n— it

r

w a s produc tive of les s g o o d a nd m ore evil th a n in th e

p receding epoch C. a e sa r i ni ti a ted a revolu tion a lso in th is

454 R ELI G I ON , CU LT URE , cv
B oo x

recogni tion for the l a ngu age of life wi thout dis tinction , ,

whe ther th e word or th e phra se originated in Attic a or in

C a ri a a nd Phrygia ; they them selves spoke a nd wrote no t
for the tas te of le a r ned cliques but fo r th at of the gre at ,

public T here could not be much o bjection to the

.

principle ; only it is t ue the resul t c o uld not be be tter

,
r ,

th a n wa s th e public o f A si a Mi no r of th a t day which h a d ,

to ta lly lost th e t a s te fo r ch a s teness a nd puri ty of produc tion ,

a nd longe d only a fter th e showy a n d brilli a n t T o say .

n o thing of the spuri o us forms of ar t th at spra ng out of this

tendency—especi ally th e r o ma nce a nd th e his tory a ssu m ing
the form of ro ma nce— th e very s tyle of these A si atics w as as ,

ma y re a dily be conceived abrup t a nd wi thou t modul atio n

,

a nd finish minced a nd e ffe m in ate full o f tinsel a nd

, ,

bom ba s t thoro ughly vulga r and a ffected ; any one who

,
“

kn o ws H eg e sias s a ys Cicero kn o ws wh at silliness is

,
”
,
“
.
”

Y e t this new s tyle fo und its w ay also in to th e Latin

world . When the H ellenic fa shi o nable rhetoric after ,

ha vi ng at th e cl o se of the previous epoch obtruded into the

La ti n ins truc tion of you th ( iv took at the beginning
.

of th e prese nt period th e fin al s te p and m ounted th e

R o ma n ora to rs pl atform in the person of Quin tus
’

H o r te nsius ( 6 4 0 th e mos t celebr a ted ple a d er of th e

S ull a n ag e it a dhered closely even in th e La tin idio m to

,

th e ba d Greek ta s te of th e ti m e ; a nd th e R o ma n public ,

no l o nger h avi ng the pure a nd ch a ste cul ture of the

S cip io nic ag e na turally a ppl a uded wi th ze a l the innovator
,

wh o knew how to give to vulga ris m the se mbl a nce of an

a r tis tic perfor m a n ce T his w a s of gre a t i m porta nce
. As .

in Greece the b a ttles of l a ngu a ge were a lwa ys waged a t

firs t in the sch o o ls of th e rhe torici a ns so in R om e th e ,

forensic orati o n to a cer ta in exte nt even m ore th a n

li terature se t th e s ta nd a rd of s tyle a nd a cc o rdi ngly there ,

wa s co mbined a s it were of right wi th the le a dership of

, ,

the bar the prerogative of giving the tone to the fa shion

C R A P. x xx LI TE R ATU R E, AN D A R T

a ble m ode
of spe aking and writing The A si atic vulga ris m
.

o f H or tensius thus di s lodged cl a ssicis m fr o m the R o m a n

pl a tform and p artly also from li terature B ut the fa shio n R ti n . e ac o .

s o on ch anged once m ore in Greece a nd in R ome I n th e .

for m er it w a s the R hodi a n school of rhe to ici an s whic h Th r , , e

wi thout rever ting to all the ch a s te severi ty of the A ttic s tyle h l R h di n

,
o

sc oo
a
.

atte m p ted to s trike o ut a m iddle c o urse be tween it a nd th e

modern fa shion : if th e R h o di a n m as ter s were no t to o p ar

ticular a s to th e i ntern a l correc tness of their thi nking a nd
s pe aki ng t hey a t lea s t i nsis ted o n purity o f l a ngu a ge a nd
,

style on the careful selection of words a nd phr ases and the

, ,

giving thor o ugh effec t to th e m odul ation of se nte nces .

I n I t aly it wa s M arcus T ullius Cicero ( 6 4 8 — 7 I I ) who Ci , cero

i im
a fter h a ving in his e arly you th gone a l o ng wi th the 1 06 43 n an s .

-
.

H o r tensi a n m a nner w a s brough t by he a ri ng the R hodi a n

,

m a s ters a nd by his own m ore m a tured ta ste to be tter p aths ,

and thencefor th a ddicted hi m self to s tric t purity of

l a ngu age a nd the th o ough periodic a rra ngemen t and
r

m odul ation of his discour s e T he m odels of l a ngu age

.
,

which in this respect he followed he found especi ally in ,

those circles of th e higher R o m a n socie ty which h a d su ffered

but li ttle or no t at all fro m vulga is m ; and a s w as alre a dy

r ,

s aid there were s till such a l though they were beginni ng

, ,

to dis appe ar T he e arlier Lati n a nd th e good Greek

.

li ter ature however considera ble w as th e in fl ue nce of th e

,

l atter more especi a lly o n th e rhy th m o f his oratory were in ,

this m a t ter only of second a ry m o m en t : thi s purifying of

th e l a ngu age was by no m e a ns a re a c tion of th e l a ngu age

of bo o ks a ga ins t th a t of con ers a tio n but a ea ctio n of th e
v , r

l angu age of th e re ally cul tiv a ted aga i nst the j a rgon of
spurious and p a r ti al cul ture C a es a in the dep a rtm en t o f
. r,

l a ngu a ge also th e g eatest m a s ter of his ti m e expressed th e

r
,

fu nd a m en ta l ide a o f R o m a n cl a s sicis m when he e njoi ned ,

th a t in speech a nd wri ting every foreign word should be

a voided as rocks a re avoided by th e m a riner

,
th e poe tica l
4 56 R EL I G I ON , CU LT U R E, noo x v
a nd the o bsolete word of th e older li terature was rejected
as well a s th e rus tic phr a se or th a t borr o w e d fro m th e

l a ngu age of co mm o n life and m ore especi ally the Greek

,

wo rds a nd phra ses which a s th e le tters of this perio d show

, ,

ha d to a very gre a t ex ten t fo u n d their wa y in to convers a

tio nal l a ngu ge N ever theless this schol a s tic a nd a rtifici al
a .

cl a ssicis m of the Ciceroni a n perio d s too d to the S cip io nic

as repen ta nce to inn o ce nce or th e Fre nch of th e cl a ssicis ts
,

under Na poleon to th e m odel French of Moliere a nd

B oile au while th e for m er cl a ssicis m ha d sprung o ut of the
full freshn e ss o f life th e latter as it were caught j us t in
,

right ti me th e l a s t breath o f a r a ce perishing beyond

recovery S uch as it was it ra pidly difl use d i tsel f Wi th
.
,
’

the le a dership of the b a r the dic ta to rship of l a ng u age a nd

ta s te p a ssed fro m H o tensius to Cice o a nd the va ried a nd

r r ,

copious a u thorship of the l atter g a ve to this cl a ssicism

wh a t it had hi therto l a cked — extensive prose tex ts T hus .

Cicero bec a m e the cre a tor of th e m odern cla ssic a l Latin

prose and R o ma n cla ssicis m a ttached i tself throughou t and
,

a l toge ther to Cicero as a s tylis t it w as to th e s tylis t Cicero ,

no t to th e a u thor s till less to th e s ta tes man th at the

, ,

p anegyrics—extra vagant yet not ma de up wholly of verbi age

—a pplied wi th which the m os t gifted represen tatives of
,

classicis m such a s C a es ar and Ca tullu s lo a ded him

, , .

T hey soon wen t far ther What Cicero did in prose .

,

w a s c a rried o ut in poe try t owa rds th e en d of th e epoch by

th e ne w R o ma n scho o l of poe ts which m odelled i tse lf on ,

th e Greek fa shion a ble poe try a nd in which th e man of ,

m os t considera ble talen t w a s C a tullus H ere to o th e .

higher l a ngu age of convers ation dislodged the a rch aic

re miniscences which hi ther to to a l a rge ex tent prevailed in
this do ma in a nd a s L a ti n pr o se sub m i tted to the A ttic
,

rhythm so Latin poe try sub m i tted g a du lly to the s tric t

,
r a

or rather p ainful m e t ic al l a ws o f th e A lexa ndri nes ng

r e .

fro m the ti m e of C a tullus it is no longer allowa ble a t once

,
 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B oo x v
genera tion expresses i tself wi th n atura l keenness of feeling
respecti ng the revolu ti o n which had a ffected the field o f
la ng u age a s re orselessly as t e field of poli tics
m h 1
B ut
while the new cla ssicis m —th at is to say the s tandard
.

L a tin governed by rule a nd a s far a s possible pl a ced on a

p a ri ty wi th th e s ta ndard Greek — which arose out of a
conscious rea c tion a gainst the vulg aris m in truding in to
higher socie ty and even into li terature a cquired li terary ,

fi xity a nd sys te ma tic sh a pe the l a t ter by no m e a ns e va cu

,

a te d the field N o t o nly do we find it n aively e mployed

.

in the works of seco ndary person ages who h a ve drifted into

the ra nks of a uthors m erely by a cciden t as in the a ccount ,

o f C a es a r s sec o nd S p a nish war b ut we sh a ll m ee t it a lso

’
,

wi th a n i mp ess m o re or less dis ti nc t in li terature pr o per

r
,

in th e m i m e in th e se m i ro m a nce in the a esthe tic wri tings

,
-

o f Va rro ; a nd it is a signific a n t circu m s ta nce th a t it ,

ma int a ins i tself precisely in th e m os t n a tion a l dep a r tm en ts

of li tera ture and that truly co nserv ative m e n like Va rro
, , ,

take it in to protec tion Cl a ssicism was b a sed on the de ath

.

of the I talia n l a ngu age a s mon archy on the decline of the

I tali a n n a tion ; it w a s co mple tely consis ten t th at the men ,

in whom th e epublic was s till living should con tinue to

r ,

give to the living l a ngu a ge its righ ts and for the sake of ,

its co mp a ra tive vi tali ty a nd n a tio nali ty should tolera te its

a e s the tic defec ts T hus the n th e lingui s tic opinions a nd
.

tende ncies of this epoch a re everywhere divergen t ; by the

side of th e old fa shioned poe try o f L ucre tius a ppe ars the
-

thoro ughly m odern p o e try of C a tullus by the side of ,

Cicer o s well m o dul a ted period s ta nd s the sen tence of

’
-

Va rro i nte ntio nally disda ini ng all subdivisi o n I n this .

field likewise is mirr o red th e dis tra c ti o n o f the ag e .

I n th e li terature of this peri o d we a re fir s t of a ll struck

by the ou twa rd i ncre a se a s com p ared wi th the for mer ,

'
1 Th us V arro (D e R R i 2 ) . . . s ays : ab a editz mo , a t dicer e didm
' ' '

: nostr is ; a t com g zm ur
‘

t ib a b r ece n tzbu s u r ba n is , a b a cdztuo.

a pa r u
C H A P . x xx LI TE R AT UR E , AN D A R T 4 59

ep o ch of li tera y e ffo rt in R o m e I t was l o ng si nce th e G k

,
r . r ee

li te a ry a c tivi ty of the Greeks flou i shed no m ore in th e g at

r r
e

free atmo sphere of ci ic i ndepende nce b ut o nly in th e v ,

scie ntific i ns ti tu ti o ns o f th e l a rger ci ties a nd e speci ally of

th e cour ts L e ft to depe n d o n the fa v o ur a nd pr o tec ti o n
.

of th e grea t and disl o dged fro m the fo r m er s ea ts of the

,

Mu s es by the extinc tio n of th e dyna s ties of P erga m us

1

( 6 I
2
) Cyrene,
B i thy ni a a nd S yri a
( )
6 9 0 a n d 1 33 9 6 . .

by the wa ning sple nd o ur of the court o f th e Lag ids m o re — 75 04 ° ‘

o er since the dea th o f Alexa nder th e Gre at neces sa rily

v , ,

c o s mo p o li ta n a nd at le a s t qui te a s much s tr angers am o ng

th e Egyp ti a ns a nd S y i a ns as a mong th e L a tins — th e
r

H ellenic li tera ti bega n m o re a nd m ore to tu rn their eyes

towa rds R o m e Am o ng th e host o f Greek a ttend a nts wi th
.

which the R o ma n of qu ali ty at this ti m e surrounded him

s e lf th e philos o pher th e p o et and th e m e m o ir wri ter
, , ,
-

p la yed c o nspicu o us p a ts by th e side of th e cook th e boy r ,

fa o u i te a nd th e je ste
v r ,
We m ee t alre ady li tera ti of note
r .

in s uch posi tions ; th e E picure a n P hilo de mus for ins ta nce , ,

w a s i ns ta lled a s do m es tic philosopher wi th L uciu s P is o

consul in 6 9 6 and occ a si o n ally e difie d th e ini ti ated wi th 58
,
.

his clever epigr a ms on th e coa rse gra ined Epicureanis m of -

l Th e d e d ica tio n o f th e p o e tical d e s crip tio n o f th e e ar th w h ich p as ses

unde r th e na m e o f S cymnus is re m a r a b e in re fe r e nce to th o se r e a tio ns k l l .

l
Af ter th e poe t h as de c are d h is p ur p o s e o f p r e p aring I n th e fa vo urxte
k
M e na ndr ia n m e as ure a s e tch o f ge o gr a p hy int e l igib e fo r sch o lars a nd l l
easy to b e l
e a rne d b y h e ar t h e d e d ica tes as A p o o do rus de dica te d h is
,
- ll
sim ila r his to rical co mp e ndium to A tta us Ph ila d e ph us king of Perg amus l l
dfldy a r ov dr ovép ovr a. 6 65W
‘
r fi s r
'
p yp a r e a s
a l é xr ty pa cpi w e lkn¢> 6n
h is m anual t o N ico m e de s I I I . king ( 6 6 3 P—
679) of Bithy nia :

é y tb
’
6 dxofiwv , 8t 61 3 t r t v 7 17V
' ‘
aa th é wv
fi
’

fia n
c l ux v
'
a r é
h xp n r nr a
' '
. xr po a ¢é pe ts,
é xre fl é p m
’ ’
r e fpa v a wir es é xr é /t a vr o ii
‘

m l w a pa y evé a fla t xa l r t fia o txe tis é cr r 1 66 73.

’ '
'

7 131 r po flé 0 e t a fip fio vkov é feke gd/u j v

'

’ '
7 6V A1 r 6X ) \wv a T o!) At dv/mj
6 6 9 d b dk w r a m l wex r e w pé vos
'
0 ; ax e v u
r pbs mx v K ur d Nr ov firm ( K ow ij v
y ap a xe dd
‘ ‘
y ’
kop a floflcr w dva aé detxa s) é a r fa v
‘
ve ts du .
460 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
his p atron F om all sides the most not able represe nta
. r

tive s of Greek ar t a nd scie n ce m igr ated in d a ily incre a s i ng -

nu mbers to R o m e where li ter a ry g ains were now m ore

,

a bunda n t th a n a nywhere else Among those thus m e n

.

tio ne d a s se ttled in R o m e we fi nd th e physici a n A sclepi a des

who m ki ng M ithra date s v a inly endea voured to dra w away

from it in to his service ; the univers alis t in le a rni ng ,

A lexa nder of Mile tus term ed P olyhis tor ; th e poe t Par

,

the nius fro m N ic a e a in B i thyni a P osido nius of A p am ea

in S yri a equ ally celebrated as a traveller te acher a nd , ,

a u thor who a t a gre at ag e m igr ated in 7 0 3 fro m R hodes

,

to R o m e ; and va rious o thers A house like th a t of

.

L ucius L ucullus w as a se at of H ellenic cul ture a nd a

re ndezvous for H elle nic li terati al mos t like the Alexandri a n
Museu m ; R o ma n resources a nd H ellenic con no isseurship
ha d g a thered in these h a lls of we al th a nd scie nce a n in
co mp ara ble c o llection Of s tatues and pa in tings of ea rlier
a nd conte m por a ry m a s ters a s well a s a libra ry as c a refully
,

selected a s it was magnifice ntly fitted up a nd every person ,

Of cul ture a nd especi a lly every Greek was welco m e there

the m a ste f of th e house hi mself was often seen w alking up

a nd down the be a u tiful c o lo nn ade in philol o gic a l or philo

S ophic a l c o nvers a tion wi th one of his le a rned g ues ts No .

doub t these Greeks brough t a lo ng wi th their rich trea sures

of cul ture their prep o s terousness and servility to I taly ;
one of these lea rned wa nderers for ins tance th e a u thor of ,

A rt o f Fl a ttery A ri stode m us of N ys a (a bou t 7 0 0 )

“ ”
th e ,

recommended hi m self to his m a s ters by de m ons tr ati ng th at

H o mer w as a n ative of R o m e
I n th e s am e me a sure a s th e pursuits of th e Greek li terati
pr o spered in R om e li terary a c tivi ty and literary i nteres t in
,

cre ased a mong the R o m a ns the m selves Even Greek co m .

posi tion which th e s tricter tas te o f the S cipio nic ag e ha d

,

tota lly se t a side no w revived The Greek l angu age was

, .

now universally current a nd a Greek tre atis e found a quite

,
 R ELI G I ON , CU LT U R E, BOO Kv
tially perfected and public ation was e ff ec ted wi th co m
,

p a ra tive r a pidi ty a nd che a p ness ; bookselli ng bec a m e a

re spec ta ble a nd lucrative tra de and th e bookseller s shop ,

’

a usu a l m ee ti ng pl a ce of men of cul ture

-
R e a ding ha d .

become a fa shion nay a m a nia ; at table where co arser

, ,

a s ti mes h ad not a lre a dy in truded re a di ng w a s regul a rly

p ,

introduce d and any one who m edi tated a j o urney seldom

,

forgot to p a ck up a tra velling libra ry T h e superior o flice r .

w as seen in the c amp ten t wi th th e obscene Greek ro ma nce

-

th e s tate s ma n in the sen ate wi th th e philos o phic al trea tise ,

in his h a nds M atters a ccordingly s tood in th e R oma n

.

s tate as they h a ve s tood a nd will s ta nd in every state

where the ci tize ns rea d fro m the threshold to th e closet .
”

T he Pa r thi a n izier was no t fa r wrong when he poin ted

v ,

o ut to th e ci tizens of S eleuci a the ro m a nces fou n d in th e

c a mp of Cra ssus a nd a sked the m whe ther they s till

regar de d the re a ders of such books as formid a ble op
p o ne nts .

T he li terary te ndency of this ag e was va ried and could

no t be o therwise fo r th e a g e i tself w a s divided be tween th e
,

o ld and th e new m odes T he s a m e tendencies which c a m e

.

i nto conflic t o n the field of politics the n atio na l I tali a n ,

‘

tendency of the c o nserva tives th e H e lle no I t ali a n o , if -

r,

th e term be preferred cos m opoli ta n te n dency o f the ne w

,

m on archy fough t their b a ttles a lso o n the field of li tera

,

ture . T he for mer a tta ched i tself to the o lder La tin

li terature which in the theatre in th e school a nd in
, , ,

erudi te rese a rch a s sumed more a nd m ore th e cha rac ter

of cla ssic a l Wi th less tas te a nd s tro nger p a ty te nde ncies
. r

th a n th e S cip io nic epoch s howed En nius P a cuvius a nd , , ,

e specially Pl a u tus were now exal ted to th e skies The .

le aves of the S ibyl rose in price th e fewer they beca m e ; ,

th e rel atively gre ater n a tion ali ty a nd rel a tively gre a ter pro

ductiv e ne ss of th e poe ts of th e six th cen tury were never

more vividly fel t th an in thi s epoch of thoroughly developed
CR A P. x xx L I T E R A T U R E, A N D AR T

Epig o nis m, which in li terature as decidedly as in poli tics

lo o ke d up to the cen tury of th e H a n nib alic warriors as
to th e golde n ag e th a t h a d now unh a ppily pa ssed a w a y

bey o nd rec all No doubt there w as in this a d miration

.

of the old cl a s sic s no s m all por tion of th e s am e hollowness

a nd hypocrisy which ar e ch a r a c teris tic of the conservatis m

o f this a e in gener a l a nd here too t here w as no w a n t of

g
tri m m ers . Cicero for insta nce a l though in prose one of
,

th e chief represen ta tives of th e m ode n tendency revered r ,

nevertheless th e older n ati o n a l p o etry nea rly wi th the s a m e

a n tiqu a ri a n respec t which he p a id to th e a ris tocr a tic cons ti

tutio n a nd the a ugura l discipli ne ; patrio tism re quires

“ ”
,

we find him s a yi ng that we should ra ther re a d a notori

,
“

o usly wre tched tra nsl ati o n of S o phocles th a n the origin a l

”
.

While thus th e m odern li tera ry tendency cogn a te to the

de m ocratic mon archy nu m bered secre t a dheren ts enough
e ven a m ong th e or thodox a d m ire s of Ennius there were
r ,

no t wanting alre a dy bolder judges who tre a ted th e n ative

.
,

li tera tu e a s disrespec tfully a s the sen atori a l poli tics N o t

r .

o nly did they resu me th e stric t cri ticis m of the S cipio nic
ep o ch and se t s to e by T ere nce o nly in order to conde m n
r

E nnius a nd s till m ore th e E nnia nis ts but th e y o unger a nd

,

bolder m e n wen t m uch far ther a nd ven tured a lre a dy

though o nly a s ye t in here tic al revol t a g a i ns t li ter a ry
orthodoxy — to ca ll P l a u tus a rude jes ter a nd Lucilius
a b ad verse s m i th
-
. T his m odern tendency a tta ched i tself
no t to th e n ati e a u thorship
v but ra ther to the more
,

recent Greek li terature or the so ca lled Ale xa ndrinism

-
.

We c a nn o t av o id s aying a t lea s t so m uch respec ti ng this Th Greek e

N w ”
rem a rka ble wi nter ga rde n of H elle nic l a ngu age a nd art a s is
-

,
e

requisi te for th e u nde s ta ndi ng of the R o ma n li terature o f

r

this a nd th e l ater epochs Th e A lex a ndri a n li ter a ture w a s

.

b a sed o n th e decli ne o f th e pure H elle nic idio m which from

,

th e ti m e of A lex a nder the Gre at was superseded in d a ily li fe

b y a n inferior j a rgon d erivi ng its origi n fro m th e con ta ct of
46 4 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
the M a cedo nia n dialec t wi th va rious Greek a nd b arb ari a n
tribes ,
or to spea k m o e a ccurately th e Alexandri a n lite a
r ,
r

ture spr an g o ut of the ruin of th e H elle n ic n a ti o n ge ner a lly ,

which had to perish and did perish in its nation al indi

, ,

vidua lity in order to es ta bli s h th e univers a l m on a rchy of

Alex a nder an d th e e m pire of H elle nism H a d A lexa nder s

’
.

univers al em pire co nti nued to subsis t the for m er na tio nal ,

and popul a r li tera ture would h a ve been succeeded by a co s

mo p o lita n li tera ture H elle nic m erely in na m e esse nti a lly ,

denation alized and c alled in to li fe in a certa i n me a sure by

royal p atronage b ut at all eve nts ruli ng th e wo rld b ut as
, ,

th e s tate o f Alex a nder w as u nhinged by his de a th th e ger m s ,

of the li terature correspo nding to it ra pidly perished N ev e r .

th e le ss th e Greek n a tion wi th all th a t it h a d posse s sed — wi th

its n ation ali ty its l angu a ge its art— belo nged to the p ast
, , .

I t wa s only in a co m p ar at ively n a rrow circle no t o f me n of

cul ture— fo r such s tric tly spe aking no l o nger exis ted— but
, ,

Of m e n Of erudi tion th a t th e Gre e k li ter a ture w a s s till

‘

cherished even when de a d th at the rich inheri tance which

it ha d left w a s inven to ied wi th m el a nch o ly ple a sure or a rid
r

refine me nt of re se a rch and th at p o ssibly th e livi ng se nse

, ,

of sym p athy or th e de a d erudi tio n w as eleva ted in to a

sem bl a nce o f productive ness T his p o s thu m ous pro duc
.

tive ne ss co n s ti tu tes th e so ca lled Ale x a ndrinism

-
I t is .

essentially si mil a r to th at litera ture o f scholars which , ,

keeping al o of from the living R o m anic n ati o n ali tie s a nd

their vulga r idi o m s grew up duri ng th e fifteen th a nd
,

sixteen th ce nturies a m ong a cos m opoli tan circle of erudi te

philol o gues — a s an ar tifici al a ftergrow th of th e depa rted
a n tiqui ty th e con tr a s t be tween th e cl a s sic a l a nd th e
vulga r Greek o f th e peri o d of th e D i ad o chi is do ub tless
less strongly m arked but is no t pr o perly spe aking di ffer
, , ,

e nt fro m th a t be twee n th e L ati n of M a nu tius a nd th e

I ta lia n of M a cchi a velli .

I ta ly h ad hi ther to been in th e ma in disinclined tow ard s

4 66 R EL I G I ON , C U LTU R E , BOO Kv
are s till exta nt in which he supplied one of his pupils of ra nk
wi th materi a l s fo r Lati n elegies of a n erotic and my thological
n ature a ccordi ng to th e well known Al exa ndri a n receipt-
.

B ut it was by no m e a ns si mply such acci d en tal occ asions

which c alled in to exis tence th e R o ma n Ale xa ndrinism ; it
wa s on th e con tra ry a produc t— perh a ps no t ple asi ng but ,

thoroughly inevi table — Of the poli tic al and n ation al

d evelop me nt of R o m e On the one h and as H ell as
.
,

resolved itself in to H elle nis m so now La tiu m resolved i tself

,

i nto R o ma nis m th e nation al develop m en t of I taly o ut

grew itself a nd was m erged in C aes a r s Medi terra nea n
,
’

empire j us t as th e H elle nic develop me nt in th e e a s tern

,

e mpire of Alexander On the other h and a s the new

.
,

e mpire res ted on the fact th at the mighty stre am s of

G reek a nd L a tin n a ti o n ality a fter h aving fl o we d in par allel
,
'

c h a nnels for m a ny ce nturies no w at le ng th coa lesced th e

, ,

I tali a n li tera ture h a d no t m erely as h i therto to seek its

groundwork ge nerally in th e Greek b ut had also to put ,

itself on a level wi th th e Greek li ter ature of the presen t ,

or in o ther words wi th A le xa ndrinism Wi th th e s ch o la s tic .

La ti n wi th th e clo s ed n u m ber of cl a s sics wi th th e exclusive

, ,

circle of cl a ssic rea di ng ur é a m th e n a tion al L atin li tera ture

-
‘

w a s de a d a nd a t a n end ; there a rose ins te a d of it a

thoroughly dege ne ate artifici ally fos tered imperi al
r , ,

li terature which did not res t on a ny de fini te n ation ali ty

, ,

but procl a i m ed in two l a ngu ages the univers a l gospel of

hu m ani ty and was depende nt in p o in t of spiri t thro ughou t
,

a nd co ns ci o usly on th e o ld H elle nic in poin t of l a nguage ,

partly o n thi s p a rtly on the o ld R o man popul a r li terature

, , .

T his w a s no i m pro ve m en t T h e Medi terr a ne a n m o narchy

of C a es a r was do ub tless a gr and and— wha t is more—a
.

necessa ry cre ati o n ; b ut it ha d bee n c alled i nto li fe by an

a rbi tr a ry superi o r will a nd t herefore there wa s nothing to
,

be found in it o f th e fresh popul a life of the over fl owing r ,

n ation al vigour which are ch a ra cteris tic of young er more

, ,
CR A P . x xx L I TE R AT U R E, AN D AR T 46 7

li mi ted a nd m ore n a tura l comm o nwe a l ths a nd which the

, ,

I ta li a n s ta te o f the s ixth cen tury h a d s till been a ble to

exhibi t T h e rui n Of th e I tali an n ation ali ty a ccomplished
.
,

in the cre tion o f Ca es a r nipped th e prom i s e of li terature

a , .

E very one w h o h a s a ny se nse of the close affi ni ty be tween

a r t a nd n a tio nali ty will a lwa ys t urn b a ck fro m Cicero and

H o ra ce to C a to and L ucre tius ; a nd no thi ng b ut th e

scho o l ma s ter s view of history and of li tera ture —
’
which has
a cqui edr it is true in this dep a rt m en t th e s a nc tion of
, ,

prescrip tion—could ha ve c a lled the epoch of art begi nni ng

wi th the new m on archy pre e m inen tly the golden ag e But
-
.

while the R o ma no H elle nic A le xandrinism of the ag e of

-

C a es ar a nd A ugus tus m u st be dee med i nferior to the older ,

however i mpe fect n a tion al li terature it is on the other

r , ,

h and as decidedly superior to the Ale xandrinism of the

ag e of the D i a dochi a s C a e s ar s e n duri ng struc ture to th e
’

ephe m eral crea tio n of Alexa nder We sh all h ave a fterw ar d s

.

to show th at th e A ugus ta n liter ature co mp a red wi th th e ,

ki ndred li terature of th e perio d Of the D i adochi was far ,

less a li terature of phil o logues a nd far m ore an imperia l

li terature tha n the l atter and therefore ha d a far m ore
,

perm a nen t and fa r more genera l in fl uence in the uppe r

c ircles of socie ty th an the Greek Ale xandrinism ever
h ad .

N owhere was th e prospect more l am en table than in

dram atic li ter ature Tragedy and co m edy had alre a dy
.

before the presen t epoch become inwardly ex tinct in the

R o ma n n a tio na l literature N e w pieces were no longer
.

performed T h at the public s till in th e S ull an ag e

.

expected to see such a ppe ars from the reproductions

b elonging to this epoch —o f P l a u tine co m e d ies wi th th e
,

ti tles a nd n a m es of th e persons a l tered wi th reference to ,

which th e m a n agers well a dded th at it was better to see a

goo d old piece tha n a b a d ne w one Fro m this the s tep .

was no t gre at to th a t en tire surrender of the st ag e to the

 468 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
de a d poets which we find in the Ciceroni a n ag e and to
, ,

which Ale xa ndrinism m a de no opp o si tio n I ts pr o duc tive .

ness in this dep a rtm e nt w as wo rse th a n no ne R e al .

dramatic composi tion the Alex and ia n li terature never r

kne w ; n o thi ng b ut th e spurious dra m a which was wri tte n ,

pri marily fo re a di ng a nd no t for exhibi ti o n could be

r ,

i ntr o duced by it into I taly and s o o n accordi ngly these

,

drama tic iam bics began to be qui te as prevale nt in R o m e

a s in A lexa n dri a a nd th e wri ting of tra gedy in p a r ticul a r
,

began to figure am ong the regul a r dise a ses of a dolescence .

We ma y form a pre tty a ccurate idea of the quality of

these produc tions f o m th e fa c t th a t Qui ntus Cicero in
r ,

o der homo eop athica lly to beguile the we ar iness of

r

wi nter qua rters in Gaul c o m posed four trage dies in six teen
,

da ys .

The m ime . I n the picture of li fe or mi m e alone th e l a st s till

“ ”

vigorous product of the n ation a l li ter ature th e A tella n ,

fa rce beca m e engr a fted wi th th e e thologic a l o ff shoo ts o f

,

Gr e ek co m edy which Ale a ndrinism cul tiv ated wi th gre ater

,
x

p o e tic al vigour a nd be tter success t h a n a ny other bra nch

of poe tr y Th e mi me o rigi na ted o ut of th e d a nces in
.

cha rac ter to the flu te which h ad l o ng bee n usu al a nd

, ,

which were perform ed so m e ti m es on other occa sions a g , .

for th e en terta i nm e nt of the guests during di nner b ut m ore ,

especia lly in the pit of the the at e during the in terva ls r

be tween th e a cts I t wa s no t di fficul t to for m o ut of these

.

d a nces — in which th e aid o f speech h ad doub tless lo ng

si nce bee n occa si o nally e mpl o yed— by m e ans o f th e in t o r

duc tion of a m ore o rg anized pl o t and a regul ar di a l ogue

li ttle com edies which were ye t es sen ti a lly dis ti nguished
,

from th e e a rlier co medy a nd even f o m th e farce by the r

fa c ts th a t the da nce a nd the l a sciviou sness i nsep a ra ble

,

from such da ncing co ntinued in this ca se to pl a y a chief

p a rt a nd th a t th e m i m e a s bel o ngi ng properly no t to the
, ,

b o ards b ut to th e p it threw a side a ll ide al sce nic e fl e cts

'

, ,
470 R E LI G I ON , CU LT U R E, B OO Kv
give sketch s ch r cter th e
e Fo rge tful the B rag
of a a ,
as ,
“

gart t e M an o f
h ,
”
ses terces ; or pic tures of
“ 1 ”

o ther l ands the Etrusca n Wo ma n the Ga uls the

,
“
,
” “
,
”

“
Cre ta n A lex a n d ri a ; or descrip tions of popul a r fes ti
,
” “ ”

vals as th e Co mpi tali a the S aturn ali a

,
“
A nn a P e ,
” “
,
” “

renn a the H o t Baths ; or p arodies of my thol o gy a s

,
” “ ”
,

th e Voy age to the U nderworld the Arvernia n La ke

“
,
” “
.
”

A p t nickn ames a nd shor t co mm onpl a ces which were e a sily

re tained and a pplied were welcom e ; but every piece of
nonsense was of i tself privileged ; in this prepos terous
w orl d B a cchus is a pplie d to fo r w ater a nd the foun ta in
nymph for wine I solated exa mples eve n of th e poli tic al .

a llusions form erly so s t ic tly prohibi ted in the R o ma n r

the a tre a re found in these m i m es 2

A s reg ards me tric al .

form these p oe ts ga ve the m selves a s they tell us

, b ut , ,
“

moderate trouble wi th th e ve rsificatio n th e l angu age

”

a bounded even in the pieces prep a red for publicati o n

, ,

wi th vulgar expressions a nd low newly coined words T he -

.

mi me was it is pl ain in subs ta nce no thi ng but th e former

, ,

fa rce ; wi th this excep tion th at th e ch a ra cter ma sks and ,

-

the s ta nding scenery of Atell a as well a s th e rustic i mp ess r

a re droppe d a nd in their room the life of the ca pital in its

,

boundless liberty and licence is brough t on the s tage .

Most pieces of this sort were doub tless of a ve ry fugi tive

n a ture a nd ma de no pretension to a pl a ce in li tera ture ;
With p o ss essio n o f this sum , w h ich co ns titu te d the qua ifi ca tio n
th e l
for th e fi rst vo ting class a nd s ubj e cte d th e inh e rita nce to th e Vo co nian
-

l
la w th e b o undar y ine w as cro sse d which s e p ara te d th e m e n o f s e nder
,
l
'

mea ns ( ten u zor es ) fro m res p ec ta b e p eo p e l

T h e re fore the poo r c ien t o f l . l
l
Ca tu lus ( xxiii 2 6 ) b ese e ch e s th e go d s to h el p him to this fo rtune
. .

2 I n th e I
D e sce nsus a d nfe ro s of L a b e r ius a ll so rts o f p e o p e co me l
fo rw a rd , wh o h a ve see n w o nde rs a nd s igns ; to o ne th ere a p pe a re d a
h us ba nd w ith tw o w ive s , w h e re up o n a ne igh b o ur is o f o p inio n th a t this is
s till w orse th a n th e vis io n rece nt y se e n b y a so oth s a y e r in a drea m o f
, l ,

s ix a e di es Caesar fo rs o o th des ire d—a cco r ding t o th e ta

l . o f th e tim e lk
l
to intr o duce p o y ga my in R o m e ( S ue to nius Ca es 8 2 ) a nd b e no m ina ted , .

l
in re a ity six a e di es inste a d o f fo ur l
One s e e s fr o m th is tha t Lab e rius .

unders too d h o w to exer cise th e foo s p r ivile ge a nd Ca e sar h o w to permit

'
'
l
th e foo l s fr ee do m .
CR A P. x xx L I T ER AT U R E, AN D A R T

but the m i mes of Lab erius full of pungent delineation of

,

cha rac ter and in poin t o f l a ngu a ge a nd m e tre exhibi ting

th e h a nd of a m as ter ma in ta i ned their gr o und in it ; a nd
,

e ven th e hi s to ri a n m us t regre t th at we a r e no l o nger per

m i tted to co mp are the dra ma of the republic a n de ath

s truggle in R o m e wi th its gre at Attic c o un terp ar t .

Wi th the worthlessness of dram atic li tera tu e th e incre ase D am

r r a tic

p t e c a cles.
o f sce n ic spec ta cles a nd of sce nic po m p we nt h a n d in h a nd
s
.

D ra m a tic represent ations ob ta ine d their regul a r pl ace in

th e public life not only of th e ca pi ta l b ut also of th e
coun try towns ; th e for m er a ls o no w at le ng th a cquired by
m e a ns of Po m pe ius a per m a nent the a tre ( 6 9 9 see p 1 I 7) 5 5 .
, .

a nd th e C a m p a ni a n cus to m of s tre tching c a nva s over th e

t he a tre for th e protec ti o n of th e a c tors and spect a tors

during th e perform a nce which in a ncient ti m es alwa ys
,

took pl a ce in th e Open a ir now likewise fo un d a d mission

,

to R ome A s a t th at ti m e in Greece it wa s no t th e 78 .

- m o re th an p ale — Plei a d of the A lexa ndri a n dra matis ts ,

but the cl a ssic dr ama a bove all the tragedies of E uripides

, ,

which a mi d st the am ples t d evelop men t of scenic resources

kept th e s tage so in R o me a t the ti m e of Cicero the
,

tra gedies of En nius P a cuv ius a nd A ccius and th e co m edies

, , ,

of Pl a u tu s were those chie fl y produced While the l at ter .

h a d been in th e previous period suppl a n te d by the m ore

ta s teful b ut in point of comic vigour far inferior Terence ,

R oscius a nd Varro or in o ther words th e the a tre a nd

,

philology co operate d to procure for him a resurrec tion

,
-

si mil ar to th at which S h akespe a re experienced at the h a nds

of G a rrick a nd J ohns o n ; but eve n Pla u tus had to su ffer
from th e d egenerate susceptibili ty a nd th e i m p a tie nt h a s te
o f an a u dience spoil t by th e shor t a nd slovenly fa rces so ,

th at the m an a gers found them selves co mpelled to excuse

th e length of the P l a utine co medies a nd even perh a ps to

m a ke o m issions a nd a l tera ti o ns T h e more li m i ted the

.

stock of pl a ys th e m ore th e a ctivi ty of th e m a n aging and

,
472 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E ,
Bo o x v
execu tive sta ff a s well a s the interes t of the public w as
direc ted to th e sce nic epre s e nta ti o n of th e pieces T here
r .

w as h a dly a ny m o re lucr a tive t a de in R o m e th a n th a t o f

r r

th e a c to r a nd th e da nci ng girl o f th e firs t r a nk Th e .

p i ncely es ta te o f th e t agic a c tor A eso p us h a s bee n a lre a dy

r r

m e ntioned (p his s till m o e celebrated co nte m

. r

p o ra y R oscius ( iv 2 36 ) es ti m a ted his a nnu a l i nco me a t

r .

se ste ce s r
1
a nd D i o ny s i a th e d an cer es ti

m ated hers a t ses terce s A t th e sa m e

ti m e i mm en s e su m s were expended on deco a tio n s a nd r

cos tu m e ; now and the n tr ains o f six hu nd ed m ules in r

h arness cro ssed th e s ta ge a nd the T r oj a n the a t ic a l a rm y

,
r

w a s e m pl o yed to p e s e nt t o th e public a ta ble a u o f th e

r

na tions a nquished v by P o m pe ius in Asi a T he m u sic .

which a cc o mp anied th e delivery o f the i nserted ch o ru se s

likewise o b ta i ned a gre a te a nd m ore i n d e pe nd e nt im r

p o rta nce ; as the wi nd sw ays the waves s ays Va o so th e ,

rr ,

skilful fl ute pl a yer swa ys the m inds o f the li ste ners wi th

-

every m o dula tion o f m el o dy I t a ccus to m ed i tself to th e .

use o f quicker ti m e a nd the eby co m pelled th e pla yer to

,
r

m o e lively a c tio n
r Musica l a nd dra ma tic c o nnois seurship
.

was dev e l o ped ; th e fi bzl ué rec o gn ized every tu n e by th e

'

first no te a nd k new the texts by hea r t ; every faul t in the

,

m u s ic or reci ta ti o n w a s severely ce n su ed by th e a udie nce r .

T he s tate of th e R o m a n s t g e in th e ti m e of Cicer o vividly

a

re m i nd s us of the m o der n French the a tre A s the R o ma n .

m i m e corresp o n d s to th e loose ta ble a ux o f th e pieces of

th e da y no thi ng bei ng too g o od a nd no thi ng to o b a d fo r
,

ei ther the one o th e o the so we fi nd in b o th th e s a m e

r r,

t a di tio n lly cl a s s ic tr agedy a n d co m edy which th e ma n o f

r a ,

cul ture is in duty b o und to a dm ire or at le a st to a ppl a ud .

T he m ul ti tude is sa tisfied whe n it m ee ts its o w n reflec ti o n

,

H e o b taine d fro m th e s ta te fo r e ve ry da y o n w h ich h e a cte d 1 0 0 0

de nd r it a nd b e s ide s this th e p a y fo r his co m p a ny I n a te r y ears . l
l
h e de c ine d th e h o no ra r ium fo r h im se f l .
4 74 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , Kv
B OO

sec ti o ns of this R oma n poe m As Ennius dra ws his wis d om .

fro m Ep icha rmus a nd Euhe m e ru s so Lucre tiu s borrows th e ,

form of his repr e se ntation from Em pedocles the m ost ,

“

glorious tre a sure of th e richly gifted S icili a n isle a nd as ,

to the m at ter ga thers a ll th e g o lden words toge ther fro m

,

th e rolls of Epicurus who ou tshines o ther wise me n a s” “

,

th e sun obscures th e s ta rs L ike E nnius L ucretius dis

”
.
,

d a ins the my thologica l lore wi th which poe try was o ver

loa ded by Ale xa ndrinism a nd requires nothing from his ,

re d er but knowledge of the legends generally current

a a 1
.

I n spi te of the modern purism which rejec ted fo reign w o rds

fro m poetry L ucre tius prefers to use a s Ennius ha d done
, , ,

a signific a n t Greek word in pl a ce of a feeble a nd obscure

L ati n one Th e old R o ma n a llitera tion th e w a nt of due

.
,

co rrespo nde nce between the p auses of the verse a nd those

of the sen tence and generally the ol der modes of expression
,

a nd composi tion a re s till frequen tly fo und in L ucre tius

’
,

rhy th m s and al though he h andles the verse m ore m elodi

,

o usly th a n En nius his hex a me ters m ove no t a s those of

, ,

th e mo d ern poe tic a l school wi th a lively gr a ce like the ,

rippling brook but wi th a s tately slowness like the s trea m of

,

liquid gold P hilosophica lly and pra c tic ally a lso L ucretius
.

le a ns throughou t on Ennius the o nly indigenous poet whom ,

his poe m celebrates The confession of fa i th of the singer.

of R udiae (iii 1 7 5) .

' ' '

Eg o de um g enus a re ramp” dzx z ct dica m cae lztum,

'
S ea cos non ca r a f e op irw r , quid ag a t i mma n um g erm:

describes comple tely the religious s tandpoi nt of Lucretius ,

a nd no t unjustly for th a t re a s o n he hi m s elf terms his poe m

a s it were th e con tinu a tion of E nnius

1 l
S uch a n ind ividua a pp are nt e xce p tion a s Pa nch aea th e a nd o f ince nse l
( i
. l
i 4 1 7 ) is to b e e xp aine d fr o m th e circum s ta nce th a t this h a d p as se d fro m

l
th e ro m an ce Of th e T ra ve s o f Euh e m erus a r ea dy p e rh a p s into th e p oe try l
o f E nnius , a t a ny ra t e into th e p o e m s o f L u cius M a n ius ( iv 2 4 2 F in l . l .

H N x a , 4 ) a nd the nce w as we
. . . kno wn to th e p ub lic fo r wh ich ll
L ucretius wro te .
CH AP . x xx L I TER AT UR E ,
AN D A R T 47
' ' '
E nnius a t nos ter cee zm t g u z p n m us a moena
’

,
'
D etu lzt ex H e lico e p er en n i f r onde cor on a m ,
n
'

P er g en tis I ta las ixom zn u m g ua e cla r a cluer et .

Once m ore—a nd fo r th e la s t ti m e — the poe m of Lucre

tius is resonant wi th the whole poe tic pride a nd th e whole
p o etic earnes tness Of the sixth ce ntury in which a m idst , ,

the i m a ges Of the for m id a ble C a r th agini a n a nd th e gl o rious

S cip ia d the imagi na tion of th e p o e t is m ore a t ho m e th an

,

in his own degenerate ag e T o him to o his own song

1
.

“
gracefully welling up o ut of rich feeli ng s o u nds a s co m ,

p ared wi th the comm on poe m s like the brief s o ng of the ,

“

swa n co mp ared wi th th e cry o f th e cr a ne wi th him to o -

th e he a rt swells lis teni ng to th e m elodies of its o w n in ve n

,

tion wi th th e hope o f il lus trious honours —jus t as E nnius

,
-

forbids the men to who m he ga ve from th e dep th of th e “

he art a fore ta s te of fiery song to mourn at h is the ,

”
,

immor ta l singer s tom b ’

, .

I t is a re ma rk a ble fa ta li ty th at this ma n of ex tra o rdin ary ,

ta len ts fa r superior in origi na li ty of poe tic e nd o w m e nts to

,

m os t if not to all his con te m p o ra ries fell upo n a n a g e in ,

which he fel t hi m self s tra nge a nd forlorn a nd in couse ,

q u e n ce of this m a de th e m os t singul a r m is ta ke in the

selec tio n of a s ubjec t The sys te m o f Epicurus which .
,

conver ts th e u niverse in to a gre a t vor tex of a to m s a nd

undertakes to expla in th e origin a nd end of th e world a s

well as all th e proble m s of n ature a nd of life in a purely
mecha nica l way was doubtless so m ewh a t less silly tha n th e
,

conversi o n of m y ths in to his tory which wa s a tte m pted by

E uhe m erus a nd after h im by Ennius but it wa s no t a n
ingenious or a fresh sys te m a nd the ta sk of p o e tica lly ,

u nfo ldi ng this m ech a nica l view of the wo rld wa s of such a

n ature that never prob a bly did p o e t expend l fe a nd art on i

Th i ly p p
is na ve i th d a ip i n
e ar s f w
n i w h h th
e es cr t o s o ar , n ic e se a
t m h t d t y
s t mi nd th h t f l p h t th
e s, a t m p l d wn an s at

id —p i t
s or a es ro ar e os s o e e ra e o

th o sewh n th i w
o are o e r o th t i f m th P ni w
n s e c ur es , a s, ro e u c a rs

a ppear as if th ey be lo ng to the imme ia te p r ese nt. d Comp . ii. 4 x ; 7.

1 2 2 6, 1 30 3, 1 339.
47 6 R E LI G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
a more ungrateful the me The philosophic rea der cen ures
. s

in the L ucre ti a n dida ctic poe m the o mission of the finer

poin ts of th e sys te m the supe rfi ciality especially wi th which
,

co ntroversies are presen ted th e defective division the , ,

frequen t repe ti tions wi th qui te as good re a son as t he

,

poe tica l re a der fre ts at the m athe matics put in to rhythm

which ma kes a gre a t p ar t o f th e poe m a bsolu tely unre a dable .

I n spi te of these i ncredible defec ts befo re which every ,

ma n of m ediocre ta le nt m us t inevi ta bly h ave succu m bed ,

th is poe t migh t jus tly b o a st of h a ving c a rried o ff fr o m th e

p o e tic wilderness a new cha ple t such a s the Muses ha d not

ye t bes to wed o n any ; a nd it was by no m e a ns m erely th e
occa si o n al si mili tudes a nd the o ther inser ted descriptions
, ,

of m igh ty natura l phe no m ena and ye t migh tier p a ssions ,

which acquired fo r th e poe t this chaple t T he genius .

which m a rks the view of life as well as the poe try o f

L ucre tius depends on his unbelief which c am e forwa rd a nd ,

wa s en ti tled to come forw a rd wi th th e full vic to rious power

of tru th a nd therefore wi th th e full vigour of poetry in

, ,

o pposi tion to th e prev a iling hyp o crisy or supers ti tion .

H u ma n e a nte oculos f oede cu m v ita {deem

'
I n ter r is opp r essa g r a m s ub r e lig ione ,
Qu ae ca put a cae li r eg ion ibus osten debat
H or r zbzli sup er a sp ect a mor ta libus im ta ns ,
'
P r im u m C r a zy s Izaw a mor ta lis te nde r er con tr a
E st ocu lar a us us p r im usg ue obsis ter e contra .

'
E rg o v iv ic a w s a n im i p er v icit , at ex tr a
’

'
P r ocessit long e fl a mma ntza moem a muna z
’ ’ '
-

A tg ue omne im me ns um pe r ag r a m t mente a nimog w.

’

T he poe t a ccordi ngly wa s ze alous to overthrow th e gods ,

as B ru tus h a d o ver throw n the kings a nd to rele a se n a ture

“
,

fro m her s tern lords B ut it w a s no t a ga in s t the lon g

.
”

ag o e nfeebled thro ne o f J ovis th at these flam ing words

were hurled ; jus t like En nius L ucre tius figh ts pra c tically ,

above a ll thi ngs a g a i ns t th e wild foreig n fa i ths a nd super

s titio ns of the mul ti tude the worship of th e Gre a t Mo ther

,

for ins ta nce and the childi sh ligh tning lore of the Etrusca ns -
.
 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E, 3 0 0 1: v

is the true ideal esse nce Of th e Lucre ti a n poe m a nd is o nly

overl a id no t choked by a ll the dre ariness of its physic a l
, ,

demo ns tra tions Esse nti ally o n this res ts its co m pa rative
.

wisd o m and tru th Th e m an who with a revere nce for his

.

gre at predecessors and a vehemen t ze al to which this ,

cen tury elsewhere k new no p a ra llel pre a ched such doct ine , r

a nd e mbellished it with th e ch a r m o f art m ay be term ed ,

a t once a g o od ci tizen a nd a gre a t poe t T h e did a c tic .

poe m concerning th e N ature o f T hi ngs however m uch ,

in it m ay ch alle nge ce nsure h a s re ma in e d one of the mo s t

,

brilli ant s ta rs in th e poorly illum in ated exp a nse of R o ma n

li terature ; a nd wi th re a s o n th e gre ates t of German philo
lo g ue s chose th e ta s k o f m a king th e L ucretia n poe m o nce
m ore re a da ble a s his l a s t a nd m os t ma s te ly work r .

L ucre tius a l th o ugh his p o e tic al vigour a s well a s his a rt

“

w a s a d mired by h is cul tiva ted co nte m por a ries y e t re ma ined ,

— o f l ate gr o wth a s he w a s— a m a s ter wi thou t sch o l ars I n .

th e H elle nic fa shi o n a ble poe tr y on th e o ther h a nd there

was no l a ck a t le a s t of schol a rs wh o exer ted the mselves to

,

e m ula te th e A lexa n d ri a n m a s ters Wi th true tact the m ore

.

gifted of the Alexa ndri a n poe ts av o ided larger works and

th e pure for m s of p o e try—th e dr a ma the epo s th e lyric ; , ,

th e m os t ple a sing a nd successful perfor ma nces consis ted

wi th the m jus t as wi th the new Latin poets in short
, ,
“

win ded ta sks a nd especi ally in such as belonged to the

”
,

do ma ins borderi ng on the pure fo rm s of a rt m o re e speci ally ,

to th e wide field in tervening be tween n a rr ative a nd s o ng .

Mul tifarious did ac tic poems were wri tte n S mall h alf .

heroic h alf ero tic epics were grea t favouri tes a nd especi ally
,
-

an erudi te sor t of love elegy peculi a r to this a u tu m n al

-

sum mer of Greek poe try a nd ch ara cteris tic o f the philo
logical source whe nce it s pra ng in which the poe t m ore o r ,

less a rbitr arily in terwove the descrip tion of his own feelings ,

predo mi nan tly sensuous wi th e pic shreds from the cycle o f

,

Greek legen d Fes ta l l ays were dilig ently a nd artfully

.
CR AP . x xx LI T E RAT URE , AN D A R T

ma nufa c tured ; in genera l owing to the wa nt of spon ,

ta ne o us p o e tic a l i nven ti o n the occ a si o n al poem pre p o n ,

d erated and especi a lly th e epigra m o f which the Alex ,

a nd ia ns pr o duced excellen t speci m ens

r The pover ty of .

ma teri a ls a nd th e w a nt of freshness in l a ngu age a nd

rhy th m which inevi tably cleave to every li ter ature not
,

na t i o na l m e n s o ugh t a s m uch a s possible to conce a l under

,

odd the m es far—fe tched phrase s rare words and a r tifici al

, ,

v e rs ifi ca tio n a nd gener a lly under the whole a pp aratus

,

of p hilo log ico antiqua ri a n erudi tion a nd technica l dext eri ty

-
.

S uch was th e gospel which was pre a ched to the R o man

boy s of this period a nd they c am e in cro wds to he ar and ,

to pra c tise it ; alre a dy ( abou t 7 0 0 ) th e love poe m s of 5 4 -

.

E uphorion and si m il a r A lex a ndri a n poe try for med th e

ordi na ry re a ding a nd th e ordin ary pieces for decl amation
of th e cultiva ted you th 1 T he li tera ry revolu tion took .

pl a ce ; b ut it yi e lded in the firs t ins ta nce wi th rare e xce p

tio n s only pre ma ture or unripe frui t s T h e number of the .

new fa shi o ned p o ets was legion but poe try was rare a nd
-

A pollo wa s co m pelled as a lw a ys when so m a ny throng ,

towards P a rn a ssus to m a ke very shor t work , T h e lo ng .

poe m s never were worth a ny thing the shor t ones seldom , .

E ve n in this li terary a g e th e poetry of th e day ha d become

a public nuis a nce it someti m es h a ppened th at one s friend ’

w o uld send home to him by wa y of m ockery as a fes ta l

present a pile of tra shy verses fresh fro m the bookseller s ’

shop whose va lue wa s at once be tr ayed by the elega n t

,

bind ing a nd th e s m oo th p aper A rea l public in the .

,

sense in which na ti o n l l terature h as a public was wa n ti nga i

,

to the R o ma n A lexa ndri a ns a s well a s to th e H elle nic ;

1 N o d o ub t , s ay s Cicer o ( Tw o iii 1 9 4 5 ) in re fere nce to Ennius ,
. .
,

l
th e g o r io us p o e t is de s p is e d b y o u r re cite r s o f Eu p h o rio n I h a ve .
"

l
sa fe y arrive d h e w rite s to A tticus ( vii 2 fr uit ) , “ as a mo s t fa vo ur a b e
, . l
l
no r th w ind b e w fo r us a cro s s fro m E p irus T h is s p o nda ic line y o u ma y ,
.

, l
if y o u ch o o s e s e l t o o ne o f th e ne w fa shio ne d p o e ts a s y o ur o w n ( ita
'
-

be lle n obis fl a w t d o Ep ir o Ie n zss um u s H em e o r ovfiet dj ow a

’
’

t i m i voles 1 63 1! y e m é pwv p ro 1 2 40 vendzto) .

480 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
it was thoroughly the poe try of a clique or rather cliques ,

whose m e mbers clu ng cl o sely toge ther abused in truders , ,

rea d a nd cri ticised a mo ng the m selves the new poe m s ,

so metimes also qui te a fter the A lexa ndri a n fa shio n cele

bra te d th e successful produc ti o ns in fresh ve s es a nd r ,

va riously sough t to secure fo r the m selves by clique pr a ises -

a spurious a nd ephemer a l renown A n o ta ble te a cher of

.

Latin li ter a ture hi mself poe tic ally a c tive in this new
,

direc tion Valerius C ato a ppe ars to h ave exercised a sor t

,

of schola stic patron a ge over the m o s t dis ti nguished m e n

of this Circle and to h a ve pronounced fin al decision on the
r el a tive va lue of th e poe m s A s com p a red wi th their
.

Greek models these R o ma n poets evince through o ut a

,

wa nt of freedo m so me ti m es a scho o lboy depende nce ;

,

most of their products must h ave been si mply th e a us tere

frui ts of a school poe try s till occupied in le a rning a nd by
no me a ns ye t dismissed a s m a ture I n a s m uch as in
.

l angu age and in m ea sure they a dhered to the Greek

p a tterns far m ore closely th an ever th e n ation al Latin
p oe tr y h a d done a
,
gre a t er correc tness a n d co n sis tency in
la ngu age a nd me tre were cer ta inly a tta i ned ; b ut it wa s at
the expense of the fl exibili ty and ful ness of the nation al
idio m As respects the subjec t ma tter under the i nflue nce
.
-
,

p artly of e ffe minate models pa rtly of a n i mm oral ag e

, ,

a ma tory the m es a cquired a surprisi ng pr epondera nce li ttle

con d ucive to poe try ; but the fa vouri te m e tric al com pendi a
of the Greeks were also in various ca ses tra nsl a ted such ,

a s th e a s tronomic a l tre a tise of A r a tus by Cicero a nd ei ther , ,

at th e end of this or m ore prob a bly a t the co m m e nce men t

of the following period th e geogra phical ma nu al o f

,

E ratos thenes by Publius Va rro of the A ude a nd th e

h sico m e dicinal m a nu a l of N ica nde r by A e m ilius M a cer
p y .

I t is neither to be wo n de ed a t nor regre tted th a t of this

r

countless host of poe ts but few na m es h ave been pre served

to us ; and even these ar e m o stly men tioned merely as
482 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
pa in ting of cultivated soci al life the pleasant and very ,

unreserve d a m a tory a dven tures of which h alf the ch ar m

consists in prattling a nd poe tizi ng abou t the mysteries

of love the delightful life of youth wi th full cups and
,

e mp ty purses th e ple a sures o f travel and of poe try th e

, ,

R o ma n a nd still m ore frequen tly th e Ver o nese a necdo te

o f th e town a nd th e hu m orous jes t a m ids t th e famili a r
,

c ircle of friends B ut not only does A pollo touch the

.

lyre of the poe t he wields a lso the bow th e wi nged da rt

,

of s arca sm sp ares nei ther the tedious verse maker nor the -

provinci al who c o rrup ts th e l a nguage b ut it hi ts none ,

more frequen tly and m ore sh arply th a n th e poten tates by

who m the liber ty of th e people is enda ngered T he short .

lined and m erry m e tres often enlivened by a gra ceful ,

refra in are of finishe d art a nd ye t free fro m the repulsive

,

s moothness of th e m anufactory T hese poe ms lea d us .

al ter na tely to the v alleys of the N ile a nd th e P o ; b ut th e

poe t is inco mp ara bly more at ho m e in the latter H is .

p oems a r e b a sed on Al ex a n dri a n a rt doub tless b ut at the ,

sa m e ti m e on the self consci o usness of a burgess and a

-

b urgess in fa ct of a rura l town on the c o n tras t of Veron a ,

wi th R om e on the con tra s t of the homely m unicip al wi th

,

th e high born lords of th e sen ate who usu ally m al tre a t

-

their humble frie nds — as th at contras t wa s prob a bly fel t

more vividly than anywhere else in C atullus h o me the ’
,

fl ourishi ng a nd co m p a r atively vigorous Cis alpi ne Ga ul The .

most bea u tiful o f his poe m s reflec t the sweet pictures of

the L ago di G a rd a a nd h a rdly a t this ti m e could a ny ma n
,

of the c api ta l h a ve wri tten a poem like the deeply pa thetic

o ne on his br o the s de ath or the excellent ge nuinely
’
r ,

ho m ely festal hym n for the m a ri age of M a nlius and r

A uruncule ia C atullus a l though depe nde nt on the Alex

.
,

a n dri a n m a s ters a nd s ta nding in th e mids t Of the fa s hi o n

a ble a nd clique poe t y of th a t a g e w a s y e t no t m erely a

r ,

g o od sc hol a r a m ong m a ny m ediocre a nd ba d ones but ,

C R A P . x xx L I TERA T UR E,
AN D A R T 4 83

hi m self as much superior to his m a s ters as th e burgess o f

a free I ta li a n co m muni ty w a s superi o r to th e c o s m o poli ta n

H ellenic m a n of le tters E m i ne n t cre ative ig o ur indeed

. v

a nd high poe tic i nte ntio ns we m a y no t look fo r in h im he

is a richly gifted a nd gra ceful but not a grea t p o e t a nd his ,

poem s are as he hi mself c alls the m nothi ng but ple a s

, ,
“

Y e t when we fi n d no t merely his con

”
a ntrie s a nd trifl e s .

te mpora ries elec trified by these fugi tive so ngs b ut the art ,

cri tics of the A ugus tan ag e a ls o ch a ra cterizing him along

wi th Lucre tius as th e m ost i mpor tant poe t of this epoch ,

his con te mpora ries as well as their success o rs were com

p le te ly righ t Th e Lat i n n a tion ha s produced no seco n d
.

poet in who m th e a r tis tic subs ta nce and th e a rtis tic for m
a ppe a r in so sym m e tric a l perfec tion a s in C a tullus ; a nd in

t his sense th e collec ti o n of th e poe m s of C a tullus is

cer tainly th e m ost perfec t which La tin poe try as a whole
can show .

La s tly poetry in a prose for m begins in this epoch

, .

T h e la w Of genuine na ive as well a s conscious art which ,

h a d hi therto re ma i ned u nch a nge a ble — th a t the poe tic a l

subjec t matter and the m e tric a l se tting should go toge ther
-

—gave way before th e i n ter mix ture a nd dis turb a nce of all
kinds and forms of a rt which is one of th e m os t sig nifica n t
,

fe atures of this period As to ro m nce s indeed n o thi ng . a R o m a nce s

farther is to be noticed th an that th e m os t fam ous his tori a n

,

of this epoch S ise nna did no t es tee m hi m self to o good to

, ,

t ra ns l a te int o L atin the m uch rea d Milesi an tales of -

A ris tides — licen tious fa shion able novels of th e mos t stupid

s ort.

A m o re origin a l and m ore ple a si ng pheno me n on in this

d eb ate able border l a nd be twee n p o e t y a nd pr o se wa s the
-
r

a es the tic writings of V ro who wa s no t m er e ly th e m ost

ar ,

i mporta n t rep ese ntative o f Latin ph ilo lo g ico his torica l t e

r -

se arch but o ne of th e m o st fer tile a nd m o s t in teres ting

,

a u thors in oelles letz es D escended from a plebei a n g en

‘
-
r . :
 484 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
which ha d its home in the S abine l and but ha d belo nged
for the l as t two hundred ye a s to the R o ma n se nate s trictly
r ,

reared in a n ique discipline a nd decoru m a nd alre a dy at

t 1
,

th e b e ginni ng of this ep o ch a m a n of m atu i ty M a rcus r ,

l16 2 7
'
o Te re ntius Va rro of R e a te ( 6 38 — 7 2 7 ) bel o nged in p o li tics ,

a s a m a tter of c o urse to th e c o ns ti tu tio na l p a r ty a nd bore

, ,

a n honour a ble a nd energe tic p a r t in its d o i ng s a nd su ffer

ings H e suppor ted it p artly in li terature — as when he

.
,

co m b a ted the first coalition th e three he aded mo ns ter in

,
“ -
,

p amphle ts ; p a rtly in m ore serious warfa re whe e we fo und ,

r

him in the ar my of P o mpe ius as co mm a nda n t o f Fur ther

S p ain ( p . When the c a use of the republic wa s l o s t ,

Varro w a s des tined by his conqueror to be libra ri a n of the

libr ary which w a s to be for m ed in the c api tal T he .

tr o ubles of th e fo llowi ng period drew th e old man once

more in to their vortex and it was no t till seven teen ye a rs
,

a fter C a es a r s de a th in th e eigh ty nin th ye a r of his well

’
-
,

occupied life th a t death ca lled him awa y

, .

T he a es the tic wri tings which h a ve m a de him a n am e

, ,

were brief essays som e in simple prose and of graver

,

con ten ts others hu m oro us ske tches the prose groundwork

,

of which wa s inla id wi th va rious poetica l e ff usion s The .

for mer were th e p h i“

lo so p hic o —
his torica l disser ta ti o ns ”

th e l a tter th e M e nipp e a n S a tires I n nei ther .

c a se did he foll o w L atin m odels a nd th e S a tu a of Va rr o in ,

r

p ar ticul ar wa s by no m e a ns b a sed on th at of Lucilius I n .

fa c t the R o ma n S a tur a in genera l w a s no t properly a fixed

species of a rt b ut o nly i ndica ted neg atively th e fa ct th at
,

the m ul tifa rious p o em w a s no t to be included u nder a ny

o f th e rec o g nized fo m s of a rt
r a nd a cc o rdingly th e S tur a a

poe try a ssu m ed in the h a nds of every g ifted poe t a di ffe en t r

1 F o r m e wh e n a b o y , h e s o m e wh e re sa y s , th er e s u ffi ce d a s ing e l
l
ro ugh co a t a nd a s ing e u nde r ga rm e nt , s h o es with o ut s to c i ngs , a h o rse
-
k
l
with o u t a s a ddle ; I h a d no da i y w ar m b a th a nd b ut se do m a river , l .

b a th .
"
l
On a cco unt o f h is p e rso nal va o ur h e o b ta ined in the Pir a tic w ar .
wh er e h e co mma nde d a divisio n Of th e fl e e t, th e na va cro wn.
. l
 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO K v

n ature too i ndividu al a nd to o decidedly R o ma n not to

keep his i mi ta tive creations essen ti ally i ndependent and
na tion al .

For his grave di s se ta tions in which a moral ma xi m orr ,

o ther s ubjec t of ge ne a l i nteres t is h a ndled he disd a ined in

r ,

his f a m ework to a ppr o xi mate to the Milesi a n tales as

r ,

H e a clide s h ad d o ne a nd s o to serve up to th e re a der even

r ,

childish li ttle s tories like thos e of A b a ris nd o f th e ma iden a

re awak e ned to life a fter bei ng seven d a ys de a d B ut seldom .

he b o rr o wed the dress fro m th e no bler m yths of the G eek s r ,

as in th e ess a y O es te s o conce ni ng M a d nes s hi s to ry

“
r r r

o rdin a rily a fl o rde d him a wor thier f a m e fo r his subjec ts

'

r ,

m ore especi a lly th e co nte m p o ra y his to y o f his c o u ntry so r r ,

th a t these ess a ys bec ame a s they we e c a lled l uda tzones

’

,
r ,
a

o f es tee m ed R o m a ns a b o ve all o f th e C o ryph a ei of the

,

consti tu tio nal p ar ty T hu s the disser tation concerning

.
“

P e a ce w a s a t th e sa m e ti me a m e mori al of Me tellus P ius ,

th e l a s t in th e b illi a nt series o f successful ge ner als of th e

r

sen ate th at c o ncerni ng th e W o rship o f th e God s wa s at

“ ”

th e s a m e ti m e des tined to p e s e ve the m e mo ry o f th e r r

highly re spec ted Op ti m ate and Po ntifex G a ius Cu i o ; the

-
r

e ss ay on Fate w as c o nnected wi th M a riu s th at on the

“
,
“

Writing o f H is tory wi th S is e nna the firs t his to i a n o f

”
r

this ep o ch th a t on th e B egi nni ngs of th e R o man S tage

“ ”
,

with th e p incely giver o f sce nic spec tacles S caurus th at

r ,

on N u m bers wi th th e highly cul tured R o ma n ba nker

”
-

A tticus T h e tw o p hilo so phico his toric a l e ssa y s L a elius -

“
.

or c o ncer ni ng Friend ship C ato o r conce ni ng Old A g e

,
”
r
,
”

which Cice o w o te pro b a bly after th e m o del of th o se of

r r

Va rro may give us s o m e a ppr o xi mate ide a of Va rro s h alf

,
’

dida c tic h a lf na a tive tre a tm e nt o f these subjec ts

,
-
rr ,
.

T h e M e n ipp e a n s a ti e was h a n dled by Va ro wi th equ a l

r r

o igi nality of fo r m a nd c o nten ts the b o ld m ixture of pro s e

r

a nd ver s e is fo reig n to th e Greek o rigi na l a nd th e whole ,

in tellec tu al c o n ten ts are perva ded by R o man idiosy nc rasy

C H A R. x xx L I TE RA T U R E, AN D A R T

— one m ight by
s avour of the S abi ne soil T hese
say, a .

s a tires like the p hilo s o ph ico his toric a l ess ays h a ndle some
-

mor al or o ther the m e a da p ted to th e l a rger public a s is ,

shown by the sever al ti tles— Columnae H er culzs m p2 86§ j s ; '

,
v

Efip e v f) Aorr ds b H ana , w epi y ey a j m

T kdr wv ; E s t M odus
.

'
Th e
’
M a tuld e, p pé exj s ; P ap zap aj a e, w epi ey x wp fwv
1 re i .

pl as tic dress which in this c ase m igh t not be wan ting is of

, ,

course but seldom borrowed fro m the his tory of his native
country a s in th e s atire S e r a fl us pi dpx p él Th e
,
r , 7r e at eo c v.
-

Cynic worl d of D i o ge nes on the o ther h a nd pl ays as migh t

-

be expected a gre a t p art ; we m ee t with the K w wp the

,
v
’
or
-
,
t t i

pp xjr wp, th e I xr rr o miwv, the Y Sp o xa mv, the v fid

‘

v o o t aa

m am a, a nd others of a like kind My thology is also l aid .

u nder con tribu tion for c o mic purposes we find a P r ometlzeus

' ' '

L iter , an Aj ax S tr a merztzezus, a [ f err ules S otr a tzt us, a

S esg zeeulzfixes who ha d spen t no t m erely te n but fi fteen ye ars

in w a nderi ngs T h e ou tline of th e dra ma tic or ro ma n tic
.

fr am ework is s till discovera ble f o m the frag m en ts in so me r

piece s such as the P r ometlzeus l zoer the S ex ag em s M a nia :

,
'

,
'

it a ppe a rs th at Va rro frequen tly perh aps regul a rly n a rra ted
, ,

th e tale a s his own experience ; e g in the M o nte : the .

d a m tzs p er sona e go to Va rro a nd discourse to him

'
r a

bec a use he was kn o wn to the m a s a m aker of books .

”

A s to th e poe tic al v a lue of this dress we are no longer

a llowed to for m a ny cer ta in j udg m en t ; there s till occur in

o ur fr a g m en ts severa l very ch a r m i ng s ke tches full of wit

a nd liveli ness — thus in th e P r ometfi eus L zoer the hero a fter

'

th e l o osi ng of his ch a ins ope ns a m a nu fa ct o ry of m e n in ,

which G oldsh o e th e rich ( Clzry sosa no a los) bespea ks for ’

hi m self a ma iden of m ilk a nd fi nest wax such as the

, ,

Milesi a n bees g a ther fro m various flowers a ma iden wi thout ,

b o nes a nd sinews wi thou t skin o r ha ir pure a nd po lished

, , ,

sli m sm ooth te nder ch a rmi ng The life breath of thi s

, , , .
-

poe try is pole m ics— no t so m uch the poli tic a l warfa re of

p ar ty such a s Lucilius and C atullus pr a ctised b ut the
, ,
488 R E LI G I ON , C U LTU R E , K
BOO v

general m o ra l a n tago nis m of the s tern elderly ma n to the

u nb idled a nd pe verse you th of the schola r livi ng in th e
r r ,

m id st o f his cl a s sics to th e loo s e a nd slo e nly or a t a ny v ,

rate in p o i nt of te nde ncy reprob ate m ode n poetry l of the ,

r ,

g o o d burges s of th e a ncie nt type to th e new R o me in which

th e F o ru m to use Va rro s l a ngu a ge was a pigs ty a nd N um a
’
, , ,

if he tu ned his eyes towa rds his ci ty would s e e no longer

r ,

a tr a ce of his wise egul a tions I n the co ns ti tu tio na l

r .

s truggle Varro did wh a t see med to him the du ty o f a

ci tizen but his he a rt w a s no t in such p ar ty d o ings w hy -

,
”

he co mpl ains on one occ a si o n do ye c all me from my ,

“

pure life i nto the fil th o f your se na te house H e belonged -

to th e good old ti m e when the ta lk s a voured of oni o ns a nd

,

garlic b ut th e he ar t w as sound H is polem ic agains t the

, .

heredi ta ry foes of th e genuine R o ma n spiri t th e Greek ,

philosophers wa s o nly a single a spect of this o ld fa shi o ned

,
-

opposi ti o n to th e spi i t of the new ti mes ; but it re sulted

r

bo th fr o m the natu e of the Cynica l phil o sophy a nd fro m

r

the te m per a m en t o f Va rr o th a t th e M e nipp e a n l a s h w a s

,

very speci ally plied r o und th e ea rs of the philosophers a nd

put the m a ccordingly i nto proportio nal al ar m—it w as no t
wi thou t p alpi tatio n that the philo sophic scribes of the ti m e
tra nsmi tted to th e severe man their newly issued tre a tises
“ ”
-
.

P hil o sophizing is truly no a rt Wi th th e ten th p art of the

.

tr ouble wi th which a m a s ter re a rs his sla v e to be a pro

1
Quintipor i: Cloa zzf or ia ae p oema ta ej us
’
On h e wr ites ,
o ne o ccas io n
'

g a rg a n dia ns dices ; Of or tzm'a , Of or s f or tu n e ! A nd e s e w h er e , Cu m

"
l
Quintip or Clodius tot comoea ia s s m e u lla f ece r it M use , eg o u nu m I iie l lu m
non edo le m u t a it E n n iu s T his no t o th e r wise no w n C lo dius m us t h a ve k
l
be en in all p ro ba b i i ty a wr e tch e d im ita to r o f T e re nce , as th o s e w o r ds
sarca s t ica y ll l
a id a t h is do or 0 f or t un e , 0 f or ; f or tu n e ] are found

o ccurring in a T e r e ntia n co m e dy .

ll
Th e fo o wing des crip tio n o f him s elf b y a po e t in Varro s Or es Adpa r,
" ’

'
P aca v i discip u lus dicor , p or r o ie f m t E rm i,
E nniu s M u sa r u m P omp ilius e lueor

l
migh t a p t y p a r o dy th e intro ductio n o f L ucre tius ( p to w h o m Va rro as .

l
a de c a re d e ne my o f th e E p icure a n sy s te m canno t h a ve b e e n w e d is p ose d ll ,

and wh o m h e ne ve r quo tes .

49 0 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E
, BOO K v

years knew his n a ti o n in its fo rm er idiosyncrasy a nd se clu¢

si o n a s well a s in its m oder n s tate of t a nsi ti o n a nd dis r

p e rsio n a nd ha d supple me nted a nd deepe ned his direc t

,

kn o wledge of the na tio na l ma n ners a nd n a ti o nal l angu age

by th e mo st co m p ehe nsive re sea rch in his toric a l and li ter ary
r

a rchives H is p a r ti a l deficiency in ra tio na l judg m en t and

.

le arni ng— in our sense of the words—wa s c o mpe ns a ted for

by his cle a r i ntui tio n a nd th e poe try which lived wi thin
h im H e sough t nei ther a fter a n tiqu a ri a n no tices no r a fter
ra re a n t iqu ated or poe tic l words ; b ut he wa s hi m
.

1
aself an
old a nd old fa shi o ned ma n a nd a l m os t a rustic th e cl a ssics
-

of his n ation were his fa vou i te a nd lo ng fa mili ar co m r -

p a nio ns how could it fail that ma ny de ta ils o f the ma nners

of his fo refathers which he loved above all a nd especi a lly
,

knew sh o uld be narra ted in his w i tings a nd th at his dis

,
r ,

course should abou nd wi th pro verbi al Greek a nd La ti n

l

phr a ses wi th good old wo ds preserved in the S abine

,
r

conve sa ti o nal l a ngu age wi th rem iniscences of Ennius

r , ,

L uciliu s a nd a bove a ll o f P l a u tus ? We sh o uld no t judge

,

as to th e prose s tyle of these a es the tic wri ti ngs o f Va rro s

’

e arlier period by the s ta nda rd o f his work on L angu age

wri tten in his old a g e a nd p ob ably published in a n un r

fi nished s tate in which cer ta i nly th e cl a use s o f th e sen te nce

,

a r e arr a nged on the thre a d o f th e rel a tive like thrushes o n

a s tring ; but w e h a e a l e a dy obse ved th a t Va r o

v r ejec ted r r r

on pri nciple th e e ffor t a fter a ch a s te s tyle a nd A ttic periods

( p. a nd h is a e s the tic ess a y s while de sti tu te of th e ,

m e a n b o m b a st a nd th e spurious tinsel of vulg a ri s m were ,

ye t wri tte n a fter a n unclassic a nd even slove nly fa s hion ,

in sen te nces ath e r di ectly j o ined o n to e a ch o the th a n

r r r

regula ly subdivided T h e p o e tic a l pieces in se ted o n the

r . r

o ther h a nd show no t m erely th a t their a u thor knew how to

1 H e him se f l o nce apt ly

h e ha d no s p e cia fo nd ne ss fo r
sa ys , th a t l
l
a ntiqua te d w o r ds , b ut fr e que nt y u se d th e m , a n d th a t h e w as ve ry fo nd o f
l
po e tica wo rd s, b ut did no t use th e m .
C H A P. x xx L I TERA T URE ,
AN D A R T 4

mould the m os t v a ried mea sures wi th as m uch m as tery as

a ny of the fa shi o na ble poe ts b ut th a t he h a d a righ t to ,

include hi m self a m o ng th o se to whom a god ha s gr a n ted

the gi ft of b a nishing ca res from the he art by s o ng and

“

s a cred poesy 1 T he sketches of Varr o no m o re cre a ted a

.
”

sch o ol tha n th e did a c tic poem of L ucretius ; to the m ore

general c a uses which preven ted this there falls to be a dded
their thoroughly individu a l s ta m p which w as insep a r able ,

fr o m the gre ater ag e fro m th e rus tici ty and eve n fr o m th e

, ,

peculia r erudi tion of their a u thor But th e gra ce a nd .

hu m our of the M e nippe an s a tires a bove all which seem to ,

h a e been in nu m ber and i mporta nce fa superior to Var ro s

v r
’

g a ver works ca p tiv ated his con te mpora ries a s well as those
r ,

in a fter times who had a ny relish for origi na li ty a nd n ation al

1
l
Th e fo l o wing d e scrip tion is ta k en fro m the M a r eip or S la ve of
M ar cus
R epen te noctis cir cite r me r idie
Cu m p it ta : a er f er v idis la te ig nibur
Cae l i chor ea n a str zee n oste nde r et,
N a te: a g u a li f r ig ido v e lo lever
,

Cae li e a ver rza : a ur eas s uodux er a nt,

A g ua m v omen ter inf e r e m mor ta liour .

Ve nt iqu e f r zjgido se a b a x e e r up em nt ,
P h r eue tici sep ten tn onu m fi lii,
’

S eeu m f er ente: teg u las , r a mos , syr us .

A t no: ca da ci, n a uf r ag i, u t e ieon ia e

Quo r u m ozpm n ir f u lmin is p lumes v apor
P er ussit a lte m a es ti in ter r a m e ecidimu r.
,

’
I n th e Av0pw1r é xro) \t s w e find th e ine s l
N onfi t tlzesa u r is, non a u r a p et tu rolu tu m
’

N on de m a n t a n imis e u r o: ao r e llig iones

'
P e r sa r u m mon tes , n on a tr ia div itz Cr a ssi .

But th e p o e t w a s s ucces s ful al s o in a l igh t er ve in

I n th e E s t .

M a tula e th ere s to o d th e fo ll o w in g el e ga nt co m m e nda tio n o f wine

Vin o u ilzil iuou ndiu: quisg u a m m u .

H oe a eg r itudinem a d medenda m in v en er zm t.
H oe h ila r ita tis du lce s emin a r iu m ,
H oe eontixze t e oag u lu m oonviv ia .

And in th e K oo aor opom th e w a nd er e r

'
re tur nin g h o me thus co nclude;
h is a ddress to th e s ai o rs l
D el i: b a l eno s a n ima e leni,
D um no: m ums /fa m ine rudo
S ue ven a d p a tr ia m p er ducit .
49 2 R E LI G I ON , CU LTU R E, BOO Kv
spirit ; a nd even we who are no lo nger perm i tte d to re a d ,

the m may s till from the frag me nts preserve d discern in

,

s o m e m e a sure th a t the wri ter knew how to la ugh and ho w “

to jest in m o dera tion And a s th e l as t bre ath of the good

”
.

spirit of the old burgess ti m es ere it dep arted as the l atest -

fresh growth which the n ation al La ti n poetry put forth the ,

S a tires of Va rro deserved th at th e poe t in his p o etical

tes ta ment should co m m e nd these his M e nippe a n children
to every one who h ad at he ar t the pro spe i ty o f R om e
“
r

a nd of La tiu m a nd they a cc o rdingly re ta in a n ho nour a ble

pl a ce in the li terature as in the histo y of the I talia n people 1 r .

1Th kth f V e s he c n
esmm hi t i l
o d arro a ve so u co on s o r ca an e ven

po e tica l s ignifi ca nce , a nd are y et in co nse que nce o f th e fra gm e nta ry ,

s h a p e in w h ich info rma tio n r e gar ding th e m h as re a ch ed us , kno wn to s o

k
fe w a nd so ir s o m e to s tudy , th a t w e m a y b e a l o w e d to give in this p a ce l l
a r ts u mt o f so m e o f th e m w ith th e fe w re s to ra tio ns ind is p e ns ab e fo r l
k
ma ing th e m rea da b e l .

l
T h e sa tire M a n ia : ( Ear y U p 1 ) d e s crib es th e m a na ge me nt o f a rura l
h ouse h o d “
lM a nius summ o ns h is p e o p e to ris e with th e sun, a nd in
. l
p e r s o n co nd ucts th e m to th e s ce ne o f th e ir w or The y o uths m a e th eir k
. k
o wn b e d, w h ich l
a b o ur re nde rs so ft to th e m an d s up p y th e m s e ve s w ith , l l
w a te r j ar a nd a m p
-
l . k
Th e ir drin is th e c e a r fre sh s p ring th e ir fa r e b r e a d , l ,

a nd o nio ns a s r e is h l
Ever y th ing p ro s p e rs in h o use a nd fi e d
. Th e l .

k
h o use is no w o r o f a rt b u t a n a rch ite ct m igh t e arn s y m m e try fro m it l .

k l
C ar e is ta e n o f th e fie d th a t it s h a no t b e e ft diso r d e r y a nd w a ste o r
, ll l l ,

l l
g o to ruin thr o ugh s o ve n ines s a nd ne g ect in r e turn th e gr a te ful Ce res l
w a r ds o ff d a m a ge fr o m th e p r o duce th a t th e hig h ~p ile d s h e a ve s m a y ,

l
g a dde n the h e a rt o f th e h usb a ndma n H ere h o sp ital ity s ti h o ds go od . ll l
e ve ry o ne w h o h as b ut im b ib e d m o th e r s m il is w e co m e Th e b r e a d
’
k l .

p a ntry a nd wine va t a nd th e s tor e o f sa u sa ges o n th e ra fter s o c a nd

-
, l k
ke y are a t th e s e rvice o f th e tra ve er , a nd p i e s o f fo o d ar e se t b e fo re ll l
h im ; co nte nte d s its th e sa te d gu e st, o o ing ne ither b e for e no r b e h ind, l k
do zing b y th e h e a rth in th e it ch e n k
T h e w arm es t d o ub e w o o s h ee p . l -
l
k
s in is s prea d a s a co uch for him H e re p e o p e sti a s go o d b ur ge sses . l ll
o b e y th e r ig h te o us la w , w h ich ne ith e r o ut o f e nvy inj ur es th e inno ce nt
,

n o r o ut o f fa vo ur p a r do ns th e gu i ty H ere th e y sp e a no e vil a ga ins ’ l . k

th e ir ne ighb our s H e re th e y tres p as s no t with th e ir fee t o n th e sa cre d
.

h e a rth , b ut h o no ur th e go ds W ith de vo tio n a nd With sacr ifi ce s th ro w for ,

l l
th e h o use s p ir it h is itt e b it o f fl e sh into h is a p p o inte d itt e dis h , a nd
-
l l
w h e n th e m as te r o f th e h o us e h o d d ies , a cco m p a ny the bie r with th e s a me l
p ra y e r w ith w h ich th ose o f h is fa ther a nd o f his g r a nd fa th er wer e ho m e

I n an o th e r satir e Tea ch er o f the Old

th er e a p pe ars a

( Pepovr ofixfido xa h os) of wh om th e de ge ne ra te a g e se e ms to sta nd more

,

l
ur ge nt y in nee d tha n o f th e tea ch e r o f y o uth a nd h e e x p a ins h o w o nce , l
e ve ryth in g in R o m e w as ch a s te a nd p io us , a nd no w all things are so
"

l
e ntir e y cha nge d Do my e y es d e ce ive m e , or do I see sla ve s in a rms
.
 4 94 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
78 .
( pr a e tor in T hose w h o h a d re a d it tes tify th a t it fa r

e xcelled in liveliness and re a dableness th e old dry

C hr o nicle s b ut w a s wri tten wi th a l in a s tyle th o o ughly
,
r

i mpure a nd even degener ating i nto puerili ty as ind e ed the

few re ma i ni ng frag m e nts exhibi t a p al try pa in ting o f
horrible deta ils and a nu mber of words newly coi ned or
1
,

derived from the la ngu age of co nvers ation Whe n it is .

a dded th a t th e a u th o s m odel a nd s o to spe a k th e o nly

’
r , ,

Greek his to ri a n fam iliar to him wa s Clitarch us the a u th o r ,

of a biogra phy of A lexa nder th e Grea t oscilla ting betwee n

his tory and fiction in th e m a nner o f th e s e m i rom ance -

which bears the na m e of Curtius we sh all no t hesi tate to ,

recognize in S ise nna s celebrated his to ic a l work no t a ’

r ,

n w f d m
o e j di i ly th n th hild — d l k wi
o re u c o us g i t th
a e c re n an i e se a a ns e

h m d bl i g w hi h i f i k
’
e nc h t a n r e sse s c ar s an ft
e ss n s , c n ca s es o s c ne ss so o en

t k th p l H t k p th gi l
’

a e ef th p h y i i
a ce o l e d i s c a n s co un se t . e a v se s o ee e r s a

e mb id y th t th y m y f w d
ro er , a d et d h w t j dg p p ly
a a te r ar s un e rs a n o o u e ro er

o f m b id
e d d t til w k
ro ere dan t ll w th m t p ff th
ex e or , an no t o a o e o ut o e

h il d d ly h w g i t yi g b y t th gl di t i l
’
c s t r e ss o o e ar e arns a a ns carr n o s o e a a or a

g m i whi h th h t i
a es , n ly h d d d
c e earlty l d —I
s e ar th ar e ne an crue e ar ne . n e

M f S i ty Y
an o V x pp e ar sR m Ep im idarr o wh h d
a e ar s as a o an en es o a

f ll n
a e l p wh a s ee b y ft dw k d p g i
en a o ft
o h lf t y
en a n a e u a a n a er a a ce n ur .

m
’
H i e t h d t fi d i t d f hi
s as o nis e o h hn b y h d
ns ea ld o s s oo t -
s o rn o s ea an o _

b l d p t w ith
a a e gly t d an ug b i l lik h dg h g b t h
s no u an s a va e r st e s e a e e o u e

is s ti ll m t i h d t th
o re as o n s h g R m e L a i y t f m ly
e c a n e in o e. ucr ne o s e rs , or er

a w ddi g d h
e n w is yd y f ; f
a re w hi h
no di gly th
e ve r a ar e or c , a cco r n , e

k p t gl tt il tly p p th i di y t h Wh il f m ly
,

b an ru u on s en re a r es e nce n ar o rc . e or er

th e f th a d i p d f hi b y
er s osew h di p l i t
o sf d o th , no t e s o sa s r a ns e rr e to e

l t
a t er h di p e f sh f hi f h
o se s, by p i o r so o t Th m t mh d
, o s at er o s o n. e co i iu a

b e com n e h ga h imi l t
e xc an l mi f gol d f th j ym
e, t e cr na r ia a ne o or e ur e n.

N l w i
o a y l g s an b y d ly th
o n er o th t e th i g i gi
e f
sa v e on is o ne , a no n s ve n or

no th i g nAll i t. h i h d i th i t d th
v r ues a ve w k dm
va n s i e n e r s ea e a a e ne an s

l t d by imp i ty p fidy l w d
sa u e e w d er Al f e h ne ss , as ne e n ize ns. as or t ee ,

w k i g l —Th
, ,

M arcus , wi h h l p d h
t s uc a s ee kth an s uc an a a en n e s e c

r e se mb l th C t l i
es i e p h h
a i ly f whi h ( b t 6 9 7 ) th ld
na r a n e oc , s o rt a te r c a ou e o

m an m t h us w it it d h
a ve l y r t en th i th b i t , an t h t e re a a tru n e t e r turn a t e
l ; wh M
c o se p p ly
e re p df
ar cus , h ro bl er i re r o ve or is unse as o na e a ccus a t o ns

an d t iq
an i n mi i
ua r a i —t h re m k p p l i ti
n s ce nces , f p im i i s a oc a ca on o a r t ve
R m o t m—d gg d
a n cus o l ld m t th b idg d th w
ra e as a us e e s s o an o e r e an ro n

i t
n o th Tib e Th w e r. t i ly l g e re m f as h m i
ce r a n no on e r ro o or su c en n
R m o e.
1 Th i n
“
t e n o ce n p h th ,
d g g t f th t m b ling
so ra n a s e ec ,
“
ou ra es or , re

in e ve r y l m b d i th hig h m g i
, an f th on i b k
e i th d w f ar n o e r ve r s
’
an n e a n o

th e m i g o rn n[h
”
h m b
t ou l ght d] S
ca us e s t l h t e to e s au e re . e ve r a s uc

p h th
r ase s , t m igh t b ia t d wi h t d ffi l ty i
e m
nse r em pl n l t ou i cu n a co on a ce o ve ,

OCCHI .
ca n . xn LI T ERA T U R E, A ND AR T 49 5

product of genuine his toric al cri ticis m and art but the ,

firs t R o ma n ess ay in th at hybrid m ixture of his tory and

roma nce so m uch a fa v o uri te wi th th e Greeks which desires ,

to m a ke the gr o u ndwork of fa c ts life like a nd in teres ting by

-

m e a ns of fic ti tious de ta ils a nd thereby ma kes it insipid a nd

un true ; a nd it will no longer exci te surprise th at we meet
wi th the s am e S ise nna also as tr a nsl ator of Greek fa shion
a ble ro m a nces ( p .

T h a t the prospec t should be s till more l am en table in the

field of the ge neral a nn als of th e ci ty a nd even of the world ,

wa s i mplied in th e n a tu e of th e ca se
r T he incre a si ng
.

a c tivi ty of a ntiqu ari a n rese a rch i n duced th e expec ta tion th a t

the curren t n a ative w o uld be rectified fro m docume nts

rr

and other trus twor thy sources ; b ut this hope wa s no t ful

filled T he m ore and th e deeper m e n inves tig a ted the

.
,

more clearly it beca m e app aren t wh at a ta sk it was to wri te

a cri tica l his tory of R o m e T h e di fficul ties even which
.
,

o pp osed the m selves to inves tig a tion a nd n a rra tion were ,

immense ; b ut the most da ngerous obs ta cles were no t those

o f a li terary kind .T h e conven tion a l e arly his tory of R o m e ,

as it ha d now been n a rr a ted a nd belie ed for a t le a s t te n

v

g ener a tions ,
w a s m os t in ti m a tely m ixed up wi th the civil

life of th e n ation ; and ye t in a ny th o rough a nd ho nes t

inquiry no t only ha d de ta ils to be modified here a nd there ,

but the whole buildi ng h a d to be over turned a s m uch a s

th e F ranco nia n pri m i tive his tory of ki ng P ha ra m und o r th e
B ritish of ki ng Ar thur A n i nquirer of conse rv a tive ie w s
. v ,

such as was Varro for insta nce could ha ve no wi sh to put his

,

h a nd to such a work ; a nd if a d ari ng free thi nker h a d

undertaken it an ou tcry would h ave been r a ised by all go od
,

ci tizen s aga i ns t this worst of all revolu tionaries who was

.
,

prepa ring to deprive the consti tu tion al pa rty even of their

p as t
. T hus philologic a l a nd a n tiqu a ri a n resea rch d eterred
from th e wri ting of history ra ther th a n conduced towa r d s it .

Varro and the more s ag aciou s m e n in genera l evidently g ave

 496 R E LI G I ON , CU LT UR E, Bo o k v

up th e task of a nn als as hopeless ; at the most they

a rr a nged a s did T i tus P o mp o nius A t ticus th e o ffici a l a nd
, ,

gen tile lists in unpre tending tabul a r sha pe — a wo rk by

which the synchro nis tic Grae co R om an chron ology wa s -

fin ally brought in to the sh ape in which it was conven tion ally

fixed for pos teri ty B ut the ma nufa c ture of ci ty chro nicles
.
-

of course did no t suspend its a c tivi ty ; it con tinue d to

supply its contribu tions both in p ose a nd verse to the r

gre at libra ry wri tten by ennui for ennui while the m akers ,

o f th e books in p a rt alre a dy fr eedme n did no t trouble

, ,

the m selves at all a bout rese a rch properly so c alled S uch

o f these wri tings a s a re m en ti o ned to us—no t o ne of the m
.

is pre served—s eem to h a ve been no t o nly of a wholly

s econd a ry ch ar a c ter but in grea t p art even pervaded by
,

in teres ted fa lsification I t is true that the chronicle of

.

Quintus Cla udius Quadrig arius (a bou t 6 7 6 P) was wri tten

in an ol d fa shione d b ut good style a nd s tudied at lea st a
-

comm en dable brevi ty in the representation of the fa bulous

period Ga ius Licinius M acer ( t as l ate pra e tor in
.

fa ther of the poe t C alvus ( p a nd a ze a lous de m ocr a t

.
,

la i d cl a im m ore th a n a ny o ther chronicler to docu men ta ry

rese arch and cri ticism but his lzé r i lzntez a nd other m atters '
' '

peculia r to him ar e in the highest degree suspicious and a n ,

in te rpol ation of the whole a nn als in the in terest of demo

cratic tendencies —ah inte rp ola t o n of a very extens ive kind
.
,

a nd which h as p a ssed over in p a r t to th e l a ter a nn a lists

is proba bly tra cea ble to him .

La s tly Va lerius A n ti a s excelled a ll his predecessors in

,
Antias
.

proli xi ty a s well a s in pue ile s tory telling The falsificati o n

r -
.

of nu mbe s was here sy ste m atic ally ca rried o ut dow n even to

r

con te mp o rary his tory a nd the p i mi tive his to ry o f R o me was

,
r

elaborated once m ore fro m o ne fo r m of i nsipidi ty to a no ther ;

fo r ins ta nce th e n a ra tive of th e w ay in which th e wise N uma
r

a ccording to th e i ns truc tions of th e ny mph Egeri a c a ugh t

the g ods Fa unus a nd P icus wi th wine and th e b ea u tiful .

 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , BOO Kv
A vel ty in th e Ro man li tera ture of this perio d is th e
no

a ppe a a nce o f u nive s a l hi st ory o

r to spe a k m ore correc tly
r r, ,

o f R o m a n a n d G eek his to y c o njoi ned alo ngside of th e

r r ,

na tive a nna l s C o nelius N epos fro m T icinum (c 6 50

. r .

7 5) fi s t supplied a n u niver sa l chro nicle (published befo re

2 r

70 0
) a nd a ge n er a l collec ti o n o f biogr a phies — a rr a nged

a cc o di ng to cer ta i n c a teg o ie s — o f R o ma ns a nd Greek s

r r

dis ti nguished in p o li tic s or li tera ture o r o f m e n at any rate

who exercised in fl uence o n th e R o ma n or Greek his tory .

T hese w o k s a re o f a ki n dred n a ture wi th th e u nivers a l

r

his tories which the G eek s h a d for a co nside able ti m e been r r

co m posi ng a nd the s e ery G eek world chronicles such a s v r -

th a t of K a s to r s o n in la w of th e G a l a ti a n ki ng D e io tarus
- -

co ncluded in 6 9 8 no w bega n to include in their ra nge th e

,

R o ma n his tory which previously they h a d neglec ted .

T hese w o rk s cer ta nly a tte mp ted jus t like P olybius to

i , ,

subs ti tu te the hi s to ry of the Medi te a nea n wo rld for the rr

m ore loc a l one b ut th a t which in P o lybius wa s the resul t

o f a g a nd a nd cle a r co ncep tio n a nd deep his to ric a l fe eling
r

wa s in these chr o nicles r a ther th e pr o duc t of th e pr a c tica l

exige ncies o f sch o o l a nd s elf i ns truction T hese ge nera l -
.

chr o nicle s text b o oks fo r sch o l a s tic i ns truc tio n or m a nua l s

,
-

fo refere nce a nd th e wh o le li ter a ture therewi th connec ted

r ,

which subseque ntly bec a m e very copi o u s in th e La tin _

la ngu age a ls o ca n h a rdly be reck o ned as bel o ngi ng to

,

a r tis tic his to ric a l c o mposi tio n ; a nd N epos hi m self in

p a rticul a r wa s a pure c o mpiler dis ti nguished neither by
spi i t no r even m erely by sy m me trica l pl a n
r .

T h e hi s to iog a phy o f this peri o d is cer ta inly re ma rk a ble

r r

a nd in a high degree ch a r a c teris tic but it is a s fa r fr o m ,

plea si ng as th e ag e i tsel f T he i nterpe ne tra tion of Greek .

and La ti n li ter a ture is in no field so cle a rly a pp a ren t a s in

th a t of his tory ; here th e respec tive li tera tures beco me

e arlies t equ a lized in ma tter a nd fo r m a nd th e c o ncep tion ,

o f R elleno I talic hi s tory a s a n unity

-
in which P oly biu s ,
C HA P . Xxx L I TERA T URE , AN D A R T

was so far in a dva nce of h is ag e was no w le arned even ,

by Greek and R o man boys a t sch o o l B ut while th e .

Medi terra ne a n s tate ha d fo u nd a hi sto ri n befo re it had a

beco me c o nsci o us o f its own exi ste nce no w when th at , ,

co nscious ness ha d been a tta ined there did no t a rise ei ther ,

a m o ng th e Greeks or a m ong th e R o ma ns a ny m a n who

wa s a ble to give to it a dequ ate expressi o n T here is no “

.

such thing s a ys Cicero as R o man histo rica l c o m posi

, ,
“

tio n a nd so far a s we ca n judge this is no m ore th a n

”
, ,

th e si m ple tru th T h e m a n of rese a rch turns a w a y fro m

.

wri ti ng hi s to ry the wri ter of his to y turns aw a y fro m

,
r

resea rch ; his to rica l li terature oscill ate s be tween th e

sch o olb o ok a nd th e ro ma nce A ll th e s pecies o f pure art .

—epos dra m a lyric poe try history— ar e w o rthles s in this

, , ,

worthless wo rld ; b ut in no species is the in tellectu a l

deca y of the Ciceroni a n ag e reflec ted wi th so terrible a
clea rness a s in its histo riog a phy r .

T he m inor his to ric a l li tera ture of thi s period di spl a ys on

th e o ther h and a m ids t m a ny insignific a nt a nd forgo tte n
,

pro d uc tions one tre a tise of the firs t r a nk— th e Memoirs o f

,

C a es ar or r ather the Mili ta ry R ep o t of th e de m ocra tic C

,
r
'
aes ar s
R m
genera l to the people f o m wh o m he ha d received his r
e

co mmission Th e fi nished sectio n a nd th at which alone

.
,

was publi s hed by th e a u thor hi m self describing th e Cel tic ,

c amp aig ns dow n to 7 0 2 is evide ntly de sig ned to jus tify a s 52

, .

well a s p o ssible before the public th e formally unco nstitu

tio nal en terprise of C a es a r in co nqueri ng a gre at c o un try
a nd cons ta n tly incre a si ng his a rmy for th a t objec t wi thou t

in str uc tions from the compe tent a u tho i ty ; it wa s wri tten r

a nd given for th in 7 0 3 whe n th e s to m br o ke o ut a ga ins t 51

,
r

Ca esa r in R om e a nd he wa s su mm o ned to dis m iss his

a rmy a nd a nswer for his conduc t T h e a u thor of this
1
.

1 Th t th t
a ti
e threaG lli w w
se o n p b l i h d ll t
e a h c ar as u s e a a o nce , as
b nl g
ee on j t d th di i p f h it w
co n e c ur e e i f
s t nct i h d b y th ro o t at a s so , s ur n s e e
m ti
en on o f th q li i
e e f h B i
ua d th H d
za t o n o l dy i h fi t
t e or an e ae ui a rea n t e rs

b k ( 8 ) wh th B t ll i th th ( t ib t y
oo c. 2 ereas e on s i
) o ccur n e s e ve n c. 1 0 as r ua r
50 0 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
v indication wri tes as he hi mself says entirely as an officer
, ,

a nd c arefully a voids ex tendi ng his m ili ta ry repor t to th e

h a za rdous dep a r tm en ts of p o li tica l organi zati o n a nd a dminis

tra tio n H is inci d e nta l a nd p a r tis a n tre a tise c a s t in th e
.

fo rm of a m ilitary repor t is i tself a p iece of his to ry like the

bulle tins of N apoleon but it is not a nd was no t in te nded
,
~
,

to be a his torica l work in th e true se ns e of the word

, th e
o bjec tive form which the n a r a tive a ssume s is th a t of th e r

magis tr ate not th a t of the hi stori a n

,
B ut in this modest .

chara c ter the wo k is ma s te ly and finished m ore tha n a ny

r r ,

o ther in all R oma n litera ture T he n arr ative is alwa ys .

terse a nd never sc a n ty a lw a ys si mple a nd never c a reless

, ,

a lwa ys Of tr a nspa en t vivid ness a nd never s tra ined or

r

a ffec ted Th e l a ngu age is c o mple tely pure fro m archa is m s

.

a nd from vulg a is m s— th e type of th e modern nr ba nzta r

'

r .

I n th e B ooks concerni ng th e Civil Wa r we seem to feel

th a t th e a u thor ha d desired to a void wa r a nd could no t
a void it a nd perh a p s a lso th a t in C a es a r s soul a s in every
-
’

, ,

o ther the period of hope wa s a purer a nd fresher o ne tha n

,

tha t of fulfil m en t ; b ut over th e tre a ti s e on th e Ga llic war

there is di ffused a br igh t sereni ty a si mple ch a r m which , ,

a re no less unique in li ter a ture th a n C a e s ar is in his tory .

j
sub ects o f th e H a e dui, a nd e vi e nt d ly on ly o b tain e d e qua l ri gh ts w ith th e ir
for me r m a ste rs o n a cco unt o f th e ir co nduct and th a t o f th e H a e dui in th e
war a ga inst V er cinge torix On th e o th e r h a nd a ny o ne w h o a tte ntive y
. l
ll ll
fo o w s th e h is to ry o f th e tim e w i find in th e e xp re ss io n a s to th e M ilo n ia n
cr is is ( vii 6 ) a p ro o f th a t th e tre a tise w as p ub ish e d b e fore th e o utb rea
. l k
o f th e civil w ar ; no t b e ca us e P o m p e ius is th er e p ra is e d, b ut b e ca us e
C a e sar th er e a p p r o ve s th e e xce p tio na aws o f 7 0 2
(p l l
T h is h e .

l l
m igh t and cou d no t b ut do , so o ng as h e s o ugh t to b ring a b o ut a
l
p e a ce fu a cco mm o da tio n w ith Po m p e ius ( p b ut no t a fte r th e r up ture ,
.

wh e n b e re ve rs e d th e co nd e mna tio ns th a t t o o p a ce o n th e b a s is o f th o se k l
law s inj urio us fo r h im ( p A cco rding y the p ublica tio n of this
. l
trea tise h a s b ee n quite righ t y p a ce d in 7 0 3 l l .

k
The te nde ncy o f th e w o r w e disce rn m o st distinct y in th e co nsta nt, l
o fte n — l l
mo s t de cid e d y , d o ub t e s s , in th e case o f th e Aquitanian e x pe ditio n
—
iii xx no t succe s sful , j ustifi ca tio n o f e ve ry s ing e a ct o f w ar as a de fe ns w e
. l
mea sure which th e s ta te o f th ings h a d re nde re d ine vitab e T h a t th e l .

a dversaries o f C a e sar ce nsure d his a tta c s o n th e C e ts and k

e r ma ns l G
a b o ve all as unp r o vo e d, is w e k ( ll k
no w n S ue to n Ca r . .
50 2 R ELI G I ON , CULT U R E, Kv
B OO

power of th e mind fro m which it spr ings am o ng the ,

per ma nen t tre asures of the n ati o na l li tera tu e T hus in r .

R o m e th e records o f ora tions of a poli tic a l te no delivered r

befo re th e burge s ses or th e jury me n h ad for l o ng pla yed a

gre at p ar t in public li fe ; a nd no t o nly so but th e speeches ,

of Ga ius Gra cchus in p a rticul a r were jus tly reckoned a m o ng

th e cl a ssic a l R o ma n wri ti ngs B ut in thi s epoch a singul ar
.

ch ange occurred on a ll h a nds The c o mp o si tio n o f .

political speeches w as o n th e decline like poli tic al spea king

i tsel f T he p o li tic a l s peech in R om e as generally in the
.
,

a ncie nt poli ties re a ched its cul min ati ng p o i nt in the

,

discussions befo re the bu gesses he e the o ra tor was no t

r r

fe ttered as in th e s en ate by c o llegi ate co nsidera tions a nd

, ,

burdenso me for m s no r a s in th e judici al a ddre sses by the

, , ,

i nteres ts — in the m selv e s fo reign to poli tics — o f the

a ccus a tion a nd defe nce ; here alo ne his he a rt swelled
proudly before th e wh o le gre a t a nd m igh ty R om a n pe o ple
ha nging o n his lips But all this w a s no w g o ne N o t as
. .

th o ugh there w a s a ny l a ck of or a to rs o r of th e publishi ng

of speeches delivered befo re the burgesses o n th e c o n trary
poli tica l a u thorship o nly no w wa xed c0 pio us a nd it beg an ,

to bec o m e a s ta ndi ng co m pl a i nt a t ta ble tha t th e hos t

i nco mmo ded his gues ts by re a ding befo re them his l a tes t
orations P ublius Clo dius ha d his speeches to the pe o ple
.

is s ued a s p am phle ts j ust like Ga iu s Gra cchus ; b ut two

,

m e n may do th e s a m e t hing wi thou t produci ng th e s a me

e ffect The more i mpor ta nt lea ders even of the o pp o si tion
.
,

especi ally C aesa r hi m s elf did not o ften a dd ess the

/
,
r

burgesses and no l o nger publi shed the speeches which

,

they delivered ; indeed they p a tly sough t for their p o li tic al

r

fugi tive wri ti ngs ano ther fo m th a n the tra di tiona l o ne of

r
'

confzoner in which respec t m o re especi ally the wri ti ngs

,

pra ising a nd censuri ng C ato ( p 32 1 ) a re re mark a ble . .

T his is e a sily expl a ined Ga ius Gra cchus ha d a ddres sed

.

th e burgesses ; now men a ddressed the p o pul a ce ; a nd as

ca n . xu LI TE R AT U R E, A N D ART 50 3

th e u dience so wa s the s peech N o won d er tha t the

a ,
.

repu ta ble p o li tica l a u thor shu nned a dress which implied

th at he h a d direc ted h is words to th e crowd a sse m bled in
th e m a rke t pl a ce of th e c api ta l
-
.

While the co mposi tion of orations thus declined from Ri f se o a

lit t e ra ure
its form er li tera ry a nd poli tic a l va lue in th e s a m e w ay a s f p l d o ea

a ll br a nches of li ter a ture which were th e n a tur a l growth of i g n s.

th e n a tion a l life there beg a n a t the s am e ti m e a singul a r

, ,

non poli tic a l li terature of ple a di ngs H i therto th e R o ma ns

-

,
.

h a d known no thing of th e ide a th a t th e a ddress of a n

a dvoc a te a s such w a s des ti ned no t o nly fo r the judges a nd

the p a r ties but a lso for th e li te a ry e difi ca tio n of con te m

,
r

p o rar ie s a nd pos teri ty ; no a dvoca te h a d wri tten dow n a nd

published his ple a dings unless they were possibly a t the

,

s am e ti m e poli tic al ora tio ns and in so far were fi tted to be

circul a ted as p a rty wri ti ngs a nd this had no t occurred very
,

freque ntly Even Quin tus H or tensius ( 6 4 0

. th e 1 1 4 50 -
.

m o s t celebr a ted R o ma n a dvoc ate in th e firs t ye a rs of this

period published but few speeches and these a ppa ren tly
,

o nly such a s were wholly or h a lf poli tical I t w as his Ci . ce ro .

successor in the lea dership of the R o ma n bar M a rcus ,

T ullius Cicero ( 6 4 8 — 7 1 1 ) who w as fro m the ou tse t qui te 1 06 43 -

.

a s m uch a u thor a s fo rensic orator ; he published his

ple a di ngs regula rly even when they we e no t at all or but
, r

re m o tely con nec ted wi th poli tics T his w as a token no t .

,

of progress but of an unn a tura l a nd degener ate s tate of

,

thi ngs E ven in A the ns th e a ppe a r a nce of non poli tic a l

.
-

ple a dings a mong th e for m s of li terature w as a sign of

debili ty and it was doubly so in R o m e which did no t like ,

A thens by a s o r t of necessi ty pr o duce this m alfo m a ti o n r

from the ex aggera ted pursui t of rhe toric b ut borrowed it ,

from a broa d a rbi tra rily a nd in a n tagonism to the be tter

tra ditions of the n ation Y e t this new species of li tera ture
.

ca me ra pidly i nto vo gue p ar tly bec a use it h ad vari o u s

,

poin ts of con tact a nd coincide nce wi th the ea rlier a u th o rshi p

50 4 R E LI G I ON , CU LT URE , no o x v
of p o li tical orations p artly bec a use the u npoe tic dog
, ,

matical rhe to rizing te m pera m en t of th e R o ma ns o ff ered a

,

fa oura ble soil for the new seed a s i ndeed at th e presen t

v ,

day th e speeches of a dvoc a tes a nd e en a sort of li ter ature v

of law proceedings are of so me i mp o r ta nce in I taly

-
.

T hus o ratoric a l a u thorship e m a ncip a ted fr o m poli tics

was n atura lized in th e R o ma n li tera ry world by Cicer o

We h ave a lre a dy ha d occ a sion several ti m es to m e ntion

this m a ny sided m a n-
A s a s ta tes ma n wi thout i nsigh t
.
,

idea or purp o se he figured succe s sively as de mocr at as

, , ,

a ris tocr at a nd as a to o l of th e m o na rch s a nd w a s never

, ,

mo re th a n a shor t s igh ted eg o tis t -

Where he e xhibi ted .

th e se m bl a nce of a c tion th e ques ti o ns to which his a c ti o n

,

a pplied h a d a s a rule ,
j us t re a ched their soluti o n ; thus
,

he c am e fo rwa rd in th e tri a l of Ver e s a ga ins t th e sen a to i al r r

courts when they were alre a dy se t a side thus he w as sile nt

at the discussion on th e Ga binia n a nd a c ted as a ch a m pion ,

o f the M a nilian la w ; thus he thu n dere d a g a ins t C a tili na

,

when his dep arture wa s a lre a dy s e ttled and so for th H e ,

.

wa s vali a nt in opp o si ti o n to sh a m a tta cks a nd he k no cked ,

down m any wa lls of p a s teb o a rd wi th a loud din no serious

ma tter w as e er ei ther in g o od or evil decided by h im a nd
v , , ,

th e execu ti o n o f th e C a tili n i ns in p ar ticul a r was fa r m ore

ar a

due to his a cquiesce nce th a n to his i ns tig a tion I n a li ter .

ary poi nt of view we h a ve a lre a dy no ticed th a t he w a s th e

cre ato r of th e m o dern Lati n prose (p 4 5 6 ) his i m p o ta nce . r

re sts o n his ma s tery of s tyle a nd it is o nly a s a s tylis t that,

he shows co nfide nce in hi m sel f I n th e cha rac ter o f a n .

a u th o r on the other h and he s tands qui te a s low a s in

, ,

th a t of a s tates m an H e ess a yed th e m ost v a ried ta sks

.
,

s ang th e gre a t deeds of M a rius a nd his own pe tty a chie e v

m en t s in endless hex a me ters be a t D e m o s thenes o ff the ,

field wi th his speeches a nd Pla to wi th his philo s o phic ,

dia logues ; and time a lone w a s wanti ng for him to v a nqu ish
al s o T hucydides H e wa s in fa c t so th o r o ughly a da bbler
. ,
 50 6 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OOKv
juris tic deduction in the fo rensic a ddresses the ego tis m ,

fo rge tful of its du ty a nd cons ta ntly l o si ng sigh t of th e c a use

while thi nking of the a dvoc a te th e dre a dful b a rrenness o f ,

th o ugh t in the Cicer o ni a n or a tio ns m ust revol t every re a der

o f feeli ng a nd judg m en t .

I f there is a ny thing w o nderful in th e c a se it is in tru th ,

a te nis m.
no t th e ora tio ns but th e a d m ir a ti o n which they exci ted
, .

A s to Cicero eve y u nbi a ssed person will soo n m ake up

r

his m ind Cicero ni ani s m is a p oble m which in fa ct r ,

c a nnot be prope ly solved but can o nly be resolved in to

r ,

th a t gre a ter m ys tery of hu ma n nature — l a ngu age a nd th e

e ffect o f l a ngua ge on th e m i nd I na s m uch a s the n o ble .

La ti n l a ngu age ju st before it perished a s a n a ti o n al idio m

, ,

wa s o nce m ore a s it were co mprehe n sively g a sped by th a t r

dexterous s tylist a nd dep o si ted in his c o pious wri ti ngs ,

som e thing of th e p o wer which l a ngu age exercises and of ,

th e pie ty which it a wa ke ns w a s tr a n s ferred to th e u n worthy

,

vessel T h e R o m a ns p o ssessed no gre at La tin prose

.

wri ter for C a esa r was like Napo le o n o nly inciden tally an
, ,

a u thor Wa s it to be wondered a t th a t in the a bsence of

.
,

such an o ne they s h o uld at lea s t ho no ur th e genius of the

,

l angu a ge in th e gre a t s tyli st ? and th a t like Cicero hi m self , ,

'
Cicero s re a ders a lso sh o uld a ccu s to m the m selves to a sk no t
wh a t but ho w he h ad wri tten ? Cus tom a nd the school
,

m a ster then co m pleted wh a t th e power o f la ngu age ha d

begun .

Cicero s c o n te mpora ries howe ver were as may re a dily

’
,

be c o nceived far les s invol ed in thi s s t a nge id o la try th a n

,
v r

m a ny of their s uccessors T he Cicer o ni an m a nner ruled no

.

d o ub t through o u t a generation the R o ma n a dv o c a te wo rld -

,

j us t as th e far w o r se m anner of H o te nsius ha d do ne but r

th e m o s t consider a ble me n such a s C a es a r kep t the m selves

, ,

a lw a ys a loof fr o m it a nd a m o ng th e you nger ge ner ati o n

,

there a ose in a ll m e n o f fresh a nd li i ng ta len t th e m o s t

r v

deci d ed opposi tio n to th a t hybrid a nd feeble rhe toric .

CH AP. X I I L I TE R AT URE , AN D A R T 50 7

T hey found Cicer o s l a ngu a ge deficie nt in precision a nd

’

ch as teness his jes ts deficient in liveliness his a rr a nge m e nt

, ,

deficie nt in cle arness and a r ticul a te divi s i o n a nd a b o ve all ,

his whole eloque nce wa n ting in the fire which m akes the
ora tor I ns te a d of th e R hodi a n eclectics m e n beg a n to
.

recur to the genuine Attic orators especi a lly to L ysi a s a nd C l , a vus

D e m os thenes a nd sough t to n atur a lize a m ore vig o rous a nd

,
figgfm
m a sculi ne eloquence in R o m e R e presen ta tives of this
.

te ndency were th e sole m n b ut s ti ff M arcus J unius B ru tus

,

h o poli tica l p a r ti s a n s M a rcu s C a e lius 8 5 42

( 9
6 6 t e tw -
.

R ufus ( 6 7 2 7 0 6-
p 3 )
1 7 a nd G a ius
. S c ibo nius Curio 8 2 4 8 r -
,

p ) — bo h s ora tors full of spiri t a nd 49

( 7 5
1 0 ; 1 8.
3 2 33 t , a ,

li fe ; C alvu s well known a lso as a poet ( 6 7 2 th e 32 43 -

,

li terary coryph a eus of thi s younger gro up of ora tors a nd

the ea rnes t a nd co nscie ntious G a ius A sinius P ollio ( 6 7 8 7 6 4 A -
. D.

U ndeni a bly there w a s m ore ta s te a nd m o e spi i t in r r

this younger or a to ric a l li ter a ture th a n in th e H o te ns i a n r

a nd Cicer o ni a n pu t to ge ther b ut we are no t a ble to judge

how far amids t th e s tor m s of th e e o lu tio n which ra pidly
,
r v

swep t a wa y th e whole of this richly—gifted gr o up wi th th e

single excep tion of Pollio th o se be tter germ s a tta ined,

develop m ent T he ti me a llo tted to the m was but to o b ief

. r .

T he new mo narchy beg a n by m aking w ar on freedo m o f

speech and s o o n wh o lly suppre s sed th e poli tica l or ati o n
, .

T henceforth th e su b ordin ate specie s o f th e pure a dvoc a te

ple a ding w as d o ubtles s still e ta i ned in li terature ; b ut th e
r

higher art a nd li te ature o f o a to y which thoroughly

r r r ,

depend on p o li tic a l exci te men t perished wi th the la tter of ,

necessi ty and fo r ever .

La s tly the e sp a ng up in th e a es the tic li tera ture of this Th

r r e

peri o d the ar tis tic tre a tm e nt o f subjec ts of professi o n al $ 2 31

scie nce in the fo r m of th e s tylis tic di a logue which ha d bee n pp l i d t
2 a e o
,

very exte nsively in use am ong th e Greeks a nd ha d bee n (i g ; r

)

a lre a dy empl o yed a lso in is o l a ted c a s es a m o ng th e R o ma ns in sc e ces

( iv
. Cicero e speci ally ma de various atte mp ts at pre
 R EL I G I ON , C U LTU R E , BOO Kv
sen ting rhetorical and philosophic al subjects in this form and
m aki ng th e p o fessi o n al m a nu a l a sui ta ble bo o k fo r re a ding
r .

55 H is chief wri ti ngs ar e th e D e O a to e (wri tte n in

. tor r

which th e his to ry of R oma n eloquence (th e di al o gue B r utus ,

46 wri tten in 7 0 8 ) a nd o ther m inor

. heto ica l ess a ys were r r

a dded by w a y of s upple m en t a nd th e tre atise D e R e ué lzcé

'

p
(written in with which the tre atise D e l eg zbur (wri tten '
54.

52 t in 7 0 2 P) a fter th e m odel of Pl a to is brough t i nto connec

tion. T hey are n o gre at works of a rt but undoub tedly ,

they ar e th e works in which th e excellences of th e a u thor

are m os t a nd his defec ts le a s t c o nspicuous

, Th e rhe to ric a l
, .

writi ngs are far fro m com i ng up to the did a ctic ch a s te ness
of form a nd precision of though t o f th e R heto ric d edica ted
to H e re nnius but they con ta in ins te a d a s to re of prac tic al
,

forensic experience a nd forensic a necdo tes of all sorts

ea sily and ta s tefully set for th and in fa ct s o lve the ,

problem of co m bi ni ng did a ctic instruction with a muse

men t The tre atise D e R apublzcd c a rries o ut in a singul ar
.
’

m ongrel compound of his tory and phil o sophy the le a ding ,

ide a th at the exis ti ng cons ti tu tion o f R o m e is subs tan tially

th e ide a l s tate orga niz a tion s o ught for by th e phil o s ophers
-

a n ide a indeed just a s u nphil o sophic a l a s unhis to ric a l a nd ,

besides no t even peculia r to th e a u thor b ut which as may , ,

re a dily be conceived becam e and re m a ined popul ar The

, .

scie ntific groundwork of these rhe to rical a nd poli tical wri ti ngs
of Cicero bel o ngs of c o urse en tirely to the Greeks and many ,

of th e de tails a ls o such a s th e gra nd co ncluding e ffect in

,

th e tre atise D e R p ué lzcd th e D re a m of S cipio ar e direc tly

'

e , ,

borrowed from the m ye t they possess comp ar ative origin

ali ty i nas much a s the el b o r a ti o n sh o ws throughou t R o m a n
,
a

loc al c o louri ng and the proud co nsci o usness o f poli tic al life
, ,

which th e R o m a n w a s certa inl y en ti tled to feel as c o m pa red

wi th the Greek s m akes th e a u th o r eve n co nfront his Greek
,

i ns tructors wi th a ce rtain independence The for m o f .

Cicero s di alogue is doub tless nei ther the genuine in ter

’
 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E, BOO Kv
repro duc tion of dia lec tic tra ins of though t I n this w ay .

no doub t a m ul ti tude of thick tom es m igh t very quickly

co me in to exis te nce T hey a re c o pies wro te the au thor ,
”

hi mself to a friend who wo ndered a t his fertili ty ; they “

give m e li ttle trouble fo r I supply o nly the words a nd

,

these I h a ve in a bun d a nce A g a i ns t this no thing fur ther

”
.

c o uld be s aid ; b ut a ny o ne who seeks cla ssica l productions

in works so wri tten ca n only be a dvised to study in li terary
matters a beco ming silence .

Of th e sciences o nly a si ngle one m a nifes ted vigorous

li fe tha t o f Latin phil o l o gy The sche m e of li nguis tic a nd
, .

a n tiqu a ri a n rese a rch wi thin the do m a in o f the L a tin ra ce

,

pl anned by S ilo wa s c arried o ut especi ally by his disciple

,

Va rro on the gr a ndes t sca le T here appea red compre .

h e nsive el aborations of the whole s tores of th e l a ngu age ,

m o re especi ally th e ex tensive gr a mm a tica l comm en taries of

F ig ulus a nd th e gre at work of Va rro D e l ingu al l a tzna
'

monogra phs on gramma r a nd th e his to ry of the la ngu age ,

such as Varro s wri tings on the usage of the Lati n l a ngu age
’
,

on synonyms on the ag e of the le tters on the origi n of the

, ,

L a tin tongue ; scholia on th e older li tera ture especi a lly on ,

Pl a u tus ; works of li tera ry his tory biogra phies of poe ts , ,

inves tigations in to the e a rlier dram a in to the scenic division ,

of the co medies of Pl autus and i nto their genuineness, .

L a tin a rch a eology which e m bra ced th e whole older his tory
,

a nd th e ri tu a l la w a p a rt fro m pr a c tic a l jurisprudence wa s ,

co m prehe nded in Va rro s A n tiqui ties of T hi ngs H u ma n

’ “

a nd D ivi ne which was a nd for all ti m es re m a i ned th e

”
,

funda men ta l treatise on the subjec t (published be tween

67
. 45. 6 8 7 a nd T h e first por ti o n Of T hi ngs H u ma n ,
“
,
”

de sc ibed th e pri meval ag e of R o me the divi s ions of ci ty

r ,

a nd coun try th e sciences of th e ye a r s m o nth s a nd d a ys

, , , ,

l as tly the public tra ns a ctio ns a t h o me a nd in war ; in the

,

second half Of T hi ngs D i i ne th e s ta te theol o gy the

,
“
v ,
” -

nature and significance of the colleges of experts of the ,

C H A P. x i i LI TER AT URE , AN D ART

h o ly pl aces of th e religious fes tiva ls of s acrifici al a nd

, ,

v o tive gifts a nd la s tly of th e gods the mselves were

,

su m ma ily unfolded M o reover besides a number of

r .
,

m o nogr a ph s — cg o n th e de s cen t of th e R o m a n pe o ple

.
,

on th e R o ma n g entes descended from T roy o n th e tribes ,

there wa s a dded as a l a ger a nd m ore indepe nde nt

,
r

supple m en t th e t e a tise Of th e Life of th e R o m a n People

,
r
”

— a re m ark a ble a tte mp t a t a history of R o ma n ma n ners ,

which ske tched a pic ture of the s tate of do m es tic life ,

fi nance a nd cul ture in the reg al th e e a rly epublic a n the

, ,
r ,

H a nniba lic a nd th e m o s t recen t period

,
T hese l abour s .

o f Va rr o were ba sed on a n e mpiric knowledge of the

R o m a n world a nd its a dj a cen t H elle nic do m a in more
v arious and greate r in its kind th a n a ny o ther R o ma n
ei ther before o r a fter h im possessed — a knowledge to
which living observa tion a nd the s tudy of li ter a ture a like
con tribute d T he eulogy of his con te mpora ries was well
.

deserved th at Va rr o had en a bled his coun try men —s tra ngers

,

in their own world — to k now their posi tion in their n a tive

l a nd a nd ha d taugh t the R o m a ns who a nd where they
,

were But cri ticis m a nd sys te m will be sough t for in v a in

. .

H is Greek infor ma tion see m s to h a ve co m e from s o m ewh a t

confused sources a nd there are tra ces th at even in the
,

R o ma n field th e wri ter w a s no t free fro m the in fl uence

o f the his toric al ro ma nce of his ti m e The m atter is .

doub tless i nserted in a c o nvenie nt a nd sy mme trica l frame

work b ut no t cl a s sifie d o r tre ated m e thodically ; and wi th
,

a ll his e ffor ts to b i ng tr a di ti o n a nd person a l observa tion

r

i nto h ar mony th e scie ntific la bours of Va rro are not to be

,

a cqui tted of a cer ta in i m plici t fa i th in t a di ti o n or of a n r

impr a ctic al s chol a s ticis m Th e connec tion wi th G eek

1
. r

1
A remar k a b le exa m p e l l
is th e ge ne r a e x p os itio n re gar d ing ca tt e in l
th e trea tis e o n H usb a ndry (ii I ) with th e nine tim e s nine s ub divis io ns o f
.

l
th e d o ctrine of ca tt e re ar ing , with th e
-
incr e dib e b ut tr ue l
fa ct th a t the
l
mar es at O isipo ( Lisb o n) b e co me p r e g nant b y th e w ind , a nd ge ner ally
 R EL I G I ON , C U LT U R E , Bo o x v
philology consists in the i m itati o n of its defec ts more th a n
of its excelle nces for i ns ta nce th e b a si ng of e ty m ol o gies ,

on m ere simil a ri ty of sound both in Va rro hi mself a nd in

th e o ther philologues of this ep o ch runs in to pure gues s

wo rk a nd o ften in to downrigh t a bsurdity I n its e m piric

1
.

co nfidence and copiousness as well a s in its e mpiric in

a dequ a cy a nd w a n t of m e th o d th e Va rroni a n vividly re

minds us of th e Engli s h n ational philolog y a nd jus t like ,

th e l atter finds its cen tre in th e s tudy of th e older dra m a

, .

We ha ve alre ady observed th a t the mon a rchic al li tera ture

devel o ped the rules of l angu age in contra dis tinction to thi s
linguis tic e mpiricis m (p 4 5 I t is in a high degree sig h i
.

fi ca nt th at there s ta nds a t th e he a d of th e m o dern gra m

m ari a ns no less a ma n th a n C a es ar hi m self who in his ,

58 . 60 . tre a tise on A n a logy ( given for th be tween 6 9 6 a nd 7 0 4 )

firs t un d ertook to bring free l a ngu age u nder th e power of
la w .

The o th er A longside of this extra ordinary s tir in the field of philo

sioual logy the s ma ll am ount o f a c tivi ty in the o ther sciences is
sciences . surprising Wh at a ppeared of i mporta nce in philosophy
.

such a s L ucre ti us represen ta tion o f th e Epicure a n sys te m

’

in the poe tic al child dress of the pre S ocratic philosophy

- -

and the be tter writings of Cicero pro duced its e ffect a nd -

found its a udience not through its ph iIOS Op hic c o nte nts ,

b ut in spi te of such con ten ts solely through its a es the tic

form ; the nu merous tra nsl ations of Epicure a n wri ti ng s
a nd the P y th a gore a n works such a s Va rro s gre a t tre a tise
’
,

w ith it ing l s mi t
s f p hil
u ar p hi l hi t i l
x ur e o nd g i lt l
o so ca , s o r ca , a a r cu ura
t
no ice s .

1
Th V us d i f f m f d
arr o e r ve s b h wh m k
a ce r e ro
y a es , e ca u se e o a es a n

t hi g gi
n t it ves pp o w ipan a th f ft S til f m
e ar a nce , l er , e ox , a er o ro vo a r e

p dib
e th
us fl yi g f t d ; G i
as e T b ti
n -
oo e p h il p hi l j i t f
a us re a us , a o so ca ur s o

th i g
s a d i e, ll m f m m
e r ve s r a ce ll F ig l
u f ro f mfrac lt ce a, u us
‘
r a ze r ro er e a er

an d f so h T hi por t i. wh i h p ps t m
ra ct ce , ly i i l t d ic a e ar s no e re n so a e ns ta nces
but a s a m i l m t f th p h il l gi l l i
a n e e en o f th i
e g o o
p ca te ra ture o s a e, re se nts a

ve ry g t mb l
r ea t th
r e se m d i w hi h ill
a nce o tl y
e mp o i e n c t re ce n co ara t ve

p h l l gy w
i o o p t d b f
as gh t i
r o s ecu e th
, g ni m f l g g
e o re ins i nto e or a s o a n ua e

put a s to p to th e o ccu p a tio n o f th e e m p irics .

 51 4 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , 30 0 : v
his p atro n pri nce B ut such li tera ry perform ances as ar e
-
.

men tioned in this dep ar tmen t are essen tia lly a s s oci ated wi th
N e Opy th ag o re a nism such as th e co m p a rison of Greek a nd
,

B a rb a ri an Egypti a n celes tia l o bserva tions by F ig ulus

'

,
e t. .
, ,

a nd his wri tings c o ncerning a ni m a ls winds a nd genera tive , ,

orga ns A fter Greek physica l rese a rch generally h ad

.

swerved fro m the Ar is to teli a n e fio rt to find a midst individu al '

facts the law a nd h ad m ore and m ore p a ssed into an

,

e m piric a nd mostly uncri tical o bservati o n of the extern a l

a nd surprising in n ature na tur a l scie nce when co m ing
,

forward as a m ys tic al philos o phy o f na ture i ns te a d of e u ,

ligh tening a nd s ti m ul ating could o nly still m ore s tupefy a nd

,

pa ralyze and in presence o f such a m e thod it wa s better

to rest s a tisfied wi th the pl at i tude which Cicero delivers a s
S ocra tic wisdo m th at th e i nves tiga ti o n of n ature ei ther
,

seeks a fter thi ngs which no body can know or a fter such ,

things a s nobody needs to know .

I f in fine we c a s t a gl a nce at art we disco ve r here the

'

, , ,

sam e unplea si ng pheno m en a which perva de the whole

Arch ite ct m en tal life of this peri o d B uildi ng on th e p ar t of th e
.

s tate was virtu ally brough t to a total s ta nd am ids t the

sca rci ty of m oney th at ma rked th e la s t ag e o f the republic ‘

We h ave alre a dy spoke n of the luxury in building of the

R o ma n gr a ndees th e a rchitec ts le a rne d in consequence of
this to be l a vish of m a rble —th e coloured sor ts such a s th e
yellow N u m idia n ( Gi allo a ntico) and o thers ca me i nto
vogue at this ti m e and the m a rble qu arries of Luna -

no w e m ployed for th e firs t t ime — a nd

,

( C a rr ar a
) were
bega n to inl ay th e fl o ors of the roo m s wi th m os a ic work to ,

p a nel th e walls wi th sla bs of ma rble or to p ai nt the co m ,

a rt m e n t s in i m i ta ti o n o f m a rble — the first s teps towards

p
th e subsequent fre s co p a i nting -
B ut a rt was no t a g ainer
.

by this lavish m ag nificence .

I n th e a r ts of desig n con noisseurship and collec ting

were always o n th e incre ase I t was a mere afi e ctatio n of .
'
CH A P. x xx L I T ER AT U R E, A N D A RT 51 5

C atoni a n si mplici ty when an a dvocate spoke before the

,

jurym en o f the works of a rt of a certa in P ra xi teles “

every one tra velled a nd i nspected a nd th e t a de of the art,

r

ciceroni or a s they were then c a lled th e ex eg eta e was

, , , ,

none of the wors t A ncient works o f art were form ally

.

hun ted a fter — s tatues and pictures less it is true tha n , , ,

in a cc o rd a nce wi th th e rude ch arac ter o f R o ma n luxury ,

a r tis tic a lly wrough t furni ture a nd orn a men ts of all sor ts for

th e roo m a nd th e ta ble A s e arly a s th a t a g e the old

.

Greek to m bs of C a pu a and Corin th were ra ns a cked for the

sake of the bronze a nd e a r thenware vessels which ha d bee n
pl aced in th e to m b along with the de a d For a s mall .

s tatue tte of bronze ses terces were p a id and ,

for a p air of cos tly c a rpe ts ; a well

wrough t bronze cooking m achine c am e to cost more th a n an
es tate I n this b arb aric hunting a fter art th e rich a mateur
.

w as as migh t be expec ted fre q uen tly che ated by thos e

, ,

who S upplied him ; but the econo mic ruin of A si a Minor

in p articul a r so exceedi ngly rich in a r tistic products broug ht
ma ny re all y a ncien t a nd rare orn am ents a nd work s of art
in to the market and from Athen s S yra cuse Cyzicus
, , , ,

P erga mus Chios S am os and other a ncient s e ats of art

, , , ,

everything th at was for sale and very much th at was not

m igrated to th e p al a ces a nd vill as of the R om a n gra n d ee s .

We h ave alre a dy m enti o ned wh at trea sures of art were to

be found wi thin the house of Lucullus who in d eed wa s ,

accused ,perh a ps not unj ustly of h aving gratified his

,

in teres t in the fine ar ts a t the expense o f his du ties as a

general T he am ateurs of art crowded thi ther a s they
.

crowd a t presen t to the Vill a B orghese a nd co m pl a ined ,

even then of such trea sures being confined to the p al a ces

a nd coun try houses of th e m e n of qu a li ty where they could
-
,

be seen o nly wi th di fficul ty a nd a fter specia l permission

from the possessor T h e public buildi ngs o n the other
.

ha n d were far fro m filled in like propor tion with famou s

 5I 6 R ELI G I ON , C U LT U R E , B OO Kv
w orks of Greek ma s ters and in ma ny ca ses there s till s tood ,

in th e te mples of the capi tal no thing but the old i mages of

th e gods c arved in wood A s to th e exercise of art there .

is virtua lly no thing to report ; there is h ardly men tioned by

n a me fro m this period a ny R o m a n sculp tor or p a inter
excep t a certa in A re llius wh o se pictures ra pidly we nt o ff ,

no t on a ccou nt of their a r tis tic v a lue b ut beca use th e ,

cu nning reprob a te furnished in his pictures of the goddesses

fa i thful por tra i ts of his m i stre s ses for the time bei ng .

Th e i m p o r ta nce of m usic a nd d a ncing incre a sed in pu b lic

a s in do m es tic life We ha ve alrea dy se t for th ho w the atri
.

cal m usic a nd th e d a nci ng p iece a tta in e d to a n independen t -

s tanding in the devel o p men t of th e s tage at this period

( p .
4 7 )2 we m a y a dd th a t now in R o m e i tself represen ta

tions were very frequen tly given by G eek m usici a ns da ncers r

, ,

a nd decl a i m ers on th e public s ta ge — such a s we e usu a l in r

A s i a Minor a nd ge n er lly in the wh o le H ellenic a nd H e l a

le n z ng world
i i 1
T o these fell to be a dded the m usici a ns
.

1 S h uc G k t t im t w r ee y f q
e n er a n t n t m l y i th
en s e re ve r re ue n o e re n e

G re e k i i f I t ly p lly i N p l ( Ci p A b 5
c t es o a , es e cia ; Pl n a es c. ro ra .
, 1 0 ut .
B ru t . b t w lu i R m (i
e ve n no 9 ; Ci Ad F m
a so ii
n 3 o e v. 1 2 c . a . v . I

Wh th w ll
,

Ad Au i 5
. xv ; S t n C
. ,39 ; P l
1 B t
ue o . ues . ut. ru . en e e

k no w p it p h f L i m
n e a E h i f o t y c iaf g wh i h p b b ly
u c ar s o ur e e n ea rs o a e, c ro a

b l
e on g t th s d f hi p i d m k
o e en th io g i l w ll i t
t s t d
er o d , a es s r e ns r uc e an
tau g ht i ll n a b y th M ar tsth m l h e d us es i h e s e ves s ine as a a ncer n t e

p t
riva e e x h ib i i f bl h t o ns o d pp fi t i p b li
no e th G
o us e s a n k a ear rs n u c on e re e

t g m
’

s a (
e d bili
o o m l d nod w h u t G u i
or
p im
ecor a c or o, a r ae ca n rcae na r e

pp l
o u o thi d b l ly m s th t h w
ou th fi t g l
t es s ca n o n ea n a s e as e rs ir
th at a pp d th
ea re p b li G on k tg i R m e u g c l ly i d d i
re e s a e n o e as e ne ra n ee t
w as t ill thi
no t p h th t w m s b ge oct m f w d p b l i l y in
a o en e an o co e or ar u c

R m (p
o e .

Th e seG k t tim t i R m
“
re e e n er a n m t t h en sb n o e se e no o a ve een

p p ly
ro er i b sce n c , th t h b l g d t th
ut r a t g y
er of mp it
a ve e on e o e ca e or o co os e

ex h ib t —p im ly m m l d d l m
i io ns r ar i y
— hus w a t fan ec a a to r s uc as er e n o o rare

o ccurre n ce i b q t m
n su s e l i G (W l k
ue n ti G i /
es T g a so n r e e ce e c er , r ec z . ra ,

p . Thi i w i pp d b y h p mi
s v e s su f fl pl y g
o r te t e ro ne nce o u te - a in in

P ly b
o (
ius 3) d f d
xx x . m g i th
1 an f S
o a nc g d g n e a cco unt o ue to niu s re ar in

th e ar m d d e f m A i Ma nce s p f m d ro C s a g m d i
inor er or e at a e sa r s
'
a es an n
h
t e e p i ph f E h ita o h d ip t
uc l f th itfi d (A d H
ar s t e escr io n a s o o e c a r oe ur er .

iv. 47 6 ; ,
mp V 0 co 5 7) m t h . b
itruv. d d f m
v. h, us a ve e en e rive ro s uc

G k t tim
re e e n er a n Th mb i i e nts f th .
p i
e i co na t o ns o es e re re s e nt a t o ns n
R m with G
o e k th l i mb i g fi t (P ly b I
re e a e t c co L a ts s Si ni ca n o . . c. iv. x xx 1 x .

D m ti ra it t a w by m n
c re c a ions l d d f m th m d ere no ea s exc u e ro es e ix e
51 8 R EL I G I ON ,
C U LT U R E, L I TER A T U RE
, AR T B oox v

noble heri tage of p a s t ce nturies a nd a n infini te a bunda nce

of p o m p a nd glory but li ttle spiri t s till less ta s te a nd lea st
, , ,

of all true deligh t in li fe I t was indeed a n old world ; and

.

eve n the richly gifted p atrio tis m of C a es a r could no t make

-

it y o u ng a ga in T h e d a wn does no t re turn till a fter

.

th e night h a s fully se t in a nd run its course B ut ye t .

wi th him there c am e to the s o rely h a ra s sed peoples on the

Medi terra ne a n a to lerable evening a fter th e sul try noon ;
a nd when a t leng th a fter a lo ng his toric a l nigh t th e new da
y
da wned o nce more fo r the peoples and fresh n ati o ns in free ,

s elf m ove m e nt co m m enced their ra ce tow a rds

-
new and
higher goals there were fo u nd a mong them no t a fe w in
, ,

which th e seed sown by C a es a r ha d spru ng up and which ,

o we d as the y s ti ll owe to him their n ati o na l in d ividu ali ty

, , .
 I NDEX

( I n this I nde x th e names of

p ers o ns are iv e n unde r the e nti e fro m , g g l and an

a rra ng e d in the a l p h a b e tic o rde r o f th e p r a e nom ina , a nd, unde r th is , in th e chr o no

l gi
o cal or de r o f h o din l g l
th e co ns u a te o r o th e r o ffi cia lp os i t io n. T h us C ice r o Wi b. ll
fo u nd unde r M Tu lliu s C ice ro , a nd Ca e s a r u nde r C f u liu r
. . Ca e s a r Th e e t te r j :
. l
as in I oa fl , de no tes tha t th e s ubj e ct is co nt inue d in t h e fo o win pa e ; th e e tte r a ll g g l ,
as in 1 0 2 m , ref e rs to th e no te e ith er by its e l
f , o r in a ddition to ma tte r in the tex t.)

A BBREVI A 'rrON s, R o ma n, i 2 7 9 Achaia , p r ovince o f, i ii

iii. 2 7 0 -2 7 2
.

A b de ra , ii 50 3 ; iv 44
. A chi l as , e ne ra o f P to e mae us D iony s
. l g l l m
ll
Ab e a b urnt , iv 6 3 . v 2 7 1 , 2 76 .

A bg ar us , Ar a b p rince , iv 4 2 2 Al ie d A ch i le s , a nces to r o f Py r rhus, u. 3

. . l l
W ith th e Pa r th ia ns a a ins t Cra ss us , V A chr a dina , ii. 31 1 j : g .

3 53, 1 54, 1 55 Achulla , iii 2 44 Ex e mp t fro m ta xes, . .

g
A b o r i ine s , ii. 1 0 6 iii 1 8 7 iii 2 5 9 . .

Ab ru p o lis , ii 4 93, 49 6 . C A ci i u s , ch ro nic e r, iv 2 48 . l l .

A bruzzi, i 5 , 6 , 1 47 , 4 34 ; iii 50 1 , 50 8
.
'
M A ci ius G a b rio [co nsu , . ii. 457 . . l l l
A b y du s , ii 40 6 , 4 1 7 , 4 1 8 , 44 7 , 46 1
. A tt e m p ts to re ctify th e ca e nda r , iii 1 9 4 l
il i l
.

M
’
A ca de m y , th e N e w e r , iv 1 9 7 2 0 0 .
-
. Ac us G a brio [co m ], iv .

A ca r na nia and t he A ca r na nia ns , ii. 2 1 6 , 388:

31 8, 39 7 , 40 3, 4 1 8. 4 2 1 , 42 9 , 432 , 435, A cr a e , S y ra cu sa n, i i 2 0 4 .

4 38. 4 5 7 . 47 6 350 1 . 5 1 7 A e ta diu r n a , iv 2 79 n.

L
.

A ctu r , i 2 6 5
0

Acca a r e n tia , i 2 0 9

L
. .

g
A ccius , t ra ic p o e t , iv 2 2 2 , 2 2 3j Z, 2 5 2 . A dce ns i ve la t i, i. 1 1 1 .

k g
.

A cco , C a r nu ti c ni h t, b e h e a de d, v 7 4 . A dh er b a l, iii 389 -39 2 .

A ccu se r s , p ro fe s s io na , iv 1 0 4 l . A diab e ne , iv 31 5, 343 .

A ce rra e , ii 30 4 V ictor y o ve r the A dop tion, i 7 3 .

I l
. .

t a ian s, iii 5 1 0 , 5 1 5 ; iv 6 6
. . A dra my t ium, ii 462 ; i 1 ii
1 2 60 fi g iv 46 . . .

A ch a ea ns , ii 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 31 8 , 40 5 , 4 2 1 , 42 3,
. A dria tic S ea , o ri in o f the name , i. 4 1 8 g
4 2 7, 435, 437 . 439, 4 5 6 , 4 7 6 4 80 . 4 9 7 .
-
A dr o g a tio , i 95 .

49 8 f sz7 f : iii 2 34 1 2 2 6 1 ; iv 35 A dr idu i, i 1 1 5 .

g
W a r a a ins t th e m, iii 2 6 4~2 7o Achaea n . . A drig na tio v ir ita na , l. 2 40 n.
l g
e a u e dis s o ve d, iii 2 7 1 l
P r o vince o f . . A dua tuca , v 7 3 .

A ch a ia , iii 2 70 2 7 2 T a x a tio n o f, iv.

.
-
. g
A dua tu ci, o ri in of, iii 445 ; v. 32 . Co n .

1 58 fl icts w ith th e m, v 5 2 , 54 .

A ch a ea ns o n th e C a uca s us , iv 4 1 6 A ea cides, fa th e r o f Py rr hus, ii 6

I l
.

l l
.

A ch a ea n co o nie s in t a y a nd S ici y , i . A m us , a nces tor of P y rr hus , ii. 3

1 65 fTh e ir dis tinc tive ch a ra cte r , 1 7 0 f : A cca , ii 2 80
L g
.

e a ue o f t h e cit ies , i 1 7 0 1 7 3 ; r e co n .
-
Aecla num. to wn of th e H irp lni, Ill. se e ,
g
s tru c t e d a a in s t th e L u ca nia ns , i 4 5 4 . .
52 3
g l l
A r icu tura t o wns , i 1 7 3 Co ins , i 1 7 1 . . . . A edicu la , l. 2 2 5
l
A p ha b e t , i D e ca y , i 1 7 2
. . A edile s Cer ia les , v. 346 , 37 4
A cha e us , S y ria n sa tr a p , ii 44 4 . A edzle r cu r ul es , t he ir ins t itution, l 383.
g l l g l k
.

Acha e u s , e ne ra o f th e s a ves in firs t Or i ina funct ions ma r e t s u p e rv ision -

S i il i w
c an iii 3 a r, . 10 l
a nd po ice , a nd ce e bra tio n o f the cit
y l
52 0 H I S T OR Y o r R OM E

l
fes tiv a , i 383 ; i i 9 7 ; iii 4 1 P e b e ia ns . l iii , S e nt as e nv o y to u ur tha , in
37 9 . J g .

g
. .

lg l l
.

e i ib e , i 38 3 P o ice du tie s in R o me , 39 2 Co m ma nde r in u urth ine w ar,

. J
g
. .

ii 8 4 J
ur is dictio n, ii 6 6 iv 1 2 8 In . . . iii 393 j : A a ins t th e T a uris ci, iii
. .

l g l g
. .

c u de d a m o n curu e m a is tra cies , iii .

42 8 T rie d fo r e xto rt io n, iii 4 82
. At . .

6, 7 t i tude to the p ro po sa s o f D rus us , iii l .

A edile s p le é is , fo u nde d o n mo de o f th e l 4 83 H is r oa ds , b rid es , a nd dra ina e ,

. g g
q
ua es to rs , i 35 4 n Ori ina funct io ns : . . g l iv 1 6 7 , 1 7 0
.

g
cha r e o f th e a rch iv e s , 1 34 9 , 35 4 n ; . . M A e mi lius S ca ur us , a d uta nt o f Po m
. j
s u p po r t o f th e tr ib une s in th e ir j udicia l p e iu s , iv 4 32 .

functio ns , i 35 1 ; de cr e e s o f t h e s e na te
.
Q A e milius P a p us [co nsu ,
. l ii. 30
de p o s ite d in th e ir ch a r e , i 36 9 u r is g . J A e na ria , i 1 7 5 , 1 7 8 ; iii 5 4 1 . . S y ra cusa n,
ll
. .

dict io n, iv 1 2 7 i 41 6. Withdra wn by . S u a fr om
l
.

A edzles in th e M unicip ia , fo u nde d o n th e N e a p o is , iv 1 0 7

Lg
.

l
mo de o f th e curu e a e di e sh ip in R o m e l l A e ne a s in H o me r , ii 1 0 8 e e nd o f

I l
.

I
.

1. 45 1 A e ne as in ta y , 1 1 1 0 8 1 1 1 nv e nte d -

I l
. .

Ae g a te s ns u a e , Phoe nicia n, i i. 1 43 . b y S te s w h o ru s , ii 1 0 8 F irs t occurs . .

B a tt l ii 1 9 5
e a t the , in th e curre nt form w ith Timae us , ii.
l
.

A e g ma : 1 30 8 ; 11 31 9 , 40 2 , 4 1 7 , 42 3: 4 37 1
' 1 10 I n the R o ma n chronic er s, iv.
.

l
°

47 8 B e e t e st one found th e re , i 30 7
.
- . 2 49
g
A e ium, iii 2 6 7 A e nus , ii 4 1 7 , 46 5 , 4 86 , 5 1 2.

l
.

S e x Ae lius P a e tu s [co ns u ,
. h is e a l lgl A e o us , i 1 1 7 .

t re a t ise iii 1 9 5 A e p ulo , i i 37 2 .

l
.

L A e li us P ra e co ninu s S t i o , o f La nu v ium ,
. l q
A e u i, s e t t e me nts of, i 444 n The ir . .

t e a ch e r o f R o m a n ite r a tu re , iv 2 1 6 , 2 5 2 l fl
co n ict s w ith R o me , i. 1 35 S ubdued .

l g
.

l
A e m ilii, c a n vil a e , i 45 Th e ir desce nt,-
lg by th e R o ma ns , i. 444 j : The ea u e
l
. .

ii 1 0 7 dis so v e d, i 484
L
.

Ae m ilius e p idus , a S u a n, iv 90 ll . Ae q uicul i, i 47. ; 444 n.

A e m ilius M a ce r , p o e t, v 4 80 A er a r zz,
'

s e tt e r s l p a y in g t ib r ute for pr o
l
.

L. A e miliu s Pa p us [co nsu , ii 2 2 4 f : t e ctio n, i 12 1 .

l l
.

L A e milius Pa ul us [ co ns u ,
. ii 2 2 0 , . Ae r a r— ium , i 1 37 After the a bolition of. .

2 86 2 9 0 -
the m o na rch y e al y unde r the co nt ro
‘
lg l
L. A e milius P a u us [cons u , 5 7 2 , ii ll l . o f th e q
uae s to r s no mina te d by . a nd re

39 0 n Opp o s e d t o P e rs e u s , ii
.
p re s e nt i n , th e co ns u s , i 32 2 , 338 g l
l
. .

H is inco rrup tib i ity , iii 31 H is de . . Ae ro p u s , ii 4 2 8 .

mea nour to th e p r o v mcials , ii i 33 . A es ch y us , iii 1 6 7 l

k
. .

Ca rries G re e a r t tre a s u res t o R o m e , ii i -

. A e scu la nu s , g od of co ppe r , ii 70 .

2 0 8 H is a usterity , iii 1 8, 4 2
. H is . . l
A e s cu a p ius , e arly w o r s h ip pe d in R ome ,
es ta te , iii 89 A u ur , iii 1 1 2
. H is
. g . . i 2 30 j : B ro u h t t h i th e r fro m E p i g
ll l
.

H e e nic cu ture , iii 2 0 9 ; iv 2 1 2 . da urus , ii 7 1 Te mp e o f, in Ca rtha e , l g

L
. . .

A e milius R e g ill us [p r a e tor ,

. ii 462 . iii 2 4 8, 2 5 7 ; a t E p ida u rus , iv 40 ; at
. .

M a me rcus A e miliu s , R o ma n comma nde r g

P e r a mus , iv 5 3 .

in the S o cial w a r , iii 5 2 6 A ese p us , river , iv 32 8

L
. .

M a me rcus A e milius e p idus L iv ia nus Ae s e rnia , co o nize d, ii 39 [ u s o f, ii 5 2 n l . . .

l l
.

[co ns u , iv 2 69 R e ma ined fa ithfu to t he R o man s in the

L
.

M A e milius e p idus [cons u , 5 6 7 ,

. l l
S o cia w ar , iii 50 2 50 9 Co n ue r e d, iii .
-
. q
l
.

ii 4 1 6 , 4 1 8
.
5 1 0 ; a nd h e d by t h e S a mn ites , iii
L
.

M A e milius
. e p idus P orcina [co ns u , l 52 4 Co n u e r e d by S u a
. iv 9 1 m ;q ll .

de fea ted by the V a cca e i, iii 2 2 9 l

a nd a id de so a te , iv 1 0 8 l
I l
. . .

Ora t o r , iv 2 1 5 A e s is , iv 8 5 B oundary o f ta y , 11 2 2 0 ;
L
. . . .

M A e m ilius
. e p idu s [co ns u , h is l W . 1 2 2 n.

p a rty po s it io n, iv 2 80 f . P re p a ra t io ns A e so p u s , a ct o r , v . 384
-

I
.

fo r civi w ar , iv 2 87 2 90 l ns urre ctio n .

-
. A es t zm a tzo, der ived fro m a n
’ ’

, i . 2 52
iv 2 90 f
D e fe a t and de a th , iv 2 9 1
'
A e r u x o r zu m , ii 6 6
L
.

u . A e milius e p idus ,
'
C a e sar s city l
A e t ha ia, occup ie d by th e H e ll e ne s , i 1 7 8,
.

p r e f e c t, v 2 1 8 41 6 W res te d fr o m th e m by th e E tr u s
I
. .

M Ae milius S ca uru s [co ns u , 6 39 ; ce ns or ,

. l ca ns , i . 1 81 . r o n o f, i
. 1 82
l
ea de r o f th e a r is to cra cy , iii 37 6 , A e t na , ii . 1 62

l
.

39 3A 47 5 . 484. 50 3 H is chara ct e r . A e to ia ns , i . 1 69 n. ii. 2 1 5, 2 1 7, 397 .

52 2 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

l
A cib ia de s, ii 8 7 , 9 2 , 1 44 H is tor y o f th e Gre e a pha be t , i 2 7 4 11 k l
I l
. .

l g
.

Ale ria con ue re d, ii 1 7 7 q .I ts o de r fo rm a mo n t he ta ia n

g
Al e s ia b e s ie e d b y Ca e sar, v 86 9 1 A ch ae a n s , i 1 7 0 M o re r e ce nt in th e
I
. . .

A le trium, i 4 85 o no D o ric co o nie s , i 1 7 3 n E tr u sca n -

l
L
.

l
. .

Alex a me nus , ii 4 52 a nd a t in a p ha b e ts b o th de r iv e d fr o m

k
.

l
A e x an de r th e Gre a t, his re a tio ns to th e l
t h e Gre e , i 2 5 8, 2 7 2 2 77 D e v e op -
l
I l
.

L
.

w es t, ii r fi , 4 3 u .P o itica v a ue o f . l
me nt o f, i n ta y , i 2 7 7 2 8 3 l l a tin , .
-

gl g l
.

his e nte rp ris es in th e e as t, ii 4 5 , 39 6 , r e u a t e d w ith t h e p r o r e s s o f cu t ure

.
,

399 : v r oo f ii 1 1 4 f : Adj u s te d b y Ca rv iliu s , a do p t .

Alex ande r I , of E y p t, iv 4 g ing th e a nd r ej ec t in th e iii g "

g
II l
. .

l ll
, .

A e x a nde r , o f E g y p t,
h is w i , iv 31 6 ,
. 1 91 E nn ius intr o du ces th e do ub e . .

31 9 1 5 1 5 wr itin o f do ub e co ns o na nts , 1 ii 1 9 2 g l
l
. .

A e xa nde r J an na e u s , iv 31 6 Ca r r ie d b y t h e E tru sca ns t o the Ce lts

L
.

l
A e xa nde r the M o os s ia n, e ne ra of l
and A p in e p e o p le s , i 4 35 g iby an, ii l l
I
. .

T a r e ntum, con ue r s the L uca nia ns , q 1 41 n be ria n, i i 2 35

l I l
. .

S amnite s, D a unia ns , a nd M e s s a p ia ns , A p s , p as se s fro m G a u to ta y , 1 4 2 3 n l

g l
.

k
.

i B re a s w it h th e Tar e ntine s , i ii 2 5 7 2 5 9 P a s sa e b y H a nnib a , ii .

I l
. .
.

l l
.

46 6 H is p a n t o u nite a ll th e ta ia n
. 2 59 2 64 P e o p e s o f t h e , b e fo r e C a e sa r 5 .
’

Gre e s , i 4 6 6 k D e a th , i 466
. . t ime , iii 4 2 5 f . a ttac e d by the . k .
’

Alex a nde r, th e p r e te nde d so n o f P e rse us, R o ma ns , v 1 0 3 .

iii 2 6 3. . Als iu m , i 1 7 8 P rimit iv e tomb s th e re , i 1 . . .

Alexa nder , s on o f K in Ar is tobu us , iv 2 52 , 30 2g l .

448 A ma nns , v 2 88 .

Alexa nde r , son o f Py r rhus , 1 1 31 A mas ia , iv 332 .

.

l
A ex a nde r P oly h is tor , v 460 A mas tr is , iv 2 6 , 333
. .

l
A e x a ndria in E y p t , ii 40 0 , 5 1 6 ; iii 1 2 2 g A m ba ctz, de riva t io n o f th e w o rd, v 2 0 ,
’

I
. . . .

ns urr e ctio n a ains t Ca e sa r , v 2 7 5-2 81 g 2 1 u . .

l
A e x a ndr ia Tr o a s , ii 2 60 , 4 46 , 4 53 Am be r r oute fro m Ba tic t o M e dite rra ne a n,
.
-
l
Ale x a ndrinis m , Gre e , v 46 3f i, 4 7 9 k
i 1 62 . .

Ale xa ndr inis m, R o ma n, iv 2 5 9 ; v 46 5 A mb ia tu s , in o f th e B itur ig e s , 1 4 2 3

. . k g
k g
.

46 7 . 4 7 9 A mbiorix , in o f th e E buro ne s, v 68 f ,
k g
.

S ex Alfe nus , R o ma n ni h t, p r o scribe d

.
73
ll
b y S u a , iv 1 0 4 n . A m é ztus , la w a a inst , i 37 7 ; 1 1 1 30 2
.
’

g . .

C. Alfiu s [p r z to n v 1 2 3 A mb ra cia , ii 4 76 , 50 1
. Ca p tured by . .

ll l
A ia , b a t t e o n th e , i 42 8 P y rrh u s , ii 7
I l
. .

l
A lie s , ta ia n, bo und t o furnish nava o r A mb ra ni, iv 46 9 n l . .

l
mi i tary co nt in e nts, ii 53, 54 g
I n th e A m b ro ne s , i ii 445, 4 46
. . .

l
H a nniba ic w a r, ii 345 f : D im inu t io n A me r ia , city chr o nic e o f, ii 1 0 3
. l .

g
o f th e ir r i h ts t h e r e a fte r , iii 2 4 f A nd A m ze z, iii 9 1 . .
'

g
incr e as in o pp r e s s io n, iii 2 5 A c uis i A mi da , iv 338 . . q .

tio n o f R o ma n fra nch is e ma de mo r e A m ine a n w m e , iv 1 7 2 .

difiicult, iii 2 7 l
R e a tio ns to R o m e in A m is us , iv 1 2 , 330 , 331 , 333 B urnt by
L
. . . .

time o f Gra cch i, iii a te r , iii t he inh a b it a nts , iv 333 R e b u i t a nd l

L ll
. .

l g
. .

4 85 489 Th e ir w ar w ith R o m e , iii

-
. e n a r e d by ucu us , xv 440
l
. .

490 5 2 0
-
iv 6 2 B e s to w a o f fra nchise A m ite r nu m , S a b ine t o w n, Ob ta ins err { ta r -

I l
. .

a fte r it, see ta ia ns a b ro a d, s ine s ufi a g zo, i 49 2

’

S ee S a b ines
L
. . .

iv 1 7 7 , 1 90 ; v Comp a r e a tin A mnia s , tribu ta ry o f th e H a ly s , iv 2 9

L g
. .

l
.

e a ue A m p h ip o is , ii 49 3, 50 8 , 50 9 n , 5 1 7 iv 39
ll g
. . .

A obro es , 1 1 2 59 / Z iii 4 1 7 .
44 3 B e A my na nder , ii 4 2 1 , 438 , 4 5 6 , 4 76
. .

l
.

t ra y th e Ca ti inaria ns , iv 4 80 I ns u r A na g nia i 4 8 1 , 484 j f ; ii 2 3

. .

g
.

l
.
,

rec tio n a nd s ubj u a t io n, v 8, 1 0 T he ir An a i tis , t e m p e o f, in E ly m a is , iv 343

. .
.

to wns , v 1 4 . A na p us , ii 31 1
l
.

A mo nds , iii 6 5 n. . A na r e s , ii 2 2 1 , 2 2 6
l
.

A oe , iii 6 5 n . . A nas , i ii 2 2 4 ; iv 2 84
Z l
. .

Al ph ab e t, w he th e r a Ph oe nicia n inv e nt io n, A na x ilas o f R h e ium a nd a nc e , l 4 1 5 g

l g ll
.

ii 1 33 Ar a ma ea n co ns ona nta w ri tin

. . A nce s tra a y s , i 2 88, 2 89 .

vo ca l ize d in th e w e s t , i 2 7 3 P h o e nicia n, A nco na , i 1 7 6 , 4 1 7 i i 60 , 2 2 0 ; iv 7 4

L
. . . . .
,

ado p te d by the ib y a ns , ii 1 4 1 n A ncu s M a rcius S ee M a r cius . . .

 I ND E X
knde tr ium, iv 6 4 e e nd o f founda tio n, 11
. . Lg 1 1 1 . .

Lndriscus S e e P hi ipp us, p se udo l N avig a tion and p ira cy , i 1 8 1 , 4 1 6 ; ii . .

L
.

mdr o nicus S ee iv ius 41 M e nt io ne d in tr e a ty o f R ome w ith

L
.

g l
.

l ndro s , ii 4 1 7 , 42 6 , 460 Car th a e , i 4 5 2 T e mp o rari y a a t in

l ll
.
.

e ne roes t us , ii 2 2 3, 2 2 6 co o ny ; fi na y s ubdu e d, i 446 , 447 . .

l l
.

J a g er ona lza fi1 2 0 8
'
R e vo ts , i 46 1 Co onize d as a R o ma n. .

L g
.

b ur e ss co m mu nity , i 46 2 Ora t o rs
’

Ab isia s [p ra e tor , ii 50 8 .
-
. .

l k
.

An io , i 412 S e tt e me nt o f th e Cla udii on l p a tfo r m in R o m e a do r ne d w ith be a s

g ll
. .

t he , i 4 5 o f A nt ia te a e y s, i 4 6 2 f l A ntia te .

g ll g
.

A n na lee , i m , 1 0 4 Cha ra cte r o f o ffi cia . l a e y s b r o u h t to R o me , ii 4 2 P ro . .

l
.

R o ma n, in 2 4 8 1 Co mp a r e H is to rica
‘
h ib ite d fro m m a rit ime t ra ffi c, ii 43 n . .

C o mp o s it io n C A nt onius [ co ns u , 6 9 1 1, iv 373, 380 ,

. l .

'
C A nnius , S u a s b . utena nt in F urth e r ll 46 9 47 1
-
. 4 7 9 . 484 f
l I lly i
.

'
S pa in, iv 9 3 . C A nt onius , C a e sar s ie ute nant in
. r a,

M A nniu s [ ua es tor in i t a ce do nia,

. q v. 2 35
iii 42 8 n M . A nt oniu s , th e or a tor [p ra e to r, 6 5 2 ;
l
. .

T Annius M i o, v 1 1 4, 1 44
. l . co ns u , iv . 6 6, 6 7 1 0 2 m , 2 1 5.
,

S upp r e s s e s p ir a cy , iii 38 1 .

Aw 68
as , i. 2 M A ntonius , mur dere r o f S e rtorius, iv .
.

'
A ng u is ztza, ii. 68
’

A nt e mn a e , i 58, 1 2 5 ; iv 89
A nt icy ra , ii 31 9 , 4 30
g g
.
30 2
. . M A ntonius, a dmira in M ithr a da t ic w ar ,
. l
iv 32 4 . W A 386
l l

An ti o nus , e ne r a o f Alex a nde ; n o C h i t , M A nto niu s , C a e sa r s ie u te nant, a fte r

’
. .

ii 6 w ar ds t r iumv ir , v 1 88, 2 35, 2 49 f , 335 , . .

g
.

A nti o nus D oso n, 1 1 2 2 0 , 2 4 6 . 36 5 . 389

g
A n t i o nu s C o na tas , ii 2 36 . 7 A n to nius [ M ar ia n
. g o ve rnor in S ardinia ,

A nt io ch in S y r ia , iv 31 6 , 341 , 42 7 Be . iv 9 2 .

L
.

co me s a r e s ide nce o f T ig ra nes , iv 31 7 .

Q . \ntullius , icto r o f Op imius, s ain l . l
A nt io ch u s I , S o te r , ii 40 2 by h e Gr a cch a ns, iii 366 f
t
.

III
. . .

A n tio ch us , th e G
rea t , ii 31 4 War
. . . A o us , h e r ive r , ii 4 2 8 .

g
w ith E y p t , ii 4 1 0 , 44 4 f : Co ndu ct . A p a me a , iii 2 7 6 n , 31 0 ; iv 30 , 32 9 . . .

dur in g
R o ma n int e rv e ntio n in M a ce A p e nnin e . i 5 , 6 , 4 1 .

do nia , ii 4 1 6 4 1 8, 4 2 7 B r e a ch w ith -
. A p e r a nt iu, ii 459 .

l
.

R o me , ii 443-450 Wa r, ii 450 4 68
. . .
-
. A p h ro dit e , t e mp e in R ome , 1 1 7 1 ; iv. .

P e a ce , ii 4 6 5 468 D ea th , ii 46 8
.
-
. . 89 I de nt ifie.l Wi th th e o ld R oma n
.

A nt io ch u s I V , E p ip h a ne s , o f S y r ia , 1 1
. . V e nus , ii 7 1 .

4 99 ; iii 2 7 5, 2 82 , 2 8 5 , 2 86 , 2 8 7
. Wa r . A p iciu s , iii 4 82 .

g
W ith E y p t , a nd R oma n inte rv e n t io n, A p o llo = A p e llo = A nt ta , i 2 30 2 5 8 Go d
I I
.

l g
.
,

ii 499 , 5 1 5 f i ntr oduce s R o ma n o f o r ac e s , i 2 30 ncr ea s in w orsh ip . .

gl lg
.

a dia to ria a m es into S y r ia , iii 1 2 7 . o f, in R o me , ii 7 0 ; iii 1 1

L ll g l
. . .

e ve in p o icy , iii 2 85 . ll
Ap o o nia , i 1 7 6 ; ii 2 1 8, .
42 2 , 4 2 6 ,
g
.

Antioch us E upa tor , re co niz e d by th e 433, 497 , 50 0 ; iv 1 6 8 F o t n de d, i 1 7 6 . . . .

R o m a ns a s t h e s u cce sso r o f A nt io chu s T r e a ty w ith R o m e , ii 4 6 B e co mes . .

E p ip h a nes , iii 2 8 2 . R o m a n, ii 2 1 7 j : U nit e d wr h M a ce .

‘

Antio chus t he As ia tic, S y ria n p rince, iv do nia , iii 2 6 2 M in t o f, iii 8 7 iv 1 8 1

L
. . . .

335. 341 . 437 A p ollo nis in y dia , iii 2 7 9 .

An tioch us o f Co mmag e ne , iv 4 1 , 42 7 , 437 . l

A pp ea ( p r o voca tzo ) , p ardo n o f the \ou
A nt io ch u s o f Cy zicus , iv 4 . de mne d cr imina o n a n a p p ea to t he l l
Antioch u s Gryp u s , iv 4 . l ll
p eop e a o w e d by t h e in , i 8 2 , 9 5 k g .

A n tioch us o f S y r a cuse , ii 1 0 8 . 1 9 2 ; ii 6 9 I n ca p ita s e nte nces , a fte r

. . l
A nt ioch u s o f A sca o n, S to ic, v 444 l . l
a b o itio n o f t h e m o na r chy , no lo n e r g
k g
Antioch us, in o f th e s aves : S ee Eunu s l de p e nde nt o n th e p ea s ure o f th e ma is l g
A nt ip a te r o f du ma e a , iv 432 I . t ra te s , i 32 0 ; iii 348 . Ex ce p t the dic .

l g
.

A ntipa tria , ii 42 2 . ta t o r , i 32 0 , 32 5 A l o w e d e v e n a a inst

. .

A ntipo lis , iii 4 1 5 . th e dict a to r , i 368 ; al s o in fi ne s , i . .

P An tis t iu s, murde r e db y or de r o f M a r ius,

. 32 0 , 34 2 ; ii 6 3 T ra n s fe rre d t o th e . .

iv 84 . ce ntu r ie s , i 32 7 j : A ft e r a p p o in tm e n t
.

Antium, i 4 59 n . .
, 460 n . 11 . 42 , 43 m , 6 7 m ; l
o f p e b e ia n tr ib une s , m i h t b e a ddr e s s e d g
94 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

to th e p lbi e e an a ss e mb ly , i .
35 1 j : Ar cha ea na ct ida e , ru e rs l in Pa nt ica p a e um,
Proce dure in case s of, ii 6 9 . . P ro b iv . 1 5
l
a b y a o w e d by C ll
Gra cchus e ven . Ar chag h fi p hy i i R m
at us , rs t s ic a n n o e , 1 1 1.

a g a ins t th e e ne ra in ca mp , iii 347 , 49 1 ;g l .

93
I

no t fo r th e a ies , iii 347 , 4 9 1 R i ht ll . . g A h l

rc g l f Mih d i
e a us , e ne r a o t ra a te s , v. 2 8,
l
vio a te d in th e ca s e o f th e Ca ti ina r ia ns , l 34 35 1 5 95 1 31

iv 482 . T he s y mbo ic vie w o f its

. l A h l h gh p i
rc e a u s , f C m i r e st o o a na, iv.
o r i in, ii 1 0 5g 4 39 4 5 . 1

I
.

ll j
App e a te urisdict ion of th e mpe ra tor, A h
rc ersi l i R m my i 9
n ea r e st o a n ar . 1

b il di g f i 3 9 ; ii
,

A h
’

intr o duce d by Caesar, v 348j . . rc es , u 9 n o , . 0 . 1 1

l
Ap p e tr e e , iii 6 7 -
. A h
rc fG l iii 7 9
es tra t us , o e a, . 1

C. App ule ius D ecianus [trib une o f th e Archias , th e po e t , iv 1 9 3 .

pe o p e . iii 47 8 l Ar chida m u s o f S p ar ta , i 46 5 , 46 6 n
L
.

l
.

. A p pule ius S a tum inus [ tribune o f th e Ar chi och u s , i 1 6 9 n . .

pe o p e , 6 5 1 1 in l 441 ” w 466 '

A rch im e des , ii 31 0 , 31 2
I l
.

47 6 A r chite ctui e , t a ia n , e a r ie s t unde r l

A p rico ts , iii 6 5 n. . G re e k fl
in ue nce , i 30 1 30 6 . F irs t de .
-

A p s u s, rive r , ii 4 2 3, 42 6 . ve lo p e d in E tr ur ia , i 30 4 fi , p ro ba b y . l
A p ua ni, ii 37 4 ; iii 31 3 . . fro m Attic mo de s , i 30 8, 30 9 I ts l . .

l
A p u ia , H e e nize d, i 1 2 ; 1 1 89 x ; iii.ll . . l l
a te r de ve o p me nt , ii 1 1 8 1 2 0 ; iii 2 0 6 .
-
f
g
.

1 09 P o s itio n dur in S a mnite w a rs , i

. . iv 2 56 f i ; v
. .

4 6 8 , 47 4 Co o nis ts se nt thith e r , ii 36 5
. l . . A r ch y tas , i 1 7 2 .

A fte r th e H a nnib a ic w a r , in 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 l . . A r co b a rza ne s , ra ndso n o f S y p ha x , 1 11 g .

I n th e S o cia w ar, iii 5 2 1 De p op u l .

f 2 39
l
a t io n o f, v 394 Co ina e , ii 2 80 g . A r de a fo unds S a untum , i 1 85 I n the g
L
. . . .

A p u s t iu s, ii 4 2 5 A r i c ine ea ue , i 45 1 l g D is p ut e w ith
L
. . . .

q
A ua e , t o w n in A fr ica , iii 2 59 . A ricia , i 44 7 A s s i ne d a s a
. a t in. g
q
A u a e S e x t ia e , fo u nda tio n o f, iii 42 0 ; iv l
co o ny , i 37 8, 445 n S up p o rts R o me
I
. . .

l
.

1 68 B a t t e o f, iii 446 ; v 7 mp ort g

a a in s t th e C e t s , i 4 30 A b o u t 37 0 , l
L
. . . . . .

a n ce o f, v 1 1 . me mb e r o f th e a t in e a ue , i 4 48 n , l g . .

q
A ue du ct s, A nio , 1 1 85 ; iv 1 6 8 A ua . . . q 450 M e ntio ne d in tr e a ty w ith Ca r
.

A pp ia , iv 1 6 8 M ar cia , iv 1 6 9 , 1 7 3 . th a g e , i 4 5 2 C ity chro nic e , ii 80 , 1 0 3

.
-
l
Lg
. . . . .

l l k
, .

T e p ula ( no t C a ida ) , iv 1 6 8 . e e nd o f fo u nda tio n in e d t o Od ssea n

y
q l
A u i e ia , iii 4 1 6 , 4 2 1 ; iv 1 6 7 Co o nize d, . l l
cy c e , ii 1 1 1 F re s coe s o f, ii 1 2 4, 1 2 7
I ll
. . . . .

ii 37 2 . 37 5 . 4 9 3 ; iii 2 7 . x49 ~ 1 1“ o f. A rdy a e i, in y r ia , ii 2 1 8 ; iii 42 7 ; iv . . .

ii 5 2 n , 5 1 8 . 67
l l
.

' '
M A quilliu s the e de r [co nsu , A r ea Ca f ztolzna , i 1 37
’
. ere cts . .

th e p ro vince o f A s ia , iii 2 7 9 , 35 8 n . . A re lliu s , v 5 1 6 .

H is tr a ffi c in a id b ar e by C Gra cchus , k gl . A r e ta s , k g
in o f the N a b a taea ns , iv 31 6 , .

iii 35 8 ; iv 6 . .
4 2 6 . 4 30 . 432 . 438
M A qu illiu s th e y ou n e r [ co ns u ,
’
. g l Ar e th usa , A ra b ia n fo rtres s , iv 4 2 3 .

g
fi h t s in t he Cimb ria n a nd S ici ia n l A r e va ca e de fe a t th e R o m a ns , iii 2 1 7 .

l
.

w a r , iii 387 ; iv 2 4 E nv o y t o M ith ra P e a ce w ith , iii 2 1 8 f

’

. . . R e v o t t o V ir ia . .

da te s , iv 2 4 2 6 S t ir s u p N ico me de s
.
-
. thus , iii 2 2 6 , 2 31 .

t o w a r, iv 2 6 f D e fe a t e d, iv 30 . . . g
A r e a n ch a p e ls , i 6 6 , 1 1 8 .

g
.

D e a th , iv 31 , 1 0 1 n A r g e n ta n us ( m o ne y ch a n e r) , 1 1 86 ; 1 1 1 .
’

. . -
.

q l
A u i o nia , ba tt e a t , i 490 l . 83
q
A u ita nia sub due d, v 5 9 , 60 . A r g e n t inu s , g od o f s i v e r, 1 1 70 l .

A r a m a x im a , i 2 30 . A rg e n tu m Os ce ns e , ii 386 .

A ra b s in t h e a r my o f A nt io ch us , 1 1 4 6 6 . . g lg
A r o na u ts , e e nd o f th e , ii 1 0 8 .

I n the t h ird M ith r a da tic w a r , iv 339 , . g

A r o s in M a ce do nia , iii 4 2 8 .

34 1 Ara b p rince s in S y r ia , iv 4 2 2 j :
. . g
A r os in th e P e o p o nne s us , 1 1 4 30 , 431 , l .

Ara t us, ii 40 4 , 4 2 1 .
4 38, 4 39 ; iii 2 6 6 E mp or ium for th e .

l
.

A ra tus , as t ro no mica dida ct ic p o e ms , v R o ma ns , iii 2 7 4 .

449 Ar ia ca t tiv a , i 44 .

A ra u s io , b a tt e a t, iu 436 l . A r ia ra th e s V Philo pa to r , o f Ca p pa docia,

.

A rca dia , iii 2 69 ii 4 7 3. 4 9 9 ; iii 2 7 9 . 2 8°

K ll
. .

Arce s i aus , iv 1 9 7 l . Ar iara thes V I , iii 2 80 i e d, iv 1 9

. . . .
52 6 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

Q Arrius [p rae tor ] fi h ts a

6 82 g gi a ns t C A s inius P o io , v 1 39 , 5 0 7
. ll .

gl l l
. ,

th e dia to ria sa av es , iv 359 j : . H e r ius A s inius , M arrucinia n comma nde r

Al sa cida e , iii 2 8 7 iv 5 . in th e S o ci a w ar , iii 5 1 3 l .

g lm l
.

Ar s ino e , da u h te r o f P to e a e us Au e te s , As na us , ii 4 2 8 .

v. 2 7 5, 2 81 As pe ndus , ii 463 .

l
Art , p as t ic a n d de ine a t iv e , in the ea r ie s t l l A 332 w e e ca u e r e , i 2 88 .

t imes , i 30 6 -30 9 E tru s ca n, ii 1 2 0 f , g

A ss i na tio ns S ee D o ma ins , L g “ ag r a .

ll
. . .

1 2 4 1 2 6 -
Camp a nia n a nd S a b e ia n, ii r za e

L
.

g
.
'
1 2 1 f a t in, ii 1 2 2 / I ,
. I n the . Ass o cia tio n, ri h t o f, 1 1 6 5 .

fi fth a nd s ix th ce nturies , iii 2 0 7 f : I n . A s s oc ia t io ns, iii 9 2 j : .

t h e s e v e nth ce nt ury , iv 2 5 6 2 5 8 I n th e .
-
. A s t a p a , ii 32 0 .

a g e o f Cae sa r , v 5 1 4 5 1 6 .
- As to lpa , fa th e r - in la w o f V iiria
ria thus , -
1 11.

Ar ta vas des , kin o f A rme nia , v 1 5 1 n , g 2 2 2

lg
. .

1 5 3, 1 62 As tro in R o me , iv
o e rs .

Artaxa ta , 1 1 4 82 n iv 338, 345, 4 1 0 A s tu ria ns , ii 389 .

l
. . .

Arta xia ds , iii 2 85 ; iv 5 . . A sy um in R o m e , i 1 37 .

Artax ias , ii 473, 482 n . . A ta rbas , ii 1 88 .

Arte mis , Ep he sia n, i 2 31 . A t ax , riv er , iii 42 0 .

A r th e taurus , ii 49 3 . ll
A te a , ii 2 0 4, 340 I n R oma n co medy ,
. .

Ar ticho es , iii 66 n k ii 369

L
. . .

A r t isa ns co nce ntra te the m se v e s in R o m e l A te lla na ef a b u la e , a tin ch a ra cte r ma s s , -

k
ii 8 2 C hie fly s a v e s , ii 8 2 l i 2 9 1 , 30 0 iii 1 6 5 2 2 ; iv 2 31 n
I
. . . . . . .

k g
Ar toce s , in o f th e b e r ia ns , iv 4 1 4 . 2 34 S up p a nte d by m ime , iv 2 33
. l .

A m a les , i 2 1 5 A rva cha nt , i 2 8 7

. . l . v. 468-47 0 , 4 69 n.

Arve rn i, iii 4 1 6 1 5 , 438 ; iv 469 . v 1 3, . . A tha ma ne s , i i.

31 8 , 42 1 , 42 3, 42 5 , 42 6 ,
‘

1 7, 2 4f 1 34 , 4 2 9 . 4 33. 45 6 . 4 5 7 . 4 5 8. 47 6 . 47 7 . 48s
A r x . i 4 7 . x37 A th e na e u s , br o th e r o f A t ta u s o f P e r l
As ca niu s , iii 1 86 . a mus , iii 2 7 6 n g
l
. .

A s c e p ia de s, p hy s icia n, v 460 A th e na ora s, ii 42 6 . g .

l
Asc e p ia de s ( a) ii 2 n A th e nia ns , co mme r cia in te r co u rs e w ith l
L I l
. . .

A scu lu m , iii 50 7 , 50 9 m , 5 1 3, 5 2 1 ; iv . E truria , i 2 57 ; w ith ow e r ta y an d . .

78 ; v 2 0 9 . E tr ur ia , ii 7 9 S ee m to h a v e fur .
f
As ia M ino r, na tio na ities o f, iv 1 1 j : n is h e d thel mo de s fo r E trusc a n . l
B e fo re th e time o f t h e G ra cch i, iii 2 7 5 a rt is t s , i 30 8 R e s o ve t o fo u nd a . . . l
2 81 M a de a p r o vince , iii 2 7 7 Eu co o ny in th e Adria tic a a ins t the. l g
g
.

lar g e d b y a ddit ion o f G re a t Ph ry ia , iv E tru s ca n p ir a te s , i 435 S icdia n e x . . .

2 1 n Opp r e s s io n o f R oma n ru e , iv
.
p e dit io ns o f, i 4 1 6 f I ; 1 1 1 44 In l . . . .

6 A dm inis tra t io n w ith dr a w n fr o m se co nd P unic w a r s ide w ith R o m e

L ll gl g
.

u cu u s , iv 386 39 5 R e u a t e d a fres h
. a a ins t M a ce do nia , 1 1 31 7 j
-
. A tt itude .

b y P o mp e ius , iv 4 36 44 2 S ub du e d duri n the w a r w ith Ph i ip , ii 4 0 4 , 4 1 4

.
-
. g l .

gl
a nd r e u a te d by C a e sa r , v 2 83 j :
R o man ta x a tio n, iii 2 80 , 35 1 f , 35 5,
37 2 ; iv 6 , 1 1 1 1 2 6 , 1 5 8 , 1 60 , 1 6 2 ,
.
4 1 8 , 44 1 D ur in th e w a r a a ins t . . g g
A nt io ch u s , 1 1 4 5 6
. D ur in the w a r . . . g
W i th P e r se us , ii 49 5, 5 1 7 F ina ncia . . l
l

1 6 5 . 1 7 0 1 2 , 32 3. 380 . 447 : V 36 4 A dis tr e ss , ii 4 9 5 ; iii 2 6 5 P unde r th e . . .

l
c os e d cus to ms dis tr ict, iv 1 60 ne i hb o ur in p a ces , iii 2 6 5 . S ha r e in g g l . .

Asia ( S y ria ) , fi rs t conta ct w ith R o me , 1 1 t h e fi r s t M it h ra da t ic w ar , iv 35 , 38 , 39 . . .

2 1 6 P o s it ion in s e co nd P unic w a r ,
. S ie e by S u a , iv 38 f Occup y g ll . .

ii 31 5 E x te nt a nd cha ra cte r o f t h e Or o p us , iv 1 9 9 Athe ns , p a ce o f . . l

k g l l g l
. .

in do m : c a ims to re p re se nt th e uni p h i o so p h ic t ra inin , iv 1 99 S i ve r . .

v e r s al e mp ire o f A ex a nde r , ii 39 7 j : l
m ine s , iii 30 9 , 383 . .

I t s p o it ica l l
p os itio n a fte r th e w a r A th e n io n, e a de r in S e rvi e w a r, iii 385 l l .

w ith A nt io ch us , ii 4 68 47 2 I n s e v e nth 387 .

-
.

ce ntury , iii 2 35 fl , 2 7 6 2 80 , 2 8 4 ; A th e no dorus , p ira te , iv 35 4

.
-
.

iv 5 f : . Occup ie d b y Ti ra ne s , iv A th le t e s , G r e e , in R o me , iii 1 2 6 g . k .

31 6 j : M a de a R oma n p r o v i nce b y A A t ilius S e rr a nus [p ra e to r , ii 45 3 .

l gl l
.

P o mp e iu s , iv 4 2 1 , 42 8 S a v e s ch ie y C A t iliu s R e u us [co ns u ,
. . ii 2 2 4, fl . .

dra w n fr o m A s ia , iii 30 6 ; iv 1 7 4 2 2 5

L
. . .

Compa r e A ntiochus A t ilius [p ra e to' 1 1. 2 67 .

 I N DE X 52 7

M A tiliu s [co ns u
. l 490 l C A ure ius Co tt a [co nsu ,
. l iii 1 0 , 1 8 l .

gl l l l
, .

M A t ilius R e u us [ co nsu ,
. 11 . 1 78 C A u r e ius Co t ta [co nsu ,
. fr ie nd of
1 83, 2 0 1 D ru s u s , iii 50 3 ; iv 1 1 2 , 2 7 8,
L
. .

M A t ilius R e u u s , gl [co ns u l 1 1. 2 87 l
A u r e iu s Co t ta [ co nsu , iii 4 2 7 l
L
. . .

l
,

M A tilius [p ra e to r , iii 2 1 8 A u re ius Co tta [p ra e to r ,

. iv 380
L
. .

l l
.

A t int a ne s , ii 2 1 8, 2 2 . 0, 31 9 , 42 7 A ure iu s Ore s te s [co ns u ,

.
iii 2 6 6
l l
.

A tis , ii. 2 2 2 M A ure i u s Co t ta [co nsu ,

.
iv 32 5 32 9 -

l l
.

A t r ax , ii 42 9 . M A u r e ius S ca uru s [cons u ,

. i ii .

A tria on th e P o , i 1 43, 1 5 6 , 1 86 , 2 7 8 ; 1 1 .
4 36 . 4 6 6
L
.

1 2 iv 1 6 7
; Co mm e rcia co nne ct ion l . A uru ncule ius Co tta , Ca esa r s
'
li eu
l
. .

w ith C o rcy ra a nd C o rinth , i 1 7 6 , 2 5 7 . . t e na nt in 68 n Ga u , v. .

S y ra cusa n, i 4 1 7 . n. E trusca n tr a ce s , A urunci, w a r with the , i 36 1 .

l- 43s A us culu m, b a tt e o f, ii 2 5 2 7 l -

L
.

At ria in th e Ab ruzzi, a t in co o ny , i 49 3 l . A u s o n, s o n o f U y ss es a nd Ca yp so , i 1 77 l l .

A tr iu m , i 2 7 , 30 1 ; iii 2 0 7
. . A uso nes , th e , i 4 7 5 .

' '

A tro p a t e ne , ii 40 1 . A usfi zcza p u blica , i 8 1 ; iv 2 0 6 , 5 1 1 -

. .

l
A t ta ia in P a mph y ia , fo rtress o f Ze nice tes , l P A u tr o nius F a ctus , Ca t ilina r ia n, iv.
.

iv 31 3 .
46 6 . 4 77
'

F o unda tio n o f A u x zl zu m , i 40 3
'

A t ta lida e , iii 2 34, 2 6 4 . .

l
.

th e dy nas ty , ii 4 6 9 Th e ir p o icy , iii . . . A ux imu m, iv 7 8 ; v 2 0 9 ; co o nize d, iii . . l .

2 7 5 , 2 77 Be co me e x t inct , iii 2 7 7
.
31 3 .

A t talus , o f P e r a mu s ; h is g
in do m Ava r icum b es ie e d by Ca esa r , v 7 9 , 80 k g g .

a nd g
ov ernm e n t , ii 40 2 1 ? I n s e co nd A v e nt ine , i 1 36 , 1 4 1 , 2 1 6 , 2 31 , 2 50 ; 1 1
. . .

Punic w a r s ides w it h R o me a a ins t 84 iii 36 8 F o rt ifi e d, i 1 38 As g . . . .

M a ce do nia , ii 31 8 S h a r e in t he w a r
. s i ne d to th e P e b s , i 36 3 Te mp e o f g l . l
l
.

w ith P h i ip , ii 4 1 1 , 4 1 2 , 4 1 3, 4 1 4 , 4 1 6 , . D ia na o n, s e e D ia na
4 1 7 , 42 0 , 4 2 3, 437 A ntio ch us v iola te s his A v e r nu s , a e o f, i 1 6 8
. lk .

t er rit o ry , ii 446 D e a th , ii 4 50 , 47 4
.
f
A viar ies , v 37 8 . .

l
Atta us , b rothe r o f E u me nes , ii Azizus , A ra b p rince , iv 42 3, 42 7 .

l II
.

A t ta us , P h i a de p h us , iii l l
2 7 5, 2 7 6 n ,

A
. . .

2 77 B BY L ON I sev e re d fr o m S y ria , iii 2 88 A

l III
.

A tta us Ph ilo me tor , iii 2 7 7 B a ccha na ia n co ns p ira cy , iii . l .

l
A t ta us , o f P a p h a onia , iv 438 lg B a cchide s, co mm a nde r in S ino p e , iv 353
.
.

A ttis , p r ies t o f P e ss inu s , i i i 2 7 6 n B a ch e o rs , t ax 0 11 , ii 66 . . l .

. l
P A t tiu s Varus , ie u te na nt o f P o mp e ius , B a ctr ia ns , ii 39 8 ; iii 2 8 4 , 2 87 , 2 89 . .

v 2 09 . . g
P o mpe ia n ov er no r in A fr ica , M B a e biu s [p r a e to r , ii 4 54 . .

v 2 30 . B a co u a , b a t t e s a t , ii l l .

B a e t is , iii 2 2 4, 2 2 6 iv 2 83
’

A uctor es zu n fis, 11 1 1 2 ‘
. . .

A uc tor ztas s e na tus , i 330 B a s t a da s. ii 359 . 383 ; iii 2 40 . 2 5 8. 39 3.

’

. .

A uda s , co nfida nt o f V in a th us , iii 2 2 5 40 2 .

C11 A ufidius [ tr ib une o f t he p eo p e , B a ia e , iv 1 7 5 , 1 84 l .

l
.

re introduces th e im p or t o f w i d b ea s t s B a er s in R o me , o f a te introductio n, i k l .

fro m Africa , iv 1 83 . 2 49 ; iii 1 2 3 P zis tor = mille r , iii 1 2 4 n . .

ll g
.

C11 . Aufi dius , his to ria n ( ab out ii B a a d s in e rs , 1 1 9 8 . .

2 48 n . B a e a r ic is e s , Car th a in ia n, 1 1 1 43, 1 4 4, l l g .

Au fi dus , iii 5 2 2 330 R o ma n, iii 2 33, 2 9 1 , 382 2 1 U nde r

L
. . . .

g
A u urs, a tin, i 2 1 8 j A co e e o f . a p r a ef e ct u s p r o leg a to ,
. ii 2 1 9 n ll g .

g flg l l g
.

e x p e r ts fo r int e rp re t in t he i ht of B a e ar ic s in e rs in th e R o ma n a r my ,
b irds , i 2 1 9 T he ir numb e r, i 2 1 9 iii 45 8
I I
. . . . .

ncr e a s e d to nine , i 385 ncre as e d t o B a n rup tcy o r dina nce o f Ca esa r, v 40 0

. . k .

fi ft e e n, iv 1 2 6 D e te ct a w s in t h e B a n u e t s in R o me , v 387 n fl q
L
. . . .

l l
e e ct io n o f p e b e ia n m a is t ra t es , i 384 g
B ar b e r s in a t iu m, ii 2 80 . . .

l lg l
P e b e ia ns m a de e i ib e , i 385 Ch ose n B a r b o s th e nia n mo unta ins , b a ttle a t th e ,
. .

g
by th e b ur e sses , iii 4 6 3 C o -o p ta t ion ii 452 . . .

re intr o duce d by S u a , iv 1 1 5 I n th e B a r — ll
C o chb a , iii 2 86 n . . . .

municip ia , iv 1 33 A ug ura discip ine , Ba rg y lia , ii 4 1 3 l l .

L
. .

iv 2 0 5 . ore ne. e ct e d, iii. 1 1 2 gl

B a s i icas in R o me , iii 1 2 4 is , 2 0 6 . B ut l . .

Aure lia , Cae sa r s mo th er , v. 30 6 P o m a , iii 2 0 7

’
.
52 8 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

Bas ta rnae , 11 49 2 ; iv 1 4, 2 0 , 32 4 , 41 6
. .
39 . l
S e tt e d b y Ca e sa r in th e te rritory
B as tulop h oe nicia ns , iii 2 1 5 . o f th e H a e dui, v 7 9 .

B a th s , w a rm , in S p a in, ii 385 I n R o me . . B o ior ix , iii 436 , 44 9 .

imp ro v e d by Ca e sar , v 37 5 . B o m ilcar , Car tha inia n a dmiral, 11 30 6 , g .

B a to , ii 42 2 .
31 2

g
Ba tta ce s , h i h p r ie s t of P e s s inu s , iv 2 1 0 . B o milca r , th e co nfida nt of J ugurth a , 1 11 .

l
B e e r ( ba r e y w ine ) , ii 385 .
39 5 . 4 0 0 .
'
40 1 1
lg
Be a e ; iiL 4 1 6 3 444 ; V ' 2 4 f ) 349 54) B o na D e a , i 2 31 .

84f B o n o nia , fo r m e r y F e sina, Ce tic, i 42 4 l l l

L
. .

ll l
Be i, C e tibe ria n p e o p e , iii 2 1 6 ; iv. 2 1 0 l A l
a t in co o ny , ii. 374 ; iii 4 9 [ a s o f, . .

ll l
.

B e o na , te m p e o f, ii 9 1 iv 4 90 ii 5 2 n
. .

k ll g
. .

ll
B e o v a ci, v 1 2 n , 52 , 8 5 , B o o s e in , v 56 2 .

ll
. .

B e llo v e s us , i 4 2 3 n B oo ty fa s to th e s ta te , no t t o th e
l l g
. .

B e ne v e ntu m, ii 333, 335, 336 ; W 1 6 6 . . . so die r , i 1 99 j : Give n in a r e sse s to

.

l
C o o nize d, ii 39 1 2 43 o f, ii 5 2 n . . . . th e t r oo p s , iii 42 R e ve nue fr o m, . .

B e ne ve nta ne co ns u s , ii 5 1 B a tt e l l iii 2 0
k g
.

k
. .

B o s p o ra n in do m, iv 1 5 f
’

near, ii 36 . Ta e n b y . .

Ber e nice , ii 7 . M ith r a da t e s , iv 1 6 1 8 U nde r Ph ar .

-
.

Be re nice ( tow n) , iv 4 n ac e s , iv 1 9 f ; v 2 64
. Giv e n b y . .

g
.

Be r nard, p ass o f th e Gr e a t S t , v 5 9 ; i . . . Cae sar to M ithr a da tes o f P er a mus , v .

2 83
42 4
Be rnar d, r o ad over the itt e S t , i 42 3 L l . . B os p o r us , 1 1 40 5 .

2 2 ; ii 2 5 8/ i B o s ta r , ii 337
ll
. .

'
Be roea , iv 31 6 B o v ia n um , i 1 46 , 4 7 5 , 48 1 . S u a s vic .

l
.

Bessi ma de s ub e ct to th e R o ma ns , iv. j t o ry a t , i ii 5 2 3 Ca p itu a tio n, iii 52 3

l k
. . . .

30 7 T e m p o r a r i y r e ta e n, iii 5 2 6 .

l
B e tro tha , its e nfo rce me nt by a ctio n k
B o v illa e ta e s the p a ce o f A ba, i 1 2 9 it l l
L
. .

l
a t la w e a r y a bo ish e d a t R o me , b ut
-
l Ab o u t 37 0 , a me m b e r o f th e a tin

re ta ine d in th e a tin co mmunit ie s , i L . le a g ue , i 44 8 n 4 50 . S hr ine o f t he . .

z31 . 1 95 g e m o f the J ulii,

k g
B e tuitus , in o f th e Ar ve rni, iii 4 1 7 . Boy s a cco mp a ny in the ir fa th e rs to the g
B ias , i 1 86 . se na te , ii 9 5 .

Bib ra cte ( Aut un) , ba tt e o f, v 43f l .

‘

.
'
B r a cca t z, ii 59 ; v 1 0 . .

B ilb ilis in S p ain, iv 30 1 B r ac hy llas , ii 4 41

L I
. .

Bithy as , N u m idia n sh e i , iii 2 5 2 / I , 2 5 7 k . B ra da nu s , riv e r in o w e r taly , i 1 7 1 .

B ithy nia . ii 40 1 . 455 . 4 7 1 . 47 3. 49 2 ; ii

. . B re nnus = king o f th e a rmy , i 4 2 8 .

2 34. 2 7 6 . 2 7 7 . 30 6 ; iv 6 . x9 . 2 4. 2 5. 2 9 . g l g
Br id e b ui din , i 2 1 9 , 30 9 ; iv 1 6 7 , 1 6 9
-

I l
. . .

44 . 5 4. 9 5 . 32 2 . 32 3. 32 6 P o nt ic s a tr a p y . g
B r i a nds in ta y , a ft e r t he s econd P unic
iv 33 Ce de d b y M ith ra da te s , iv 49
. . . . w a r , ii 36 7 I n th e s e ve nth ce ntur y ,
. .

R o ma n p r ov ince iv 32 2 , 436 . iv. 1 6 9 A id o f, inv o e d by Ca ti ina,

. k l
k
,

Bithy nia ns a in t o th e Th ra cia ns , iv 1 1 . iv 4 7 6

. F orm e d fi o m th e r e mains o f
.
'

B itur ig es , i 42 3 ; iii 4 1 6 . . th e a rm ie s o f Ca ti ina a nd S pa r ta cus , l

l -
g
B oo d re v e n e , tr a ces o f, i 1 9 0 f i; 1 1 1 0 5 . . iv 48 6
. I n th e p r o v ince s , iv 1 69 ; v .
. .

C B loss ius o f Cuma e , r h e t or icia n, iii 32 0 41 ° fi

g g
. .

Bo ardin br id e s , ii 1 7 4j :
-
Br ita in, o ri i n o f th e na me , v 1 1 n
. Tin g . .

Bo cch ar , ii 382 . t r a de iii 42 0 C a e s a r in, v 6 2 6 6 -

k g
. .
,

B occh us , in o f M a ure ta nia , iv 9 2 , 9 4 B r ito m a r is , ii 1 0 . .

Boe o t ia ns , ii 40 2 . 4 2 1 . 4 2 9 . 432 . 4 4 1 . 44 3. B r it t a ny , iv 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 .

456 , 45 9 , 49 8, 49 8 2 2 W ith Cr ito la us B rix ia , 1 42 3 ; 1 1 1 4 2 4

. . .

g
a a ins t R o me , iii 2 6 8 W ith M ithr a B r u ndis ium, i 1 7 6 , 2 94, 2 9 5, 30 8, 31 7 ,
. . .

da te s , iv 35 333 : iv 5 5 . m 7 . I 6 6 . 1 7 7 , 1 9 3 : V 2 n
L
. .

Bog u d S ee M a ur e ta nia
. A a t in co o ny , ii 39 , 42 , 2 1 5 S ur l . .

B o ii o n th e P a tte n S e e , ii 37 3 n l r e nde r s t o S u la , iv 7 7 S urp r is e d by l

I l
. . . .

Bo ii, ta ia n, i 42 3 n , 4 2 4, 4 34 ; 1 1 1 1 . th e p ira te s iv 355. 1 143 o f, ii 5 2 n . . . . .

g
,

2 2 1 f i, 2 2 4, 2 2 6 , 2 50 , 2 68 , 36 9 , 37 0 De B r u t tia ns, o r i in, i 4 5 4 N a m e ve ry . .

l g
.

s t ru ctio n o f, ii 37 2 ; iii 31 3 . a ncie n t , i 4 54 n Bi in ua l, i 4 56

. . . . .

Bo ii in B a va r ia a nd B o h e m ia , iii 42 3, U nde r Gre e in ue nce , i A rt, k fl .

l g g
.

430 D is od e d by the Ge r ma ns , v 32 ,
. ii 1 2 2 A tt itu de dur in t he S am nite . . .
530 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

C a la g urr is , iv 30 0 , 30 1 , 30 4 . C a m i us llS ee F ur ius .

Ga la t ia , i 4 70 ; ii 2 9 4, 338, 340
. . C a m p a n ia ns in S ici y , 1 1 1 6 2 S e e Ca p ua l .

l l l l
.

Ca e nda r o des t R o m a n ta b e o f fe s tiv a s , Ca m p s , e n tre nch m e nt o f, ii 7 3 ; wa tch .

ll
,

i 2 07 2 10 B as e d a t fi r s t s o e y o n t h e s e r vice in th e ca mp , i 2 5
-
.
5n . .

l l
.

s y n o dic unar m o n th a nd its m u t ip lica C a naa n, ii 1 31 .

t io n b y t e n th e cir c e o r y e ar , i 2 6 7 , l . l
C a na ry is a n ds , E trus can co onizi n p re l g
l g
,

2 68 T h e u na r m o nth de t e rm i ne d by
. v e nt e d b y C ar th a e i 1 8
, 7 .

im me dia te Ob s e rva tio n, i 2 6 7 T his . Ca ne , ii 4 6 1 / Z .

k g l l
.

mo de Of r e c o nin t ime s u b s e u e nt y q C Ca ninius R e b ilus , ie ute na nt of Curio

I l
.

on l g r e ta ine d, i 2 71 O de s t ta ia n . l l
in S ici y a nd Africa , v 2 30
l
. .

l
s o a r y e ar , i 2 67 j : O de s t R o ma n l C a nna e , b a t t e o f, ii 2 8 7 2 9 1 ; ta e n by -
k
l l lg
. .

y e ar , 2 6 9 f P ub ic y p r o m u a te d by . th e R o mans in th e S ocia w ar , iii. 5 2 1 l

A pp ius C a udius , ii 1 1 3 l
R e fo r me d by . . Ca nta b r ia ns , ii 389 ; iii 2 2 8 . .

th e D e ce mvirs , ii 1 1 6 f : C o nfu s io n o f, . l
C a nt o na co ns titu tio n in G a u , v . 1 9 , 2 1 , l
ii 2 7 8 n . R e form o f, by Ca e s a r, v
. . 2 4
Ca nu s ium, i 47 4 ; 1 1 2 87 , 2 9 1 , .

l
.

9 5. 30 4. 340 : m
o n .

Ca leS . 1 47 5 ; u 79 . 2 34 7 I n th e S ocia w a r, iii 5 1 3, 5 2 2

L
.

l
.

49 2 A a tin co o ny , i 46 3, 4 7 2 T he . Ca p acity , me as u r e s o f, i 2 6 5 j : .

l g
. .

co o ny re info r ce d, ii 366 S t a t io n o f a . C a p e na s up p o r ts V e ii a a ins t R o me , i

k l
. .

na v a lq
ii 7 5 A r t, i i 1 2 2
ua es to r , . . .
42 5 , 4 2 6 M a es p ea ce , i 4 2 6
. C o on . .

M Ca lidius , v 1 89 iz e d, i 4 32
L
.

l
. .

Ca lla e ci, i 389 ; ii 2 2 5, 2 32 S ubdue d by Ca p ita p u nish me nt, i 1 9 2 imite d, 1 1 6 8 ; .

l
. . . . .

Ca e s a r , v 6 b y Ga ius G r a cch u s , iii 348 A b o ish e d

ll l l
. . .

Ca lla t is , iv 30 7 by S u a for p o itica o ffe nces , iv 1 30

g l
. .
' '

C a llias , ii 1 0 6 , 1 1 0 Ca p zto lzn z, u i d o f t h e , i 1 38 n

l
.

l
.

ll
.

C a icra te s , ii 4 8 1 , 5 1 7 Ca p ito ium , i 47 , 6 6 , 1 38 T e m p e o f th e ,

. .

l
.

C a llidr o mus , ii 4 5 8 ii 1 0 0
. Ca p ito ine e r a, ii 1 0 2
. .

ll
.

Ca im a ch u s , v 450 . Ca p p a do cia , ii 40 1 , 45 5 , 47 3 ; 1 1 1 2 34, . .

C a lp ur nii, ii 1 0 7 .
2 7 5. 2 7 7. 2 79 . 2 8 5 . 2 8 7 . 2 8 8. 382
C Ca lp ur nius P iso [p ra e to r , 5 6 9 ; co n
.
iv g r I I , 1 9 : 4 6 ” 0 49 1 5 41 330 AO °

su l, ii 39 1 ; iii 1 2 1 .
q u ir e d b y M ith ra da te s , iv 1 9 f , 32 . .

l
.

C C a lp ur nius P is o [co ns u , iv 39 3 R e s to r e d, iv 2 4 f i, 49 , 9 5 S ub due d

.

g
. .

f l g
.

39 5 b y Ti r a nes , iv 31 5 E n a r e d by .

C I1 Ca lp urnius P is o , th e Ca t i ina ria n, iv l P o m pe iu s , iv 446 E x e mp t fr om

L g g
. . . .

t a x a tio n , iv 1 5 7 a n ua e , iv 1 1
46 5 . 46 8. 4 7 1
L Cl
. .

l
.

. B [ a p ur nius e s tia co nsu , iii Ca p s a , iii 40 6 .

Ca p ua , i 40 , 2 5 6 ; 1 1 80 ; iv 1 6 6 M e n
.

L C lp i P i [
. .

l
.

. a u rn us so co nsu l iii t io ne d in H e ca ta e u s as a Tr oj a n co ny ,
o
i l
.
,

52 Ch f i
2 , 2 8
9 9 , 31 0 ro n c e o v. 2 4 ii 1 0 9 n
. W re s te d fro m th e E trus
.

L ( C ) C l i Pi [ l
.
,

no t a p ur n us so co ns u ca ns b y th e S a ni nites , i 4 1 9 , 4 54 U nde r

k
. . .

l g g i h Cimb i i i
.

l
,

as e a te a a ns t t e r i 4 35 G r e e in ue nce , i 4 5 7 ; ii 90 fl We a th
L C lp i P C
. .

l
,
. .

a nd ux ury o f th e ci ty , i 4 57
’
a f h u r n us i so , a e s ar s at e r - in 11 80 , 8 2 , .

k
. .
' '

l i aw v. 51 3 1 62 M e a’zx tu tzcus t h e r e , i 31 5 S e e s
. .

B ib l l
, .

M C l .i [ a p u r n us u us co ns u iv a id fr o m R o me a nd s ub mits t o he r
l
.
,

s up r e ma cy , i 4 5 8, 45 9 n
50 8, 5 1 0 f v. 1 2 9, 1 64 R e v o ts , i . .

l
.

M C a lp u r niu s F la mm a , i 46 0 n 4 5 9 n , 46 1 Th e no b i ity a dh e r e t o
. .

l l
. . .

Q .
( no t C ) Ca lp ur nius P is o [co ns u R o m e , i 46 1 Th e ir ca va r y de c1 de
. .

l
.
,

111. 2 2 9 th e b a tt e o f S e ntinu m, i 48 f : Po si
9
ll g
.

Ca lp us , a e e d so n o f N uma , a nd a nce s tor t io n in P y rrhic w a r , ii 2 3 Ca p ua n . .

o f t h e Ca lp ur nii, ii 1 0 7 . l
n ob i ity fa v o u r e d b y the R o mans
, ii .

C a ly ca dnus , ii 4 7 2 B e co me s a de p e nde nt co mm unity

’

.
56 f .

l
C a y p so , i 1 77 . l
w ith s e f a dminis tra t io n, i 4 6 3 ; ii
-
49 ;
lg
. .

C a m a r ina , ii 1 90 . a n d e io ns o f its o wn , ii 55 n A re .

l l
.

C a m ars ==Clus ium , i 1 43 . cr u iting fi e d, ii 1 62 H a nniba a t . .

C a me na e , i 2 9 8 . t e mp ts t o g e t p osse ss io n o f it, ii 2 8 1 . .

C a m e r ia , i 1 2 5 . P as s e s o ve r to H a nnibal , ii 2 9 4 , 30 0 , .

C a me r inu m, v 2 0 9 .
30 3 R o man p a rt y a t, ii 2 9 4 H a nni
l ll g
. . .

C a milii, c a n v i a e , i 45 -
. b a l a t , ii 30 3, 336 340 B esie g e d a nd
.
-
.
 I NDE X S3I

ta k e n, 11 . its municip a
339 f L ose s l 11. 1 1 0 L d h Ph m m
. ea s t e oe c n na t io n
ggl g i h H ll
.

co ns titu tio n, ii 340 , 36 4 ; iii 2 3 . . . in h

t e s tru e a a ns t t e fo r
e e nes

R u ine d by th e H a nniba ic w a r , iii l th e d m im o f h i 8 on o t e se a , 1 3 f l ; ii

. .

1 0 8 Ca mp a nia n doma in, iii 2 0 , 31 2 1 37 f l Ch g h h an es t e c ar a cte r o f th e

l
. .

iv 1 5 6 ; o ccup ie d by p r iv a te pe r
. Ph o e nician occupa tion, an d e s ta b ish es
so ns , r e s u m e d b y th e s ta te , iii 32 8 j : . its do m inio n ove r N o rt h A frica , i 1 8 3f l .

R e m a ins u na ff e cte d by th e a r ar ian g ii 1 38 f C ose a ia nce o f t he Phoe l ll

L
.

la w o f T i Gr a cch u s , iii 2 0 . C o o niz a l nicia ns w ith th e S icu i, th e a tins , a d

n l
ll
. .

t io n b y C G ra cch us , iii 346 , 37 4 . In . . es p e cia y th e E tr us ca ns , i 1 8 4 f l ; i

l l
.

l f , 5 2 1 ; a nd in th e
th e S o c ia w a r , iii 5 0 9 _ . 1 4 3f Ea r y r e a tions to R o me , 1 1 8 5f .
'

l l g
.

f ll oi g C i il
ow n i 6 8 fi 9 v w ar, v. 0 , 0 1 . We s te rn S ici y h e d a a ins t th e H e l
C l i i
,

d i 67 i 7
o o n za t o n r e ne w e 79 n 1 , v. 0 , , le ne s , i 1 8 6 ; ii 1 4 3 f l. S a r dinia s ub .

1
3 Ab l i h d b y S ll
4 i o 7 6 s e u a, v. 1 0 1 2 due d, i 1 86 ; ii 1 43 . Carth a inians in . . g
l ll
. .
,

Aff d by Se cte ili l i 47 e rv an aw v. 2 . S p a in, 1 1 1 42 Ex c udes th e H e e nes

. .

C l i d
,

o o n ze by C 5 8 5 4 a ne w a e sa r , 0 1 . fr o m th e Wes tern M e dite rra nea n a nd

l f l G l di i l l
,

R e vo iii 38
t o s a ve s , . 0 a a tor a th e A t ant ic, i 1 84 ; ii 1 38 , 1 44 Co m . .

h l l
. .

sc i 35 7
oo Mi ii 8 7
a t, A v. . nt , . . r t, p e lled by its re a tions w ith P e rs ia to a
ii . 1 2 2 . I n R o ma n co me dy , ii 36 6 ;
. de cis ive a tta c o n th e S ici ia n Gr e e s , k l k
iii . 1 48 f i 41 5
. D e fea t of th e C ar th a inia ns a t
. g
Ca ra lis , ii . 1 43 H imer a , i 4 1 5 ; ii 1 35 S ubs e ue nt
. . q
l
.

C a r e” , R o man a nd S ici ia n, 1 2 0 1 . fl
co n icts with S y racus e , ii 1 44 1 46 , 1 5 6 .
-
.

Ca r ia , ii 434 , . 1 1 474 iii 3 7 9 ; iv. . . M a inta ins na val as ce nde ncy in t h e

Ca ria n city e a u e , iv 33 -
l g . Ty r rh e ne S e a : br e akin up o f th e g
Carinae , i 6 3, 1 1 7 . ll
a iance with th e E trusca ns , i 4 1 7
fl .

Ca r m e n , i 2 86 . Po s itio n in S ici y : ea ue w ith R o me l l g

Ca m en ia lza , i 2 0 9 . g
a a ins t Py r rhus , ii 2 9 3 1 A mo s t e x . . l
Ca r m e ntis , i 2 9 8 . p e lle d by Py rr h us fro m S ici y , ii 32 f l l .

Car nea de s , iv 1 9 3, 1 97 2 0 0 .
- g
D es i ns o n R h e ium, ii 1 2 , 1 46 On g . .

C a m i, ii 37 1 ; iii 42 4 T are ntum, ii 38, 1 46 Co mma nds th e

I l
. . . .

Ca rnu t es , v 7 2 , 7 4, 8 1 , 9 2 . ta ian s e as in the fo ur th a nd fi fth

Ca rp e nte r s , i 2 49
Ca r p e ta nia , iii 2 2 2
Carr h a e , b a t t e o f, v 1 58- 1 6 3
. ce ntur ies , ii 39 f l N a vi a tio n o f the
. g
. R o ma ns res tricte d co mm e rcia tr e a ties , l
l . i 1 30 , 4 52 ; ii 4 1 n [ a nd A pp e ndix t o
. . .

C arrinas , l
ie u te na nt o f Ca rbo in th e vo l 44 , 1 46
. uarr e s w ith R ome , . Q l
S ocial w ar , iv 7 9 , 85 , 8 8, 90 . l
p art y fr o m ma r itime j e al o us y , ii 45
l k l g
. .

C ars io li co o nize d, i 484 A tta c e d by . . F irs t occup ie s M e s san a , t h e n dis o d e d

the M ars i, i 4 86 . fro m it b y th e R o mans , ii 1 6 9 , 1 7 0 . .

Car te ia in S p a in, iii 2 1 4f }, 2 2 2 , 2 32 ; iv . . F irs t P unic w ar , ii 1 6 1 1 9 5 P e a ce , .

-
.

1 90 ii 1 9 5 2 0 0 M e rce nar y w a r , ii 2 5 2 0 8
-

0
-
. .

g
. .

Carth a e, na me , S itua tion, u i

. 1 85 n. . S e co nd P unic w ar, ca us es o f, ii 2 30 .

1 35 f i ; iii 2 4 5 2 49 F ortifica tions , ii

.
- . . 2 34 Car th a inia n p r e p ar t ions, i1 2 36 ~
.

a
g
g
.

1 59 i1 i 2 45 , 2 49. R ome a nd Car th a e

. 2 43 Brea ch with R ome , ii 2 45
. War, . .

co mp ar e d, ii 1 5 2 , 1 60 Co nstitutio n, ii
. . . ii 2 47 36 1
. A fte r s eco nd P unic w ar ,
-
.

1 46 1 49 , 1 5 4
-
Co uncil , ii 1 46 M a is
. . . g ii 37 6 f l A iance w ith M ace do nia, ii.
. ll
tr a te s , ii 1 47 , 1 5 4 .H undr e d me n or .
-
2 9 2 f l, 49 2 A ttitu de in th e w ar w ith
.

g
j u d es , 1 47 f t, 1 5 4 Citize ns, ii 1 48f l . . P e rs e u s, 1 i 49 9 War w ith M as s inis sa ,
. .

T he ir numb e rs , ii 1 5 7 Wa r and pe a ce . . i1 i 2 37 2 40 . Third w ar w ith R o me , iii

.
-
.

p a rtie s ii , so 6 f . 35 7 fi Opp o o 2 41 2 58 D e s tro y e d, iii 2 5 7 f

-
. Co o ny . l
s it io n pa rty , ii 1 50 . D emocra tic re fo rm . s e nt th ith e r b y G racch us , iii 346 , 366 ; .

o f co ns t itutio n b y H a nnib a , ii 37 8 l . . ll
ca nce e d b y th e se na te , iii. 36 6 , 37 4
g
.

R ig our o f its ove rnme nt, ii 1 54 . . I ts te rrito ry dis tr ibu te d, iii 346, 366 , .

Pos ition o f the subj e cts, ii 1 55 1 2 A rmy .

37 4, 46 8 ; iv 1 5 7 N e w co ony se nt b y
. . l
a nd fl
e e t, ii 1 57 1 6 0 , 2 36 f l Wea th
.
-
l Cae s ar , v 42 4 f l .

a nd its so ur ces , ii 1 50 - 1 54 S t a te . . g
Carth a e , N e w o r S anis h ( Cam g e na ) ,
p
finances , ii 1 50 1 56 To e n mo ne y , f . k -
ii 39 , 2 5 1 , 384 ; iv 9 3
. Ta e n b y . . k
ii 1 53 ; iv 1 80
'
S cie nce an d a r t, ii
. S cip io , ii 32 7 f
I
. . .

1 52 . nter w e avin o f the fo unda t io n g Ca r tha lo , C

a r tha inian vice -admira l in g
le g end o f Ca r tha e with tha t of R ome , g l
S ici y in th e firs t P unic war, ii. 1 90
53: H I S T OR Y o r R OM E

C art h alo , w ith H as dru b a , ea de r o f th e l l Ce le trum, 11 . 42 6

p a t rio t p a rty in Ca rth a e , iii 2 39 , 2 41 g .

g l
Ca rus , e ne ra o f the S e g e da n i, ii1 2 1 7 Ce tibe r ia ns , 11 32 2 , 355, 35 6, 388, 39 1 l
L
. .

Ca r ve nta ni, a b ou t 37 0 , m e mbe r o f a tin iii 2 1 6 2 1 9 . 4 44 . 47 9 . 49 3

l
»

l
e ag u e , i 44 8 n Ce t ici, iii 2 1 6
. .

l l
.

S p C ar vilius [cons u , i 49 0 ; 1 1 1 2 4 Ce ts , ch a r a ct e r o f th e na tion, i 4 1 9

g
. .

g gl
. .

S p Car v ilius , t e a ch e r o f wr it in r e u a te s 42 2 M i ra tio ns , i 4 2 2 f l Cr o ss th e

I l
.

L
.

l l
.

th e a tin a p h a b e t, i1 i 1 9 1 A p s to ta y , i 4 2 3 f l Cr o s s the P o, .

k
.

Ca rys tu s , ii 4 30 , 4 5 2 ; iii 50 7 n
. i 42 4 A tta c E tr ur ia an d ca p ture
. . . .

C as il1 num , ii 2 8 2 ’ 3351 337 R o me , i 4 2 4 - 430 S ub s e ue nt incur q

L
. .

C Cas s ius [co nsu , iv 36 0 l

s io ns int o a t ium , i 431 f l
. E n d o f the ir
g l k
.

l
.

C. Cass ius , ie ute na nt o f C ras s us , v 1 60 mi ra tio ns , a nd r es u t s , i 4 32 Ta e . . .

1 64 p ar t in th e as t S a mnit e w a r , i 488 f l l
L
.

Cass ius [ tr ibune o f the pe o p e , E ff e ct o f th e Ce tic w ars o n th e u nio n l l

I
.

iii 30 0 , 31 6 of tal y , ii 59 S ubdue d b y the .

L L g
. .

. Cas s ius o n inus [ co ns u , de R o ma ns in t he co urs e o f th e s ix th l

fea te d b y the H e v e tii, iii 4 35 l c e ntury , ii 2 2 2 2 2 8, 36 9 37 4 . A t titude .
- -
.

. g
L Cas s ius, ov er nor o f As ia M ino r , iv in s e co nd P unic w ar , ii 2 6 8 2 7 3 F or . .
-
.

2 4. 2 9 , 30 . 33 b idde n t o a c uir e R o ma n c it ize ns h ip , q

L . Cas s ius [ tr ib une o f th e p e op e , iii ii 37 0 ; iii 2 4 l
Ga lia Cisa p ina in the . . . . l l
5 3° s ix th ce nt ury no t y e t a p r o vince , ii

l l ll
.

L. C as s ius H e mina , chr o nic er , iv 2 4 8 2 1 5 e re cte d as s uch o n y b y S u a , .

I
.

”
On th e Ce ns o s , iv 2 5 2
r ii 2 1 5 n ; iv 1 2 2 71 ta l ia n Ce ts in l
L g
. . . . .

Q . Cas s ius o n inus [tr ib une o f th e R o ma n army dur in th e S o cia w ar, g l

p e op e , l v 1 88 Go ver no r in S o u th . iii 50 7 . .

e rn S p a in, v 2 9 0 . Ce ts o f As ia M ino r , 1 1 39 8, 40 1 j l, s1 2 1 11 l . .

S p Cas s ius [ co ns u , 2 5 2 , 2 6 1 , i 36 1 , 2 80 l Wa r w ith , ii 469 47 1 , 4 7 3 War -

II
. . . . .

4 38 ; ii 8 5 ; iii 59 a a ins t
. E u m e ne s o f P e r a m us , g . g
l
.

Cas s iv e lla unu s , v 6 4 f l iii 2 7 6

. S e e Ga a tia .

l l
.

Cas to r a nd P o l ux ear y w orshipp e d by Ce ts , Tr a ns a p in e , ii 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 m , 2 2 6 l l

l
.

th e R o ma ns , i 2 30 Te mp e o f, ii 7 0 ; Th e ir t r ib e s , i 4 2 3 ; iv 4 2 3 f .
’

2 2 8

I
. . . . . .

iii 36 7 . Th e ir adva nce into tal y ch e c e d, ii. k

Ca s tra , cus to m h o us e a t, iii 1 9 -
37 0 f l Co n icts in s e ve nth ce ntury ,
. fl
Cas tr um Ame rinum , i 1 4 3 iii 4 2 3 42 6 . .
-

g
Cas tr um N ovu m, a b ur ess co o ny , 1 1 39 , Ce ts , a e e d, in S o uthe rn R uss ia , iv 1 6 l . l ll g .

42 Ce nch r e a e , ii 4 30 .

l gl
Cas tus , ea der in a dia to r ial w ar , iv 36 3 Ce noma ni, i 4 2 3, 434 1 1 2 2 1 , 2 2 3, 2 2 4, 2 2 7 , . . .

Ca ta na, i 1 66 2 2 8 , 2 7 0 , 36 9 f ; iii 42 4

I
. . .

Ca tato nia, iii 38 2 n . Ce nso rsh ip ins t itu te d, i 37 5

. mp or . .

Ca ti ina l S e e S e r ius
. g
ta nce o f th e cm cc for th e o ve r nin g g
Ca t o S ee P orcius ar is to cra cy , i 37 5 ; iii 1 1 P e be ia ns . . . l
lg l l
.

l
Ca tt e a nd s he e p , th e e a r ie s t me dium o f e i ib e , i 38 3 l
P a tr icia ns e x c ude d
I l
.

g g
.

e x ch a n e , i 2 38 R e a r in o f, in ta y ,
. fr o m o ne ce ns o rs h ip , i 383
. M o ra . l
g l
.

i 2 43, 2 4 8 D e pe nde nt o n a r icu tur e , j ur is dictio n o ve r th e b ur e s se s , i 39 7 , g

I
. . .

iii 6 7 . ncr e as e o f ca t t e r ea rin , iii

.
40 6 ii 6 3 l -
g
R e nde re d th e r e by the . . .

6 8. 7 4 . 80 8 2 . 9 7 n . 30 5 -
fi r s t o f th e ma is tr a cies , ii 6 4 S up e rior
o g . .

Ca uca , iii 2 1 9 , 2 33 in r a n to th e co ns u a te , i 40 0 M i ht k l g
L
. . .

Ca uca e nus , h ie fta in o f C

us ita nia ns , iii n o t b e h e d t w ice , i 40 2 N o t a curu e l l
L
. . .

2 1 6 o ffi ce , iii 6 71 im ita tio ns , iii 1 0 f l . . .

Ca udine F or s , i 4 7 1 f l k S e t as ide by S u a , iv 1 1 3
. R e ne w e d, ll . .

Ca u diu m, pe ace o f, 4 7 2 / l a n d t e r m o f o ffi ce e x t e nde d to fi ve

y ears
l
Ca u o nia , i 1 70 I n the P y rr h ic w ar by P o m p e ius , iv 380 ; v 1 4 7 f l R e . .

ll
. .

ll g
p i a e d b y mutinee rs , ii 1 9 s tr ict e d by Clo dius, v 1 1 1 R e mode e d .

I g
. .

Ca unus , ii 4 46 by Ca e sa r , v 4 2 9 , 430 ns i nia , iii 4 5

I l
. . . .

Ca v al r y S ee A rmy Ce n so rs in the ta ian to w ns ( g u zng w n

’

n a les ) , ii 5 8 59
Ga r/ um “ dia m , i. 30 1 ; iii 2 0 7 C e ns us a r o se o ut o f t he S e r v1 an m i itary
. l
Ce le res , i 90 . a rr an e m e nts, i 1 1 9 f l E ve ry four th g .
534 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

be l ost w ith in th e s ta te , i 1 31 fl 1 9 8f l l
A p C a udius [ o flice r in th e war with
L
.

gl
, .

With in a t ium,
S p a rin y i
. 1 31 fl P e rs e us , ii 50 2 , 50 5
l l l
.

co nferr e d in v e ry e a r y t ime s , i 1 1 2 A p C a udiu s [co ns u , 6 1 1 ce ns o r , a

L
. .

l
.

Giv e n t o the A ba n cla ns , i 1 2 8 a te r . . fr ie nd o f th e Gr a cch i, iii 31 9 , 32 3

l g l l
.

'

cw zta s o f p e b e ia n s , i 333 B ur e ss . . A p C a udius , p r o p ra e t o r be fo r e N o a, iii

.

g l l l
.

r i h ts fo r m e r y fo r ce d u p o n th e h o de r s , 5 47 Ou t a w e d, iv 7 2
. .

the n co v e te d a nd co nfe rre d a s a fa v o u r , A p C a u dius [co ns u , l iv 1 38, 30 6 l

I l
.

g
.

ii 5 2 f . A fter s ubj u a t io n o f ta y ,
. l
A p C a u dius , ie ute na nt in th ir d M xthr a
. l
l q l
e s s fr e ue n t y b e s t o w e d, iii 2 6 , 49 3 f l . da tic w ar , iv 336 , 338 .

I ts as s um p tio n fo r b 1 dde n, i1 i 49 6 Af t e r . . . l
C C a udius [mi] tr 1 b u ne , 1 1 1 68 f l .

l l l
.

t he S o cia w a r , b e s to w e d, w ith im ita C C a udius C e nto [ co m m a nds th e e e t fl

I
.
,

tio ns, o n th e t al ia ns, iii 5 1 6 f l, 5 2 7 f l . ii 42 2 . 42 3 .

iv 6 2 f . Th e S u lp ima n la w e ua i zin
. q l g l
C C a udiu s N e r o [ce nso r , 5 50 ; co ns u , l
g
.

o ld a nd ne w b ur e s ses , iii 5 31 5 35 . .
p r o p r ae to r in S p a in, ii 32 4, 330 , .

The sa m e co nfir m e d by Cinna , iv 5 8, .

337 . 347 s48 f f . ssxfl -

7 o f l B y S ul a , iv 1 0 6 , 1 1 4 f l E x l . l
C C a u dius M a r ce us [ co nsu ,
. v ll l
te ns ive ly co nfe rre d b y Ca e sar o n no n 1 85 , 1 8 6

I l
ta ia ns , v 4 2 5 f l . l
C C a udius M arce us [ co ns u ,
. v ll l
Czm ta tes f b ede r a ta e , iv 1 5 7 1 8 8 n.
’ ’

'

C zw ta tes zm m unes , iv 1 5 8
’ '

. . l
C C a udius P u ch e r [ ae di e , im l l o

C ivic co nununity S ee U rb a n . p r o v e s th e s ta e de co r a tions , iv 2 36 g -

l g
.

l
G a nis , iv 86 . C a udius U nima nu s [ ove rnor o f S pain,
l
C a ns for m th e co mmunity , i 80 C an . . l iii 2 2 3
l ll l
.

co nsists o f t e n h ouseh o ds , 1 8 5 C an l . . l M C a udius M ar ce us [co nsu , 5 32 , 5 39 ,

.

ll g
vi a es , th e o de s t form o f s e t t e m e n t s l l 540 , 5 44 , ii 30 1 f l his ch ara cte r ,
l l l k
.

in La t ium, i 44 W ith out p o itica . D e fe a ts th e Ce t s , ii 2 2 8 Ta e s t h e . .

inde pe nde nce , p a r ts o f the ca nto n, i 4 6 . . co mm an d a fte r Ca nna e , ii 2 9 8, 30 3, 30 4 ,

l
.

Ge n re: m a zar es e r m in or e s , i 1 0 8 . .
30 5 , 31 0 ; iii War in S ici y , 1 1 .

g g l g g
.

S i nifica nce o f e nt i e ties e ve n a t t h e 31 0 31 3 Ch ar es a a inst h im , iii 57 f l

-
. .

tim e of the a b o lit1 o n o f th e mo nar chy , H is tr e a tm e nt o f th e S y r a cus ans , iii 33 . .

i 31 6 . T h e firs t to bring art tre as u res fr o m -

k
.

Cla s ses, i 1 1 5f l, 1 1 8
'
. co n ue re d Gr e e q citie s to R o me , iii .

Cla s s zcz, i 1 1 8 H is de a th , ii 343

'

. 2 08

l l ll l
.

C las tidium, ba tt e o f, ii 2 2 8, 2 7 0 , 2 7 2 2 1 . . M C a u dius M ar ce us [ co nsu , 5 88, 599 ,

.

l
C a udia [s is te r to th e co ns u o f iii l . iii 2 1 7 f f, 2 9 9 n . .

1 02 l
M C a u dius M arce us in th e S o cia war
. ll l
C la udu, the p a tricia n ( Ap pe ndix ) , i .
4 95 . iii 50 9 .

50 8 l
M C a u dius M arce us [ co ns u ,
. v ll l
C l au dius [de ce mvir , 30 3, I 36 5,
. 49 8 1 7 3. x7 9 . 32 0

50 0 P C lP u ch e r [co nsu ,
a u diu s l l de fea ted
l
.

A p C la udius Ca e cu s [ce nso r, 4 42

. co ns u , a t D re p an a , ii 1 88 f l M oc . k s th e a us

447 , H is ch a ra ct e r , i 39 5 ; ii 9 3 . . .
p 1 ce s , 11 1 . 1 1 2
H is ce ns o rs h ip , i 39 6 ; iii 50 71 De . . .
Q . C l au dius Q ua dr ig ar ius , chro nic e r, v l
me anour in r e fe r e nce to P y rr h us , 1 1 2 2 . .
4 96
F o u nds the s y s t e m o f use fu p ub ic l l Cla u zu s , Att us , m i r a tes to R o me , i 5 5 g .

k
w o r s a nd b uilding s , i 47 6 ; ii 8 5, 9 4 . . . C la m , iii 5 1 6 , 45

l
.

A nd of h o no rary me mor ia s o f p r iv a te C la zo me na e , ii 46 1 , 47 3 S up p o r ts the .

l
.

p e rso ns , ii 9 1 H is p o e ms , ii 9 4, 1 0 0
. . . R o m a ns in th e S ocia w ar , iii 50 7 n
l
. .

ll g
.

H is cal e nda r a nd fo rmu a e fo r a ct io ns , P i a e d by th e p ira tes , iv 30 8

I
. .

ii 1 1 3 .ntro duces r ins te a d o f 1 , ii

. Cle o ny mus o f S p a r ta , i 4 82 / l .

l g
.

1 1 5 C e o p a tra, da u h t e r o f A ntiochus u 445. .

l
Ap C a udius Ca u de x [co nsu ,
. 1 1 1 70 l 448 m . 4 50 .
l l l g
.

A p C a udiu s [co ns u , i 34 7 C e o p a tra , da u h te r o f M ithrada tes , iv

l l
. .

A p C a udius P u ch e r ( mil tribune , 5 38 ; 4 6 0

l g
.

Cl p g
.

co ns u , ii 2 9 8, 336 , F i h ts . eo a tr a , da u h te r of P tole ma e nt
ag a ins t the S a ass i, iii 4 1 5 l . A l u e te s , v . 2 72 2 7 6 f l, 2 81
l Cl p lm
,

Ap. C a udius [o ffi cer in th e wa r w ith eo a tr a , w ife o f P to e a e us Euer g e ten

Antiochus , ii 457 . iv 4.
 I ND E X 535

Clie nts h ip , mea nin o f the w ord, i 1 0 9 g

Co o nie s o f C Gra cch us , iii 346 , 37 4 . . l . . .

A sta te o f p r o te cte d fre e do m, i 7 8 f l P ro p osa o f the e de r D rus us , iii 36 4 f l . l l .

E ar h es t p o si tion in the co mmunity , i Of t he y o u n e r D rus us , iii 4 85 Of g

l
.

l
. .

79 A curs e re s ts o n its vio a t io n , i

. S u la , i1 i 5 4 1 f l iv 1 0 9 , 2 6 5 Of the . . . .

2 2 6 B as e d o n as s i na tio n o f a nd by
. g
S e m lia n a g ra n a n la w , iv 4 7 2 f l Com l .

p ro te cto r t o p r o te ct e d, i 2 4 5f l R e fe rr e d p a r e Ca p u a
l l
.

'

Or ig inal y t o th e c an , no t to th e indi Colonza e c wzu m R o m a nor u m , i 1 2 7 at. .

vidual p a tr o n, i 2 46 Gr ow th and s ig A t fir s t a ll o n th e s e a co as t, i 42 , 48 -

Il I l
.

l l
. . .

nifi ca nce o f, iii 38 f l N o t a p p ie d n and, iii 2 6

. A ll e s ta b is h e d in ta y . .

ll
o ffi cia y to re a tio ns o f s ta te la w , ii l
a fter A ui e ia , b ur g es s co lo ni es , ii 5 2 n . q l o

g g g
. .

47 71 Of tow ns, o r i ina tin out o f hon

. Th e T ra ns p a dan e t o wns de s i na te d as
o ra ry cit iz ns hip , i 88 ; iii 33 s uch , v 1 31 f l R ise o f municxpa l
e . . .

C lita rchus , 1 i 2 n 1 1 2 s y s te m, iv 1 31 1 34 .
-

l
. .

Clito m a ch us , p h i oso p he r, W 1 92 l
Colo m a e L a t zn ae , O des t, i 1 35 F o unde d
' '

L
.

l g
. .

Cloaca m a x zm a , i 1 4 1 ii 1 1 9 b y R o ma no a tin ea ue , a nd r e ce iv e d
.
°
.
-

l
C o a ca e , co ns tructio n o f, iii 2 2 into it as n e w inde p e nde nt me m b e rs , i .

l
.

P Clodius, W 345 , 5 1 7 ' v 1 1 1 -1 1 6 , 1 2 6 , 4 39 Co o nis ts a t fi rs t a mix ture o f

L
. . . .

R o m a ns a nd a t ins ; s ubs e u e nt p r e q
l
Clodius G abe r , e neral in th e G adia tor gdo minance o f R oma ns , i 440 , 44 1 l
L
. .

ia l w ar , iv 35 8 Co mp a r e a tin e a ue l g
l I
.

Clo e lii, fro m A ba , i 1 2 8 l Co onies , no n tal ia n, p roj e cts o f T

. .

Cloe lius , iv 7 9 Gr acch us , iii 31 2 Of C Gr acch us , iii . . . .

g
.

Clondicus , Ce tic e ade r , ii 50 3 l l 346 F o undin o f N ar bo , iii 37 4 4 1 9 ;

. .

l
.
,

A Clu e nt ius , v 390 iv 1 9 1 ; v 4 2 2 P r o po sa s o f S a tu rni . . .

L
.

g
.

Cluen tius , S a mnite lea der in S o cial nus , iii 4 6 8, 4 7 6 Of th e y o u n e r . .

l
.

w a r , iii 5 2 2 D rusus , iii 4 8 5 C o o nies o f C a e sar in . .

l l
.

Cis a p ine Ga u , v 1 31 I n Tra nsalp ine .

l
.

l
C unia m S p ain, iv 2 9 7 , 30 4 G a u , v 9 8, 42 2
. A t vario us p o ints , v . . .

l ’

C upea , 1 1 80 , 1 82 , 1 83, iii. 2 5 2 4 2 3 42 5 -

l
.

Cluj e us , ii 7 6 n . Co o p h o n, 1 1 47 3 ; iii 2 7 9 ; iv 47 Pi a e d
. . . . . ll g
Clus ium = Ca mars, i 1 43, 4 1 4, 42 8 ; 1 1 b y th e p ira tes , iv 30 8
. . .

2 2 4 ; iv 1 6 7 . Co umns , b ui din of, iii 2 0 7 l l g .

Cnidus , iv 47 Pi ag e d by th e p ira tes , Com ana, iv 9 5 , 332

. . ll H i h p ries t of, iv . . g .

iv 30 8 .
438
Cnoss us , iv 35 3 . Co me dy ne w e r A ttic, iii 1 4 1 1 4 6 , .
-

fl
Co e les y r ia , co n ict be tw een S y ria a nd Co me dy , R oman ; H e e nism a nd p o it ical ll l
g
E yp t a bo u t , ii 5 1 5, 5 1 7 ind1 fl e r e nce , iii 1 47 1 5 1
. D r a ma tic
'

.
-
.

Coe lius S e e Cae lius

.
f e r s ona e a nd situ a tions , iii 1 5 1 f l .

Cahor s a m ze om m , iii 460 Comp o s itio n o f, iii 1 5 3 f l

’

R o ma n
Lg
. .

C oh o r ts S ee . e io n b ar b ar is m , iii 1 5 4 M e tr es , iii 1 5 5 .

g
.

g
. .

Co ina e S e e M o ne y
. S ce nic a rr a n e me nts , iii 1 5 5 f l
l
.

Co ch is , iv 1 3, 2 0 , 9 4, 4 1 4 4 1 6
. Co m ma , no n fre e h o d b ur ess es a dm itted
- -
l g
Co lla t ia , i 1 2 5 , 1 30 e ne ral y b y A p p ius C a udiu s i
39 6 f f g l l
l
. .
,

Co lleg za ( c ubs ) in R o me , v 1 1 1 , 370 I n a mo r e l1 mit e d s ense by F a b ius R ul

'

. .

F ir s t fo rb idde n b y de cr e e o f s e na te in lia nus , i 39 6 G r a du a e x te ns io n o f . l

6 9 0 , iv 2 67 f l A o w e d a a in by th e ir funct io ns , i 39 7 f l ll F irs t s te p to g .

l g
.

Clo diu s , v 1 1 1 R es tricte d by Cae s a r ,

. .w a r ds co ns u tin th e m o n a dminis t ra tive
V 37 3 f a ffa ir s , i 39 7 f l D e m a o ic e n a r e . gg l g
me nt o f th e ir functio ns , ii i 5 7 f l V o t
'

Co llzm , i 6 8 69
’

l
. .

Co lh ne G a te , i 6 8
B a tt e at th e , iii 89
. ing dis tricts dis o r a nize d, iii 37 , 38
. . g
g
. .

C o ZZzs , i 6 8 . D e cr e as in imp o r t a nce , i 39 8 f l N u l

l
.

Ca l r a g ona lzls, i 68 n
l
lity o f a ter co mitia , iii 59 f l
. . ntr o . I
Co o nna de s o ccur , iii 2 0 6 ductio n o f v o tin by b a o t, iii 30 0 , g ll
I l
.

l l
.

Co o nie s , ta ia n, th e ir sa utary e ff ect o n 31 6 , 340 Be t ter contro l aime d a t by

l
.

t h e s o cia s ta t e o f R o m e , i 39 1 Be M a r iu s , iii 45 4 Co ndit ion in th e t ime . .

. .

t w e e n th e A p e nnine s a nd th e P 0 , iii o f t h e Gra cch i, iii 30 0 f l, 32 In

9 333 -

I l
.

g l ll
. .

99 f l S t o p p a e o f co o niz a tio n in ta y t h e t im e o f S u a , iii 5 4 1 5 4 5 iv 1 1 6 f l .

-
.

s ince e nd o f s ix th ce nt ur y , iii 31 2 f l I n th e time o f Ca esa r , v 338 A pp o in t . . .

535 H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

l
dir e ct y to mi itary co m man ds , iv 389 f l l Co m me rc a i l
i i te re s ts , th e ir in u e nce o n
-
fl
l
.

The ir corr up tio n, iii 30 2 iv 2 6 8 v 385 . . . R o ma n p o itics , iii 2 38 , 2 7 4, 2 9 5 , 4 1 5 , .

Com itia ce n tu r za ta , e a r ie s t i 1 2 0 f
’

l . .
4 2 1 ; iv ' 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 .

l
,

On th e a b o itio n o f th e m onar chy , o h Co m m e rczu m w ith dra w n fro m t he I ta

g ll
ta in th e ri h t o f a nnu a y de s i na t in the g g l
ia n co mmun itie s, ii 5 2 F ro m th e . .

l g g
cons u s , o f j u d in in a p p e a s , a nd ma k l l
S ici ians , ii 2 1 0 .

l
ing ne w a w s i n conce r t w ith p re s idin g k g
Co m nuus , in o f th e Atre ba te s, v . 8 5 ,
g
ma is tra t es , i 32 7 , 32 8 P riori ty in .
92 1 94
g q
.

vo tin o f e ue s tr ian ce ntur ies , i 32 9 . Com m oda tu m , ii i 9 1 .

l g
.

l
Ass e mb y of th e ce nt ur ies in t he cam p , Comm o n t i la e by th e cla ns h ip s, i 46 ,
.

i 32 8 R e form o f : e a ch o f th e fi v e
. 2 38
l q l
.

c ass es has e ua numb e r o f v o t es ; Co mp it um , dicta to r a t, i. 442 x .

q
e u e s t ria n p r io r ity o f v o te a b o is h e d, l Co mp le g a , ii 386
g
.

iii 50 5 4
. Or de r o f vo tin fix e d b y lot
-
. C o m p ulte r ia , ii 30 5 .

by C G r a cchus , iii 34 5 S e rv ia n o r de r C o m u m , ii 2 2 8 , 37 0 ; 11 1 30 5, 4 2 5 v 1 32
I l
. . . . .

g ll
.

S u a , iii 542 , Co nczlzu m w ith dr a w n fro m th e ta ia n

’ ’

of vo tin r e sto r e d b y .

co mf a r e iv 1 1 5 P os it io n a ft e r the
. . co m mu nit ie s , ii 5 3 .

ll
S u a n r es t o ra t io n, iv 1 1 4, 1 1 5 .
' '

Co nczlzu m p leé zs , i 36 0 .

Com ztza cu n a ta , summo ne d b y th e in

' ’

k g C o nco lita n us , ii 2 2 3, 2 2 6
l l
.

to do h o ma e , a nd t o s a nctio n ch a n e s g g Co nco r d, t e m p e o f, in th e Ca p it o , i 38 2
l L
. .

in, o r e x ce p tio ns fr o m, th e e x is tin g N e w t e m p e e r e cte d b y Op im ius , .

gl
le a o rde r , i 9 3 9 6 Ordina ry , t w ice i1 i 36 9
l l
. . .
'

a y e a r ( M a r ch 2 4 a nd M a y i 93 . . Conf a r r ea tzo, r e a tio n t o th e e a r ie s t co n

V o te ta e n b y h ea ds, i 360 k Aft er . . s titu tio n o f t e n curies , i 8 5 n Sym . .

a dmis s io n o f p e b e ia ns res tr icte d t o l b o lic a ct , i 2 0 2

l l ll
.

le g is a t iv e fo rma a cts a nd de cr e es in Co nfisca tio ns b y S u a , iv 1 o 3f l .

ma tt e rs a ff e ct in th e c a ns , i 32 7 f l g l . C o nfi s ca tio ns b y Ca esa r , v 36 5 .

l
P e b e ia n cur ia te a s s e mb y , i 32 8 , 360 l . . Co n g o nne tia cus , iii 4 1 8 .

Compa r e B ur e ss bo dy g -
C o nis to rg is , t o w n o f th e C e tici , 1 1 1 2 2 0 l .

Co m itia tr zbu ta , o r i inal y as se mb y o f

'
g l l l
Co ns e ns u a co ntra cts , a ctio na b e , iii 9 2 n l .

l l l
.

p e be ia n a ndh o de rs , i 360 I ntr oduc . . Co ns e nt ia , i 46 6 A ttitu de in s e co nd

. .

tio n o f i 360 P a tr icio p e be ia n, i -

l P un ic w ar , ii 2 9 4. S to r m e d b y t h e
l
.

gl
, . . .

36 8 P r e do m ina n ce in a te r t im e s , iii a dia to rs , iv 359

ll
. . .

5 2 f l After S u a s t im e , no m ina t e ne w
'

Co ns zlzu m , i 330
’ ’

s e na t ors , iv 1 1 3f l N o mina te ua e s t o rs
. q Conm a lzac, i 2 0 8 .

iv 1 1 3 l
Co nsu s , m e anin o f na me , I. 31 8 71 g
l ll
. .

T h e ir e a r ie s t a p p e a tio ns , i 31 8
'

Com ztzu m , i 1 40
g
. . .

Comm ag e ne S e e Antioch us a nd P tole S up re me a dm inis tra tors , j ud e s , a nd

g l
.

e ne r a s , i 31 8 E a ch o f t h e m p os
I
. .

C o mm e rce , o de st tal ia n in a nd, its l l s e s s in g

th e w h o e r e a p o w e r : in ca se l gl
fa irs , i 2 50 M e dia o f ex chan e : o x e n
. . g ll
o f co is io n , t h e zmp e r za n e u tra iz e e a ch
’

l
a nd s h e e p , i 2 5 1 ; a n d co p pe r , i 2 5 2 o th e r , i 31 8 f A u th o r ity do r ma n t
l
. .

g
. .

q
S ubs e u e nt de v e o p m e nt , ii 7 8 f . dur in a dicta to rs h ip , i 32 5 Bo und .

g
. .

Co mm e r ce , e ar ies t I ta l1 a n tr a ns m ar ine , l to r es i n o ffi ce af te r th e e x p iry o f a

e s p e cia lly on th e w e st co as t ; im p o r t y e ar , i 31 9 N O fi x e d da y fo r e nt e r in
. . g
ch ie fly Gre e of k a nd Orie nta l a r tic e s l o n t h e ir y e a r o f o ffice , i 31 9 1 1 P ow e r . .

of l u x u ry , i E x p or t or 2 52 - 2 55 l
s imi a r t o th e r o y a , i 31 7 f l B u t di ffe r l
I l
. . .

ta ian ra w p ro duce , i 2 5 5 E trus ca n, ing fr o m it, b y th e intr odu ctio n o f

L
. .

A tt 1 c, a nd a t ino - S 1 cilia n, i 2 57 f l . r e s p o n5 1 b ih t y : co ns u im p e a cha b e a ft e r l l

q
S ub se u e nt de v e o p m e nt o f tr a ns m a r ine l th e e x p ir y o f h is te r m fo r a cr im e p e r
co mm e r ce , ii 7 9 8 1 ; i1i 84 a t in .
-
. . L p e tr a t e d w h i e in o n l
i ce , i 31 9 ; b y th e .

co mm e r ce p as s w e , E trus can a ctiv e , i l

a b o i tion o f r o y a tas w o r a nd c ie nt k k l l
l l
.

2 55 R o m a n w h o e s a e , i 2 6 1 ; iv
. . . s hip , i 31 9 f l ; b y t h e e a e s ta b is h lgl l
g
.

1 73 f l A frica n, ce ntr es a t U t ica , iii m e nt o f th e r i h t o f th e co m m u nity to

k g l g l l
.

2 60 G re e , a t Ar os a nd D e os , iii j u d e o n a p p e a in ca p ita s e nte nces

l l
. .

2 74 G a l i c a nd B r it is h , a t N ar b o , iii
. . o t h e r t h a n t h o s e o f m ar t ia la w , i 32 0 ;
g lg
.

42 1 R o ma n, p e ne tra tes t o N o r th e rn
. by re s tric t io ns o n r i h t to de e a t e h is
Gau l , v. 30 po w ers , i 32 1 , or to no m ina te h is suc
.
538 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

na m e of A s ia g e nus , ii .
4 83 m ; iii . g
Ve n e an ce of de mo cr a ts on Su ll ans by
44 l g lp
e a r o ce s s , iv 4 58 46 0 -

L l l
.

l l
.

Co r ne ius C inna [co nsu 6 67 iii P C o r ne iu s D o la b e lla [co nsu , 11 1 1

l L
. .

l g
. , .

s45 i iv 6 4 1 6 51 6 8 ) 7 31 7 41 P C o r ne iu s e nt u u s b e s ie e s H a lia rt u s ,
.

1 0 2 n. ii 49 8
L C l i Ci
.

. o r ne f h p usdi g nna , s o n o t e re ce n , . l
P C o r n e ius R ufi nus [co ns u , 4 6 4, i l .

i 88
v. 2 39 5 ; ii 6 4, 86 n
L C li L l C [ l
. .

. or ne us e ntu us r us co ns u , P C o r ne i us S ci p io [ co ns u ,
. l co m l
88
v. 1 m a nds a a ins t H a nnib a in Ga u a ndg l l
L C li M l [ l
. or ne i
us 9 e ru a co ns u ,
v. 5 , I l
U p p e r ta y , ii. 2 5 4 2 57 , 2 6 8 2 7 2 , 2 9 1 - -
.

66f l I n S p a in, 1 1 30 8, 32 1 32 3 -

li S ip i [p l
.

L (C. C I1 . o rne us c o ra e t o r, P C o rne ius S cip io A fr ica nu s , h is ch a ra c

.

i
ca p t ih A h ve ii 6 6 w t nt io c u s, .
4 t e r, 1 1 32 4 32 7 .
'
S a ve s h is fa th e r s ife a t
-
l
li S i i A i i [ l
.

L C . o rne us c p o s a t cus co ns u , th e Ticino , ii 2 69 H is co nduct a fte r th e . .

i 8 fl v. 3
7 4, 0 , 1 0 1 , 10 2 10 l
ba tt e o f Ca nna e , ii 2 9 8 H is S p a nish
li S i
.

g
.

I. C orne [p us s e nna ra e tor , ca m p a i n s , ii 32 7 331 H is A fr ica n

li
.

f P mp i
e ute na nt o i 3 H o e us , v. 40 . is e x p e dit io n, ii 35 2 36 1 Triu m p h , ii .
- .

f h S i l d Ci l
.

i to r an o t e oc a an vi w a rs , v. 36 8 Opp o s e d t o A ntioch us , ii 46 4 46 8
. .
-
.

9 fi 4 3 S e p a ra te s th e o r de r s in th e th e a t r e , iii
li S ll m d F li i
.

L C o rne us u a, s urna e e x, v. 10 A t e nmity W i th Ca to , iii 4 2 , 47 ,

. .

4 1 Ch 2 . iii 53 f l ; i 9 a ra ct e r , .
7 v. 1 3
- 1 42 .
76 H is p o it ica p o s i ti o n, i ii 6 1
. Ne l l . .

S ii i
up e rs t t o n,
4 9 P li i l v. 1 1 2 0 . o t ca p o tism, iii 1 7 E a r y r is e o f, iii 1 7 l
g I
, . . . .

i
ca r e e r ,4 5 S v. 1 2 -
1 4 e rv e s a a i ns t ntr odu ce s h o no r ar y s ur na m e s ,
ii 4 83
J g h iii 7 9 A g i L g g
. .

u urt a , h .
40 -
40 . a ns t t e iii 44 ar e s s e s o f for e ig n
. . r ain a t

T iii
e uto ne s, G f C li .
4 43 . o v e r no r o i Cia , no mina p r i ces , iii 7 6 l
R idicu e d by . l
l i S il
.

i G
v. 2 2 . iii 5 4 e ne ra n oc a w ar, . 0 , N a e v ius , iii 1 50 H is tria a nd de a th , . . l
5 f 5 5 9 2 2 . 52 4 .. 2 . 52 . ii 4 8 3/ l
l i h S l p i i iii 535 f l
.

Q uarre s w t u c us , . l
P Cor ne ius S cip io , s o n o f Afr icanus ,
k
.

M h arc es d i R m iiio n an o ccup e s o e, . wr ite s R o man h is tor y in Gre e , iii

l gi l i i i 5 5 5
.

5 8 5 39 3 Fi . rst e s a t o n, i .
41 -
4 .
85 1

m ig l
,

Mih d i t ra iii 5 5 at c ca pa n, .
4 , 547 . P C o rne ius S cip io N as ica co mma nds a t
.

Co n quers Gr iv 36 42 A t A the ns,

e e ce , .
-
. P y dna , ii 50 6
l g g
.

iv 38, 39 Vict o r io u s a t Cha e ro ne a , iv

. . P Co r ne iu s C e the u s , a M ar ia n, oes

ll
. .

4 1 -4 3 A t Or ch o m e nu s , iv 44 Cro s se s . . o ve r to S u a , iv 7 8 H is in ue nce , iv . fl .

k
. .

t o Asia , iv 50 f M a e s p e a ce a t D a r
. . 2 6 9 1 3S I
da nus , iv 5 2 A a ins t F imb ria , iv g l
P Co rne ius D olab e lla , Ca e sar s adm ira
'
l
I ll
. . .

gl
.

52 f l R e u a te s A sia tic aff a irs, iv in y r icum , v 2 35 T r ib une of th e

I l
. . .

53 f l R e t ur ns t o t a y , iv 55, 7 7 In p e o ple , v 31 8
l L
. .

l
.

co nflict w ith th e M ar ia n p arty , iv 7 9 . P C o r ne iu s e ntu us [ M eter u r ba nm ,

.

92 D icta t o r , iv 9 8 1 0 0 H is e x e cu -
c i ii 32 9

l L
. .

l l
. . .

tio ns , iv 1 0 0 10 6 fl P r os crip t io ns P C o rne iu s e ntu us S ura [ consu ,

l
. .

a nd co nfi sca tio ns , iv A ss ig Ca t i ina r ia n, iv 47 7 , 47 9 , 4 80

l L l
. .

na t io ns to th e s o die r s , iv 1 0 8 1 6 T r e a t l P C o r ne ius e ntu us S p int h e r , a P o m

I l
. .

me nt o f th e ta ians , iv 10 7 1 10 . p e ia n, v 2 0 9
l
. .

l
A b o ish e s th e G r a cch an ins titu t io ns , P C o rne iu s S cip io A e milia nu s A fr ica nu s ,
I
.

iv 1 1 0 f l R e o r an ize s the s e na te , iv g h is ch a r a cte r , iii 31 4 31 7 , 339 nco r -

l
. . .

gl g
.

1 1 1 f l R e u a tio ns a s t o th e b ur e sse s , r up ti b ility , i1 i 2 9 5 M i i ta ry t r ibune in . .

iv 1 1 4 f l A s to th e p r ie s t y co e e s , iv l ll g . S p a in, i ii 2 1 9 f f , 2 4 1 I n Afr ica , 1 ii

. . .

gl
.

1 1 5 R e u a t e s ual ifica tions fo r o ffi ce q 2 50 f l I n M a ce do nia , iii 2 60 De .

g g
.

a nd m a is tr a cie s , iv 1 1 6 1 2 1 E r e cts -
s t r o y s Ca r th a e , 1 1 1 2 5 2 2 5 8 R e s to re s -
.

l
. . .

C is al p ine Ga u as a p ro v ince , 1 1 2 1 5 l . discip in e in t he ca m p b e fo re N um a n

iv 1 2 2 f l H is fi na nce , iv 1 2 6 J udI CI a l
. . . t ia , ii i 2 30 ; iv 2 1 0 .D es tr o y s N u . .

sy s te m , iv 1 2 7 1 30 Qu aes t zonei , iv -
m a nt ia , iii 2 31 f l M iss io n t o th e e a st ,
g l
.

g
. .

1 2 8/ l l l
P o ice a w s , iv 1 30 f l R e s i ns . iii 2 9 2 B e a r in t o w a r ds th e p o p u a ce ,
. .

th e dicta tors h ip , iv 1 38 A fte r h is t e . . iii 331 A t t itude in re fe r e n ce t o S e m

. .

tire me nt, iv 1 50 D e a th a nd b u r ial , iv p r o n ia n a g ra i ia n la w , iii 32 0 , 331 , 334,

g kl g
. .
. .

1 51 f l H is o p inio n o f C a e s a r , iv 2 7 9 . .
337 ud m e nt o n t h e
. J i li n o f Ti .

l l
Po itica re s u ts o f his de a th , iv 2 8 7 l . . G ra cch us, iii 32 7 D e a th , iii 338 . . . .
 I NDE X
S cip ionic cir c e , iv 1 9 2 , 2 0 3, 2 39 , 2 43 l a nd P o m p e iu s R o man p ro vince , iv
a

L g
. . .

S pe e ches , iv 2 5 1 . .
40 2 / i, 4 36 e a u e o f Cre ta n

l l l
.

P Co r ne ius S ul a , Ca ti inaria n, iv 466

. iv 2 7 f 2 . t o w ns , .

Co rnicu um, i 1 2 5 l Cr i m en , i 32
l l
. .

Q Cornifi cius, ie u te na nt o f Ca esa r, v l

Cr im ina p r o ce dure : fundam e nta ide as,
I
.

k g
.

2 84 i 32 nte r fe r e n ce o f th e in , e v e n . .

Comma czmka , ii 358 ; iii 31 5

'
w itho u t a p p e a o f th e inj ur e d p e rso n,
. . l
Co ro ne a, ii 441 , 49 8, 50 1 , 50 3 in b r e a ch e s o f th e p ub ic e a ce , i 1 9 1
p
l
l I
.

g g
.

Co rr e sp o nde nce p ub is h e d, v 50 1 f m p ris o nm e nt durin inv e s t i a tio n .

C o rre us , B e llov ac ia n, v 9 2 j : th e r u e , i 1 9 1 f Ca p ita p unis h me nt, l .

'

l
l
. .

Co rs ica , Ph o ca e a ns s e tt e in, i 1 84 E trus i 1 92 P a rdo n by th e co mmunity , o r

L
. . . .

ca n, i 1 86 , 4 1 3, 4 1 6 . Ca r th a inia n, b y t h e o ds , i 1 9 2 a te r de v e o p m e nt,
. g g . . l
ii 40 R o ma n e e t s e nt th ith e r to fou nd
. . ii 66 7 0 fl Ch a n e s b y C Gra cch us , iii. .
-
. g
l
.

co o ny , ii 4 4 R o m a n, ii 1 7 7 , 2 0 9
. 346 / I, 35 2 / I U nde r S u a , iv. 1 2 7 1 2 9 .
. . . ll -

Wa r with , ii 37 6 M arian se tt e me nt S ee ury Co ur ts

. . l J -

in, iii 47 9 Crito la us , iii 2 6 7 , 2 6 8, 2 69 .

l l gl
.

C ort o na , ii 1 1 1 . P e ace with R ome , i. 47 9 Crix us , e a de r o f th e C e ts in th e a dia

l
.

C. Co ru nca nius , ii 2 1 7 tot ia w ar , iv 35 7 360 .

-

L
.

Co ru nca nius , ii 2 1 7 Cro to n, i 1 7 0 f I , 1 7 3, 4 56 ; ii 2 9 5, 35 8 .

l l
. . . .

T ib Co ru nca niu s , ii 2 3, 1 1 3
. R e p u ses th e Br u ttians w ith h e p o f th e
.

C0 5 , ii 4 1 2 ; iv 32 , 33 S y ra cusan s , i 4 6 6 Occup ie d by th e . .

g l
. .

Con in E truria , i 30 4 ; iv 2 9 1 In R o ma ns , ii 1 2 , 31 B ur e s s co o ny , ii -

L L
. . . . . .

uca nia , ii 2 9 5 A a tin co o ny , ii . 36 5 P i a e d by mutine e rs in P y r r h ic

. l . . ll g
R e infor ce d, ii 36 6 w ar , ii 1 8 S urp ris e d b y th e p ir a tes ,
39 , 42 . . . .

C Cos co nius [p ra e to r , 6 6 4 , in th e iv 354 .

l g l
.

S o cia w a r , iii 5 2 1 . A ains t th e D a ma Cru s tu m e ria , i 1 2 5 , 34 8

. Crus tuminian . .

tians , iv 30 6 . tr ib e , i 360 .

C o s e s , iv 41 6 .
'
C u tur e , in Ca e s a r s t im e , v 449 4 53 l .
-

Co ssy ra , ii 1 43 ; i 9 2 v . Cu m ae o r ine ,
.
”
in As ia M inor , ii 46 1 , W
g
.

Co th o n, inne r h ar b o ur o f Car th a e , iiii 47 3 ; iii 2 7 8 . .

2 4 8, 2 5 6 Cum a e in Ca mp ania , i i. 30 3 O de s t l
l I
.

Co tta S e e A ur e ius , A ur uncule ius Gr e e s e tt e m e nt in taly , i 1 6 5 , 1 66 , k l .

l
.

Co t tian A p s , ro a d o v e r th e , iv 2 9 3 1 6
7 T ra ns fe rr e d t o m a in a nd, i 1 7 5 . . l . .

Co ty s , iv 9 3, 5 0 0 , 5 0 1 , 5 1 0 . I ts co ns titu tio n, i 1 7 5 D o r is m of .

Cra t e s M a llo te s , r a m ma ria n, iv 2 1 4 a n ua e , g i 1 74 n A t ta c e d b y . l g g . . k

C ra th is , r iv e r in Br u tt iu m, i 1 7 1 T y r r h e nians , 2 30 U C , i 1 4 8, 1 5 8 . .

k
.

l
. .

C re dit , ea r ie s t R o ma n s y s te m o f no C h e c s th e E t ru s ca ns in A r icia ,
l
a nde d se cur ity , b u t ua r a nt e e d r i h t g
H e p s t o de fe a t Ty rr h e ne e e t, i 4 1 5 ° g l fl
l ll
.

o f p e r s o na a rr es t , i 2 0 4 Efi e cts o f, i ii 1 34 Co n ue r e d b y S a b e ia ns ,
. .
'

. . . q
346/ Z D e mando f e a a b a te me nt dur in 45 4, 45 6 lgl
Ob t a ins C a e r ite i ig h ts , i. g .

th e S o cia w ar , iii 5 30 f : l
R e m is s io n o f 4 6 3 ; iii 2 4 S ib y ine o r a c e s b ro u h t ll l g
L l
. . .

de b t by th e la w o f V a e r ius F la ccus , t h e nce t o R o me , i 2 2 9 . Old r e a tions . l

l
.

iv 7 0 . P r o e cts o f Ca t i ina , iv 4 7 4
. j w it h R o me , i 2 60 ; ii 80 . .

l
. .

Po s itio n o f de b tors in Ca es ar s time , v Cumu a t io n o f o ffi ce s , i 40 2

’
. .

Cae sar s me as ur es , v 39 8 40 2 C ur es , S a b ine t o w n, i 6 9 u

’

388 39 0 Obta ins

- -

L
. . . . .
' '

aws of M Ca e lius a nd P D o la b e lla , cw zta s s zne s ufi r a g zo , i 49 2 S ec .

k
. . .

S a b ine s
’
v 31 7 f : Ca e sar s b a n r up t cy o r di n
.

ance , v 4oo f I Co mp a r e A ricu ture

. Cu n a cons is te d o f 1 0 g e nres , o r 1 0 0 g l ’

Cr e me ra , b a t t e o n th e , i 35 9 l h o use h o ds , i 85 F u nda m e nt a p ar t o f
. l l
l
. .

Cr e mo na , ii 2 6 7 , 2 7 3 iv 1 6 7 B a tt e a t , th e co mm u nit y , i 86 f . Co m f a fl
g
. . . .

ii 37 0 R e o r a niz e d a s fo r tre ss , ii 37 3 Com ztza cu r ia te:

’

L
. . . .

A a t in co o ny , ii 2 2 9 iii 49 l
[ as o f, Ca r za S a lzo r u m , i 6 2
. . .
' '

ii 5 2 n ; ii 5 1 8
. . C u r ia e r/e te r e s , i 6 2
. .

Cre te . ii 40 5 . 4 33. 439 . 4 7 5 .

.
5 1 5 ; iii C ur ia ti i, fr o m A b a , i 1 2 8 z 11 1 0 5 . l
l g
. .

2 34, 4 42 T h e P h o e nicia ns dis o d e d Curict a , v 2 35

.

ll
.

th e nce by th e H e e ne s , i 1 8 3 R e cr uit Cu r zo, i 87 Cu r io m a x zm u s e e cte d b y

’

.
'
l
l
. . .

ing fi e d, ii 1 6 2 S e a t o f p ir a te s , iii 2 9 1
. th e b u r e s s e s , iii 5 7
. A ll t h e cu r w /ze: g
ll
. . .

I I , 30 6 ; iv 31 0 , 31 4. M a de by M e te us . e e cte d by th e b ur e s se s, iii
46 3 iv l g . .
54° H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

2 06 /I E l
by th e co e e r e in tro
e ct on i ll g D ao rS i , iii 42 2 .

duce d by S u l a, iv 1 1 5 / I , 2 0 7 l . D a rda ni, ii 42 3 0 4 2 3, 4 351 497 , 49 3!

Cur io S ee S cr ibo n ius iii 2 6 3, 4 2 9
. iv 50 . S ubdued by
l
. .

M Cur ins D e nta tu s [co nsu , 46 4, 4 7 9 , R o ma ns , iv 30 7

’
. .

4 80 ; ce ns o r . 4 82 ]. i 39 3. 39 5 . 49 1 ; ii . D ar da nus , ii 47 3 P e ace a t , iv 5 2 , 54
. .

k g
.

36 , 8 5 ; iii 46 . D a r ius , in o f th e M e de s , said to ha ve

C urs or S e e P a p irius
. be e n de fe a t e d b y P o mpe ius , iv 434 n
l g
. .

C uru e ma is tr a cies , iii 4 , 5 n , 6 f : D a ss a r e ta e , ii 42 3, 42 6 , 499

l
. . .

C us to m s , S ici ia n, ii 2 1 2 ; iv 1 6 0 Ex D a u nii, i 4 5 3 ii 2 1 , 89 With th e

I l
. . . . . .

t e ns io n o f ta ia n, iii 1 9f I n th e s e v e nth . . E tr us cans s u rp r is e Cumae , i 1 4 8 S ub .

l l
.

ce ntu ry , iv 1 59 f f Cu s t o ms dis tricts

.
-
du e d by A e x a nde r th e M o o ss ia n, i
w ith in th e R o ma n s ta te , iv 1 60 . .
4 66
Ofli ce r s , iv 1 66 . l
D a y a te in b e in divi de d into ho urs , i g
l
Cy b e e , w o rs h ip in R ome , iii 1 1 7 2 68 D iff e re nt t ime s o f its co mme nce
l gI
.

Cy c a de s , th e , i i 40 0 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 2 . me nt a mo n tal ia n races , i
. 2 6 9/ i
C y clia des ii 430 . D e a did , i 2 1 5
l ll ll
.

l
,

C y c o pea n w a s S cc Wa s . D e bt , p r oce dure fo r , a te r ed b y the L ea

Cy do nia , iv 3si f , 35 3
'

. . P a e te lza , i 389 / Z S ee Cr edit .

' '
Cy nics , V 444 D e ce m m r z cons u la n zmj er zo leg ibu s s cr i
‘ ’ '

l
C y no s ce ph a a e , ba tt e o f, ii 433f f l bu ndzs , ins t itu tio n a nd o v e rthr o w , i
I
. .

Cyp ru s , ii 40 0 , 4 1 0 ; iv 1 1 , 4 7
. Th e . . 36 1 36 7 -
ntr o ductio n o f mo ne y by
.

Pho e nicia ns dis o d e d th e nce b y t h e l g th e m , ii 7 8 f A t te mp t a r e u a tio n o f

‘

gl
ll l
. .

H e e ne s , i 1 83 S e p a r a te d fr o m
. . th e ca e nda r , 11 1 1 6 f .

g
E y p t , iii 2 35 , 2 36 F a s t o R o me ,
. . ll '
D ece m w n Zzzzé us zudzca fl dzir, i 352 ; iv
’ ‘ ’
‘
‘ ’

. .

iv 31 9 . 4 50 . 5 1 7 1 2 8
Cy ps e a , iv 5 2 l . D ece m zl zr z
'
’

s a cfi s f a czu ndzir
’

. S e e D um ri

Cy re ne , ii 1 37 , 40 0 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 4 ; iv 40
. D e cie ta e , iii 4 1 5 .

l
. .

P ho e nicia ns dis o d e d t h e nce b y H e l l g D e cim a s y s te m , its o rig in , i 2 6 3f Olde i .

le ne s , i 1 8 3 S e p ara te d fr o m E y p t , g th an th e duo de cima s y s te m , i. 2 6 4 f l

I l
. .

iii 2 34, 2 36 , 2 83, 4 1 0 71 iv 4 R o ma n, A— t fi rs t e x c us ive y p r e v a e nt in ta y , l l l

l
. . . .

iv 4 , 32 2 F re e city , iv 4 R oman . . i 2 64 B u t th e du o de cima sy s t e m

.

l
. .

do ma ins th ere , iv 1 5 7 T a xa t io n, iv . . . q
e a r y ac uir e d p r e p o nde ran ce , i 2 6 5 .

1 58 D e cius , Ca m p a nia n ca p ta in, ii 1 8

l
.

C y s s u s , ba tt e , ii 460 l P D e cius M u s [ m i ita ry tr ibune , 4 1 1 ;

.

l l
.

W t h nos , ii 4 1 7 co ns u , i 4 59 n S e f sacrifi ce . . -

l l
.

b b fa se i
Q I zicu s , ii 40 6 , 4 50 F r e e city , iii 2 80 p ro a y , 4 60 n . .

l
. . .

Tr e a tm e nt b y F imb ria, iv 47 Be . . P . D e ciu s M us [ co ns u , 4 57 , i 4 59

.

g
s ie e d b y M ith ra da t e s , iv En ”w 4 89
L ll l
.

l g
a r e m e nt o f city do m ain by u cu us - D e c a m a t io ns , iv 2 1 5 2 1 8 .
-

D ecu r zm e s tu r m a r u m , i 440 n
'

iv 440 .
. .

co mm unities o f, iii 2 4, 2 6 2 8 .
-
.

k g
D A Ci A N in do m fo u nde d, v 1 0 5f : . D e fini tion o f, iii 5 2 8 n iv 1 0 7 n . . . .

D a da s a , iv 348 D e io ta r us , iv 32 5, 4 37 .

l
.

D a h a e in a rm y o f A nt io ch us , ii 46 6 D e ia n b ro nze , iii 2 7 4 n . .

I ll l
.

l
D a ma t ia S ee y r icum
. . D e ium, ii 4 57 P ea ce co nfere nce s w ith
. .
-

D a m a r e ta , i 4 1 5 . M ithr a da te s a t, iv 49 f : .

D amas cu s , iv 31 6 , 42 7 D e lminium, iii 42 1 .

l
.

D a mas ipp us a t P h acus , iii 2 60 . D e os , fre e p o r t , ii 5 1 5 E mp o rium o f . .

D a m zu m , i 2 31 . th e R o ma ns, iii 2 7 4, 2 9 3, 30 6 , 30 9 ; iv . .

D am o c r itus , A ch a e a n s tr a teg u s , iii 2 66 . 34, 1 7 5 Occu p ie d b y M ithr a da te s , iv

. .

D a mop h ilu s , S ici ia n p a nt e r , iii 30 9 l l . 34 G ive n t o A th e ns , ii 5 1 7 ; iv 39

. . . .

D a m o p h ilus o f H im e ra S e e De mop hilus S urp r is e d b y the p ira tes , iv 35 4 .

l l
.

D a na la , iv 40 7 D e p hic o r a c e , e mb as sy t o , fro m th e
g l lg
.

D a ncin , its e ar y re i io us a nd a r t is t ic R o m a ns , i 2 30 ; ii 4 6 F r o m th e . .

l l
.

g
s i n ifi ca nce , i 2 85 f : A cco mp any in . g Ca e r ites , i 1 85 D e p h ic te m p e , ii
. . .

th e s a tur ate , ii 9 8 f G ree in ue nce ,

’

. k fl 49 5 , 4 9 6 R e ce iv e s ifts fro m M um
. g
ll
.

iv 2 5 8 . On th e s ta e , v 47 2 f Z, 5 1 7 g . mius , iii 2 7 1 E mp t ie d by S u a , iv
. . .

l l l
. .

I n p riva te ife , v si 6 f i .
40 Ce tic e x pe ditio n to D e p h i, iii. 4 2 5
.
542 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

s io ns ,
iii 4 8 f a r e as s i na tio n in L g g D umn orix , v 67
I
.

l
.

th e s ix th ce ntu r y , iii 4 9 D e cis io n as D uo de cimal s y s te m in tal y , ear y in use

l
.

g l g
.

to as s i na t io ns fa ls t o t he b u r e s s e s , iii as w el for th e m e as u r e me nt o f t ime as

I l
.

5 8 /Z Occupa t io n o f ta ia n do m a ins , fo r m e as u r e s o f e n th a nd s urfa ce and l g

,

iii 31 2 , 31 9 , 32 1 , 37 3 37 6 iv 1 0 8 f -
fo r w e i h t, i 2 6 5/ Z g
L l
. . .
. ,
'

D u om r z zu n a’zcu ndo in th e
’ ’

D is t r ib u t io n a tt e m p t e d b y C a e ius .

S a p ie ns , iii 31 7 , 31 9 D is tr ibut io n by
. . iv 1 32 / I
.

T i G r a cch us , iii 32 0 f , 32 7 330 , 332 ,

. .
- D uoz/zr z f uzz/a les , u 44 .

4 8 5 4 88 S us p e nde d, iii 336 R e s u m e d

-
. . i . 1 91
' '
D u om r z
'

A fte r h is s a cr is cus todie rs

’

b y C G ra cch us , iii 34 5 f f a czu ndzs , of

’

I l I
. . .

de a th , iii 373 / Z nte nde d by D r us u s , o ra c e s, i 2 30 ncr e as e d t o t e n a nd

I
. .

ll l lbi
.

'
iii 4 8 5 48 8 T o S u a s s o die rs , iv
- o p e ne d up t o i 38 1 ncr e as e d p e e a ns , . .

l
. . .

To P o m p e ius s o die rs a f te r th e to fifte e n, iv

’
1 0 9 f: 1 2 6 Ch o se n b y th e . .

S p a nish w ar , iv 37 6 , 37 8 A ft e r th e . . g
b u r e ss es , iii 46 3 ; iv 2 0 6 fl Co o p ta . . -

M i th ra da t ic w a r , iv 50 2 A tt e m p t e d t io n r e intro duce d by S u a, iv 1 1 5 , 2 0 7 ll
g l
. . .

by t h e S e rV ilian la w , iv 472 f U nde r . . D y e r s , u i d o f, i 2 49 , 2 53 .

C a e s a r , v 358 , 40 3 f P r o duce o f th e D y me , ii 31 9 , 430

I l
. . .

e x tra ta ia n do mains , iv 1 5 6
-
Co m . . D y r r ha ch ium S ee Ep idamnus .

p a r e C a p ua
C n D o m itius , in co mm and ag a ins t An t io
. E G L E intr o duce d as a s ta ndard, ii i 460 A .

ch u s , ii 4 6 6 E bu r , i 2 6 0 n . .

l
.

C 11 D o m it ius Ah e no b a rbu s [co ns u , 6 32 ]

. E b uro ne S . V 5 4. 6 8 . 6 9 . 71 .
g g
fi h ts a ains t th e A o b ro es , iii 4 1 7 f Ebus us , ii 1 43 ll g . .

C n D o mitius Ahe nob a rb us , s o n in la w o f

.
E ch e tla , ii 1 7 0 - -
.

Cinna , iv 9 2 E chinu s , ii 4 2 1 .

l
.

C u D o m itiu s A h e nob a rb u s [ tr ib u ne o f the E cno mu s , b a tt e o f, ii 1 7 9 / i .

l l
.

p e op e , 6 50 ; co ns u , iii 46 3 Ede s sa S ee Osrh o e ne . .

'

C 11 D o m it ius Ca lv inus [dicta t o r,

. E dzc t u m p r a e to r is a r ba m , v 433
ii .

2 3 Educa t io n, its r is e , i 2 9 6 f f, 2 99 f : i i
L
. .

C11 D o mitius Ca lvinus [p ra e tor , v ii i 1 30 - 1 32 I n a t in in se v e n th . . .

g
.

2 55 a nd e i h th ce ntur ies , iv 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 2 1 8
;
-

L
.

D o m it ius Ahe no barbus [ co ns u , 6 60 1,

. v 4 5 1 45 3 I n Gr e e , iv
'
v l .
-
. k . .

iv 84 , 1 0 2 n
. .
4 50 I n C a e sar s t im e , v 449 f : H is . .

L D o mitius Ah e noba rb us [ co ns u , e rms o f s ta te t ra inin s ch oo s, v

452 f : l g -
g l
g
. .

v 1 2 3, 2 1 0 , 2 1 4 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 9 , 2 6 7 , 38 4 E e r ia , ii 1 0 7 .

g g g
.

M D o mitius Ca l vinus , a a ins t S e r t o r iu s , E e s ta S e e S e e s ta .

g
.

iv 2 83 Ge lliu s E na t iu s , i 4 88, 490 .

I l g l
.

l
D o r ic co o nie s in ta y and S ici y , i 1 66 f , M a r ius E na tius , S a mnite , e a der in l
l
.

1 6 8, 1 7 2 S o cia w a r , iii 5 1 1 , 52 2 .

D o r is , ii 39 6 E y p t, ch a ra cte r o f th e in do m, ii 399f : g k g
g l
. .

D o ry la us , e ne ra o f M ith ra da te s, iv 44 F ir s t co n ta ct w ith R o m e , ii 6 1 I ts . .

l
.

D ra ch ma e , A tt ic, v 438 in S ta ndar d o f r e a t io ns t o R o me , ii 2 1 5 f

’

. . P o sitio n . .

th e , iv 1 8 2 f : . in th e se co nd P unic w ar , ii 31 5 , 31 8,
g
.

D r am a S ee S ta e .
344 B e fo re th e t ime o f th e Gra cch i, .

D re p a na , ii 1 7 8, 1 87 , 1 93, 1 9 4. B a tt e o f,
. iii 2 36 , 2 8 1 2 84 , 2 86 A fte r the t i me o f l .
-
.

ii 1 8 8f . th e G r a cch i, iv 4 , 2 7 , 40 F ina ncia . . l

D ress , iv 1 85 . ch ara ct er o f the P to e ma ic o v e rnme nt, l g
D ro mich ae te s , Po nt ic e ne ra , iv 38, 41 iv 1 6 4 g l
D iscus s io ns as t o its a nne x a
IL
. .

l
.

D r uids , v 2 3 . tion afte r th e de a th o f A e x a nde r

l g
,

D m m m e tu m , n 40 2 iv 31 8 f : P to e m a e us X I r e co nize d
L
. . .

D r us u s S ee ivius . by th e R o m a ns a nd co ndu ct e d b a c by k
D ue l
r e p a ce d b y l
mo ne y w a e r a nd Ga b inius , iv 4 50 f 1 nt e rv e n t io n ive n
- g I g
l
.

a ctio n a t la w , iii 9 1 Ce tic, i 4 2 1 u p , v xa a j i . S ta te a t th e tim e o f th e

. . . .

I n S p a in , ii 386 . b a t t e o f Ph a rs al us , v 2 6 8 f : S ta te l
l
.

C D uilius [co ns u ,
. ii 1 7 6 D e mon unde r Ca e sar , v 2 7 2 2 8 2 , 343 . . -

I l
.

s tra tio ns o f h o no ur t o , iii. 44 E y p t ian o bj e cts o f ux ur y in ta ian g l

M . Du ilius [ tr ibune o f the pe o p e , 2 8 3, t o mbs , i 2 5 3 l .

L 3” E aea , ii 46 2 , 466 l .
 I ND E X
l
B a e us , ii 4 1 7 . ta ch e d to M a ce donia , iii 2 62 , 2 7 2 a . .

E la twa , ii 4 30 . g
H i h w a y to , iv 1 6 8
’
Ca esar s co n ict: fl
l l
.

E ea S ee Ve ia
. a t , 2 50 2 5 4 M int, u i 87 ; iv 1 8 1
-
. .

l l
.

E e p h ants , us e o f, in ba t t e , ii 1 9 , 2 5, 36 , . E p ida ur us , A e s cu a p ius b ro u h t th e nce l g

4 34 Ca r th a inia n, ii 1 5 9 , 1 83, 1 85 ,
. g . t o R om e , ii 7 1 T e mp e o f A es cula . . l
1 86 f , 2 5 1 , 2 55, 2 5 8, 2 6 2 , 4 2 2 p ius e mp t ie d b y S u a , iv 40 ll
l
.

E e p h a nts , th e fi r s t s e e n in R o m e , ii 36 . E p iro ts ( o r E p irus ) . ii 40 3. 4 2 1 . 42 9 . 4 5 6 .

l
.

E e u s i nia n m y s t e r ies , a dmis s io n o f th e 45 9 . 4 7 6 . 4 9 9 . 50 2 . 5 1 8 ; iii 2 6 2 . 4 2 1 . .

R o m a ns to , ii 2 1 9 .
42 2 ; iV 34 . 36 . 4 3 : v 2 4 5 .

l
E e us is , ii 4 2 3 ; iv 38 . . E p it a p h s , imita t io n o f a Gr ee cus to m, k
l
E e uth e r a , iv 35 3 ii.91
I
.

l
E e u th er o La co ne s , ii 4 39 , 45 1
-
. E p or e dia ( vr ea ) , co l o ny in 6 54 a t, iii.
E liS . ii 31 7 . 40 3. 4 2 1 . 45 6 . 4 59 . 4 7 8 41 6, 5 1 8
E p os , R o ma n, iv
’

E lo rus , S y r a cusa n, ii 2 0 4 . . v. 46 5 f .
l
E p e nor , his to mb sh o wn a t T erra cina , E p u lo ne s S ee Tr e: . u rz
' '

42 14 s

i 1 77
. E qu e s tr ia n ce ntur ie s : 6 ce ntu rie s = 6o o
E lp ius , u 50 4, 5 0 6 8 ce n tu r ie s = 1 80 0 ho r se s , iii
h o r se s , 1 .

g
.

E ly m a ea , ii 4 2 6 . 8 9 P r io r ity in v o tin w ith dra wn,

.

E ly ma is , ii 4 6 8 T e m p e o f N ana e a a t ,
. . l iii 50 f
. .
'

P r o p o s e d increas e o f, b y Ca to ,
iv 343 E ly ma e a ns in a rmy o f A nti iii 9 n
'

. .. E qu zte s e g u o M 1 2 2 0 , eq u ites
l
.

o ch us , ii 4 6 6 . aqu a pr wa to , iii 9 n Th e no b i ity in . .

l
E y mi, ii 1 43 .
p o sses sio n o f th e , iii 8 1 0 S urr e nde r .
-
.

E ma ncip a tio n a o w ed, 11 65 M o re ll . . o f t h e s ta te h o r s e s , iii 9 -

g g
.

r e ce n t th a n ma nu miss ion, i 7 6 , 1 9 8 f .
'
q
E ue s tria n o r de r, b e innin o f, iii 9 4 f .
’

l
. .

g
E m i r a nts , R o m a n, in S p a in, iv 2 8 1 2 85 , .
- E e v a te d b y Gr acch us , ii i 349 fi In .

30 0 30 3
- W ith M ithrada tes , iv 2 7 0 ,
. . s ig n ia o f th e , iii 35 1 R e s triction of, . .

31 8 . 32 2 . 32 9 by S u ll a, iv . 1 1 1 , 1 2 9/ C Comp a r e Ju yr

E m p o r ia e [o r E mporia ] in Afr im , ii 37 7 . co ur ts
'

E qu zm a , i 2 0 7
’

iii 2 38 , 2 5 8
. .

E mp o ria e in S p ain, 1 1 2 4 1 , 2 9 1 , 37 5 , 384, E r a to s th e nes , ii 1 46

. .

387 E r ct e , ii 1 93 .

E ndo w me n ts , r e i io u s , iii 1 1 0 lgE r e tr ia , ii 430 , 452 . .

g
E n ra vin g
o n s to n e in E tr u ria , i 30 6 , E rg a s tu lu m , iii 7 0 n , 30 7 n. .

l
. .

30 7 ii 1 2 1 On m e t a , ii 1 2 1
. . E ris a ne , iii 2 2 4 . .

E nna , ii 31 1 iii 30 9 , 31 0 , 384

. E ry thr a e , ii 4 1 2 , 46 1 , 4 73
. .

Q E nnius , R o m a n p o e t, iii 2 7 n , 1 73 Er y x , ii 1 87 , 1 9 3 .

I
. . .

E s g u zlza e = E x quilia e , i 6 3, 6 5
'

1 7 7 , 2 0 4 ; iv 2 1 4 f: n tr o duce s th e
. .

h e x a me t e r , iii 1 7 5 H is P r a e t ex ta za e , E t r ur ia , b o undarie s , i 1 5 6 f :
. . I n the ‘
.

iii 1 7 7 H is S a tu r a e , iii 1 7 9 H is so u th e rn p o r t io n ma ny traces o f U m

l l l g
. . . .

A nna le s , iii 1 8 1 1 84 H is tr a ns a t io n
. b ri a ns w h o w e r e p r ob a b y o n y dis od e d
-
l
l
.

o f E p ich a r mu s a nd E uh e m e ru s, iii 1 1 3 at a a te p e riod, i 1 5 6 S o u th e rn p art . . . .

g
Ch a n e s in o r th o ra p hy , iii 1 9 2 Re g
co n ue r e d b y th e R o mans , i 4 32 q .

I
. .

l
.

lig io u s p o s it io n, iii i n f : n ue nce H us b a ndr y in, iii 9 9 iv 1 7

. S ave ry fl . . .

o n P a cu viu s , iv 2 2 0 , 2 2 2 in, iii 1 0 2 , 30 8, 31 3 .

g l g g
.

E nte lla , ii 1 6 2 E tr usca ns , diff e re nt in fi u re a nd a n ua e

I l l
.

E o rda e a , ii 4 2 5 . fr o m th e t a ian ra ce , i 1 50 E a r ie r . .

E pe tium, iii 4 2 2 p e ri o d o f th e a n ua e wit h co m p e te l g g l

L
.

E p h es us ii 4 5 3. 4 59 . 46 1 . 47 4 : iii 2 7 8 ;
. v o ca iza t io n, i 1
51 a te r p e r io d w ith l . .

iv 46 n . L ux ury , iii 1 2 2
. M a ss a cre
°

r ej e ct io n o f vo w e s a nd b unt in
. o f th e
. l l g
a t, iv 31 f p r o n uncia t io n , i 1 5 1 f S uch a ffi nity
L
. .

E p h o r us , i 1 7 7 ii 1 0 8
. as s ub s is ts b e tw e e n
. a t in a nd E t r us ca n

E p ich armus o f M e ar a, u i 1 1 3 E dit e d g

m a y b e t ra ce d to b o rr o w in , i 1 5 2 . g .

l l
. .

b y E nnius , iii 1 7 9 N o t o th e rwis e de mo ns tr a b y r e a te d to

k
.

E p icurus and his sch o o , iv 1 9 7 2 0 0 ; v a ny l

no w n ra ce , i 1 5 2 M a y b e p re -

I
. . . .

4 44 s u me d ndo Ge rm a nic, i 1 5 3 Ca me -

I l
. .

E p icyde s 11 31 0 . 31 1 . 31 3 p ro b a b y fr o m R a e tia to ta y , i 1 5 4. l .

Epida mnus ( Dy r r a ch i um) , fo unde d, i N o t fr o m Asia M inor , i 1 5 5

h S e tt ed . . . l
1 76. R oma n, ii 2 1 8 ; iii 2 6 2 At up to th e Ce ltic invasio n be t w ee n A lps
. . .
 H I S T OR Y O F R OM E

and Po , i 1 5 6 A s o, s o u th o f th e P o , . l A fte r S u a s de a th, iv ll 88 2 9 1

'
2 64 , 2 -

L
.

ll
.

i 1 56
. Ls tly , a nd m o r e e s p e cia y , in
. N o t th e s o urce o f a t in c ivi iza t io n, i l .

E tr ur ia na me d af te r th e m , a s fa r as th e 2 8 1 / Z E tr u s ca n cu t ure o f th e R o ma n l
T ibe r , i i s6 f i C o n icts w ith th e Ce ts , fl l b o y s a fa b e , i 2 9 2 71 l
R e i io n, ii 7 1 lg
L
.

l l l
. . .

lg g
.

i 1 60
. U r b a n ife e a r y de ve o p e d in
. o re o f i h tnin , i. 2 34 N a t io nal .

E tr ur ia , i 1 60 f : C o ns titu tio n o f th e . l
fe s t iv a , i 2 34 ; iii 1 1 2 / Z Ar t , i 30 6
l g i 6 f:
. . .

co mm un it ie s , a n d o f th e ea ue , . 1 o 30 9 ; ii 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , i 2 4 f f D iv e rs it y be
g i m h G k ig
.

A n ta o n s to t e re e na v a to rs tw e e n N o r th e r n a nd S o ut h e r n E tr us ca ns ,
l g hi
a on d lp m g
t e r co as ts e ve o s a on i 126
. R e a tio n t o a t in ar t , ii 1 2 7 f l
. l L
g
.

th m pi ye d mm f h i
ra c an a co e r ce o t e r T ra e dy , iii 1 9 6 Ar ch it e ctu re , i 30 3, . .

bli h h m l g
.

o w n, i 8 E 1 1 s ta s t e se v e s on 30 5 Writin , i 2 7 5 2 82 H e e nis m , -
ll
h L i
. . . . .

t e d C mp iat n an i 8 a a n a n co a s ts , 1 1 ii 9 0
L g f h l C mp i
. . .

ea ue o t e tw e ve a a n a n t o w ns , E ty mo l gio es of th e S to ics , iv . 2 0 3
. Of
i 8 f2 S p i C m
. 1 1 i 48 A i ur r se u ae , 1 . ct v e V a r ro , v. 51 2 n.
W lh d
.

co mm i 8 57 6
e rce , . 1 2 , 2 - 2 0 . ea t an E ub o e a , ii 39 6, 4 2 2 , 45 7 ; iv 34, 38
l y i 5 7 ; ii 8 f : C d h
. . .

u x ur . 2 . 0 o n u ct t e R o m a n do m a ins t he r e , iii 2 7 2 n
yi g
, . .

carr d f h S yb i
n i 7 tr a e o t e a r t es , . 1 1 . Euch e ir , i 30 7
i l i
.

C mm o ih A i
e rc a d nte r co ur se w t t t ca a n E uda mu s , ii 46 3
h g
.

C a rt i 57 f l
a ii 8 e, Th i . 2 . 0. e r Eu do x us , ii 1 1 7
f ll w hip i
.

e o m i h h Ph
s ii n ar s w t t e o e n c ans , g
E u a ne i, iii 42 4
i 84/ I R l i
.

1 q f i h u e n co ns e ue nce o t t e E ug r a mm os , i 30 7
I li
. .

ta i 86 4 3
a n s e as , K p l f . 1 1 . e t a oo E uh e me r ism , iv 1 9 7 , 2 0 0 /i
f m h A l
, .

ro i by h P h
t e i i t a nt c t e o e n c a ns , E uhe m e ru s o f M e ss e ne , iii 1 1 3 Edited
C l mi
. .

i 87
. 1 i. f h i p i u na t o n o t e r ow e r, . b y E nniu s , iii 1 7 9
p l i I
.

4 3 1 W ih R m f ar w t o e a ter ex u s on E ume ne s o f P e r a m us , ii 4 50 , 4 55 , 4 6
9, g
f h ki g i 3 7 k L i m;
. . .

o t e A n s, . 1 . tt a c on at u
4 7 4. 4 75 . 47 8 . 4 8 4 . 4 8 5. 4 86 . 49 2 . 49 4.
i
v cto r y R m i 4 4 D f
o v er o e, . 1 . e ea t a t
49 7 ) 4 99 .
A i i i 4 4 N
r c a, l p m yb k 1 a va su re ac ro en E um e ne s II of Per gm a us, i ii . 2 6 4, 2 7 5,
f h I li
. . .

by h i d i
t e un t e e x e rt ons o t e ta ans , 2 76 n 2 81
G k re e d Sy s, i 4 44 8 an r a cus a ns , . 1 -
1 . E unus , l
s a ve - ki g i n n fir s t S ici ian w ar , l i ii.

Th i lpe r na v ah f h g ii ow e r t e nce ort o ne , .

31 0 ; iv 2 0 9 .

4 0D . i fli wi h D i y i
es truct ve co n cts t o n s us E up a t o ria , t o w n in P o ntus , iv 330 , 332
Ch g d p
.

o f Sy i 4 7f r acuse , i 1 an e os it o n E u p a to rio n, t o w n in th e C r im e a , iv 1 7 n
h g Di l dg d
. .

to w d C ar i 4 8s a rt a e, . 1 . s o e E up h e ne s , T h ra cia n p re te nde r to M ace .

by h S m i t e f m C mp i i 4 9 a n te s ro a an a, . 1 , do nia , iv 34
4 5 3/ Z D i l dg d b y h C l
.

f m s o e t e e ts ro Eup h o r io n, iv 4 50 , 4 7 9 n
I ly i 4 41 3 C mp y
. .

no rt h e rn ta , . 2 o nte ora r E up o r us , s a v e o f C Gr a cch us , l . iii. 369

w f V ii i h R m
ar s o i 4 8 4 5f e w t o e, . 1 2 . E ur ip ide s , iii 1 6 6 1 7 1 -

ll p
, .

V ii e q d i 4 6 S ddco n ue r e , . 2 . u e n co a se E u rip us , iv 42 44 .
-

o f h E t p e d h tr us ca n o w er un e r t e se E u r o mu s , ii 4 1 3
k i47 S hE i
.

i d
u n te a tta c s , . 2 . o ut trur a E u ry a us , ii 31 1 l .

R m o i 43 f a n,P ii f h . 2 os t on a te r t e l
Eu ry o ch us , ii 4 5 2 .

co n fli ih C l cts dR m i w t e ts a n o a ns , E ury me do n, b a tt e o f, ii 46 3 l .

435 P ii . d i g h S m i os t o n ur n t e a n te w a rs , Ev a nde r o f Cre te , ii 50 7 .

i 468
. S up p ort t h e S a mnites , i 4 7 9
. . . E x a r a r e , i 2 80 .

Lay do wn a rms , i 4 7 9 R is e a fre s h E x eg eta e , v 5 1 5 . .

g
.

a ains t R o me , 1 48 7 f P e ace , i 490 E x i e , r i h t o f, i i 6 8 f . R e fus a o f it . . l g .

'
l
l g ll l
.

I n co mb ina tio n w ith th e Luca nia ns , e a y p o ss ib e , iii 348 I s so me time s . .

l
Ce ts , a nd P y r rh us a a ins t R o me , ix a ctu a y r e fuse d, iii 348 E x i e intro g . ll . . l
9f , Co nc u s ion o f p e ace w ith du ce d as a p unish me nt, p r oba b y by C l l .

R o me , ii 2 3 Co nduct in th e s e co nd . G r a cch us , iii 348

I l
. .

Pun ic w ar , ii 345 o in w ith th e e u ite s E x p o r ts , ta ia n, W 1 7 4.

. Of w ine and
. J q .

g
a a ins t D ru sus , iii 4 8 7 F a it h fu t o o il iii 4 1 5 n Of ra in, i 1 7 1 . . l . . g .

l
,

R om e in t he S ocial w a r , i ii 50 1 In Ex po s ure o f ch i dre n, i 7 5 . . .

cip ie nt r is in uie t e d, iii 5 1 3, 5 1 9 f : E n d, i 31 8 n g q . . .

Ob tain b urg ess ri h ts thro u h th e u ian -

la w, iii 5 1 8/ I S tru
g g J l
es a ains t S u a, F A B I I , c a n vi a e , i 45 Ce eb ra te the ggl g ll l -
ll g l
L
. . .

iv. 6 0 , P unish ment for, iv. 1 0 8 upe rca ia , i. 6 7 ii., 2 1 5. Asoe nde ncy in . l
546 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

Wha t t im e F o r mia e , i 1 77 , 4 6 1
intro duce d into th e Anna Ob tains Ca et ite l
s, . .

ii 1 0 2 f Com/ a r e P r ovo ca tio

r i h ts , i 4 6 3 F ul fra nchis e , iii 2 3 g . . l .

g g gl
. .

F in e r r in -
s, o de n, iii 5 45
F am u la , v 431 . .

F ire k indling , 1i 2 8 F or m u la tog a to m m , ii 54 ; iii 1 6 4 n

L
. . . .

F irmu m , ii 2 4 a tin co o ny , u. 39
. F or s f or tu na , i 2 1 4
. l .

l
.

I n th e S o cia w ar , iii 5 1 3. I “ o f, ii F or tes s a na tor , i 1 2 8 n . . . .

52 n . F o r tine i, a b ou t 37 0 , member o f Latin

F ish po nds , iii 37 8
-
. le a g u e , 1i 44 8 2 1 . .

F la ccus S as F ulvius
u

. F or u m ooa r zu m , 1 1 41 .

F la m e n cu n a l zs , i 87 , 2 1 7 f l
' ' '

F or u m cup edzmls', v 379

. .

F la m e n D za lzs , i 1 9 2 , 2 1 6 , 2 4 1 ; iii. 1 1 1
'

F or u m F la m in zi , ii 2 2 9
’ ’ ’

. .

'

F la m e n M a r t za lzlr, i 1 0 6, 1 0 8, 2 1 6 F or u m j u l zu m , v 37 5
’

. .

F la m en Qu ir zn a lzs , i 87 , 89 , 1 7 5
'

F or u m R o m a m mz, i 1 40 . Embe lish e d,

’

. . l
F la m zn es m a io r es, i 2 1 7
'

A wa y s pa tr i i 4 80 ; ii 86 . . l . .

cian, i 384 . F r e e a b our ers in S ici y p aced a mon l l l g

F la m ines 1 71 131 0 7 6 4 3 1i 2 1 6 f l
.

th e s a v es , iii 383 l
u
. .

l
F a mi ninus S ee Q inctius F re e dme n S ee M a num iss ion
L
. .

l l
C F a m inius [co ns u , 5 31 , 5 37 ; ce nsor , F r e g e lla e , a tin co o ny , i 46 4, 46 8, 472 ;
. l
k l
.

5 34] ma e s w ar o n th e Ce ts , ii 2 2 6 iii 2 4 S torm ed b y t he S amnite s afte r . . . .

g
F i h ts w ith H anniba , ii 2 7 3 2 97 ; l
th e Ca udine victo ry , i 47 2 , 4 7 4 . Re . .

iii 1 9 .S u e s ts t h e L ox C la u dia , iii

. gg occu p ie d, i 47 5 f l Co n ue re d b y . . q
94 g
Or i ina tor o f th e F la minia n circus P y rrhus , ii 2 3 A tt itu de o f, in s e mnd . .

l g
.

a nd o f th e p e b e ian a me s , iii 4 1 P unic w ar , ii 345 R e v o t , iii 34 1 , . . . . l .

D is tr ib utes th e P ice nia n p o ss ess io ns , 362 D es tr uct io n o f, iii 34 1 f l Ao . .

iii 4 8, 5 8 f l
. D oes a w a y w ith the curs in o f th e so i , i 1 2 5 n g l . .

q l
e u a iza t io n o f th e fr e e dm e n a nd th e F re ntani, i 48 2 , 11 2 82 ; iii. . .

fr e e b orn, iii 5 3 F o under o f R o man .

50 1 .

de ma o is m , iii 6 1 gg F r u it , v 37 8f l .

l
.

C. F a vius F imb ria , a ctive in th e M ar ian F r us ino , i 4 85 .

g
r e i n o f te rro r , iv 69 C on u e rs a t F u cine a e , . . q lk
l l
M i e t op o is , iv 47 f l D ea th of, iv 5 3 F u e rs , u i d o f, i . 2 53 iii 8 5 71 . . ll g l °

l
. .

B uria , iv 1 0 1 . C I I F ulvius Ce nt uni a lus [ co ns u , u . l

C 11 F la v ius , ii 1 1 3
. .
342
. l
M F a vius dr a w s up e dict for Ca esar s Cn F ulvius F laccus [p ra e tor , ii
’
.

l
.

r e form o f th e ca e ndar , v 439 15

337 . .

l
F ee t S ee M ar itime a ffa irs
. M F ulvius [co ns u , i 481 . l .

F lex u n tos , i 90 M .F ulvius N obilior [cons ul , 56 5] con

L g
. .

I Flo ra S ab ine and a t in oddess , i 6 9 on ; u e r s th e A e to lia ns , ii 47 6 f P ub ic y . q l l

l
, .

iii 4 1 F a me n o f, i 2 1 6 ex h ib its th e R o ma n ca e ndar , iii 1 9 4 l

L I
. . . .

l
.

F ute , i 35 a t in, i 2 88
. . ntro du ce s Gr e e . a rt - tr eas ures into k
l -
l
F u te b o w ers , ui d o f, i 2 49, 2 86 g l
R o me , iii 2 0 8 . .

F o dder p a nts , iii 66 -

l M F u lvius F la ccus , a fr iend of th e
.

'
.

F oedu s a nd de dztzo , iii 52 8 n

'

Gra cch i. iii 335 . 338. .

342 . 36 2 . 36 5.
. .

'

F o lzu m , i 2 80 .
36 7 . 36 8 . 37 4.
ll
F o o w in , p e rs o nal , amo n g Ce ts a nd g
F u lv ius F la ccus [co ns ul , 5 1 7 , 5 30 , 542 , l Q .

G e rm a ns , iv 2 8 5 i 337 . 340 . 342 . 35:

.

i l
.

l
M F o nte iu s s u b dues th e V o co ntii , v 8 F u v1 us F a cons , s o n o f the Gr acchan .
Q
lg
. .

T F o nte ius [ e a t e in S p ain,

. 11 M F ulvius F la ccus , iii 36 7 , 36 9 . . .

F ulv ius F a cons [g ov e rnor in S p ain, Q l

lg l
.

F o nt e ius [ e a te , 6 63] s a in a t As culu m, ii 39 I

iii 50 0 . F ulvius N ob ilior [ tn u m w r colom ae Q ’ ’ '

g g g
.
'

F on tm a lza , i 2 0 8 . de du cm da e , 57 0 ] iv es b ur ess r i h ts t o -

F or a e i‘ co n czlza bu la , 1 1 48 ; iii 36
'

E nnius , iii 2 7 n . . . .

i 2 07 . F ulvius N obilior [consul, in Q

g g l
.

F ore i ners h a d no ri h ts in R o me ex ce p t C e t ib e ria n w a r , iii 2 1 5 f l, 2 2 8 .

b y s ta te tr e a t ies , i 1 9 9 f . T he s e F unctio ns firs t de fine d in th e ca s e o f

.

trea ties the ba sis of th e 1 m g m tzu m , s e co ndary o flices , es pe cia y th e qua e s

'
ll
1. n o torship , i. 4oo f l Th en in tha t of the
 I NDE X 547

su p re me ma is tra tes , g a nd e ve n o f th e Gar g a nus , l 6 ; 1 1 333 B a tt . . . l e in G a dia l

dicta to r , i 40 0 , 40 2
. t o r ial w ar , iv 35 9 f l
k g
.

F u nda , ii 7 6 n . Ga u da , in o f M a ur e ta nia , i ii . 388 m,

g
.

F undi, i 46 1 Ob tain s C a e rite r i h ts , i

. . .
41 0

46 3 Ob tains fu
. b ur es s r i h ts , i i i ll g -
g Ga u l , s o u th f N ar b o) , co as t ( Pr o v ince o

2 3 o ccup ie d b y th e R o m a ns , ii i 41 5 4 2 0 ; -

l l
.

F unera rites , i 2 9 5 ; iii 1 0 4 1 0 6 En . .

-
. iv 1 9 1 . C os e cus to m s dis trict, iv 1 60
.
-
.

l l g
.

a c t me n ts o f th e T w e v e T a b e s t h e r e o n, D is t ur b a n ces du r in S e r to r ia n w a r , iv .

ii 6 3 G a dia to ria
. . a m es , l
iii 1 2 6 l g . . 2 86 , 2 9 3, 2
98 a
'
G u in C a esa r s t ime , . l
Ora tio ns a t, ii 1 0 4. B ur nin o f th e . g v 7 31
. I ts b o un dar ies , v 9 f l R e
-
. .

de a d, ii 2 2 6 .
la t io n s t o R o me , v 9 f l, 2 9 f l T o th e .

A F u rius , e p ic p o e t, iv 2 37 Ge rm a ns , v 31 33 P o p u a tio n, v 1 2 f -
l
L
. . . .

ll l g l
. .

F u r iu s Ca m i us [dic ta to r , i 4 32 U r b a n i fe , v 1 4 A r icu t ur e a nd
L
. . . .

F u riu s Ph ilus [co ns u , a a ins t l g ca t t e b re e din , v l 1 3, 1 4

-
C o m me r ce g . .

g
.

N u m a ntia , iii 2 2 9 I n th e S cip io nic . a nd m a nu fa ctu r es , v 1 5, 1 6 M inin , .

l l
.

l
.

circ e , iv 2 2 0 ar t , a nd s cie nce , v 1 7, 1 8 P o itica . .

g lg
.

M F a r ius B iba culus , p oe t, v 1 40 , 4 8 1 . o r a niz a t io n, V R e i io n, v. .

ll
.

M F u riu s Ca mi us [dict a to r , 35 8, 36 4,
. 2 3f l Ar my , v 2 6 f l Civ i iza t io n, v . . l
36 5 , h is p ar ty p os i t i o n, i . 2 7, 2 8 E x t e rn a r e a t io ns, v 2 9 32 . l l -

ggl g
.

l
.

37 9 F o u nds T e m p e o f C o nco rd, i

. . S tr u e s a a in s t C a es ar , v 44 5 7 , 6 7 .
-

384 C o n u e r s V e ii, i 42 6 q
D e fe a ts 95 S u bdu e d b y t h e R o m a ns , v 9 4 f :
L
. . . . .

th e Ga u s a t A b a , l
A mi ita ry l l T a x a tio n o f, v 9 6 , 36 4 f l a tin la n .

r e fo rmer , ii 7 6 T a x e s b ach e or s , ii . l g g
ua e a nd co ins intr o du ce d, v 9 7
l
. .

l
. .

66 C o o nies in, v 4 2 2 f l Ce t ic ins cr ip tio n .

F urrina, i . 2 0 9. Gr o v e o f, iii 36 9. fo und in, v 1 0 71 Comp a r e Ce ts a nd . . l

C J
u ius C a es a
. l
GA B I I , i 49 , 5 8, . 1 2 5, 1 30 , 1 57 . F orm of Ga u los , ii 1 4 3 .

a ccu r s in gf or , i . 1 2 T re a ty w ith
5 n. G a ur us , b a tt e a t M o unt, i 459 a . l .

R o me , i 8 2 0 A bo u t 37 0 , m e mb e r o f Gaza , iv 31 6
L
. . .

a t in l g ea ue , i 44 8
. n., 4 50 G a z iu ra , iv 34 8 .

A G a b inius [ e a te , 6 6 5 ] fa s in
. lg ll th e g
C e an ii, fr om A b a, i 1 2 8 l .

S o cial w a r , iii 5 2 6 l
G e a , i 1 66 ; ii 1 45 , 1 9 0
L
. . .

A G a b inius [tr ib une o f th e p e o p e , l . G e llius [ co nsu , 6 82 ] de fe a ted by l

M 39 2 39 5 . 4 2 9 .
-
45 1 . 45 6 . 5 1 3 ; v S p a r ta cus , iv 359 , 380 .

1 4 3. 1 5 1 . 2 84 f S t a t ius C e ins , i 4 8 1 ll .

G a de s . ii . 1 42 . 2 39 . 331 . 332 . 38 4 . 39 3 l k g
G e o , in o f S y r acus e , i 4 1 5 .

F r e e fr o m ta x a t io n, iv 1 5 7 Ob ta ins G e na va , v 8
I l
.

l g l
. .

ta ia n m unicip a r i h ts , v 4 2 4 . Ge m S ee C a n
.

Ga dzta n u m f r e tu m , u i 2 2 0 Ge g t h ius ’ ii 4 9 3i 49 9i
.
j °

Ga es a t a e , ii 2 2 3 n . . i i i. 42 1

Ga e tu lia , iii 40 4 , 40 6 , 41 0 . Gen izZes S ee A n a ti

’

. g
R o ma n me r ch a nts in, iii 2 60 . G e nu a , iv 1 6 7 C u tur e of th e vine , iii
. . l .

l
G a a , ii 32 2 . 81 n , 4 1 5 2 2 . .

l
G a a tas , ii 2 2 2 C 11 G e nu cius , tr ib une o f th e p e bs , i 359 l
L
. .

l l
.

Ga ba S e e S u p icius
. . G e nu cius [ co ns u , i 44 8 l .

l
G a a t ia , ii 4 50 , 5 1 2 ; iii 2 34 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 1
. .
°
G e r g ovia , v 8 1 87 .

iv 6 , 2 5 , 2 9 , 46 C e de d b y M ithr a da te s . G e r m an s , Oi ig in o f th e w or d, v 2 0 m , 2 1 . .

g
.

iv 49 F irs t e m e r e nce in R o m a n h is t or y , ii
ll g
.

G a le r ii, cla n vi a e , i 45 -
. 2 2 3 n R e la t io ns w it h the
.

G a lla e Ci S e e Ca lla e ci C e ts , v 31 f ll R e a t io ns w ith t h e

. l
ll
Ga e y s i n Ga u , v 1 5 n l . . R o m a ns , v 33 36 M o v e m e nts o n th e -

l
. .

G a ZZz, p r ie s ts o f Cy b e e , iii 1 1 5 . R h ine , v 32 35 S e t t e m e nt s o n t h e -

l
l k
. .

G a lb a br a cca ta , ii 59 ; v 1 0 . . e ft b a n o f t h e R h ine , v 33 36 In .
-
.

G a l /m co m a ta , v 1 0 . fl
co n ict W i th C a e s a r , v 6 0 6 2 .

G a ll za t og a ta , ii i 1 6 4 v 10 Ge ru ni um , ii 2 83, 2 8 5 , 2 8 7
L
. . .

Ga me s S e e u di . Ge ta e , ii 373 71 ii i 4 2 4 iv v .

l l
. . .

C a nnions , le a de r in G adia to r ia w a r , iv 1 ° 3J €

30 3 l
G a br io S ec A ci ius . l
54s H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

l
G a dia torial a m es co m e into vo u e in g g p a tr io t p a rt y , 1 1. 49 4 I n th e first
f .
“

E tr ur ia , i 436 Ca p ua n , i 4 57 . In . . . M ith rada tic w a r , iv 35 44 . Wh e n did -

.

R o m e , iii 42 , 1 2 6 iv 1 84 , 357 v 384 . . Gr e e ce be co me a R o ma n p ro vince ? iii

l g
.

l
.

G a dia t orial wa r , iv 2 71 S ee A ch a e a n ea ue
L im
.

klg ly
.

G oa t , e x p ia to ry , i 2 0 3 . Gr e e e e nds e a r diffuse d in at u
l l l g
,

G o d tak es th e fir s t p a ce in de a in s, iii i 2 93 i . F o u nda t io n o f R om e n te r

l klg d
. .

88 l
I ts r e a t iv e va u e t o s il ve r , W 1 7 8 l . w ove n w ith t h e cy c e o f Gre e e en ,

g
.

f l I n th e R o ma n co ina e , ii 343 ; iii ii 1 0 7

-
1 1 1

k l g g k l dg f i I ly
. . .

8 8 iv 1 7 7 f l D e p r e cia t e d b y th e co n
. G re e an ua e, no w e e o , n ta ,

qu e s t o f Ga u , v 96 S e a ms o f, a t l . . i 2 91 1 3 45 7 ; ii 90 1 1 .
, . 1 1 6 ; iii 1 2 9,
N o re ia , iii 42 4 ; iv 1 7 9 Was h in s in g 1 3o f 1 32
k k I
. . .

l
,

Ga u , v 1 7 Gre e s no w n to th e tal ia ns , be fo re t he
I l g l ll
.

l
Go d orna me nts intr oduce d into taly , i H e e nes cam e . a te r e ne r a na me of

2 53 into v o ue a nd r e p a ce d th e o de r o ne g l l
Go s ld mi h g ild
t s, u o f, i 2 49 , 2 53, 30 7 o f Gra e ci, i 1 6 9 A t fir s t in ta y a nd I l
l I
. .

l
.

Go r dius , P o ntic s a tra p , iv 2 0 , 2 3, 9 5 S ici y o nia ns a nd A e o ia n s fro m A s ia

l
.

Go rg as us , ii 1 2 3 M ino r , i 1 6 5 j : The n co o nis ts o f .

ll k
.

G o rty na , iv 353 a lm os t all H e e nic s t o c s , i 1 6 5 f : .

l l
.

G racch us S ee S e mp ro nius . Co ns ta nt y in c o se co nne ct io n w ith

G raccurr is , ii 39 2 th e m o th er cou ntr y , i 1 7 0 A cha ea n , -

I l I I l
. .

l
.

G ra e co ta ia ns , s ta te o f cu ture , h us
- o nia n, D o ric se t t e m e nts in ta y , i l
l g l k
.

ba ndr y , i 2 2 2 5 F ie d m eas urin , 1 7 0 -1 7 6

- O des t G r e e in ue nce : in . fl
g
. .

m e as ure s a nd w e i h ts , i 2 6 6 f
’

1 2 6 f l H o us e , i 2 5 f l M e al s , fi r e I n th e . .

k l g l g l
. .

ind in , c o thin , w ea p o ns , i 2 8 al p h a b e t , i 2 7 2 2 78 I n th e ca e nda r , . . .

-
.

l
F a mi y , i 30 S ta te o r a niza tio n, i i 2 69 2 7 2 I n th e fine a rts , i 2 9 1 2 9 6 ;
-
g .
-
. .
-

lg
. . .

30 -32 R e i io n, i 32 35 Ar t, i 35 ii 9 6 I n a rch itectu r e , ii 30 2 30 6

.
-
In. . . . .
-

l g
. .

Gr a eca m o r e h oor a perg m e m r z, cong r a t

'
s cu p tur e a nd des i n, i 30 6 f ; ii 1 2 0 . .

ca r e , iii 1 2 3 1 2 5 I n fo r min my t h s a nd w r it in g g
lg
. .

G rae co s tas is , ii 90 Ori in a y inte nded h is t o ry , ii 1 0 7 1 1 2

. g ll
S i h t inte rco urse .
-
.

k
.

fo r t he M as s ilio ts , ii 4 6 w ith — th e Gr e e s o v e r th e A dr ia t ic, i .

g k
.

'
V o y a e s o f th e G r e e s t o t h e
’

Gr a e cu s , Gr a zcu s , Gr a ins , i 1 5 , 1 69 1 1 1 75 f

I l
. .

k
.

Gra in, inds o f, iii 6 4 6 5 , 66 P r ices w es t coas t o f ta y no r th o f V es uviu s , .

l l
.

o f, i i 344 f l ; iii 80 8 2 i 1 77 f
“

T r a ns ma rine , Co o nies no t to e r a te d t h e r e
’

-
. . . . .

ii 36 7 iii 7 7 f H e nce b a d e ff e ct o n by t he na t iv e s , i 1 78 f Wars o f the

"

I l
. . . .

ta ia n a ricultur e , iii 7 8 80 g G r ain Gre e s w ith th e P h oe nicia ns a nd t he . . k

re v e nu es of th e s ta te , i 34 2 f l R e u is i na tiv es j o inin th e a t te r for th e co m
. q g l
t io ns o n th e p r o v incia s , iii 31 In ma nd o f th e se a , i 1 82 1 86 l
E x c u de d . . .
-
. l
S p ain, ii 39 3 D is tribu t io ns o f r ain, fr o m th e w e s te rn M e dite rra ne a n a nd g
L I l
. .

iii 40 P ub ic s t o r es , iii 344 D is tr ib u l t h e A t a nt ic, i 1 86 I n o w e r ta y , . l

ggl ll k
. . . . .

t io n in tr o duce d b y C Gracch us , iii s tru es w it h th e S a b e ia n s toc s , i

. .

ll
.

Co ntinu e d a fte r his fa , iii 37 3, 37 5 4 1 9 , 4 54 f : H e e niz in o f th es e , i 456 ll g

I
. . .

ncre a s e d b y S a t ur n inus , iii 4 7 0 ii 9 1 j : Adhe r e to R o me in the

’

By f . . .

g
.

D rus us th e y o un er , iii 4 85 R es tr icted H a nnib a ic w a r , ii 2 93f : . . l

l
.

in t he S ocia w a r , iii 50 4 R e ne w e d Gr o u nd a nd w a ter ra te , iii 9 1 . . .

by C inna , iv 7 0 A bo is h e d by S ul a , Grume nt urn, ii 347 ; iii 5 1 0

. . l l .

l ll
.

iv 1 1 0 R e e s ta b ish e d p a rt ia y in 6 8 1 , Gua r dia ns h ip , i 7 8, 1 9 7 / I

. .
-
.

iv 37 1 . C o mp e te y in 6 9 1 ; iv 4 90
. l l
Gu lussa , iii 2 40 , 2 5 1 , 388 . . .

R e viv e d b y C a esa r , v 36 3 f Co mpa r e G uras , b r o th e r o f Ti ran es , iv 341 g

I l
. .

g
A ricu t ur e l Gu t ta , ta ian co mma nder in th e S ocia l
Gra mma r , a tin, iii 1 9 1 j L
; iv 2 1 4 f l, w a r , iv 86 . . .

2 5 2 ; v 45 7 A . Gy a r os , am o unt o f tr ibute fi'om, m 2 7 1 .

G r a m m a t ica , ii 1 1 6 n m ; iv 1 5 8
. . .

Gra nicus, rive r , iv 32 8 Gy t hium . ii 4sr . 4 53

. .

G r an iu s Licin ia nus e xp a ine d, iv 2 88 l

A
.

l
Gra p ne s , E tr usca n inve nt io n, i 1 8 1 H D R U M E T U M , 1 1 1 39 , 359 ; ” iiEi 2 44 Ex . .
0 :

. .

e m p t fr o m t r ib ute , i1 i 2 59

l
. .

G r ee ce , re a tio ns w ith M ac e do nia , 11 H a edui, iii 4 1 6 ; v 1 3, 1 6 , 1 9 , 2 5, 41 , 77 , . . .

396 / l Dec are d fr ee , ii 436 The l

87 1 831 a4s 850 86 1 99 . .
550 H I S T OR Y O F R O M E

330 , 333, Co l o ny of Ca es ar , v. w ith R o me , 1 1 . 1 71 . Po sitio n aft er the

42 5 fir s t P u nic w a r , ii 2 04 Co nduct in th e
l
. .

H e ra c in Tr a ch inia ( ne ar Oe t a ) , 1 1
ea . s e co nd P u nic w ar , ii 2 85 , 2 9 3 D e a t h
. .

4 5 8 , 5 1 0 ; iii 2 6 6 , 2 6 8 o f, ii 2 9 3

I ly
. .

H e ra cle o n, p ira tic ch ie f, iv 354 . gl

H ie r o yp h s o n a j ug fo und in ta i .

l lg
,

H e ra c e s , e e nd o f, ii 1 0 8 . 2 53 n .

H e ra clide s , ii 4 1 2 , 4 2 5 , 42 6 . H ie ro ny mus o f Ca r dia , ii 1 1 2 .

H e ra clide s o f P o nt us , ii 1 1 2 . H ie ro ny m us o f S y r a cus e , ii 2 9 3, 30 9 / I .

H e r a clitus , iv 1 9 8 . H i m e ra , riv e r , ii 31 3 .

H e r ba p a r a , i 2 0 2 . H im e r a ( Th e r m a e ) , i 1 6 8 ; 11 1 45, 1 6 1 ,
l g l
. .

H e rcu a ne u m , ii 5 1 0 Po s itio n o f, dur in . . 1 86 B a t t e a t , i 4 1 5 ; ii 1 5 5

. .

k
.

th e S a m ni te w a rs , i 4 6 9 T a e n a nd . . H im 1 1co [ Car tha inia n e ne r al , 11 g g .

de s tro y e d in th e S o cia w ar , iii 5 2 2 l I 59

l l l
.

H e r cu es , i 2 30 T e m p e o f, b ui t b y
. . H im ilco [ Ca rt h gi i
a g n an e ne ral , u.
M u m mius iii 2 7 0 . 1 87
h g g l
,

H e rcy nia n F o r e s t , iii 42 3 n. . H im ilco [ Car t a i nia n e ne ra , 1 1.

H er do ne a e , i i 34 2 31 1 31 2

l g l
. ,

A p H e rdo niu s , i 35 8 . H im ilco P h a m e as , ca v a ry e ne ra at

g
.

' '

H e r ea zu m , ar de n a nd, i 2 39 g l C a r t ha e , iii 2 50 Go es o v er to th e . .

l
.

C H e r e nnius , ie u te na nt o f S e r to r ius, iv
. . R o m a n s, iii 2 5 1
H ip p o D ia rr h y tus , 1 1 1 9 4 ; ii i
o .

p 2 5:

g
. .

H e r e nnius , R he tor zca H ip p o R e ius , i i 1 39 ; in 388

'

H e r m m u m , iv
‘

ad . . .

2 53 H ip p o cr a t e s , ii 31 0 , 31 1 , 31 2 .

H e r ma ea n P r o m o nto ry , b a t t e a t, ii 1 84 l . H i p p o n iu m , i 1 6 6 , 4 5 6 .

H e r ma e us, P o n tic e ne ra , iv 32 8 g l . H ir p i ni, i 1 46 ; ii 2 82 , 2 9 4, 30 5, 342 ; iii

. . .

H e rm e s S ee M e r cu r ius
L l
.

H e r m o cr a tes , P o ntic e ne r a , iv 32 4 g l
H ir t u le ius , ie u te nant o f S e r tor ius, iv. . .

H e r m o do ru s o f Cy p ru s , a r ch ite ct , iv 2 5 7
l g g
.

H e r m us , r iv e r , ii 46 6 H is t o r ica co m p o s itio n, its b e innin s in

ll g
.

H e r nici in a ia nce w ith R o me a nd ll th e re co r ds o f th e p o nt ifi ca l co e e , i

L
.

a t iu m , i 1 35 J o in th e R o mano ii 1 0 2 1 0 8 F irs t tr e a t e d m e tr ic -

L
. . .

l g l ll
.

a t in ea ue a nd h e p t o s ub du e t h e a y b y N a e v ius a nd E nnius , iii 1 8

4
l kl g g
. .

A e q u i a nd V o sci, i 4 45 f R is e a a ins t I n p ro s e , b u t in th e Gr e e
. a n ua e , b y
. g
R o me , i 44 7 f
Ab s t a in fr o m t a i n F a b ius P icto r a nd P S cip io , iii 1 8 5 k g Q
L L
. . .

l
. .

p a r t in th e a t in i ns u rr e ct io n, i 4 6 1 T h e o de s t a t in p ro s e w r itt e n by Ca to , .

l
.

S h a r e in th e S a m nite w a r , i 4 80 f iii 1 86 Cha r a cte r o f th e e a r ie s t

’

L g
. . .

P o s m o n t o w a r ds R o m e , ii 53 e a ue his to r ica co m p 0 5 1 t io ns , i 2 8 1 j : iii . l

l
. . .

o f th e H e rn ici dis s o lv e d, i n I 1 86 Co nv e ntio na p r im it iv e h is to ry ,

-
1 90
L i
.

g
.

div idua l
c o mm u ni ties o b ta in at n o r i in o f th e R o m a n vie w o f i t , ii .0
4
g k
.

r i h ts , ii 2 5 . 1 0 7 Of th e G re e vie w , ii 1 0 7 1 1 0
. .
-
.

H e r o de s A nt ip a t e r , v 1 6 4 . M ix tur e o f th e tw o , ii 1 0 9 / I iii .

l l
.

H e r o do t us , t a e s o f, ins e r te d in the ea r y I n th e s ix th a nd s e v e nth ce n tu r ie s , iv .

h is t o ry o f R o me , iii 1 8 7 n . . 2 42 2 5 0 ; v -
49 2 5 0 0 C h r o nic es , iv.
.
-
l
l
.

H e r o w o r s hip un R o m a n, i 2 1 4
- -
M e tr ica , v 4 7 2
k l g I l
. .

H e s io d, h is no w e d e o f ta y , i 1 6 7 H zs tr z, Izzs z‘ r zo n e s , i 30 0
’ ’

l k
. .

' '
Gr a ecz me nt io ne d i n his a z, i 1 6 9 n . . H o ida y s e p t sa cr e d, i 2 2 5 , .

H e x a me te r in tr o du ce d by E nnius , iii 1 7 5 . H o lo p h e r ne s , br o th e r o f A r iar a the s V of .

H ia r b as , p r e te nde r o f N u m idia , iv 9 2 , 9 3 . C a pp a do cia , iii 2 80

l I
.

H ide o f a nd, s ize o f th e R o ma n , i 1 2 1 / Z, . H o m e r , h is kno w e d e o f tal y , i 1 69 l g

g l
. .

2 39 , 2 40 n. D a ta for de te rminin w h e n h e iv e d, i
H ie m p s a l L , so n of K in g M icip sa , iii . 1 69 2 80 n

l
.

388 893 H o m icide , inv o u nta ry , i 2 0 3

l IL g
.

H ie m p sa , kin of N umidia , iii 388 . H o no r ar y mo nume nts b e co me common,

54 1 iii 4 4
I
.

H ie r o o f S y r a cus e , i 4 1 5 1 H o no rar y s urna m e s , 11 1 44

II
. . . .

H ie r o o f S y r a cus e , wa r a a ins t th e
. g H o no r at Vzr t us , ii 30 2 .

M a m e r tines , ii 38, W a r w ith . H o no ur , q

ues tio ns o f, ho w se tt e d, 1 1 1 l
l
.

R o me , 3. Peace and al ia nc e 9!
 I NDE X
Hora tii, c a n vi a l -
ll g e, i 45. . H o r a tii a nd Su ll a, iv 54 . . E x e mp t fr o m ta x a tion,
Curia tii, ii 1 0 5 . v. 36 4, 38 2 a.

H ora tius Co c es , u 1 0 5 2 1 l I llitu rg i, ii 30 8

I ll
. . .

M H o ra tius [co ns u , i 39 8 l y r ia ns , p ir a t ica e x p e di ti o ns of th e l

L l
. .

H o r te ns ius [a dmira , ii 50 1 l r u e r s o f S co dr a, 1 1 2 1 6 / I S ubdu e d by

L
. . .

H o rt e ns iu s , iii 332 th e R o m a ns , ii 2 1 8, 2 8 6 , 4 9 9 , 5 0 8 In
L
.

l k
.

l l
. .

. H o rt e ns ius , ie utena nt o i S ul a in th e H a nnib a ic w ar t a e p a r t w ith R o me

Gre e ce , iv 37 g
a a ins t M a ce donia , ii 31 7 A a i ns t . . g
l
.

Q H o rt e ns ius, th e o ra tor , iv 7 8, 2 0 7 , 2 6 9
. . th e A e tolia ns , ii 47 6 D a m a t ia ns . .

s ubdue d, iii 2 6 4 , 2 9 0 f . , 4 2 1 j I , 4 2 6 f
‘

V 4 54 1 7. 4 8 1 . 50 3 . .

Q H o r te ns ius , son o f th e o ra tor o f th a t iv 30 7 W a rs in Ca e s ar s tim e , v 1 0 3, ’

I ll
. . .

l
.

na me , v. R o ma n sp e cu a tors in y r ia , iii .

A . H os tilius M a ncinus [co ns u l , 11. 30 7 T ax a tio n b y R o m e , iii 50 9 j : v.

. .

50 1 36 4 Co mp a r e G e nth ius
Il
.

C H os tilius M a ncinus [co ns u l iii v a , i 1 43

I g
. .

g g l
. ,

2 2 8 / I , 31 9 S t a tu e o f, iii 2 96 ma e s o f th e o ds fo r e i n t o th e e a r ies t
L
. .

H os tilius M ancinus [ co nsu l iii R o ma n w ors h ip , i 2 2 5, 30 6 j : Varro .

l
. , .

2 52 p a ce s th e ir intr o ductio n a fter 1 7 6 ( M L ,

C H os tilius Tubu us [pra e t or , ii 34 7 l i 30 7 n
L I
. . .
.

H o s tilius Tub ul us [p ra e tor , iii 34 8 mbro s , ii 437 .

g
. .

ll
T u us H o s tilius, ii 1 0 5 . I mp e r a tor , m e an in o f w ord, iii 50 5 ; v. .

H o stius , e p ic p o e t, iv 2 37 330 335

-

I l
.

H ou se arch ite ctur e , Gra cco tal ia n, i 2 7

- I mp e n u m , i 82 On y diw s ible territo ri
-
. .

I l ll ll
. .

l
O des t t a ia n, i 2 7 , g o r j R e v o utio n a y , n o t fu nct io na y , a nd th us e ss e nt i
'
l
ll l l
. .

in, iii 2 0 7 a y a w a y s a t o nce m i ita ry a nd j ur is

g l
.

H ou se fa the r a mo n the R o mans , i 7 2 7 7

- dict io na , i 37 1 n -

I I l
. . . .

P o w e r o f, i 7 3 7 6 mp or ts , ta ia n, iv 1 74
-

I
. .

l
H o us e h o d trib una s , i 7 3f , 7 6 ; iii 1 2 1 / f l
nce ndiar is m, i 1 9 3
I
. . .

l g
H o u se h o d o ve rnme nt o ve r fr e e dme n an d ndia , iii 2 84 .

l
c ie nts , iii 39 . I n dig e tes , iv 2 9 3 .

H o u se s e ar -
ch in l a n ce e t Zzczo i g I n d g a r e, i 2 1 3
z zz
‘
' '

L I
. .
,

H u ma n sa cr ifi ces in a t ium , no p roo f o f, ndo Ge r m ans , o ri inal s e a ts o f, i 38 -

g
L g g
.

i 2 2 2 . I n R ome , ii 2 2 3 f
. F o r bidde n, a n ua e , i 1 8 f
.
’

Cu tur e : p as to r a
. .
’

. l l
iv 2 1 0 . I n Ga u , v 2 8
. l
ife , h o us e bui din , b o a ts with o ars ,
. l -
l g
H y drus, i 1 7 6 ch ar io ts , c o th in , co o in a nd sal tin , l g k g g
g l l l lg
.

H y e le S ee V e ia
. l w o r kin in me ta s , p o itica , r e i io us ,
H y r ca nus , K in o f th e e w s, iv 42 5 , 4 30 , g a nd scie nt ifi c funda me nta J ide a s , 1 1 8 . l
g g
.

448 2 2 M e as u r in a nd nu m b e r in , i 2 6 3/ I
I
.

q ll l
.

nh e r it an ce , la w o f ; a ll e u a y e nt it e d
IA A l g g
PY G I N S , an ua e o f, a nd a fi nity w ith r e ce iv e d e u a s h ar e s , t h e w idow t a in q l k g
k
th e Gre e s , i 1 1 f : T h e o de s t immi a ch i d s p art , i 1 9 8 Comp a r e W i s l l ’
ll
I l I
.

g
. .

rants into ta y , i 1 3 M aintaine d nh e r i ta nce , ta x o n, i n 9 0

. A b o is h e d,
. l
g l g
. .

th e ir r o und in A p u ia a a ins t th e iv 1 56 .

S a mn ites , i 1 46 D e fe a t the T are ntines

. l m u r za , dama e to bo dy or p ro pe rty , i.
.
' '

g
i 41 6 1 93

I ll g
.

a s us , 1 1 41 3 P i a ed by the p ir a t es
. . I ns ub r es , i 42 3, 434 ; ii 2 2 1 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7, . .

iv 30 8 2 5 9 , 2 6 3, 2 68 . 35 7 , 36 9 , 37 2
I g
.

be ria ns in Ge o r ia , iv 2 0 , 4 1 2 - 4 1 4 I ns u la , i 31 8 n
I I L
. . .

beria ns in S p ain, ii 385 nte ram na o n th e Lir is , a tin co ony , i. l

I
.

by cus , i 1 7 2 47 6 , 49 0
L
.

. g
I cilius R u a [ tribune o f the p eo p e , 2 9 8, nt e ra mna o n th e N ar , city ~ ch ro nicle Of l I
i 365 ii 1 0 3
I
.

I
.

dus , i 2 0 7 , 2 7 1
. nte r ca ary sy s te m, i 2 70 l
l
.

I g uvium, v 2 0 7 Ta b e ts o f, i 1 45
. I nt e r ca tia , ii 386 ; iii 2 1 9
. .

I
. .

I le rda , iv 2 83, 30 0 ; v 2 2 1 2 2 6 nte r es t , or i ina y 1 0 p er ce nt for a y ea r

-
g ll
Il
. .

ia ns , th e se na te int e rce des fo r th e m as o f t e n mo nths , i 1 96 s , 36 4 a ws L

k l
. .

gl g
.

of indr e d inea g e , ii 1 1 1 B eco m e re u a t in , iii 389 , 5 30 , 54 1 ; iv

. 1 2 9, . . .

free, ii 47 3 F a v ours bes tow ed by

. . 1 76 ; v .
55: H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

I , i
n te r f ex 99 Afte r a b o itio n o f th e l th e north , i
3 39
. Id G m i
1 n o- er an
k L g g f i 4f
. .
, .

i
’

m onar chy , i 31 9 4f
’

. s to c , . 1 . a n ua e o . 1

k i
, .

I nt ibili, ii 30 8 T h e ir ne ar a ffi i y ih h G n t w t t e ree s,
I
.

gl l k i f mily
.

o nia n u f, o de r na me o f th e Adria tic 1 5Co ntr as t to t e

. re e s n a h G
lg
,

s t a te , r e i io n, a nd ar t , i 2 8
s ea , i 1 6 5 36 Art is tic
-

I
. .

l
.

o nia n is a nds , R o m a n, 1 1 2 1 8 f i, 47 7 e ndo w m e n ts o f, i 2 8 / Z

. .
3 .

J
o ine d t o p rov ince o f M a ce do nia, iii . l
I ta lus , a w s o f, i 2 6 , 31 .

2 62 I ty r a e ans , iv 4 30
I
.

o nia n s e a , o ri gi n o f th e na me , i . 1 65 C I uda ciliu s fr om As culum, comma nder

I
.

p s us , b a tt l e o f, ii 6 in th e S o cial w ar , iii 5 1 3, 5 2 0
I
. .

I u dzces : cons u les , i 31 8

’

ro n m ine s at N o r e ia , iii 4 2 4
I
. .

ro n, w or k e rs in, no t k no w n a t R o me t i ll ’
I u a zces de cem v ir z, ii 35 2
’ ’

l a te , i . 2 49 . Ta k en o v er fr o m th e
’' '

I u a zc zu m leg u ‘ zm um a nd quad imp ort)

G r e e s , i 30 4 k . con t zne tu r , i 335 n
'

. .

l s a ra , ba t t e o n th e , iii 44 8 l I ag em m , i 2 6 5 n
I
. . .

sa u ria ns , sub due d, iv 31 3f 2 . R e vo l t, iv . i 1 89 '' '

[ us and iua zczu m se para te d,
. .

3 5 2 i 32 2 ; ii 6 8
I id
. .

s P o ntic admira , iv 32 9
o rus , l 1 m g m tzu m , i 2 0 0 ; v 432
’

Ii w
. . .

s s, o rsh ip o f, iv 2 1 0 ; v 44 6 [ a s im a g ina m , h e re dita ry dis tinctio n

I i
. .

ssa , 4 1 7 ; ii 2 1 7 , 2 1 8
. 49 3 ; iii 42 2 . co nne cte d w ith the o bta inin of 3 g
g l
. .

S ta ndin co mm a nda nt th e re , ii 2 1 8 n . . curu e o flice , i 37 3 ; iii 4, 1 0 5 . .

g
I s th mian am es , a dm is s ion o f R o m ans t o ,
ii 2 1 9 E ntrus te d t o S icy on, iii 2 7 3 J A N I C ULU M '
1. 59 , 1 34, 1 37
'
iv 1 69
I
. .

l g
. . ,

s th m ia n t e mp e re ce iv es ifts fr om J anna e us iv , .
42 3, 42 5 , 4 2 6
M umm ius , iii 2 7 1 Ja nu s, 2 1 2 Efiig y o f, 11 . 1 2 3
I
. .

s th mus , iii 2 6 9 J a p y de s iii 42 5, 42 7

I
. .

g
,

s trians , ii 2 2 9 , 37 2 , 4 2 5 . iii 43, 42 1 . J a zy e s , iv 1 4 .

I s tr o p o lis , W 30 7
’

J e w s u nde r t h e M acca b e es , iii 2 85 :

f iv
I
. . .

tal ia ( Co rfi nium) , iii 5 0 4, 5 2 2 5, 42 6 T reas ure s in Co s ea rried

-

I l
. .

ta ica , iii 2 1 4 , 2 7 1 n iv 2 9 5 0 3 by M ith ra da t es , iv 33 S end e nvo y s

L ll
. . . . .

l
I ta y , its p h y s ica l co nfo r m a tio n a nd to ucu us , iv 341 S ub due d by . .

cha ra c te r , i 5 7 Pr imitive r a ce s , i
. . . P o mpe ius , iv 430 f P a ce d under . l
9f U nion u nde r the e a din o f R o me , l g g
h i h p ries ts , iv 439 R e v o ts unde r . . l
ii 46 5 8 . Ori ina r es tr icte d im po rt o f
. g l A r is to b u us , a nd brea in l
up o f th e k g
the nam e , i 1 6 9 T r a ns fe re nce o f th e
. . l
a nd, iv 44 8 f : T ax a t io n, iv 1 5 8 m ,
. .

name to th e te rri to ry fro m th e S ici ian l 1 6 2 71

'
T h e ir p o s it io n in Ca e s a r s s ta te ,
.

S traits to the Armus a nd A es is , ii 59 . . v 41 7 41 9. e w s in A e x a ndr ia , v 2 8 1 ,

-
. J l .

D e no te d a fter th e a c u is it io n o f S ici y q l 41 8 I n R o me , iv 2 1 0 ; v 37 1 / I , 4 1 8
. . .

th e contine n tal territ o ry a dminis te r e d J ub a, kin g

o f N u midia , v 2 0 3, 2 30 , 2 31 ,
l l
.

by th e cons u s , fro m th e S ici ia n S trai ts 2 64, 2 6 9, 2 88 ,

t o th e A ps , ii 2 1 3 l
2 1 5 n , 2 1 9 n . . . J udges Ca t ha gini n ii 4 7 f r a . 1
’

g g l J ugu th t N uma nti iii

, ,

H ow fa r this e o r a p h ica dis t inctio n r a a a, 2 30 , 389

l l
. .

b e co mes a p o itica o ne , ii 2 1 3 f f J ugu thin w iii 38 8 4 8 r e ar , -

0 P ut to
I l
. . .

N orthern ta y se p ara t e d a nd fir s t co n dea th in R o me , iii 40 9 .

s t itute d by S ul a a s p e cia l
p r o vince , l J l
u ia , Ca es ar s da u h te r , iv 5 1 4
’
D eat h g
l l
. .

G a lia C isa p ina , ii 2 1 5 iv 1 2 1 / i . . o f, v 1 6 6

l
.

T h e p oss es sions o n th e e as t co as t o f th e J u ia, w ife o f M a rius , iii 4 53

I l
.

A dr ia tic inc uded, ii 2 1 8 71 l t a ia n J ulii fr o m A b a , i 1 2 8 F a m i y s hrine a t l l

I l
. . . .

communities be y o nd ta y : A r iminu m , B o villa e , i 1 2 8 .

'
ii 2 0 5, 2 2 0 M e ssa na , i i 2 0 3 R a v e nna ,
. . J l
C u ius C a e s a r , ca ndida te fo r the co ns u l
ll
. . .

ii 2 2 1 . S e na G a ica , i i 1 2 , 2 2 0
. . . s h ip in 6 6 7 , iii 5 32 ; iv 66 , 6 7 . .

l
P r ac tica l y bo unde d b y th e P o , iii C J l
u ius Ca esa r , his ch a ra cter , iv
Lgl
.

g
. .

51 8 e a b o u nda ry o f, ch a n e d b y v 30 5 31 4 e ar o f h is b irt h , iv 2 7 3 2 1
-
Y
I
.

l ll
. . . .

S u la t o t h e R u bico ; a nd a ll ta lia ns H is co ndu ct a fte r S u a s de a th a nd

’

m ade R oman cit ize ns , iv 1 2 2 f , 1 32 du r in e p idu s

'
gL
re v o t , iv 2 88 S up l
I l I l
. . . .

'
N ortn ta y unit e d w ith ta y , v 4 2 1 f . .
p o r ts th e P lo tia n la w , iv 30 3 S e rv e s .

g
.

S ec C e lts , T r a ns p a da ne in M ith r a da tic w a r , iv 32 5 Br in s

I l l ll
. .

ta ian s m ig a te d into th e p e nins u a fro mr

S u a n p ar tisa ns to tr ial, iv 37 3 S up . .
554 H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

l 82. f i 83, 9 9 I ig
imita tio n
ns nia , L L g g L
an ua e, a t in, l
a r e a dy su bs t a nt a i lly
gl g
. .

o f th e r e a p o w e r , i 84 M a na e s . . f m d or e at th e t ime of t he Tw e l ve

th e fi na nces , i 9 2 ud e , i 1 89 j : J g T bl i a e s, 1 I ts e x te n s io n, iv 1 89 /I ;
1 1 3
g g lgl
. . . . . .

l
,

C h a n e o f th e ex is t in e a o r de r v 41 6 4 2 1 42 8, 4 5 3 f I n Ga u , v -

l l
.

p o s s ib e o n y b y co o p e r a t io n o f t h e I n S p a m, iv 1 90
’

30 , 4 8 f By
-

k g g l
. . .

in a nd th e b ur e ss e s , i 9 4 Ab o i f S e r t o r iu s , iv 2 8 5 / I
l
. .

t io n o f th e t e nure fo r ife , a nd intr o L a nuvium , i 40 ; iv 6 4 I n th e A r icine

l l g i 44 5
. . .

ductio n o f th e co ns u a te , i 31 5 31 9 ea ue , n 447 R e vo l ts a g ains t

g
. . . . .
,

V o w o f th e b ur e ss e s n e ve r t o e n dure a R m i 5 o e, A b ou t 37 0 , me m b e r o f
4 0

g l g L i l g
. .

kin , i 31 6 S im i a r ch a n es o f co n at n e a u e , i 448 n ,
4 50 R oma n
I l
. .

k
.

b g
. .

s t itu t io n in th e t a ia n a nd G r e e mm
u r e ss co unity , i 4 6 2
-
C o n u e r ed . . q
co mmunities , i 37 5 . by M ar ius , iv 6 4 F r e s coe s o f, ii 1 2 4,. . .

1 2 7 D ict a to r th e r e , i 4 4 2 n L a nuvini
LA
. .

l
.

B E O. S ee F a b ius ridicu e d b y N a e v ius , iii 1

49 n
L
.

ll g
.

L a be r ius, co mp ose r o f m imes , a o dice , a e e d mo th e r o f th e

n
ps e udo
v. 31 2

470 n 47 ! P h ilip , iii 2 6 0

g
.

La bici, i 49 , 1 30 As s i na t io ns a t, i L a o clice a , iii 2 8 ; iv 30 , 31

L
. . . . .

37 8 A b o ut 37 0 , a me m b e r of a tin L a p a th us , p as s a t T e mp e , ii 50 3
L
.

l g l li
.

ea u e , i. 448 4 50 N ot . a co o ny , a re n ta i 2 09 a, .

i 450
. n. Lare s , numb e r o f, i 1 0 7 Ch ara cter of . .

T L a b ie nus , 39 , 5 3. 5 5. I 9 4 f
v. th is w ors h ip , i 2 1 3 f : Th e ir w ors h ip
Lb
.

lyd i
.

a o ur e rs fr o m w ith o u t e mp l o e n co nne cte d w ith sa nita r y p o i ce , i 2 2

5
g i l iii l
. .
' '

a r cu tu r e , 70 L a r a: P er m a n m , t h e ir t e m p e , ii 4 6 3
L d m i i
. . .

a ce ae 8 f
o n a ns , 1 .
40 5 , 4 2 1 45 2 4 0 L as e s = Lare s , b o rr o w ed by t h e E tr us
L
, ,

L i i p m
ac n a n y i ro o nt or 1 77 ca ns fr o m a t iu m, i 2 2 9

L i
.

ii g g
,

ll
.

a co n a , re cru t n d 6 ro u n , 11. 1 2 La r inu m, t ow n o f th e F re nta ni, S u a n

L a ca s ,iii 6 2 0 g ove r n m e nt th e r e , iv 1 0 4

L d il d f 4 L
. .

a e, s an o 1 1. 1 2 a r isa o n th e P e ne ius ii
434, 4 5 7 , 49 9 ,
C L li [ l
, , .

ae us 3 7 A
cons u m 5 1 1. 2 nor s 00

L i C m
.
.
,

fi m a iii 5 o, 1 a r sa re as te , 1 1. 42 1

C L li
.

S i
ae [ us l iii 55 L
a p e ns h C g l i 35 35
co nsu 2 as t e nes , r e ta n e ne r a v. 1 2

h f h I li
. .
, , , ,

56 2 9 3 7 3 9
31 7 , 31 I h S i L m f b 2 2 i 3f n t e c p 1 o n1 c at s a r a nc o t e ta a ns , 1

L g g i 8 ii 3 R l i
. .

i l i
, , , .

c rc e , S h i
v. 2 2 0 peec e s, v. 2 51 an ua e, 1 4, 2 1 1 1 e a t on

L yg i
. . . .

a e s tr 8 o nes , . h U mb i 1 77 , d S m i 1 1 i 4 to t e r a ns an a n te s , 1
f h i m ig
.
,

P L i f i d f C G
a e t o r us , h iii 6r en Di i o i i . r a cc us , . 1 . re ct o n o t e r r a t o n,

9 f Ol d
. .

36 8 i h bi f C mp 3 e st n a t a n ts o a a nia

L i
ae v nus . S V l i ee L i h B a e r us y i uca n a , t e ru t t ia n co u ntr 40 ,
I li S i ily i
.

lm
,

m dE
’

T L f i ( Af i )
a r e n us f
r a n us S ta an co an as t c , .
40 . e tt e e nts

m d i h S i l
. ,

an er iii 5 3
n t e f h i f oc a j: P i ffi
w ar , i . 1 o t e, .
42 , 44 ass ve tra c, .

L l
a e ta ni i 9 v. 2 36 Wi h S il i 2 5 . t 1c y, .

L mi ii 59
,

a a, 4 R m i i 8 ezz es o a n 1 2 n.
l d i S i l L i mm i i h i p i i i f
.
. ,

M L m m
. a L i
po us , uca n a n ea er n oc a a t n co un t e s , t e r os t o n n re er

iii 5
w ar , 5 6 i 86 88 1 0 , 2 h d m i q ; iv. iii e nce to t e o a n- u e s t o n,

Lm
.

T h i igh f mig il d iii

.
,

a i 88 ;
p o ons , d i i f 2 i an nca nta t o ns or e r r t o ra t o n cur t a e

F i hf l h S i l
.
. ,

b idd ii 9 8 e n, R m i 49 3 a t u to o e n t e oc a

L mp
.

b g igh
.

a ii 4 6 m
s acu s. 4 7 45 iii 5 0 A q i 4 fa . 3. w ar, 02 c u re ur es s -
r ts
L
. . . .

69 m
4 95 ; i 3 6 3 8 4 v. q iii 2 f m
2 1 n co nse u e nce , ow e st or

f L i
. .

igh gi by S ll
,

L a nce a i 8 2 73. h o at n r ts ven u a to t e

L d di i i f
.

g
,

an hv s on im f h o mm i i ati t[ e t e o t e i ns ur e nt co un t es , v. 1 0 7 us

h lf f l d m m g i Ci l i
, , .

S i f m
e rv an re o r L d o ne -
a o an a t u r a nt e t o t o w ns n sa p ne
h ld h i g
o e rs i hid h
av n h G l iii fi L i
a n e nt re b m e, t e ot er au , 51 7 at n ur an co

l m G l i
.

h lf Q i i a d 5 p l i m an ii i T res 4 e ct w e y, 1 1 6 un t e s n r a ns a p e au v. 2 2 ,

l dh ld i I S i il
.
, , , .
,

Th e g r e a te r 5 8 an 6 o e rs , 1 1 6, 2 4 -
2 4 42 3 n n c y, v. 3 4
L l g f
. .

l a nd di ib i -
S
s tr D m ut o n. ee d h o a i ns a t in ea ue , o 30 ca nto ns un e r t e
L dh ld i L i m l m h
an o e rs n id y f A lb
at u i 5 F d l a so e rc a nts , pre s e nc o a, . 0 . e e ra

i 6 2 1 n. f i l i Pl f mb l f e s t va 50 ace o asse y or
I li
. . .

i g iii 335 G h l g C mm i y f igh

,

la n dm -
ea sur n i 5 . . r ae co - ta a n, t e ea ue , . 0 o un t o r ts
m g h m mb
, .

i . d f mm i g f an o r a e a on t e e e rs o
 I ND E X 555

th e ca nto ns, M i itary co ns t itu

i
. l
as p e r a tio n a ains t R o me , i 4 52 Re g
l g
.

l g
.

tion o f the e a u e , i 5 1 S a cr e d tru ce , v o t a fte r s ubj u a t io n o f Ca p ua , i 4 6 0 f

. . . .

i 51
. .A fte r th e fa o f A b a , R o m e p r e ll l
Th e e a ue p o itica l y diss o v e d a nd l g l l l
s ides in its r o om, i 1 2 9 Or i ina co nv e r te d in to a r e i io us fe s t a as s ocia g l lg l
L
. .

co ns titu tio n of th e R o ma no a tin t io n, i 4 6 1 I n ie u o f 1 t, trea ties - . . l

l g
ea ue ; R o me no t a m e m b e r o f th e b e tw e e n R o m e a nd th e se v e r a co m l
lea g ue , lk
i e A ba, b ut o ccupy in l an m unitie s ; th e ir iso a tion car rie d o ut, i g l .

inde pe nden t p os itio n w ith r e fe r e nce t o 46 1 f P os ition dur in th e w ar w ith

‘

. g
th e inde p e nde n t e a ue o f th e 30 co m l g P y rr h us , ii 2 1 , 2 3 P os itio n a fte r th e . .

munities , i 1 30 / I a nd p ro h ib ite d fr o m P y rr h ic w ar ; infe r io r r i h ts o f Ari g

gl L L
.

ll
se p a r a te a ia nce w ith a ny s in e a tin minum a nd the o th e r a tin co mm u nit ies
co mmunity , i 1 33 D o ub e a r my fur l
fo u nde d th e r ea fte r, ii 50 , 5 2 Admiss io n o
L
. . .

l g
.

nis h e d in e qu a p ro p ort io ns by t h e tw o o f th e a tins t o th e se na te durin th e

p ar ties , with a s in e co mma nd a te rna t gl H a nniba ic w ar r e fuse d, ii 2 9 8 l In l

l l
. .

ing be tw e e n th e m, i 1 33f i, 439 E qu a cr eas e d o pp r e ss ion a fte r th e H anniba ic

. .

pa r t itio n o f th e sp oi , i 439 f R e p re l
w ar , iii 2 4 2 6 R e s tr ictio n o f fr e e dom
. . -
.

L
.

scuta t io n b e fo re o th e r na t io ns , if no t o f mov e me nt a s o as t o th e o de r a tin l l

l
de f u n , a t eas t p ra ctica y in th e communitie s , iii 2 5 j ll Co mp a re . .
’

ha nds o f R o me , i 440 E qua a ia nce Coloniae La tina e l ll

L g I l
. .

l
a nd e qua ity o f r i h ts in p riv a te in te r ga tinizin o f ta y , 1 1 60 f l, 8 8 /Z Of th e

L
.

l
,

co ur se be tw ee n R o me a nd a tiu m, i co untr y b e tw e e n th e A p s a nd th e P o , .

1 31 I n co nse que nce o f th is , a e ne r a ii 37 1 ; iv 1 89 1 6 ; v 4 1 5 fi S ee La n g l

g g L
. . .

g l
.

ri h t o f s e tt e m e nt o n the p art o f a ny ua e , a tin

g L
b ur e ss o f a a tin comm unity a ny w h e r e a tinus , na m e o ccurs e v e n in th e Theo L
L
in a t ium, i 1 32 D o cume nt o f tr ea ty , o ny o f H es io d, i 1 7 7 n g
L
.

L
.

k g g
. .

i 2 80 War be tw e e n R o me a nd a tium,
. a t inus , in o f th e Ab or i ines , 1 1 1 1 0 x. .

l l g
.

and r e ne wa o f th e ea ue , i 438 As s on o f Ody ss e us an d C ir ce , i 1 7 7

L L
. . .

a ter co ns titu tio n o f th e ea u e ; th e l g

a t ium , p h y s ica ch a ra cte r a n d e ar ies t l l
L a t ins l
os e th e r i h t o f m a in w ar g k g
b o u ndarie s , i 6 , 4 1 44 E x te nde d o ri -

L
. .

a nd tr e a t ies with fore i n na t io ns , i g

g inally b y th e fo undin o f ne w a tin . g
Co nuna nde rs h ip in ch ie f r e s e rv e d co mmunit ies ; a ft e rw ar ds
- -
e o ra p h ica y g g ll
t o th e R o ma ns , a nd th e s ta fi o fiice rs o f fi x e d, i -

L
.

th e a tin a nd R o ma n co nt in e nts La ure ntum, i 49 , 459 n I n th e Ar icine g . .

nomina t ed accor din y by th e R o ma n gl

e a ue , i 44 5 n , 4 47 Ab o ut 370 , me m l g
L
. . .

co mma nder , i 4 4 0 D o es no t fum ish b e r o f a tin e a u e , i 448 n , 4 50 Ad l g

L
. . . . .

more tr oo p s than the R o ma ns , i 440 h e r e s t o R o m e , i 46 1 a te r fe deral . . . .

g
T h e contin e nts o f the comm unities re a tion, i 4 6 2 l
L
.

g
re main t o e th e r u nde r t h e ir o w n e a de r , a ur o in S p ain, iv 2 9 5 l
l L
.

i 4 40
. . g
Th e r i h t to s h ar e in th e sp o i a us, i 40 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 Occup ie d b y t he . .

l
continue d a t eas t for mal y t o s ubs is t, i l
L u ca nia ns , i 4 54, 45 6
L
.

g
.

440 P o s itio n o f t h e a tins as to La u tu mia e , o ri in o f t h e w o rd, i 2 0 1

L
. .

g
p riva te ri hts no t ch a n ed, i 44 1 a v er na , i 2 1 2 g . . .

l g
R e v o t a ainst R ome , i 446 f Th e L a v iniu m , i A b ou t 37 0 , m e mb e r o f
’

L
.

l g
. .

l g
ea u e r e mained Ope n ti 37 0 , so th a t a t in ea u e , i 4 4 8 n ll T r oj an P e na te s . .

e ve ry comm unity ne w y inv es te d w ith ther e , ii 1 1 0 l

L
.

L g
a tin ri h ts w as a dmitte d ; th e r ea fte r L a w , R o ma n, s a me as in a t ium, i 1 31 . .

l
c os e d, i 4 4 8 f A t th a t t ime 4 7 co m
.
’

E v e n in its o de s t form no w n t o u s , o f l k
l l
.

munities , o f w h ich , ho w e ve r , o n y 30 co mp ara t iv e y m o de r n ch ar a cte r , i 1 89

L l
. .

l
e ntit e d t o v ot e , i 450 is t o f th e N o sy mbo s t h e r e in, i 2 0 1 / I Ul tima te
.

I l
. .

l g g
tow ns b e o n in t o it , i 448 n so a b as is o f, in th e s ta te , i 2 0 3 I ts s ubs e . .
o

l k
. .

t io n o f th e co mmunities fu r nish e d w ith que nt de ve op m e nt u nde r Gr e e infl u

L g
a tin r i h ts afte r 37 0 by th e w ithdr a w a e nce , ii 6 2 7 0 C o difi e d, ii 6 6 Be l .
-
. .

g g gl
.

o f t h e comm er czu m e t con u bzu m w ith innin s o f a r e u a r a dm inis tra t io n o f

’

th e o th er L
a tin co mm unities , i 45 1 la w in th e m u m cip ia a nd co o nie s , ii l .

gl
. .

l g
S e pa ra te e a ue s o f p ar t icu ar r oup s 49 , iii 38 fi l g
I ts r e u a t io n m th e .

fo rb idde n, i 4 5 1 R e mo de in o f th e
. .
l
municip a co nstitutio n a fter th e p a tte rn
ll g
t im e o f S u a , iv 1 32 / Z S cip io A e mi ia ll . l
nus a t t e m p ts im p r o v e m e nt o f ” 1 ( Lb t in

o f tha t o f R o m e , i 4 4 1 ft, 45 2 Ex is tra t ion, ii i 31 6

. M i li t a r y la w , fi 7 9 . . .
556 H I S TO R Y o r R OM E

' '

p roj e cte d b y Ca esa r , M mn a , l 37 8

’

Law , its co difica tio n ae czlza ag .

v. 434 R e -e s ta b is h me nt o f th e re a
. l gl M a cm a
i 384
’

, .

juris dictio n b y C a e s a r , v 347 f i A p . M a m zlza , iii

' '

39 6 , 441 n . .

l
p ea s , v 348 M unicip a j urisdictio n,
. . l M a m l za , iv
' '

39 6 40 0 .
-

iv .
31 j 2 ; v 4' 2 5 / Z
1 . Comp a r e J ury M ucia de Cir/ ira te , iv 49 6 .

M
0

y Ii
0 0

oo ur ts ; Q u u s z a d a: [o f 6 1 3] o n b rib e r , ii
‘
zones I 44! a

L ii 3
. .

az v. 3 4 Octa v ia fi w mm ta r ia , iv 2 89 n
L i I
. .

l
,
'
iii 6 5 f Og u lm a , i 38 5
’

ta ly no t us ua
'
eases n
L g l yl
. .

l
, .
'

e a st e, te ch nica , ii . 1 1 4 Ov zn ia , i 40 6 ft , 40 7 ; in 7 ; iv 1 1 2
. . . .

’
P ea u ca ea , 1 1 i 4 41 n ; iv 2 0 9
'

L eg a ti leg zo m s j r o p r a e tor e,
'
v. 354 . . .
' ' ’

L eg a t zo lzbe r a , v 4 1 0 n. . P la u tza iii 5 1 6 , 5 2 8 n . .

'
P la u tia P a p ir za dc czm ta te, iii 5 1 7 ,
' '

'
iii 35 3 n
'

A cilia a e r e e tu ndzs , p . .
5 2 4 ; iv 6 2 n . .

S m u r f] dc s ufi a g r zs
'

A em il ia [M . P oe te lza , i .

hb er tzn om m , iii 37 9
’ ' '
P lo t za , as to th e p r os cribe d, iv 30 3 .

Appu le ia a g r a n a , iii 468

’ '

469 , 47 1 , . P o mj e za dc v 1 38

L
.

4 80
'
'

P o mp e za a s t o be s to w mg a tin r i h ts g
App u le za dc m a ies ta l e, iii 440 , 44 1 . On th e T ra ns p a da ne s , iii 5 1 8 .

'

P ué lzlza [o f i 359 , 36 0
’

468 n .
, 47 6 .

'
App u le ia f m w n ta r za , iii 46 8 n , 470 , i 384 , 39 6
’

. . P u l l ilza [o f .

480 r eg i a e , i 1 1 2 .

' '
A ufi a za a ow s th e imp ort o f w i d ll l R os cia , th e a tre la w iv 1 1 1 n -
. .

beas ts fr om A fr ica , iv 1 83 . s a cr a ta e, as t o a p p o int m e nt o f th e

A u re lia , o n t h e co mp ositio n o f th e l
p e b e ia n t r ib un es a nd a e di e s , i 349 l .

j ury iv 37 9 S emp r o m a f m m e n ta r za , iii 34S / Z

’
-
co ur ts , . .

S m p m m a e , iii
' '
B a e bza , ii 39 2
I l
. .

Ca ecil ia , a b o itio n o f ta ia n t o s , iv 50 2 l ll . S e r v ilia , iv 4 7 2

' '
.

Ca nu leza , i 37 1 S u lp zcza e , iii 5 31 5 36

’

-
. .

m mj tu a n a e, iv 1 7 2 , 1 85 A m ilza
'
Ca ss ia ag r a r ia , i 36 1
’

. . .
'

Cas s ia ta é e lla r za , 1 ii 30 0 , 31 6 . [ M S ca ur i], iii 37 9

. Of Ca e sa r, v . . .

Cla udia , iii 8 1 f i, 9 4, 349 .

59 7 Co mp a r e 1 1 6 3 f :
. .

'
’
Cor ne lia a e ea zctzs p r a e tor zzs, v 4 34 ta be lla n a e ( Ga binia , Cas s ia , Pa p in a ) ,
’
’

L
.

Com e l za e S ee
'
Co r ne ius S u a
'
. . l ll iii 30 0 , 31 6 / f , 340
.

D om it a c c s a ccr do tzis , iii 4 6 3 S et Ter e n tia Ca s s ia f m m n ta n a , iv 2 89 n

’
’ ’

z . . . .

a s ide by S u a , iv 1 1 5 ll '
.
36 2
F a é za dc p lag za r zir, iv 356 Tho r ia iii 37 5
’ ’

. a g r a r za , . is.
'

F la m im a a g r a n a , iii 5 8 , 99 , 332 Tztza a g r a r za , i1 i 4 80

’

. .

' ' ' '

F u lw a d e czw ta te socizs da nder , iii 36 2 Va ler ia a e p r o v oca tzone , i 32 0
’ ‘

. . .

Ga bima , iv 388 39 5
'

'
.
-
'
Va le r ia , o n S u a s d1 cta to rs hip , iv 9 9 , ll .

H o r tons za , i 385 , 390 , 39 6 , 39 8 . 1 0 9

[ cil ia as to th e ri h t o f th e trib une s g Va le n a e H or a tza e , 1 354 n
'
. .
, 366 f , 396
to ass e mb e the pe o p e , i 353 l l . Vzl lza a m za lzs , iii. 1 4
'
'

Vacam a , i ii 50 n
'
I czlza as t o the A ve nt ine , i 36 2
’

I l L gi
.

gL
.

g g
.

'

j uiza , g ivin a tin ri h ts t o th e ta g e o n, p h a la n it ic, 1 .

90 ; 1 1. 72 Ori in
l l gi
.

ia ns , iii 5 1 7 of th e ma nip u
ii 7 2 7 6 ar e o n, .
-

l g
. .

J ulia ag r a r ia o f Ca esa r , iv 50 8f , 51 0 . M a nip u ar arra n e me nt imita te d by

f} ; v. 1 2 4 P y r r h us, ii 2 5 D iv ide d into co h o r ts ,
. .

um a a e fi efl g fi m} iii 340 iii 4 59 Of h al f its form e r numbe r

‘
’
j . . .

l
,

L ah m a , the e l e ctio n o f p rie s ts , iv a fte r th e S oc ia w ar , iv 36 n

’

on . . .
'

457 L eg is a c l zo s a cr a m en to , i 9 2 , 1 9 6 Sa . .

'
L icim a M a d a , a a ins t u s ur p a t io n o f g cr a m en tu m ra is ed, ii 6 8 P er m a ma . .

g
bur ess ri hts , iii 49 6 -
g i 1 97 A ct zon es p ub . .

lg l
.

L icin ius S ex tia e , i 380 f , 38 7 , 39 3 ; 1 1 . . licly p r o mu a te d by A p C a udius , ii . .

7 7 ,i ; iii 1 1 3
L gi l
. .

L iv ia ; ( o f the e der D rus us) , iii 36 3 /C , l . e s a t io n by de cr e e o f th e co mmu nity ,

i .
95 . q
A c u ire d p ractica y by the ll
M in ( of the y o un g er D r us us) , iii
I se na te , i 40 8
Lm
. .

8 5 -489
. e no s , ii +38. 47 7 . 5 1 7 : N 39 9
.
558 H I S TOR Y o r R OM E

Ling o ne s , ta ia n , 1 1 2 2 1 , 2 2 6 I l co n fe de ra cy , o r its s ub s is te nce with o ut

l l ig
.

Ling o ne s , Ga ic, v 8 5 ll p o itica ii 5 3 Th e ir s nifica nce ,

L
. . .

ip a ra , i 1 7 7 ; 1 1 1 7 6 ; iv 354 A Gr e e k co nduct in th e H a nnl ba lic w a r , 1 i 2

9 4,
l
. . . . .

co o ny , i 1 86 R o m a n , ii . 1 86 , 1 98 30 0 , 30 5, 342 , 36 5 S ta te a fte r it, iii.

Li i
. . .

i 444
r s, . 1 00 , 1 0 1 I n th e S oc ial w ar , iii 5 1 0 ,
. .

L is s u s , i 4 1 7 1 1 2 1 8. .
52 4
L it e m um , ii 30 4 i 2 08
’

L u ca n a

L L
. .

k
,

ite ra ti, G re e , in R o me , v 4 59 /T uce r e s , i 5 3f i, 56

g
. .
,

Lite r a t ur e , o r i in o f R o man , iii 1 34 f : . L u ce r ia , i 4 7 2 ; ii 2 80 ,

. . 2 82 2 8 3, 2 87 , 2 94,
lg
,

I t s de s r u ct t iv e 1 nfl ue nce s o n re i io n, 30 5 , 333 ; Co nfi1 cts be v. 2 0 8, 2 1 1

I g
.

iii 1 1 2 .
f
I n t he s e v e nth ce ntur y , iv
I n C a e s ar s t ime , v 45 3 5 1 0
’
. t w e e n a py ia ns a nd S a m nite s a b o u t, i .

2 2 0 2 54 - . .
-
1 46 Occu p ie d b y th e S a mnite s a ft e r
.

'

L ztte r a , i 2 80 l
th e C a udi ne v icto ry , i 4 7 1 T a e n by k
L
. . .

L zt te r a t f, iv 2 1 5
’

. the R o mans , 1 47 4 a tin co o ny , i . . l .

L itter zs ob lzg a t zo , iii 9 0 n 49 3

L ili
. .

L itte r a tor es , ii 1 1 6 C uc u s, p o e t , iv 1 9 3, 1 9 4, 2 1 5, 2 37
L
. .

l
.

ivius Andr o nicus , iii 1 35 f i, 1 56 ; iv . . 2 41 I n th e S cip io nic circ e , iv 2 2 0

2 52 .

l l
, .

2 1 4 , 2 32 n P ub ic y r e a d h is o w n C Lu cI lI U S H 1 rru s , v 2 0 9
L
. . .

p o e ms , iii 1 7 8 C ucre tius [a dm ira , 1 1. 50 0 , 50 1 , l

L
. .

C. ivius [a dm 1 r a l, 5 6 3, ii 45 7 , 460 , 5 0 3
Q L
.

6
4 2 . u cre t iu s Of ll g e a oe s ov e r to Su ll a,

M Li i S li v us [ l 535 547 ; a na t o r co ns u i v

T L
. , ,

ce nso r , ii 3 7 3 8 f ; iii 6 4 4 35 2 1 3 C a r u s , v 444, 473 47 8

u cr e ti us -

M Li i D L ll L
. . .

l d iii 363 36
.
, ,

. v us h ru s us , t e e e r, .
, 4, ucu us S ee icinius .

65
3 42 9 L u a’z, increa s e o f, i1 i 1 2 4 1 2 7, -

M Li i g iii 48
.

l
.

. D v us h y ru su s , t e o un e r, .
3 P r o v incia s b ur de ne d fo r th e ir cos t , iii
l
.

489 9 7 /f i 4 8 86 v. 1 0 , 1 31 f D is t inct1 o n o f th e s e na to r ia
Li y
.

l ll
, ,

d iii i 9 p a ce s , iii 1 0 I n S u a s t ime , iv

’
v co rr e cte 44 4 n v. 1 n
L i p i d by h R m
. . . . .

k
, .
'
ocr occu e t e o an s , 11. 1 2 . I n Ca e sa r s t ime , v 4 7 1 G r e e , iv 1 9 2 ; . . .

I f ts i h P
o r tune s hi ii n t e yr r c w a r, . 2 1 v 51 6 n . .

ib l i
,
'

h H ii L u c r Z p o llzm r es , 1 1 1 4 1 , 1 2 5
’ ’

30 ,
3 I 1 35 n t e a nn a c w ar , . .

E mp d f m l d l
.
,

95 3
2 , 50 . xe te ro an -
s e rv 1 ce , L u a A te lla m ii 2 31 Comp a r e F a b u a , . .

ii 4 R m i 3 . ff d by h e a ns u na e cte t e L u di Ce r ea les , iii 40 , 1 2 5 .

g lL m ig i
.

e ne ra a tx z n v. L u dz F lor a les , iii 40 , 1 2 5

L i ii 9 6
.
,
' '

o cr s , .
3 L u di m a x zm z, ii 9 6 n . .

L pl
ocu i e tes ,
5 1 1 L u di M eg a lens es , iii 41 , 1 2 5
L lli P li
. .

M o [ ib
us f h a can us tr une o t e L u di Os cz, iv 2 31 .

p pl
.

'

N 79 L u dzp lebe iz, iii 40

’

eo e, 3 1 2 5 .

Lo ng ob r ig a , iv 2 84 ; iii 499 . . L u di R om a m , o r i ina na tu re o f, i 2 9 3

‘

g l
l ll l
. .

L o m m , i1 i 5 n P r o b a b y m o de e d a fte r th e O y m p ic
L
. .

uca , a V o scian t o wn, i 46 4 l fe s tiv a , i 2 9 5 l

Ch a n e d fro m co m g
L
.

g
. .

uca , co nfe r e nce a t, v . p e tit io ns o f t h e b ur e ss es to co mp e ti

L uca n ia ns , i 31 5 F ir s t
co ns t it u t io n, . . t io ns o f p r o fe ss io na r ide rs a nd
p r ize l
a pp ea ra nce , i 454 f U nde r Gr e e k fig h t e r s , i 2 9 7 A da y a dde d a fte r th e
L
. . . .

fl
in ue nce , i 4 5 6 , 46 5 j : ii 7 9 , 9 0
. . . e x p u s io n o f th e l
in s , i 342 as t fo r k g
g g l
. .

F i h t a a ins t A r ch ida mus a nd A e x fo ur day s , ii 9 7 F o r s ix da y s , ii 1 2 4 . .

l l l
. .

a nde r th e M o o ss ia n, i 4 6 3 T h e ir . . P r o v ide d by th e curu e a e di e s , i 383

g l
.

at t itu de dur in th e S am nite w a r s , i iii 4 1 S i

o f V e e nt e s ,
"
. . a e . i 42 6 In . .

46 6 , 46 8 I n th e t h ir d S a m nite w a r , i . t r o duct io n o f dr am a t ic re p re se n ta t io ns ,
l l
.

4 86 j : T h e R o m a ns a b a ndo n th e Gr e e k ii 9 8 C os t o f th e fe s tiv a , ii 9 7 P a m
L
. . . .
“

to w ns in uca n ia t o th e m , ii 9 f In . . b ra nch es dis t r ib ute d a t , ii 9 1 .

' '

te rve n tio n o f th e R o ma ns co ntr a ry t o L u dzz, lu dzon es , 1 2 86

g g
.

t r ea ty dur in th e L u ca nian s ie e o f k g
L ue r iu s , in o f A r v e r ni, 1 1 1 4 1 6 , 4 1 7 .

Thurii, ii 1 0 Wa r w ith R o m e , ii 1 0 , L ug udunu m Co nve na ru m, iv 30 4 ; v 8

L
. . . .

k g l
.

1 2 T a e p ar t in th e P y r rh ic w a r , ii u na , ii 37 7 ; iv 1 67 B ur ess co o ny , -

L
. . .

l
. .

1 9, 2 1 , 2 2 e ft in th e ur ch b y ii 37 5 ; iii 2 6 , 49 , 31 2
L L L
. . .

Py rr h us , ii 30 j : S ubmit t o the . up e r ca , i 6 2 l
up e r ci, up e r ca ia, i
. . l
l
.

R oma ns , ii 38 D is s o utio n o f the

. .
54 , 5 6 , 6 7 1 0 6 , 1 0 8, 2 0 8 , 2 1 5
 I N DE X 559

Tax a tio n, 1 1 50 9 m ; iai1

n.0

Lup us S ee R utilius iv . 1 56 . p . 2 6 3.
L
.
.

u s ita nia ns , ii 389 , 39 1 Co mp a r e P e rse us , P h ilip

L
.

us ita n ia n w a r , iii 2 1 6 B a nditti in, iii . . . M a ch a m da s o f S p a r ta ii 31 7 , 40 5 ,

.

2 33 j : R e v o t , iii 4 7 9 S ubdue d by l . . M a ch a r e s , s o n o f M it h r a da te s , iv .
31 8,
C a e sar , v. 7
Lu so ne s , iii 2 2 7 M a dy tus , ii 4 48 .

l
.

L u s tr u m up t o 47 4 co u d no t b e p r e s e nt e d M a e a nde r , ii 47 4 ; iv 38 . .

l
b y t h e p e b e ia n ce ns o r , i 384 U s ua . . l M a e ce nas , i 30 2 .

p ra y e r o n p r e s e n t in it , iii 31 7 Ch a n e d g . . g M a e di, 1 ii 42 8 , 42 9 ; iv so . .

b y S cip io A e m ill a n u s , 1 1 1 31 7 S p M a e h u s , i 37 6
l
. . .

C Lu t a t iu s C a t u lus [ co ns u , 11 l C M a e niu s [co ns u ,

. i 462 .

g
.

r 94 f M a a b a , mo untain in As ia M inor, ii 47 1 .

Q . Ca tulus [ co ns u ,
Lu t a tius iii l . M a g a da te s , A r me nia n s a tra p , iv 31 7 , .

44 7 4 59 , 50 8 ; iv 6 7 , 1 0 2 103 Poe t 34 1
- . .

iv 2 36 2 42 M e mo ir s , iv 2 50 M a a ia , 1 1 1 2 47 n , 2 49 , 2 5 3, 2 5 7
. . gl
l
.

g g
. .

Q Lut at ius Ca tulus [co ns u , iv 2 6 9 , M a i a m on th e P a r th ia ns , iii 2 8 8

I
. .

g
.

2 88. 2 89 m . 2 9 1 . 39 4 1 3. 453. 4 6 0 . M a ic, i 1 9 1 nca nta tio ns , i . . .

'
M a g zs te r equ ztu m i 31 7 n , 32 5
'

483. 49 3. 49 7 N ot
L
. .

g g
.
,

u t e tia , v 8 4 o r i ina t in o ut o f th e t r ib u ni ce le rum,

L
.

u tia , to w n o f th e Ar e va cae , iii 2 31 i 91 n P e b e ia ns e lig 1 b l , 7 383 l

L
. . . c .

'
M a g zs te r f op n lz, i 32 5 Co mp a r e D io
’

y a e us , i 2 31
L
. . .

y ca onia , ii 4 7 4 ; iii 2 8 1 . t a to r .

Ly cia , ii 4 7 4, 5 1 3 ; iii 2 80 ; iv 5 4 , 31 3 M a is tr a te s , no t p a id, 1 1 1 9 1 , 9 4 Ca nno t g

L g g
. . . .

g
. .

a n ua e , iv b e imp e a ch e d dur in t e nure o f o ffi ce ,

L
.

C l g
y cian i ties , e a ue o f, iv 33, 31 1 iii 32 E dicts o f, w hi e in o ffi ce ,
. . . l
Ly cis cus , ii 49 8, 5 1 7 , 5 1 8 iii 2 6 4 e u iv a e nt to la w , i 335 M 1 1ita ry q l
L
. . . .

y cop hr o n, v 4 50 . a uth o r ity dis tin uis h e d fr o m th e civi , g l

Ly co r tas , ii 4 7 9 a f te r ex p u s io n o f th e in s , i 335 f . l k g ’

L
.

l g
.

y ctus , iv 353 G e ne ra a nd ar my as such m i h t no t

L
.

y cus , riv e r , iv 331 e nte r th e city , i 335 D e p u ty m a is -

g
L L g g
. . .

y dia , ii 39 8, 47 4 ; iv 1 1 tr a te s ( pr o m a g zs tr a tn , p r o co ns u lt ,
’

. an u a e , . .
‘

iv p r o j r a e to r e , p r o qu a es tor e) a dm iss ib e l
l l lg
.

Ly nce s t is , 1 1 4 2 4, 42 5 o n y in mi ita ry , no t in civ i o v e r nme nt,

L
.

y ra , i 2 9 2 n . i 32 3 D e p u t l e s a p p ointe d by s e na t e ,
L
. . .

y s im achia . ii 4 1 0 . 42 1 . 435 . 448. 46 5. 47 4 . i 40 9 Or de r o f s u cce ss io n, im its o f . . l

a g e , inte rva s p r e scr ib e d b
y la w , i 37 5 l
g ll l
.

M A , Ca ppado cia n odde ss B e o na) , iv in 1 3 f

’

D 1 v is io n into cur u e an d .

l l g
. .

2 10 o w e r , iii 6 D e c ine o f t he ma is t ra cy , .

ll gl q l
.

M a cca be es S ee e w s . J
iii 1 8
'
S u a s re u a t io ns as to u a i . .

T M accius P a utus , R o m a n p o e t , iii

. l fi ca t io n, iv 1 1 6
'
Ca e sa r s re u a tio ns , . . . gl
1 42 , 1 4 5, 1 5 2 , 1 60 j iv 2 2 0 Co m v 41 2 f
‘

. F 1 lling up o f the o v e rnor

. . . .
’

g
s h ip s ih th e p r o vinces , iv
p are d w ith Te re nce , iv 2 2 4 2 2 9 390 v
-
.

l l
. .

M a ce donia , a nd a nd p e o p e , ii 39 5 39 7 1 4 7 , 1 7 8 J f . 34 3j f .
-
.

l
C a ims t o co nt inue t h e u niv e r sa e m p 1 r e D e cius M a g ius , 1 1 2 9 4 l
L
.

l
o f A ex a nde r, ii 39 9 I t s r e a tio n t o M a g ius , co m m a nde r in M ithrada tic
. . l .

R ome , ii 2 1 5 , 2 50 , 2 5 2 D e s cr ip tio n
. w ar ) iv 32 37 334 . °

o f th e co untry b e fo r e th e b e g innm g o f M ina tu s M a g i u s o f A e cla num forms in

th e thir d w ar w ith R ome , ii 490 f : t h e S o cia w a r a o y a is t co rps o f H ir . l l l
k
B r o en up into fo ur co nfe de r a me s , ii p ini, i1 i 50 2 . .

50 8 f : B e co me s a p r ov ince , ii1 2 6 2 M a ne s ia o n the M a e a nde r , 11 41 2 , 474 .

f g .

I n th e S e rt or ian t ime s , iv 2 9 9 G r e e ce iv 5 4 . . .

l
p a ce d u nde r th e M ace donia n o v e r nor , M a ne s ia nea r M o unt S ipy lus , ba ttle at, g g
iii 2 7 1 . S tru e s in t h e m ou nt a ins ,
. ggl
ii 46 6 / I ; iii 2 85 ; iv 33 . . .

iii 4 1 4 . Ov e rru n b y th e T h r a cia ns , iv M a nes ia , T he s sa ia n p e ninsu a , ii 396,

. . g l l .

34 Occup ie d by M ith r a da te s , iv 34
. . .

i n th e M ith ra da tic w a r , iv 38, 50 I n M a g no p o lis , iv 4 4 1 . . .

'
Caesar s time , v R o ma n do ma in M a o , Ca r th a inia n a dmira in 47 6, 1 1 2 9 g g l
K
.

g
.

land in M ace do nia , iv 1 5 6, 1 57 M in es , M a o co n ue rs a t . r o nio n, ii 1 5

4 H is
. q . .
560 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

boo k o n a r icu tu re , 1 1 1 5 1 ; iii 31 2 ; g l L l

M a n ius , p oe t, iv 2 4:
. .

l
.

l
.

iv 1 7 2 n . H is c a n, i 4 1 3 ; ii 1 47 . . M M a n ius Ca p itolinus sav es th e Capi

.

g
.

M a o th e S a mn ite , i1 2 44 t o l, ii 4 30 C o nde mne d, i 37 9 .

l I
. .

g l
.

M a o , H a nniba s b r o th e r , 1 1 2 38 , 2 7 1 , T M a n ius mp e riosas T o rqua tus [ co ns ul,

’
. .

2 76 g
F i hts in S p ai n a a ins t th e g 4 x4 l. i 459 m . 46 1
l
.

S cip io s , ii 32 2 , 32 7 , 32 8 , 330 , 331 T M a n ius To rqua tus [ pra e to r , u

L I l
. . .

g ggl
.

a ndin a nd s tr u e in t a y , ii 350 , .
30 8
35 1 , 35 7 Ca e d to A fr 1 ca , 1 1 35 7 ll M a nt u a , i 1 5 6 E trusca n, i 4 34
. . .

g
. .

' '

M a ze s ta tem p ap a : R om a n z com zter con M a nu miss ion, fo re i n to th e old la w , i

'
.

'

s w a r e, ii. 47 n. 1 98 V m dzcta com a tes ta m en to, i 1 99

. . .

M a ize , iii 6 4 n . F re e dme n a mo n th e c ie nts , i 7 9 f g l . .

l
.

M a a c a , ii 384 . T ax o n ma numis sio ns , i 389 ii 8 3 iv . . .

M a l ch us [ Ca r tha inia n e ne r a a bo ut g g l 1 56 F r e e dme n in the com itia tn bu ta

.

i 1 86. re s tricte d to th e fo ur ur b a n t rib e s, i .

l
M a e a , 1 1 40 5 .
39 6 f i; ii 82 ; iii 5 3 D e p rive d o f th e . .

ll l
.

C11 M a ins M a x imus [co ns u

. de g
s u ff r a e in th e co m itia ce n tu r za ta , i
'

l l
,

fea te d b y th e H e ve tii, in 4 36 .
39 6 The ir e co no mic re a tio n t o th e
.

M a me rcus , a e e d s o n o f N um a and ll g ma num itt e r , ii 82 S o cia a nd p o itica l l l

I
.

g l g
.

a nces to r o f th e A e m ilii, ii 1 0 7 p o s itio n in e ne ra , v 36 9 ncre as in

ll g
. . .

M a m er cus H a e my lu s , a e e d so n o f imp o r ta nce o f, iii 39 S hare in mi itar y l

g
. .

Py th a or as a nd a nce s tor o f t h e A e m ilii, se r vice , i 48 8 ; iii 5 0 ; a nd in the s u f

. .

ii. 1 0 7 fr a e , iii 5 2 /I g I n th e r e form o f t h e

.

l
,

M ame rs , 1 1 2 49 q
ce n tur ie s , e ua ize d w ith th e fre e b o r n,

l ll
.

M a me rt ine s S e e M e ss a na . iii 5 2 f : .T h is e ua izat io n ca nce ed q

. l
C M a mi ius L 1 m e ta n us [p e b tr ibune , l . g
a a in b y C F a minius , ii i 5 3. . Be l .

iii 39 6 s to w al of unre s tr ict e d s uff ra e in g

M a m u r a lza , i 2 0 7 . t e nded b y S u p icius , iii s3r , 5 34 By l . .

M am ur ius , th e a r m o u r e r , i 2 49 C inna, iv 5 8, 6 9 f Can ce e d by S u a ,

.
’

. ll ll
g l
.

M a m urr a o f F o r m ia e , Ca e s ar s fa v o ur ite ,
’
iv 1 0 6 . S t riv in a fter e ua iza t ion o f
. q
v. 1 42 n. l
p o itica r i h ts , iv 2 64, 45 8 l g F r e e dme n
L
. .

M a nca e us , co mma nda nt o f Tig ran oce rta , with th e r i h ts o f g

a tins a nd D e dit icii,

iV 339 iii 5 2 7 m ; iv 1 0 7 n
. . .

M a ncinus S ee H o s tilius . M a nus S e e L eg is ac tim s

l g l
.

M a ncifl ztzo b e o n s no t me re y t o R o
'

l g
M a r b e b e ins t o be use d for b ui din , iv l g
g ll L L
.

ma n, b u t e ne ra y to a t in la w , i . 2 57 F ro m una, v 5 1 4. N umidia n,
. .

2 00 I s p urch as e w ith imme dia te a nd v 51 4 .

l l
.

s im u ta ne o us de ive r y a nd p a y m e nt , i M ar ce us S ee C a udius . ll . l
1 95 . g ll
Th us o r i ina y no t a form a a ct , M a r cius, p r op h e cie s o f, iii 4 1 l .

i 2 00
. g ll
R e fe rs o r i ina y to mo ve a b e s , M a rcius , A ncus , i 1 0 4
. F o rt ifim tion o f l . .

i. 1 9 5 R e a rr a n e d fo r a r i J a nicu um a nd founda tion o f Os tia g g l

l l
c utura p ro p e r ty in co n s e q u e nce o f th e re fe rr e d t o h im, i 5 8 f .
‘

gl
S e rv ia n r e u a tio n o f fr e e h o d re a t io ns , C M ar cius [o fi cer in S p ain, l
u 32 3, -
l . .

i 1 95 n T h e o t h e r o bj e cts o f p r o p e r ty 330
l
. .

e x c ude d fr o m m a nc z p a t zo b y a s ub C M arc ius Ce nso rinus , ie ute nant o f

'

. l
se qu e nt misu nde r s t an dm g , i 1 95 n Car bo in th e fi rs t civ i w a r, iv 8 6 l
lg
. .

Ob i a t ory co nse que nce s o f, i 1 9 6 C M arciu s R u t i u s [dicta tor , i 39 8 . . l

l l
.

M a ne s , i 2 1 4 . C M ar cius R uti us [consu , i 4 80

l l
. .

C M a ni iu s [p e b t r ib u ne ,
. iv 39 6 C M ar cius F ig ulus [co ns u , iii 42 2 l
l g g
. . . .

M
’
M a ni iu s co ndu cts s ie e o f Ca rt h a e Cn M a r cius Co rio a nus , i 35 8
. l
l L
. .

b y a nd, i1 i 2 4 9 / I M a rcius Ce ns orinus [co nsu , 60 5] l

Lg
.

l g
.

M a nip u a r o r a niza tio n S ee e io n b e s ie e s Ca rth a e , iii 2 4 3, 2 49 g g

L
.

l
.

C M a n ius , a Ca t ilma r ia n, iv 4 7 4
. M a rciu s P hi ipp us [co ns u , . m l l
l l
. .

C 1 1 M a n ius V o lso [co ns u ,

. 11 47 0 ; 380 , 4 8 4. 4 87 , 49 8 m : iv 7 8. 9 2 . 9 8 : . .
'
ii1 32 . iv 2 6 9 , 2 89 n , 2 9 6 f
li g g
. . .

C 11 M a n u s [p ra e to r , 6 82 ] fi h ts a a ins t
.
Q M a r cius Ph i ip p us [co nsu l l 5 6 8,
gl
.
,
th e a dia to r s , iv 360 . 11 4 9 7 : 50 3: 5 “
l l
°

L M a n ius V o ls o [co ns u , 11 1 78 Q M ar ciu s R e x [co ns u l iv 34 5 ,

L
.

l g g
. . .
,

M a n ius fi h ts a ains t S e r t o r iu s , iv 2 8 3
. .
349 ! 35°
56 2 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

M a u re ta nia ( M a ur i) , u 382 iii 39 3, 40 4 . . liance w ith R o m e a nd Carth a e a ains t g g

40 8 ; iv 9 2 ; v 2 9 1 n H a u nt o f th e . . P y rr h us , ii 2 9 M a intain t he ms e v e s l
g
. . .

p ira t e s , iv 31 0 f : . a a ins t h im , ii
32 Wa r w ith H ie ro o f . .

M a x it an i o r M a x y e s , u 1 37
,
. S y r a cus e , ii 38 , 1 6 4 f i S urr e nde r to .

M aza m , iv 31 6 th e R o m a ns , ii 1 6 5 R ece ive d into the

I l
. . .

M e da m a , i 1 6 6 t a ia n co nfe de r a cy , ii 1 6 5 f , 1 6 7 ft
C g
. . .

M e des in th e a rm y o f M ith ra da te s , iv 2 8 Th e i ty o ccu p ie d b y t h e Ca r th a inia ns ,

I
.

M e dia , ii 4 44 nde p e nde n t, iii 2 8 7 , . . ii 1 6 9 Th e s e dis o d e d b y th e R o m a ns ,

. l g
l l
. .

2 88 F a s e y s aid to b e co nque re d b y
. ii 1 6 9 j : E x e mp te d fro m tax a tio n, iv
. .

P o m p e iu s , iv 437 n . . 1 57 M int o f th e M a me rt ines re s tricted

.

M e dia A tr o p a t e ne , iv 31 5 . to co p p e r , ii 2 1 1 fi . .

M e dicine in R o me , iii 1 9 3 ; iv 2 54 . . M e s sa p ia ns , i 45 5 , 46 5, 466 .

l
M e dio a num, i 4 2 3 ii 2 2 8 M e s s e ne , ii 31 7 , 40 3, 4 39. 4 5 6 . 4 59 . 4 7 8
l
. .

M e diterra nea n, its s i nifi ca nce in a ncie nt g C M e s s ius [p e b t rib une ,

. v 1 2 1 . .

his to ry , i 3f : . M e t a p o ntu m , i 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3, 4 5 6 , 46 5 , .

i 208 4 8 2 ; ii 2 9 4 , 336 , 349 . S to rm e d by th e

gl
.

M edia: tu tzcus , l 31 5 a dia t o rs , iv 35

’

.
9 .

M e dullia , i 1 2 5 M e t a u ru s , ii 348
ll
. .

M e g a cles , i 1 9 . M e te us S ee C a e cilius .

gl l
M e a op o is , ii 430 , 480 ; iv 2 42 In . . . M e t l lii, fr o m A b a , i 1 2 8 l
l
.

P o ntus , iv 441 S p M e tiliu s [ tribu ne o f the peo p e ,

.

g
.

M e a ra in Gre e ce , iii 2 6 9 iv 38 S e nds . . . i 37 8 .

l i i
o ut co on e s , . 66
1 M e t ro do ru s o f A th e ns, p ainter a nd p hilo
g i S i ly
M e ara n ci , S y r a cusa n, n 2 0 6 . s o p h e r , iv 2 58 .

M e ar a v cus e
g i d f 2 2 6 e nds N uma ntia , iii M e t r o p h a n e s , P o ntic e neral. iv 32 8 g
l i ii 43
. .

M e ta , 1 M e ze nt iu s , i 1 5 8
li i 43
. .

M e ta ea , v . M i Cip s a , i ii 2 5 1 , 2 5 8, 388 389. .

H is
li i 5
M e te ne , v 31 , 338 . s o n M ic 1 p s a , ii i
388 n . .

M e lp um, i 42 3, 42 7 . l es , fo o t s o die r , i
91
-
l .

C M e m rnius . iii 393. 39 4, 46 5 . 47 5 M ile s t o ne s , iv 1 6 7 .

L M e mm ius , u a e s tor o f P o mp e ius in

. q l l
M i e to p o is , v ict o ry o f F imbr ia a t , iv 47
l
.

S p a in, iv 2 9 6 . M i e t us , i 1 7 4 ; ii 4 1 2 , 47 3 ; iii 2 60 , 50 7
.

l
. .

M e mo ir ite ra t ur e , iv 2 50
-
. n iv 1 5
. C a rr ie r fo r th e co mm e r ce
. .

M e na g e nes , iii 2 7 6 n . . o f t h e S y b ar it e s , i 1
71 .

M e na nde r o f A th e ns , A ttic co me dia n , iii . l

M i e v , co lo n /a S n ” t ens ity v 30 2 n. .

1 41 -
x47 l g
M i o , e ne ra o f P y rr h us , ii 1 6 , 1 7 , 31 , 37 l .

M e na p ii, V 37 , 5 41 580 7 2 0 l
M i i ta r y s e rv ice , e n th o f, iii. l g
M e nde , ii 42 6 . M ily a s , dis tr ict o f, ii 47 4 .

M e ne nii, c an v i a e , i 45 l -
ll g . M zm u s , v 4 6 8 4 7 1 .
-

M e nip p us , ii 4 53 . M i nciu s , ba t t e o n th e , ii 370 l

l l g
.

M e rca nti e de a in s , e x te nt o f th e R o ma n, M ine rv a b o r r o w e d by th e E trus ca ns fr o m

iii 86 . L
a t iu m , i 2 2
9 Te mp e o f, a t R o m e ,
. . l
M er ca tus , i 2 50 . iii 1 36 , 36 8 .

M er cedo m us , i 2 70 M ine s , S p a nis h , iii 2 0 , 30 7 . M a ce do nia n ,

’

. .

M e r ce nar ie s , ii 1 38 . . i ii. 2 1

M e rch a nts , p r ope r , w hy no ne in R o me , i M intur na e , na v a l l co o ny , i 49 2 ; i i. 42

l l
.

l ii g
.
,

2 61 S trive to a c uir e a fr e e h o d s e tt e
. q 49 S a ve -
r s n iii 30 9 h ia r t u s
l
, .
. .

me nt , ii 8 2 f M e rca nti e s p ir it o f th e t h e r e , i1 i
‘

. . .

R o ma ns , iii 89 93 .
-
C M inucius [ p r a ef ectus
. an mma e , i
.

M e r cu ri a l“ , i 1 38 n . .
37 6
M e r cu rius , i 2 1 4, 2 30 , 2 5 5 . M M inu cius R ufus [ma g is ter e quitu m ,
.

M e ru a l
S ee Corn e ius
. l in 2 8 3. 2 84 f
M e se mb ria , iv 30 7 M ( .
Q
M inucius R ufus [co ns u , 6 4 4 ]
. l
g
.

M es o p o ta mia , i1 i 2 89 ; iv 5 , 31 5 Co n . . . fi h ts in M a ce do nia, iii 4 2 9 .

fi rme d t o th e P a r th ia ns , iv 40 6 .
Q M inucius [p ra e tor in S p a in,
. n
M e ssa na , i 1 6 7 ; ii 1 45 , 2 0 3, 2 0 5, 2 1 3 ;
. .
59 0
iii 386 . Ca mp a nia ns o r M a me r t ines
.
Q . M inucius The r mus [p rae to r , v

there , ii 1 8, 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 f i ; iii 30 9
. Al . . 2 0 7
 I NDE X 56 3

M inucius , co nfida nt o f V ir ia t h us , iii S ici y , i 1 6 6 Cas t 0 0 p mo ne y . 2 2 5 a nd l . .

-
g g
M irr o r des i nin , E tr usca n, i 30 8 ; ii a p p e ar s in R om e a t t h e t ime o f th e . .

1 2 4 D e ce m v ir s, a nd s p r ea ds t h e nce o v er
M is e nu m s ur p ris e d by the p ir a te s , iv t a y , ii 7 8 , 7 9 E tr usco U mb rian a nd I l -

I l
. . .

355 .M is e nia n Ca p e , i 1 7 7 E a s t ta ian ca s t co p p er mo ney , ii 79

.
-
. .

M ith ra , w orsh ip o f, v 445 / Z E tr us ca n s i v e r mo ne y o f th e o des t

. l l
M ithra da te s o f M e dia , so n in la w o f t im es , i 30 6 P ro po rt io na ra tio o f
- -
l
g
. .

T i ra ne s , in th e A r m e nia n w a r , iv 349 cop p e r to s i v e r , ii 7 9 S i v e r mo ne y l l

L I
. .

l
.

M ith i a da te s I , th e A r s a cid, iii 2 87 of ow er ta ly , ii 79 Ar tis t ic va u e o f

II
. .

g
. .

M i t h r a da tes , t h e A r s a cid, iv 5 th e cas t ce p p e r co ina e , ii 1 2 4 M one

I l
. .

g
. .

M i th r a da te s o f P e r a m u s v 2 7 9 / I , 2 83 ta r y unity o f ta y , ii 87 . S y s te m of . .

g g
,

M ith r a da te s V , E u e r e te s , iii 2 8 1 ; iv
. th e de na rius , ii 87 D e b a s in o f the . . .

g
.

6 1 9, 2 0 co in dur in s e co nd P unic w a r, ii 34 3.

L g
.

k g
,

M i th ra da tes V I , E up a to r, in o f P o ntus, a te r co ina e , iii 8 7 f I ; iv 1 7 8 1 8 3 -

ll g
. . . .

h is cha ra cte r , iv 6 1 0 E x te nds h is C o pp e r mo ne y r e s tr icte d to s m a ch a n e ,

.
-

k g ll
.

'
in do m , iv 1 2 f l, 1 6 2 0 A ie d w ith iv 1 7 9 D ifl us io n of th e R o ma n mo ne y ,
-
. .

l
. .

g
T i r a ne s , iv 1 8 D iffi cu tie s w it h t h e
. . iii 88 /I I n S ici y , i i 2 1 0 1 2 ; iii l .
,
. .

R o m a ns , iv 2 1 f
F irs t w a r w ith R o m e , I n S p a in, ii 38 5 f I , 39 3 iii 8 7 I n th e
L l
. . . .

ii i 5 2 3, 5 36 ; iv 2 6 5 2 Or de rs a m as territ o ry o f t h e P o , iii 87
-
o ca , v .

I l
. . . .

gl
.

s a cr e o f a ll ta ians , iv 31 fi Occup ie s 436 / Z Tra ff ic in o d b a rs , iv 1 7 9 ; v .

g gl
. .

A s ia M ino r , iv 2 9 f Occup ie s Thr a ce , Co ina e o f o d no t p e rm itte d in

’

4 35 .

L
. .

M a ce do nia , Gre e ce , iv 34 37 o ses the p ro vince s , iv 1 8 . j : C a esa r in tro

-
.

gl k
. .

g
th e m a a in, iv 4 2 49 S ue s for p ea ce , duce s a o d curre ncy , v 4 37
-
To e n .

l
. . .

iv 4 8 f : P ea ce w ith S u a a t D a r da nus ,
. ll
m o ney ( p a te d de na r ii) , iii 4 85 iv 1 80 . . .

iv 5 2 , 30 5 Chr o no o y o f fi rs t M ithr a
. lg
D ena r u o f S ca u rus , iv 432 Of P o m . .

l g
.

da tie w ar , iv 1 9 45 n Ar me nia n p e ius , iv 444 M o ne y de a in s m ono . .

l
. .

tr a ditio n a b o u t it, iv 5 1 j : Van uis he s p o lize d b y th e ca p ita , iv 1 7 3 f v. q ’

I l
. . .

M u re na , iv 9 4 j : Ex te nds his e m p ir e
. 380 , 40 9 / f C o ins o f th e t a ians in the
o n th e B a c l k
S ea , iv 31 8 A ia nce S o cial w a r , iii 5 0 5 , 5 2 4 n ll . .

g g
. .

with th e p ira tes a nd w ith S e rt oriu s, iv M o ne y ch a n e r s S ee A r e ntarius .

-
.

30 0 , 31 4, 32 2 / Z Or a niz es his ar my g
M o ne y e d a r is t o cr a cy , iii 9 3 j .
"

a ft e r R o ma n m ode l
, iv 31 8 S e cond M ons r a ce r , i 348 . . .

w a r w ith R o m e , iv 32 0 / i Vict orio u s M o nta ni, i 68, 1 39 . .

ne ar Ch a ce do n, iv 32 6 l B es ie e s M o nths , na m es o f, e v e ry w he re co me into g
l
. .

Cy zicus in v a in, iv D riven b a c use o n y a ft e r t h e intro duct io n o f the k

l I l
.

t o P o ntus , iv D e fe a t e d nea r so ar y ear , a nd th e n ce re ce nt in ta

330 . .
y , i.
Ga hira , iv F i h t to Ar me nia , iv 2 69 j : lgR o ma n, i 2 6 9 , 2 70 .

I
. .

332 f ndu ce s T i ra nes t o co nt inue

‘

g
M o rg a nt ia , iii 384 .

g
.

th e w ar , iv 343 F orms a ne w ar my , M or e s , i 40 .

Z l
. .

iv 343 f
. D e fe a ts th e R o ma ns a t ie a M o rim e ne , iv 4 39
. .

g
and re a ins P o ntus , iv 349 / f V a ria nce M o r ini, v 54, 5 8 .

gg k l
.

wit h T i r an e s, iv g 4 0 6 W a r w ith M o r t a e , un no wn in e ar
. y t imes , i 2 0 4
. .

P o m p e ius , iv 4o 7 f D e fe a te d a t N ico M o iy a , ii 1 43 P u nic, i 1 86 . . .

g g
. .

l
p o is , iv 40 9 Brea ch w ith T i r a ne s, M o urn in , t im e o f, a br id ed a fter the g
l
. .

iv . Cr o s se s th e Phas is , iv 4 1 1 b a tt e o f Canna e , ii 2 9 8 After the . . .

l
.

Goe s t o P a nt ica p ae u m , iv 4 1 7 R e vo t b a tt le o f A ra u s io , iii 438 .

l l
.

g
.

a a ins t h im , iv 4 1 8f : D e a th , iv 42 0 P M u cins S ca e v o a [co ns u , ii i 31

9, .

gl g
. . .

l
.

H is o d co ina e , iv 1 8 1 32 0 , 32 5 , 32 7 334 , 338

. P riva t e ife , iv , . .

M ith r ada te s , son o f M ithr a da tes V I 2 58 H is to ria n, iv 2 4 8 . .

l l
.

E u p a t o r , iv 32 , 47 , 9 5 . M ucius S ca e v o a [co ns u , iii Q .

g
.

M ithra da tes , kin o f P a rthia , v 1 5 1 48 1 , 4 9 7 ; iv 6 9 , 84, 1 0 2 2 05 ur i

. . J
g l
.

M i t h r o b ar za ne s , Ar m e nian e ne r a , iv dica l w r ite r , iv 2 0 5 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 6 .

g g
.

339 M u /ta , o r i in o f th e de s i na tion, i 1 9 : .

M na s ipp us th e B oe o t ia n, iii 2 6 4 M u lv zu s j o ns , iv 1 6 7
L
.

g
.

M o en za , m e a nin o f th e w o r d, i 9 1
’

M umm iu s [co nsu , in 2 1 5 2 60

. . l
l
.

M o lo ch a th , ii 2 8 2 ; iii 387 , 40 6 , 4 1 0
.
f , 2 7 0 , 2 7 1 n , 2 7 4 ; iv 2 5 7 H is p a y s,
. . . .

M o lo tt ia ns , ii 50 2 , 5 1 7 iv 2 35 f i, 2 36 n
k l I l L
. . .

M o ney o f th e G re e co o nie s in ta y S p M u mm ius , b ro th er o f ucius , in th e .

56 4 H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

S cip io nic circ e , iv 42 0 H is Ep is t e s , l N arb o , iii 37 4, 4 1 9 ; iv 1 68 , 1 7 6 , 1 9 1 ; v

. . l . .

iv. 2 37 1 1 , 1 6 , 42 2 E xe mp t fr o m t a xa tio n, iv .

l
.

M y ndus , i 6 2 1 58 S ee Ga u
L
. .

lg
M una t ius , e a te o f S u a, iv 38 N ar nia , ii 348 ll A a tin co o n , i 48 5
.
y . l
g
. . .

M a n i a/ s , p ass ive b ur e ss , i 1 2 1 , 4 4 1 R e info r ce d, ii 36 6 . .

g l
.

Active r i h t o f e e ctio n in th e co mit ia N as ica S ee Co r ne ius . l

tribu ta , i 44 1 13 N a t ural p hi os o p h y , in ue nce o n th e l fl
L
. .

l
M un icip a co ns t itu tio n, a tin , re mo de e d R o ma n re i io n, iii 1 1 2 j ; ll lg
l
.

a fter th e p a tt e rn o f th e R o man cons u ar N a u p a e tu s , ii 4 5 9 .

co ns t it u tio n, i 442 f i, 4 5 2 . N a u ti ca lo a n = b o t to mr y , i ii 9 2 N ot a l
l g ll
. .

M unicip a s y s te m , o ri ina y no clo se r b r a nch o f us ury e a y fo r bidde n, iii l g ll

l l
.

municip a u nio n al ow e d with in th e 97 m

g
R o ma n b ur e ss b o dy ; s u ch a s y s te m N a v a w a rfa re , a ncie nt, ii 1 7 3 j
- l .
’

initia te d w h e n the R o ma n fra nch is e w as N a vi a tio n, o ar b o a ts a lre a dy nown in g -

k
fo rce d o n w h o e co mm unities , as o n l
ndo Ge r m anic p e r io d, i 2 0 , 2 7 S a i in I -
l g
l l I l
. .

T us cu um , i 44 8 ; ii 48 n iii 36 s h ip s p r o b a b y de riv e d b y th e ta ia ns
I l
. .

k l
. . .

l
D e ve o p e d in ta y , iv 1 30 - 1 35 Re fro m t he Gre e s , i 1 7 9 . D e ve o pe d . . .

g ula t e d b y Ca e sar, v 40 5 E x te nde d e a r ie s t a mo n the Ga u s , v 1 5 E ar li l g l

L
. . . .

to the p ro vinces , v Camp a r e I a : es t na u t ica. t e r ms o f a t in, la te r o ne s l

M ur de r , i 1 9 1 . o f Gr e e o r i in, i 2 5 4 n k g . .

M usic, E t rus can p re do mina tes in R o me , N ax os , i 1 6 5, 1 66 .

. . l
i 99 I n a te r t ime s , G r e e , i v 2 5 8 On N e a e , iv 32 9 k . . .

th e s ta e , v 47 2 , g I n do me s t ic N e a p o is , i 1 7 5 ; ii 1 7 3, 2 9 4, 30 3j : Old
. l . .

life , v 5 1 6 f : As a su bj e ct o f instruc
. re a t ions w ith R o me , i 2 60 H o ds l . . l
tio n. V 449 . 5 1 7 o ut a ains t th e S a mn ite s , i 4 1 , 4
9 55 g .

M uth ul, b a t t e on th e , iii 399 j : l 4 56 P a la e o p o lis a nd N e a p o is t h r e a t

. . l
g
M utina , b ur es s co o ny , ii 2 30 , 2 6 7 , 37 3 -
l
e ne d b y th e R o ma ns , a nd t h e r e fo r e
.

iii 2 6 , 49 , 2 9 1
. B a t t e o f, ii 37 3 . l
occup ie d by th e S a m nite s , i 4 6 9 .S ie e . . g
M u tt ines , ii 31 3 . o f th e city b y t h e R o m a ns , a nd t re a ty

M u tzm m , i 2 0 0 . o f th e Ca mp an ian G r e e s w it h R o m e k
M y ce na e , i 30 2 . i 46 9 A tt it u de to w ar ds R o m e , ii 43, . .

l l
.

M y la e, b a tt e o f, ii 5 3 ; iii 2 4
. I n th e S ocia w a r, iii 5 0 2 . . .

l
.

M y asa , ii 4 1 2 , 4 1 3 I n th e fi rs t Civ i w a r , iv 8 0 , 9 1 De l
I
. . .

M y ndus , ii 4 1 2 , 446 ; iii 2 79 . p rive d o f A e nar ia ( schia ) , iv 1 0 7 , 1 2 6

. .

g l
.

M y o nne sus , ii 46 3 R i h ts o f, in a te r t ime s , iii 5 1 9 Re

lL
. .

g
.

M y rina . ii 4 1 3, 447 m a ins u na ffe cte d by the e ne ra a t in

L g g g
»

M y sia , ii 4 7 3 a n ua e
. o f, iv 1 1 izin , iii 5 1 9 ; iv 1 9 1 / I . . . .

l g
.

M y s ia ns in a r my o f A ntio ch us, ii 466 N e a p o is , th e Carth a inia n, iii 2 5 2 .

l g
.

M y s ter ies, s y s t e ma tic dea in s in, iv 2 0 8 N e e t um , ii 31 3 S y ra cus an , i 2 0 4 . . . .

2 1 1 C. N e g idius de fea te d b y Viria th us, iii .

l
M y ti e ne, u 31 8. 40 6 . 463 : iv 31 . 48. 93. 2 2 3 .

94 N e ma us us , v 42 2 .

N e me tu m, iii 4 1 6 n .

AAAA
.

N B T E N s ta te , iv 31 6, 42 2 , 42 6, 432 N e m a e, i 2 88 , 2 9 3 n
’

. . .

n . P e tr a , ca p ita o f th e , iv 4 2 6 l
N e o p to e mus , e ne ral o f M ithr a da tes, iv . l g .

N a bis , ii 40 5 . 4 31 , 4 33. M M 4 5 1 . 480 1 7 . 2 8. 38

C u N a e vius , h is co m e dies , iii
. 1 57 N e p e te , E tr us ca n, i 1 5 7 a tin co ony ,
. . . L l
1 60 ; iv 2 1 9, 2 2 2 H is p r a e tex ta ta e , i 4 32 .

g
. .

( ii 1 7 7
. H is s u tu r a e , iii 1 7 8 1 5 H is N e p h e r is , fortress a t Cart ha e, iii. 2 49 ,
. .

“
Punic W ar , iii 1 7 9 f I , 1 84, 1 86 ; iv
”
2 5 x, 2 5 4. 2 5 5
. .
'

2 1 5 N ej tu na lza , i 2 0 8 .

N ails fas tened in the Ca p ito ine temp e , N e p tunia, co o ny a t Tare ntum, iii. 37 4 l l l
ii 1 0 0
. N e qu inu m , i 485 .

N a mes , p roper , R o ma n, i 31 , 7 8, 2 1 0 N e r vii, v 1 4, 2 7 , 30 , 32 . Contes t o f,

. . .

Etr usca n, i 1 5 1 f . Gr e e cog n om ina

. w ith Cae s ar , v 5 1 54 k .
-

come into us e , ii 9 1 N e s tus , r iver , iii 2 6 3 .

l g l
.

N a na ea , t emp e o f, in E ly ma is , iv 343 l N e x u m , o a n, i 1 9 5, 1 9 6 Ori ina l y not . .

l
.

N an sen . 11 359 a fo r ma ac t , i 2 0 0 .
566 H I S TOR Y o r R OM E

Odry sian s , ii 49 3 S ub dued by th e l bj

Orie nta o e c ts of l uxu ry fo und in
I l mb
. .

R o ma ns , iv 30 7 ta ia n to i 2
s, 5 3f 2 551
I ly
. .,

l l gi
. .

Ody s s e u s , e e nd o f, o ca ize d o n lg l l th e O i
r e nta re i o ns in ta iv 2 0 8 K
f I ly i 7 7 ii
.
, -

w e st co as t o ta 1 1 0 7
-
1 1 1 Or ing is , ii 331 .

g l
. .

ld R m h l b k
,

Or oa nda , s tr o n ho d o f p ira te s , iv 31 4
'

Ody ss e y , o es t o an s c oo -
oo iii
II
.
,

1 36 Oro de s , b r o th e r o f M ith r a da te s the .

Oenia ( Oe nia da e ) , i i 47 6 A rsa cid, iv 5 .

l
.

Oe no m a us , e a de r in Gla dia toria l l w ar , iv . Or o iz e s , p r ince of th e A b a nia ns , iv 4 1 3, .

35 7 , 36 0 41 6
Oe no tr ia , i 2 4, 1 7 1 Or onte s , iii 2 1 3
L
. .

Ofe a llS ee ucr e tiu s

. Or op us o ccup ie d b y th e A th e nia ns, u .

Offi cers , e m e r e nce o f mar g

dis tinc kd
e 4 9 s ; iv - 1 9 9
tio n b e t w e e n s ub a t e rn a nd s t a t i l g
Or th o ra p hy , o n uctua t io n o f R o ma n, l gfl
o fiice rs , ii 7 3 f .
'
P ar t o f th e o ffice rs ii 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 n
. D e ve o p me nt o f a m ore .l
l l g
.

ch ose n, a ft e r 39 2 , b y th e p e o p e , i 397 ; . s e tt e d o r th o ra p hy b y S p CarV ilius .

i i. 74 a nd E nnius , ii B y A ccius and

L l
.

Oil, s up p ly o f, fo r t h e b a th s of th e ca p ita l , u ci iu s , iv 2 5 2 S ee A p h a b e t . . l
intro duce d b y Ca e s a r , v 36 5 . Os a ces , P ar thia n p rince , v 1 6 3, 1 6 4 .

l
O b ia in N a r b o ne s e G a u iii 4 1 5 l Os ca, iv 30 0 , 30 2 , 30 4 Tra inin ins t itu te . g
l l k
, . .

O b ia o n th e B a c S e a , iv 1 6 . e r e cte d th e re by S e r t o r ius , xv 2 85 ; v .

l l g
.

O iv e , cu tu r e o f, fi rs t b ro u h t by th e 41 6
“
S o ca e d si ver o f Os ca , ii 386
-
”
ll l
I
.

k
.

G re e s to taly , i 2 42 I ts in cr e as e , . . Osir is , iv 2 1 0 ; v 446 . .

iii 6 7 , 80 30 5 , 30 7 P r ohib ite d fo r th e . Os r h o e ne , iii 2 8 7 ; iv 31 5

l
. . .
,

Tra nsa p ine t e rr ito ry de p e nde nt o n Os t ia , i 60 , 1 7 3 N o t a n urb an co m .

l
.

M a ss i ia , iii 4 1 5 m ; iv i 7 r f i . . munity , b u t a b ur es s co o ny , i 1 2 4 g -
l
l g
. .

O y mp ia , K in A r imnus in p r imitive inte r S e a t o f a nava u a es t or , ii 4 5 Em l q

l Z
. .

co urs e w ith th e O y mp ia n e us , i 1 80 . .
p o riu m o f tr ans ma rine t r a ffi c, iv 1 7 4f ,
l g
.

T e mp e p r es e nte d w ith ifts b y M um 1 77 , 1 93 2 0 9 S urp r is e d b y th e p ira tes ,

ll
.
,

mius , iii 2 7 1 E mp t ie d by S u a , iv 40
. . . iv 35 5 R o a ds t e ad sa nde d up , iv 1 69 /Z
l
. . .

O y mp us in Gr e e ce , ii 39 6 Ox us , ii i 2 84 , 2 88
L
.

l g l
.

O y mp us in y cia , s tro n h o d o f p ira te s , Oxy b ii, iii 4 1 5

g
.

iv 31 3 . Ox y nta s , so n o f u u rtha , iii 5 1 0 J

l
.

O y mp us , mo unta in in As ia M inor, 1 1
47 1 P A CC I A E CU S , iv 2 8 2 .

Op a li n, i 2 0 8
'

P a co ru s, s o n o f th e P arth ia n in Or odes , k g
I l
.

l
Op ici, e ar ies t na me ive n to th e ta ians g v 1 62
k
.

by th e Gr e e s , i 1 5 , 2 7 , 40 , 1 6 8 . M Pa cuv ius , R o ma n painter a nd p oe t,

'

Op zcom iv a , i 2 0 8 . iii 2 0 7 f i
. Tr a e dia n, iv 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 g .

Op im ian w ine , iv 1 7 2 . lg
P a e i nia ns , i 1 46 ; ii, 2 8 2 ; iii 2 4 Ta e k
l k
. . .

L. Op imius [consu , 6 33] t a es F re g e lla e , p a r t in S a mni te w a rs , i 4 80 48 2 Or .

-
.

iii 34 1 .Op p os es C G r a cchus , i ii 36 6 ,

. . .
g a n iza t io n in a t e r t im es , iii 49 9 S ha re l . .

39 6 f l
in S o cia w a r , iii 5 0 1 , 5 0 4 , 5 1 2 , 5 2 2 .

Opp ius , i 6 3 . P a e r isa da e , ru in fa mi y in Pa nti l g l

Q Opp ius , a
. gi a ns t M ithr a da te s in Ca p c a p a e um , iv 1 5

L
.

p a do cia , iv . 2 9 , 31 P a e s t um , i 45 5 ; ii 2 9 5 a t in co o ny ,
. . . l
S p Op p ius Cornice n, de ce mvir , i 36 7
. . ii 39 , 4 2
. B a tt e a t, i 466. l .

P a g a m A v en tzn em es , i 1 38 m ; M
'

Op s , i 2 0 8, 2 1 3
’

. .

Op tima tes a nd P o p u a re s , iii 30 3f : A ft e r l . l a n zcu le m zlt , i 1 38 n.

’

ll
S u a s dea th , iv
’
2 6 3 2 80 U nder . . P a g u s , i 45 .

Ca esa r , v 31 5 32 4 .
-
g
P a int in , ii 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 2 0 7 fi ; iv. 2 57 ; v.
.

l
Orac es , i 2 2 2 ; iii 4 1 , 1 1 4.
line o r a c e s
g
Oran e s , iii 6 5 n
Orch o m e nus , i 30 2 ; u 39 6 ; iii 2 6 6
Ba tt e o f, iv 44 l
Om fi S . ii 42 6 . 436 . 49 9
S ee S iby . . l 5 1 5J f
l P a la e o p o lis S ee N e a p o is . l
. . P a la e s tina , co n ict b e tw ee n S y ria and fl
. . . . g
E y p t a b o ut, ii 5 1 5 A ssa i ed by . . l
. A nt io ch us , ii 445 S ee e ws . . J
l
P a a t ine , i 6 2 -6 5 , 6 8 f i, 1 37 , 1 39 . R e
.

0 m m. is 31 9 . 43° . ma ins o f th e c ita de w a , i 30 3 I . l ll

-
.

Grimm, ii 31 6 . P ale s , i .
 I NDE X 56 7

Pa lla ntia , iii . 2 2 0 2 2 9, 2 9 4 , 30 1 2 3 . A ied w ith P o mpe iasll ind m

l
,

P a l lza ta S ee F a b u a M ith ra da tes a nd T ig ra nes , iv. 40 5.

l l
.

D ifi e r cnces w ith Po m p e ius , iv 433,

'

P a m a in th e B a e a r e s , iii 2 33 ; iv 1 9 1 .

I
. .

l
P a m s in ta ly , iii 6 5 B ra nch e s o f, in .
4 35 , 4 4 5 f . E x p e dit io n o f Crass us
’

g
.

th e g
a m e s , ii 9 1 a a ins t, v. 1 5 1 1 60 F ur the r co nflicts -

ll
. .

P a lm u s , i 2 6 6 w ith , v 1 60 f : A ie d w ith th e P o m
.

l
P a m p hy ia , ii 4 7 1 , 4 7 2 , 5 1 2 ; iii. 2 7 5 , 2 80 ;
.
p e ia n p arty , v 2 7 0 Th e ir mode d . .

iv 30 , 4 7 ,' 31 4 , 32 3 w ar fa re , v 1 55 - 1 5 8 S la ve re cruiting ,
. .
-

Pa na e t ius o f R h ode s , iv 2 0 3, 2 0 4, 2 1 4 . iii 31 6.

I n t h e S cip io nic ir c e , iv 1 9 2 , 2 2 0 C l . P a r th ini, ii 2 1 8 .

P a na r e s , C r e t a n e ne r a , iv 35 1 , 35 2 g l . P a r th y e ne , ii 4 44 .

Pa nda ta r ia , o v e r n o r o f, ii 2 1 9 n g . . P as ite le s , iv 2 5 7 / i .

P a n dOS ia , i 1 7 0 , 4 6 6 ; ii 1 9 l
P as to r a h u s ba ndr y , iii 7 4 fl , V. .

l
. .

P a niu m , M o u nt , b a t t e o f, ii 445 .

P a no r m u s , i i 1 43, 1 7 8 , 1 86 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 1 P a tar a , ii 46 2 .

l
.

2 1 3 P unic , i 1 8 6
. B a ttle o f, ii 1 8 6 , . . . P a te rna a uth ority , i. 30 . R es trict ed,
1 94 M int r e s t r icte d t o co p p e r , ii 2 1 1
. . ii 6 5
.

E x e mp t fr o m t a x a t io n , ii 2 1 3 P a te r p a tr za e , iv 483
’

n . . .

l l
.

C a p ita o f R o ma n S ici y , i i 2 1 3 . Pa tra e , iii 2 69 ; iv 5 5 . .

'
P a n t ica p a e u m, iv 1 5 , 1 7 , 4 2 0 P a tr es co ns cr zlfit z, i 2 8 1 , 330 .

g
.

P a p h la g o nia , ii 40 1 , 4 7 1 ; iii 2 7 9 , 2 80 ; . P a t r icia ns , th e R o ma n bur ess es , i 80 . .

g g
.

i v 6 , 2 4 , 2 9 , 33 A c uir e d b y M ithr a q D is a p p e a r in o f th e o ld b ur es s e s , i.
l
. .

da te s , iv 1 9 f I , 2 1 E v a cua te d b y h im, . 1 1 2 / Z A ft e r a b o it io n o f th e m o na r ch y ,

lg l l
.

iv 2 2 , 4 9 a p rivi e e d c an n o b i ity , i 333/ Z A c -

l ll g
. .

g l
.

P a p ir ii, c a n v i a e , i 4 5 S ub s t itu te d
-
. . q uir e th e o v e r nm e nt up o n th e a b o i tio n
“ ”
th is fo rm o f t h e na me for P a p is ii o f th e m o na rch y , i 336 338 T h e ir .

l
.

a fte r t h e co ns u o f 4 1 8, ii 1 1 5 . lg
p r iv i e e s as a n or de r s e t a s ide , i 37 0 .

C P a p ir iu s C a rb o , fr ie nd o f th e G racch i,
.
384 T h e ir s u bse u e nt co n tinua nce a s
. q
iil 335 . 338 . 34 1 . 34 2 , 37 2 a n ar is t ocr a t ic c ass , i 38 1 385 De l -

l l l
. .

C P a p ir iu s C a r b o A rv ina [p ra e t o r , p r iv ad by a w o f a nu mb e r o f p o it ica
g
.

p r o s cr ib e d by M a rius t h e y o un e r a nd g
r i h ts , i 385 S ta b i ity o f th e p a tr i
. . l
p ut de a t h , iv 8 4
to .
cia te , ii 1 4, 1 5 n P a tr icia te co nferre d
. .

C P a p ir ius C a r b o , b r o th e r o f th e de mo b y Ca es ar , v 337
l ll g l
. .

cra tic co ns u , a S u an , be s ie es Vo a . P a tr ona s , i 7 9 ; iii 38 f . S ee C ie nts hip

. .
'

l
iv 9 1
te rra e , P a u us ll S ee A e m ilius
pl
. .

C P a p irius Carbo [ tribune o f the p e o e ,

. P a us is tra tus , ii 4 6 1 .

iii 5 1 7 , 5 2 4 P a y , p aid fi r s t fr o m th e dis tricts after

Cu P a p irius Ca r bo [co ns u , iii l . w ar ds fr o m th e s t a te ches t, l. 390 . -

l
.

Cn P a p ir ius Ca r b o [co nsu , 6 6 9 , 6 7 0 ,

. R a ise d b y Ca e s ar , v 366 .

iv 5 83 6 1 , 7 4s 7 6 , 8 1 ) 83: 8 5, 86 : 8 7 : 9 2 :
° P e a ch e s , iii 6 5 n . .

1 0 2 n. P e ar tre e s , iii 6 7
L
.

. P a p irius Curso r [co ns u l , i 47 4,

. P e cu lzu m , i 7 5 , 2 38 .

4 80 P et u nia , i 2 38
L
.

P ap iri us Curs or [co nsu ,

. i 49 0 l .
'

P eda r zz in th e se na te , i. 330
P a p ius Brutu lus S ee B rutulus . P e da s a , ii 4 1 3
l l
.

C P ap ius M utilus , ea der in th e S o cia

. g
P e di re e s , fa m i y , ii 1 0 4, 1 0 7 l .

w ar, iii 50 8, 50 9 , 5 1 0 , 5 2 3, 5 2 4 ; iv 9 1
. . S e x P e duca e us [ tr ib une o f the p eop le ,
.

'
P a r ilza , i 2 0 8 . S ee L ax P edu ca e a
Parma, Ce t ic p op u a tio n o f, ii. 2 2 1 l l . P edum , a b o u t 37 0 , me mbe r o f a tin L
g
B ur ess -co o ny , ii. 37 4 ' iii 2 6 , 49 , 2 7 1 l . l g
e a u e , i 4 48 4 50 . A R o ma n bur .

iv 1 68 . g e ss co mmu nity , i 46 2
-
.

P ar os. ii 4 1 7 . 437 P e la g o nia , ii 42 5 , 50 8 .

'
P a m czda , i 1 9 1
’

. l g
P e a s i, iii 1 87 .

P ar th e nius , poe t, v. 4 60 , 46 5 P e lium , ii 42 6 .

P a r th ians , ii 39 8 F o unda tio n o f th e . . ll

P e a , ii 50 8
k g
.

in do m , iii 2 86 f : I n the se ve nth . l k g

P e o p s , in of S pa rt a, ii. 31 7
ce ntur y o f R o me , iii 2 88 / i ; iv 5, 31 4 . . l
P e o ru s , rive r in th e co untry o f the Asiatic
f i, 34 3. F irs t conta ct w ith R o ma ns , iv . I be r ia ns , iv. 4 1 4
56 8 H I S T OR Y O F R OM E

Pe na te s , i 8 1 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3, 2 1 6 iii 1 86 . Ph a r na ce s I , o f P o ntus , iii 2 7 7 , 2 8 1

.

k
. . .

Th e ir na mes e p t s e cr e t , i 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 Ph ar na ce s , s o n o f M ith ra da tes , iv . 31

I
. .

Te mp e o f, i 1 40 l nv e nt io ns of . .
4 1 9 ; v 2 6 4, 2 8 2 , 2 8 3
.

T ima e us as t o th e P e na te s , ii 1 1 0 . Ph a ro s , ii 2 1 7 .

P e ne ius , ii 4 2 6 , 42 7 Ph ar s a u s , ii 4 2 1l P o srtio n o f, v 2 5 8 n ,
l
. . . . .

P e ntr i, ii 2 9 4 . 2 5
9 B a tt e o f, v 2 6 1 2 6 3
. .
-

P e p ar e th us , ii 4 2 5 . l
Ph as e is , s tr o n h o d o f p ir a t es , iv 31 3 g l .

P e r du e l lzo, i 1 9 1 P h as is , iv 1 3, 4 1 1 , 4 1 4, 4 1 5
’

. .
'

n S e e F o re ig ners Ph e ra e , ii 4 2 9 , 45 7
'

r zm . .

P e r eg r im
'

iii 2 4 . l
Phi e mo n o f S o i, A tt ic co mic p oe t, iii l
g
.

P e r a m us , t o w n o f, ii 4 1 1 , 46 2 P o ntic . 1 41 , 1
43 ; iv 2 2 1
g
. .

r es ide ncy , iv 30 f t, 32 , 4 7 Per a . . P h ilinus , ii 1 5 6 .

me ne ar t monume nt s , ii 4 6 9 -
. l
Ph i ip p i, iv 34 , 44
g k g l
.

P e r a mus , in do m o f, ii 4 1 1 4 1 3, 46 1 / I , .
-
P h i ipp us V o f M a ce do nia : ch a ra cte r o f,
.

46 9 . 47 4 A sr o s m ; u i 61 2 74 2 79. 4 0 7 40 9 , 487 f : Co mme nce me nt o f

-
2 .
-
ii .
-

288, 32 4 R o m a n do m a ins , iv 1 5 7
. . g
r e i n , ii 2 2 0 A ia n ce w ith H a nniba ,
. . ll l
P e r inthus , ii 4 1 0 ; iv 32 8 . . ii 2 85 , 2 9 2 f i, 30 8 , 31 6 , 31 9
. A e to ia n . l
P e r zs ty liu m , iii 2 0 7 w ar , i i 31 5 F irs t w ar W i th R o m e , an d
l
. .

g
.

C. P erp e nna, co mma nde r in S o cia w ar , p e a ce , ii 31 6 31 9 Ca r t h a inia n in -

l
. .

iii 5 1 1 tr ig u es w ith , ii 350 , 35 4 H is p a n fo r

gI l
. . .

M . P e rp e nna , his co n fli t w ith

c th e Th ra inv a din ta y , ii 37 2 E x p e di tio n to . .

e ia us , iii 2 7 9 As ia M ino r ; w ar w ith R h o de s a nd

g l g
.

M . P e rp e nna , o ve rnor of S ici y in P e r a mus , ii 4 1 1 4 1 3, 4 1 7 f R o ma n .

-

'
Cinna s t ime , iv 86 , 9 2 , 9 3, 2 87 Goe s . . inte rv e nt io n, ii 4 1 3 4 1 9 S e co nd w a r .
- .

j
to S p a in t o o in th e S e r to ria ns , iv 2 9 1 , . W i th R o m e a ndin o f th e R o mans , ii l g
l
.

2 9 4, 2 9 6 A ssas s ina te s S e r t o r iu s , iv
. .
4 1 7 , 42 2 / I N a v a w a r , ii 4 2 2 f Carn .

30 2 k
T a es co mm a nd o f t he ar my , iv .
p a ig ns o f Ga b a , ii 4 2 2 4 2 6 a nd F a m i l .
-
l
k
.

30 3 I s ta e n p r is o ner a nd e x e cu te d, ninu s , i i 4 2 8 4 35 P e a ce , ii 435

. H is -
.

g
. . .

iv 30 3 . a t t itu de dur in a nd af te r t h e w ar w ith

P e rrha e bia ns , 4 56 , 4 86 , 49 5 ii. A nt i och u s , ii 4 5 5 f f . 4 5 7 f , 4 6 4, 4 7 7 1 2 .

?
“.
.

l g
I p

P e r se p o is , iii 2 89 H is fr e sh p r e p a r a t io ns a a ins t R o m e
k g
.

P e rs e us , in o f M a ce do nia , ii 4 88, 4 89 , . ii 4 8 5 4 8 7 D e a th , ii 4 8 8
-
.

l l
. .

'

49 0 , 4 9 2 5 0 7 H is ib r ary , iv 2 1 3
-
. P h i ipp us , th e p s e u do iii 2 6 o f
l g l
. . .

P e rs ia ns , re a t io n t o C a rt h a e an d th e P h ilis tu s , ca na o f, i 4 1 7 .

s ta te o f th in s in th e w es t, i 4 1 5 g . . P h i lo cles , ii 4 1 8 , 430 .

P e rs ia se v e re d fro m S y r ia , iii 2 88 / I . P h ilo de mus , th e E p icu re a n, v 4 59 .

P e rs ius , i 30 1 llg g
P h i o o y , er ms o f, ii 1 1 4 f 1 D e ve o pe d . l
l g
.

P e ru s ia , o ne o f th e tw e ve to w ns of int o r a mm ar , iii 1 9 1 f : .

E trur ia , i 1 6 1 . . P ea ce w ith R o me , i P hiI Op o e m e n, ii 4 2 1 , 45 2 , 47 9 , 4 8 2 ; iii . .

2 70
47 9 . 49 °
P e s o ng i, iii 2 7 6 n l
P h i o s o p h y a t R o m e , i ii 1 9 2 f : iv 2 54 .

g l k
. . .

P e ss inus , th e h i h p ries t o f, iii 2 7 6 -

. Ph i o so p h y , G r e e , iv 1 9 6 2 0 4 .
-

iv 438 . W orship o f Cy b e e a t, iii 1 1 5

. l . P h o ca e a , ii 4 6 1 , 4 7 3 ; iii 2 7 8 . .

P e te lia , ii 2 9 4, 30 0 ; iv 36 3 . Ph o ca e a ns dis co ve r 1 65 F o und .

l
.

l
P e tra, ca p ita o f th e N a b a ta e a ns , iv 4 2 6 M as s i ia i 1 8 3 Ar e dr iv e n fro m Co r
L
. . .

l
.

'
Cu P e tr e ius , ce ntu rio n in th e ar my o f s ica , i 1 84 S e tt e in uca nia , i 1 84 f
. . . .

l
.

Ca tulus , iii 447 . R e a tio ns o f, w ith R o me , i 1 85 , 2 60 .

M P e tr e ius de fe a ts Ca ti ina a t P is to r ia ,
. l P h o cis , ii 39 6 , 430 , 431 , 437 ; iii 2 6 9
. .

iv 485 P o mp e ian e ade r in S p a in, v

. l . Ph o e n ice , ii 2 1 7 .

l
.

2 1 9, 2 2 0 , 2 2 6 Goes t o Afr ica , v 2 86 . . . P h o e nicia ns , h o me o f, ii 1 31 N a t io na . .

H is de a th , v 30 1 . ch ar a cte r , ii 1 31 1 34 Co m me rce , ii .
-
. .

P e ucini, iv 1 4 1 34 f : Co ntes t co m ma nd o f th e se a
I l
.

P h a cu s , iii 2 60 . w ith th e Gr e e s , i 1 S 3 / Z I n ta y , i k . .

P ha lanna , to w n in Th es s a y , ii 50 1 l . 1 6 3f S ee C a r th a e g
l
P ha ar is , hull o f, iii 2 5 7 . Ph o e n ix , o ffice r o f M i th ra da te s , iv 4 1 9 .

P ha nag oria , iv 1 5 iv 4 1 9 ; v 2 6 4 . . . k g
P h r aa te s , in o f th e P a rth ians , iv 343, .

P h ar is e es , iv . 40 6 5 4 3331 35 ; V I SI
Pha r nacea , iv 332 . P h ry g ia. 1 1 39 8. 40 1 . 47 1 . 4 74 ; w. as
570 H I S T OR Y O F R OM E

l
P o lli i, c a n vi a e , i. 4 5 -
ll g Cu . P o mp e ius S tra bo [co ns ul, iii .

ll
P o ux , i 2 5 8 su , 5 1 3. 5 1 6 . 52 0 , 5 2 1 . 52 2 , 5 2 6 . 5 35.
l l
.

P o y bi us in t h e S cip io nic circ e , iv 1 9 2 , 5 4 6 ; iv 36 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 6 4

l
. .

2 2 0 H is vie w s , iv 2 0 4 / I , 2 1 2
. Ch a r . . M P o m p e iu s , ie u te na nt in th ird M ith ra
.

a c ter , iv 2 42 2 4 7 - da t ie w a r , iv 332 .

l gi
.

P o ly x e nidas , ii 4 60 , 4 6 1 , 46 2 Q P o m p e iu s [ co nsu a a ns t Nu
lgl
. ,

P o me r iu m , its a dva nce , i 1 2 8 I ts e a . . m a nt ia , iii 2 2 7 .

g
s i nifica nce , iv 1 2 2 E x te nde d b y Q P o mp e ius , s o n o f the co ns ul o f the
l
. . .

ll
S u a , iv 1 2 2 n . s a m e n a m e , o f 6 1 3 [ tr ib un e o f th e p e o p e ,

l
.

P o mo na , F a me n o f, i 2 1 6 . o p p o ne nt of T i Gra cch us, iii . .

Q P o mp a e diu s S i o , e a de r in S o cia w ar , l l l se 3 f
l
.

iii 50 0 , 5 0 1 . 50 8 , 50 9 , 5 1 2 , 5 2 4 , 5 2 6
. Q P o mp e iu s R ufus
. [co nsu , i ii. 5 35 ,
P o mp e i i, i 4 6 9 M edzx tu t zcu s th e r e , i
. . .
54 6 ; iv 1 0 2 n . .

31 5 D ur in S o cia w ar , iii 5 1 0 , 5 2 2 , g l Q .P o mp e ius , so n of Q . P o mp e ius R ufus ,

ll l
. .

52 9 A S u a n co o ny , iv 1 0 8, 1 0 9 , 2 6 5
. . iii 535 .

P o mp e io p o lis , iv 4 4 1 . S e x P o m p e ius [p ra e tor ,

. i ii 4 2 8 .

C n P o mp e ius , h is ch a r a cte r , iv 2 7 1 2 7 5 , - S ex P o m p e ius , so n o f C u P o mpe ius .

g
.

gl
. .

38 4 fi 444 44 8
- V a in o ry o f,
v. 1 66 / I M a n us , v 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 .

g
,

M a nu s , P o m p o , s a id t o b e s o n o f N u ma and
"

4 34 n S urna m e o f
ll
.
,

S u a s ar m y , i v 7 9 f , 8 5 a nces t o r o f t h e P o mp i lii, i i 1 0 7
’
iv 9 4 In . . . .

l
.

P r o p r a e to r in S ic i y a nd A fr ica , iv 9 5 P o mp o nii, ii 1 0 7
L
. .

f
‘

.H e o p p os e s S u a , iv 1 36 f Yet ll .
’

. .P o mp o nius , A te an p o e t , iv 2 3: ll .

ho no u re d by him , iv 94 , 1 37 , 1 50 H is 2 33.
ll
. .

S u a s de a th , iv 2 8 7 M P o m p onius , fr ie nd o f th e G rac ch i , i ii
’
a tt it u de a ft e r

L
. . . .

fl
C o n ict w ith B r u tus a nd e p idus , iv 36 8
l
.

2 91 C o mp e s th e s e na te to s e nd h im T P o mp o nius A t ticu s , v 382

L
. .

g
.

to S p ain, iv 2 9 2 a y s o u t a r o a d ov e r
. . P o mp t ine ma r s h e s , dry in o f, iv 1 69 .

l
.

th e A p s , iv 2 93 Co nt e s t in S p a i n, iv. . . l l
Ca na p a nne d by Ca e s a r , v 37 6 .

R e tu r ns fro m S p a in, iv 37 5
'
2 9 3 30 4 -
P a ns s u b/zczu s , i 6 5 , 1 37 ; ii 1 0 5
l L
. . . . .

C o a e sce s W i th th e de m o cr a ts a nd W i th P o nt ia c, a a t in co o ny , i 4 7 6 ; ii 42 l . .

C r a s s us, iv 37 7 , 37 8 I n P ira t ic w ar ,. . P o n ti fe x M ax im us ins tit ute d, i 32 4 .

g
.

iv. 39 5 f : I n M ith r a da tic w a r , iv 40 4 . C h o s e n b y t h e b ur e ss e s , iii 57 The . .

41 2 M a e s p e ace w ith T i ra ne s , iv
. k g . ch o ice r e co mm itte d t o -
th e p o ntifica l
41 1 D e fe a ts the Ca u cas ia n t r ib e s , iv ll g l
co e e s b y S u la , iv 1 1 5 , 2 0 6 / I

L
.

k
. .

4 1 2 41 6 M a e s S y r ia a R o m a n p r o
-
P o nt ifice s , a a t in ins t it u tio n, i 2 1 8 n

gl
. . .

v ince , iv 42 8 j R e u a t e s A s ia t ic
.
’

. ll g
A co e e o f e x p e r t s fo r m akin r oa ds g
a fi a ir s , iv
'

4 36 44 1 H is tr ium p h , iv.
-
. . g
a nd t h e T ib e r b r id e ; e ntrus te d a ls o -

4 44 A ttitude to th e p a r tie s a ft e r h is
. l
w ith a ll p ub ic m e as u re me nts a nd ca l
A s ia tic e x p e ditio n, iv 4 9 0 5 0 2 Co a .
-
. ll
cula tio ns , e s p e cia y th e ca e nda r , a nd l
le s ce s w ith Ca es ar a n d C r as s us , iv 50 4 . l
t h e re a tiv e s up e r inte nde nce o f a dm in

f ; v 1 0 7 1 1 0 M a rr ie s j u ia , da u h t e r
.
-
. l g is tr a t io n o f j u s tice and w o rsh ip o r i in g
o f Ca e sa r , iv 51 4 R e a t io ns w ith . l ll
a y fi ve in numb e r , i 2 1 8 n , 2 1 9 . .

l
. .

C a es ar , v ua r re s w ith Clo diu s , Q T h e ir numbe r incr e as e d t o e i h t ; g

I
.

v 1 1 2 f: Adminis tr a tio n o f co r n su p l lg l
p e b e ia n s e i i b e , i 38 5 ncr e as e d to

L
. . .

p ies , vl At uca , v
. 1 2 4 1 2 6 - fifte e n , iv 1 2 6 K e e p the r o l o f
. . l
g l
. .

l
S o e cons u , v 1 46 H is se co nd ma r l . . m a is t r a t e s a nd p u b ic r e co r ds , ii 1 0 0 .

r ia g e , v 1 66
'
D icta tors hip , v 1 6 7
. . . . 1 0 2 Th e ir e dict s o r so ca e d L eg es
.
-
ll
D ifi e re nce w ith C a e s a r, v 1 6 7 f , 1 7 3 r eg m e , ii 1 1 2 C h o se n by th e b u r
g
.

1 90 Po w e r a nd ar my o f, v 2 0 1 2 0 5
.
-
e s se s , ii i 46 3 C o o p ta t io n re intr o .
-

ll
.

k l
.

E mb a r s fo r G r e e ce , v 2 1 1 P an of . . du ce d by S u a , iv 4 5, 2 0 6 I n th e .
f
h is ca mp a i n, v 2 34 f : Or an ize s h is g . g M u nicip ia , iv i 33 .

a r my in M a ce do n ia , v 2 37 2 4 4 Co n .
- . G a v ins P o nt iu s , i 47 0 , 4 7 2 , 49 1 .

fl icts a ro u nd D y rr h a ch iu m , v 2 50 2 5 4 -
P o ntius o f T e e s ia , iv 86 , 8 8, 90 l H is
k ll l
. .

l l lg
. .

B a t t e o f P h ar s a us , v 2 5 8 2 6 2 F i ht - son i s h ims e f in P r a e ne s te , iv 90
g
.

l
. .

to E y p t , v 2 6 2 / Z, 2 7 1 H is de a th , v . . P o ntu s , e ar ie r h is tory o f, ii 4 0 x iii 2 79 ; . .

l
.

H is w e a th , v 36 5 . iv 6 I ts co ndit io n u nde r M it hr a da te s ,
. .

C a P o m p e ius , son of P o mp e ius th e Gre a t,

. iv 1 2 . . q
C o n ue r e d by th e R o m a ns , iv .

v. 2 6 6, 2 74 332 f f , 34 7 j : p ro v ince , iv 436 . .

 I NDE X
Anch ovia fr om P ontus co me to R o me , 2 38 H is de a th, iii 2 5 1
. H is e s tim a te . .

iii 1 2 3 . o f H a m i car , ii 2 37 / I l o f S cip io A cm i .

C P op illius , ma de t o p ass unde r th e y o e k lia nus , iii 2 5 1 Op inio ns r e sp e ct in g

l l
. . .

by th e H e v e t ii, iii 4 35 l . fa rme r s a nd t h e m e r ca n t i e c a ss e s , iii .

C P o p illius La e na s [ co nsu , 58 2 , ii l 97 On w o m a n, iii 1 1 8 On S o cr a te s ,

I
. . . . .

51 6 iii 1 1 4, 1 9 2 On t he s tria n w a r , iii .

L
. .

M P o p illius e e na s [co ns u , 5 8 1 , 5 82 ,
. l 43 A s t o th e R ho dia ns , ii 5 1 5
. Re . .

a p o e t, iii 1 7 8 fl iv 2 2 9 n s p e ctin g
th e C e t s , i 42 0 On th e l
L
. . . . .

l l ll
.

M P o p illius e e nas [cons u ,

. iii . 2 2 7, q
a c u is itio n o f w e a th , ii i 8 9 On w i s, . .

2 2 8 ii i 9 0 . On m one y e ndin , iii 9 6 .

.
-
l g .

P P op illius La e nas [ co ns u
. l , iii 32 6 , . Ot he r s a y in s o f, ii 2 0 0 iii 2 1 , 40 , 55, g
l
. .

335 , 35 6 , 37 2 ; iv 1 6 6 / i .
9 3, 1 2 4, 2 9 8 H is p r iv a te ife , iii 1 1 7 . .

'

P op lzco la , ii 1 0 5 . 1 2 0 , 1 52 R e a ds Th u cy dide s a nd o th er
.

k
G r e e h is to r ia ns , ii i 1 89 A p oe t, iii
L
. . .

P o p u a r es l
S ee Op tima tes . 1 79 Th e fi rs t
. a t in p rose h is to r ia n,

l l ll
.

P o p u a tio n of th e o de s t R o ma n te r rit ory , iii 1 8 5, 1 86 , 1 8 7 ; iv 2 50

. Co e cts h is . .

i 61 A t th e t ime o f S ervius T u ius

’
ll sp e e ch e s a nd e tte rs , iii 2 5 0 , 31 5. l
l
. . .

re fo rms , i 1 2 2 f D e cr e as e o f, ca us e d M a nua s b y , i ii 37 n , 1 9 2 f i, 1 9 4, 1 95 :
‘

. . .

by th e w ar w ith P y r rh u s , ii 31 , 5 5 n . . iv 2 1 1 . Ca t o a nd H e e nis m, iii 2 1 3,

. ll .

And by s e cond P u nic w a r , ii 1 9 1 2 1 8 Ca to a nd ne w w o r sh ip s , iii 1 1 6 .

.

g k l
. . .

ll g
F a in 0 3 in s ix th ce ntur y , iii 1 0 1 f : . Ju d m e nt o n t h e Gr e e p h i oso p h e rs , i .

I n th e se v e nth ce ntur y , iii 31 4, 39 3 39 5 . . 1 92 f I , 1 99 On Gr e e r h e to r ic, iii

. k .

q
I n conse ue nce o f th e C ivi w ars , iv 1 7 7 ; l 1 9 9, 2 1 8 U p o n m e dicine , iii 1 9 3.
I
. .

kl
.

v 39 2 / I . ncrea s e a fte r th e G ra cch a n On Gr e e it e ra tur e , iii 1 9 6 On th e . .

dis tr ibutio n o f a nd, iii 335 , 345 l . . R o ma n p o e t s , i i 9 8 .

N um bers o f bur e ss e s a nd a ie s , iii g ll . M P o r cius C a t o L icinia nu s [ 1 a b o ut

.

49 3 j , 49 5 n
'
I n Ca es ar s time , v. 36 8 . a u th or o f j u r is t ic w o r s , iv 2 55 k .

f : Co mp a r e Ce ns us M P o r cius Ca to U t ice ns is , h is ch a r a cte r ,

.

l
P op u onia , i 1 5 4, 1 8 1 , 2 5 7 C oins o f, i iv 4 54 f Op p o ne nt o f P o m p e ius , iv
"

L
. . . .

k
. .

1 8 2 , 2 5 7 , 30 6 ; ii 7 8 T h e G r e e s dis . .
49 3, 49 7 . 49 8 , 5 1 1 , sxé fi e a der o f

l g
o d e d th e nce , i 1 8 1 B a t t e ne a r , ii . . l . t h e a r is t ocr a cy , v 1 34 fi A t tit u de in .

71 I n fir s t Civ i w a r , iv 9 1
. l . r e fer e nce t o C a t ilina s co ns p ir a cy , iv.
’

g l
P op ula r , o ri inal y th e bur es s ar my , i g -
4 82 R e e s ta b ish me n t o f t h e S e in
.
-
l
l g l
.

90 p ro nian cor n a r e sse s o n h is p r o p o sa ,

-

P opu lus R am a n us g u ir ites , or iv 49 0 ; v 36 1

. M is s io n to Cy p r us , iv
. . .

i 90 n . .
4 50 , R e t urn t o R o m e , v 1 2 9 n ,
g g
. .

C P o rcius Ca to Ce ns or ius [ co nsu ,

. l 1 34 F i h ts a a ins t t h e C a e s a r ia ns ,
.

iii 4 2 9 v 2 30 , A ft e r th e b a tt e o f P ha r l
L
. .

. P orcius Ca to [co ns u , iii 5 1 4, l . sa us , v l 2 66 , 2 6 7 . I n A frica , v 2 87 , . .

5 2 0 , 5 30 ; iv 1 0 2 n . . 2 8 8 , 2 89 , 2 9 6 D e a th , v 2 9 9 , 30 0 . .

M P or cius Ca to [consu , 559 ; ce nsor

. l k g
P orse na , in o f C u s iu m, i 4 1 4 , 4 2 4 l
l l L
.

ch ar a ct er , iii 45 4 7 P o itica .
-
. P o r t du e s , i 6 0 , 9 2 o w e r e d, i 342 .
. .

l ll
.

t e nde ncie s, iii 48 5 5 A w a s lw m o, .

-
. Ab o is h e d by M e te u s N e p os , iv 50 2 . .

iii 1 8 I n S p a nish w ar , ii 39 0
. . S h ar e . .
- l
R e e s ta b is h e d b y Ca e sa r , iv 5 0 3 .

in w ar with Antio chus, ii 4 5 7 f

‘ '

As . . P o r t u n a lza , i 2 0 8
l
.

co ns ul ar m i itar y tr ib u ne , iii 4 2 , 4 3 . . P os ido nia , i 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 1 7 3, 4 56 .

g l
,

As ove rno r , iii 30 H is s trict a dmin . . P o sses s io n o n y p ro te ct e d by la w a t a

is tr a tio n o f j us tice , iii 30 , 31 P ro te cts . . l a te r p e r io d, ii 6 8 .

th e S p a niar ds , iii 33
'

Ce ns ors h ip , iii . . P oss ess zones S ee D o ma ins

l l
.

1 1 , 1 9, 2 0 6 Ta x es ux ury s a v e s a nd -
A P os tu m ius [ dicta t o r or co ns u , 2 5 5
. l
Lk
.

l
o th e r a r tic e s o f u x u ry , iii 1 2 2 B u i ds l . . l 2 58 victor a t a e R e g illus, i 438 .

t h e firs t R o ma n B as ilica , iii 2 0 7 Pr o . . A P os tum ius A b inus [co ns u ,

. iii l l .

p os es a n incr e as e o f t h e ho rs e s o f th e 2 0 4 ; iv 1 9 3, 2 4 8 .

e quites , iii 9 m , 4 9 R e p rimands t h e

. . A . P os tumius A b inu s [ cons u , 6 5 5] l l
q
e uites , iii 1 0 B r ea ch w ith S cip io ,
. . de fe a te d b y u u r tha , iii 39 5, 39 9 , 4 1 2 J g .

l
.

iii 4 2 Op p os e s dis tributio n o f co rn in P u t to de a th a t P o mp e ii by h is s o die rs,

I
. .

R o m e , iii 7 6 mp e aches Ga b a , iii

. . l l
w h o b e ie v e d t h e ms e ves b e tr a y e d, iii l
g
. .

n o Co mmis s io ne r to Ca rtha e , iii

. .
5 2 9 ; iv 1 0 2 a . .
572 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E

Sp Pos tum ius A b inus [co ns u l l , i . numbe r insu ffi cie nt, iii 1 2 F u nctions
gl
. . .

a te d b y S u lla , iv ri 8f , 1 2 6 : a nd
47° re u .

A lb i l
.

Sp P o s tumius nus [co ns u iii.

iii b y Ca e s a r , v 343 j :
L
. .
,

39 s. 39 6 /f Pra e t ors o f th e a t in to w ns , i 440 . n. , 4 42

P o s t um iu s , Ty r r h e ne co rs a ir , ii 4 1 ” 452
I li
. o
r

P o ta to e s , iii 6 4 n . . P ra e to rs o f th e ta a ns in the S ocia l w ar ,

Po te nt ia , bur es s co o ny , u 37 3 f l iiii g -
l . . iii 50 5.

2 6 , 49 P r ae to r za m , th e ir o ri in, i ii 460
’

g
g l
.

Po tte r s , u i d o f, i 2 49 , 2 5 3, 30 7 P r a e tor zu m , iii 460

’

. .

l
Po t te ry , e a r y E tr u sca n, i 30 6 Art ic e s l P ra e tu tt ii, i 1 4 6
I l
. . .

'

o f, in ta ia n t o mb s , i 2 5 3, 2 56 j : P r a na’zu m , iii 1 2 3
l l
. .

A p u ia n, iii 1 0 9 C a y vas e fr om t he
. . P r eca r zu m , i. 2 4 5 A pp ied to the . l s ta te
Q l
u ir in a , i 2 7 7 n , 2 8 7 71 . F r o m the . do ma ins , i 345
l l
. .

E s qu i ine , ii 1 2 3 I n Ca e s , ii 1 2 3 P r ia p us , iv 32 8
I I l
. . . . .

m p o r te d fr o m Gr e e ce t o ta y , ii 80 j : . P ries ts no m ina te d by the in , i 8 1 k g .

l
.

P ra e cia , iv 2 6 9 . B ut no t b y t h e co ns u s , i 32 4 Ex .

l g l
.

P r a ef e ct z o f th e R o man is es , ii 2 1 9 u . . t e ns io n o f th e ir r i h t t o ca nce s t a te
'

P r a efi d z a n no na e , i 37 7 . a cts o n th e r o u nd o f re i ious info r g lg

P r a e/ é ctz colzor tzu m , i 440 n
‘ '

. . ma lit ies , i 37 7 ; ii 7 1 iv 2 0 6 Co e e s
. . . . ll g
P ef e
r a c t z iu n a
’
zcundo in s ub e ct co m
’ '
j l
o f, pa r t y fo r o flicia ting in a cts o f w o r

munit ie s , ii 49 , 6 7 , 2 1 0 ; iv 1 3: . . s hip , i p a r t y as s i e d a dvise rs

. l k ll
'

P r ue/ ect z s oczom m , i 440 n

'

. . o f th e ma is tra t e s , i 2 1 7 ,g Ch ose n
g
.

'
P r u e/ Ed i u r bz, i 83, 1 0 8, 32 1 U nde r . . by t h e co mmun ity , iii 5 6 j : A a in .

Ca e sa r , v. 342 ll
fi e d up by co Op ta t io n a fte r S u a , iv -
ll
l l
.

P r a efi ca e , i 2 9 9 1 1 5 , 2 0 6 , 38 1 S p e cia : s e e F am ines .
Lg I l
. .

Pra e n e s te , i 4 9 , 1 2 6 e e nds as to its

. . P rim itive ra ces in ta y , no tra ce o f, i 9 .

fo u nda tion, i n o n , 1 1 1 R e be s . . l '

P r zncop s s w a ta r , i 332 .

g
.
'

a a ins t R o me , i A b o u t 37 0 , a P n nczp es , iii 4 58

’

44 7
L
. .

l g
.

'

me mbe r o f th e a tin e a ue , i 44 8 n , . . P r ziroz L a tin i, i 42 .

4 50 M us t ce de p a rt o f te rr ito ry , b u t
. P r iva te life o f th e R o ma ns , in 1 1 7 1 2 7 .
-

l l g l
_

r e m a ins in fe dera re a t io n t o R o me , i . P riv a te p r o cess K in inte rfe r es o n y o n .

46 2 Ex celi tion o f se na to rs in P y r r h ic l
a p p e a o f inj ur e d p arty , i 1 9 2 S e tt ed l
g
. .

gl l
.

w a r , ii 1 8 N ot a R o m a n b ur e ss
. . re u ar y by co m p r o mis e , w h ich t h e
co mm unity , ii 4 9 , 50 ; iii 2 5 , 36 A rt . . . mag is tra te inte rfe re d s u pp e me nta ri y l l
a t, i 2 5 7 ; ii 1 2 4, 1 2 7
. B ra ce e t o f, i
. . l . t o e n fo rce , i 1 9 2 f t, as in th e ca s e o f
l l
.

2 77 n , 2 79 n . S e p u chra cha mb e rs , i . . th e ft a nd i 1 9 3 I n th e fo rm
g
. .

2 5 3 m , 30 2 ; ii 81 Ob ta ins b ur e s s . . of w a er, i g
1 96 , 1 97. Procedur e in .

ri gh ts th o u gh
iii 5 1 9 the L ex f u lza ,
'
e x e cu tio n, i 1 97 .

g ll
. .

B e s ie e d b y S u 84, 9 0 T e rr i a , iv . P r iv e r nu in , i 4 53, 4 59 ,i , 46 3 . .

ll
.

t o ry co nfis ca te d, iv 1 0 7, 1 2 6 S u an . P r o comm ie , p r o p r a ctm , p r o qua n ta " .

l l
.

co o ny , iv 1 0 8 Lo t ora c e o f, iii 1 1 4
. .
-
. . S ee M a is t ra te g
F o rbidde n t o be co ns u te d, iii 1 1 7 l . . P r ocur a t zo , iii 9 1
'

S t r a ine d re la tio ns w ith R o m e ; me n gl

P r o di a i ty , de c a ra tion of, i. 1 9 4 l
t io ne d in R o ma n co me dy , iii 1 4 9 . i 1 91 .

A dmitte d by
'

P r a es , i 1 9 5 P r ole ta r zz, i 1 1 5 , 2 47
’

. . .

P r ams u ], i 31 8 n
-
. . M a r ius to e n is tme nt, iii 459 l .

P r a e tex ta , iii 5 , 1 6 , 4 5 Comp F a bu a

. . . l P r o m er ca le , i 60 .

l
Pra e to re s , o de r na me o f the co ns u s , i l P r o p e r ty is th a t w h ich th e s ta te as s ig ns
l l g I
.

31 8 Af te rw a r ds as a ux i iar ie s t o th e t o th e indiv idu a b u r e ss , i dea .

l l l
.

co ns u s , l
w ith de fi nite functio ns fo r de v e o p e d p r im a ri y as to mo ve a b e s , i .

j ur is dictio n, i 383 ; ii 49, 6 6 P r a e to r . . . 1 9 3, 1 9 4 F re e tra ns fe r a b ility , i 1 9 4

. . .

p e r eg fi n us , iii 1 2 F o r a dminis tra tio n Of r es tric t io ns o n p ro p e r ty , se rvitudes

l k l
. .

o f t h e tra ns m a r ine dis tricts , S ic i y , S ar l a o ne no w n t o th e e a r ie r la w , i 1 94 .

dinia , a nd Co rs im , ii iii 1 2 . P r o p o ntis , ii 40 5 j : .

l
. .
'

T w o for S p a in, ii 39 2 ; iii 1 2 P e b e ia ns . P r os ca e m u m o r pu lp ztu m , ii i 1 38 .

lg l l ll
. .

e i ib e for t h e o f fi ce , i 38 3 P ro p o sa . . P r o scr ip t io ns , S u a n, t h e fi rs t, iii 5 40 f i, .

to e x te nd the ir t e nur e o f o ffi ce t o t w o 5 43 ; t h e s e co nd, iv. 1 0 2 f . T h e de

y ea rs , ii 39 2 The incre as e in th e ir
. . m o cra ts a t te m p t th e re h a bi ita t io n o f l
57 4 H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

Py r g a nio n , p ira t ic ca p tain, iv 35 4 .

Quinctii l
ce e b r a te th e L upe r ca li a, 67 n .,
g
Py r i, i 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 I ts w a s, i 30 4 . ll . .
e Jf
g l
.

S to rme d by D io ny s ius , B ur e ss .
Qu inctilii fr o m A ba , i 1 2 8
l
.

co o ny , ii 4 2 Q uinctius [p r a e to r iii 2 2 3
k g l L
. .
,

Py rr h us , in o f E p ir us , his to r ica p o s itio n Q u inctius Cincm na tus [ dict a to r

l
.
,

o f, ii 3 6 Ch a ra cte r a nd e a r y h is t o r y
- i 6 37
LQi
. .

o f, ii 6 9 S e izes C o r cy r a , i 4 9 1
.
-
. . . . u nct ius F l a m ininus [co ns u l , iii.

T a r e nt u m s ub m its to , ii 1 5 H is re 9 I

LQi
. .

so u r ces fo r w a r , ii 1 6 f D iffi cu t ie s . . l . u nctius [p e b l . t r ib u ne , iv 37 1 .

,

with Ta r e ntu m , ii 1 7 War w ith R o me , 39 3

l l l
.

l l
.

ii 1 8 f B a tt e ne a r H e ra c e a , ii 1 9 j : T Quinctius e a de r o f th e mi itary
’

. . . .
, r e vo t
A tt e mp ts a t p ea c e , ii 2 1 M arch t o f of i 4 60 n
41 2

L
. .

l
.

Ca mp an ia a nd a t ium , ii 2 3 S e co nd T Q u inct ius Ca p it o linus [ consu , i

I l
. . .

g l
.

ta ia n ca mp a i n, ii 2 4 2 8 B a tt e ne ar -
.
37 6
l l
.

A us culu m , ii 2 5 j : S ici ia n e x p e ditio n, l T Q uinct ius F a m ininus [co ns u , 5 5 6

.

I l
.

ii 2 8 34 R e ne w a o f th e w a r in ta y ,
-
l ce nso r , ch ar a c te r , ii 4 2 8 Co m
g l
. .

l
. .

ii 35
. B a tt e ne ar B e ne ve ntum, ii 36
. . ma nds a a ins t P h i ip , ii 42 8 435 Re .
-
.

R e t ur ns t o G re ece , ii 36 D e a th , ii 37 . g u la t e s M a ce do nia a n d Gr e e ce , ii 4 36 .

g g
. . .

P y th a o r as , ii 8 7 , 9 1 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 Is . .
44 3 ; iii 2 7 1 N e o t ia te s Wi th A nt io ch us ,
. .

k
r e c o ne d as fr ie n d o f N u m a , in 1 90 . . ii 449 f , 4 5 1 , 4 5 3 / I V is i ts G r e e ce , i i
.

g l g
.

P y th a o r e a n e a u e o f frie nds , i 1 7 2 453 f 47 8 , 4 80 , 4 8 1 H rs s h a r e

I l l
. . .

'
nf ue nce o f h is do ctr ine s o n t h e R o ma n in H a nnib a s de a t h , ii 4 8 2 C o nduct . .

m le nda r , i 2 7 1 t ow a r ds P h i ip , ii 4 88 N e p o t is m , iii l
l ll
. . .

g
.

Py t h a o re a n is m , N ew , v 44 7 . f 1 7, 1 9 Ear y r is e , iii 1 7
. H e e nis m, . .

P y th e a th e B o e o tia n, i ii 2 70 . iii 1 30 f : B r in s Gr ee ar t tr eas ur e s

. g k
g g
Py the as , e o rap h e r , iii. 430 t o R o me , iii 2 o 8 / f .

P y thium, pas s o f, ii 50 6 . T Q uinctius P e nnu s [dic ta to r ,

. i 4 31 .

P y x us , i 1 70 . T Qu inctius P e nnus Ca p ito linu s Cr is

.

p inus [co ns ul, ii 343 .

Qu adr w , iv 1 80 .
Qu ing u a tm s', i' 2 0 7 .
'

Qu a a tzo , ii 68
.
Qu m decemm r z s aw f a ozu ndzir S ee .

Qu ota tion“ M o m , re etu nda r u m ,

p D u om r z
'

iii 30 0. Or a niz ed in e ne ra
. by g g l '

Qu zng u m na lzta s in ta ian co mmunities ,

'
I l
Gr acchus , iii 34 8, 35 3 R e o r a nized . . g ii s8 a
. iv 1 33 .
“
.

ll
by S u a , iv 1 2 8 1 30 U nde r Ca e sa r , v .
-
. . Q u i r ina Ci ty , i 6 6 7 1 lVa se , i i a 7 7 , 2 87 n .
-
. . .

34 7 f Co mp a re ur y -co urts
‘

. J Q u in na lza , i 2 0 7
' '

l
.

Quaes to r s, o des t i 1 91 . . Q uir inus , i 2 0 7 .

l
Afte r a b o itio n o f mo narch y , b e ca me
'

Q u zr ztes , i 6 8
'

69 0 M ea nin o f the
. . g
s ta ndin a nnua g
offi ce , i 32 1 H a ve l . . w o r d, i 9 0 m , 9 3 .

g
ch ar e [ as u r ba n ] o f s ta te tr ea s ur e a nd
arch ives , i 32 2 T w o ne w o nes , to
. C R A B I R I U S , iv
.

g
. .

g
ma na e the mi ita ry ches t, chose n fro m l R a cin , i 2 9 4 .

l
th e no bi ity , b u t no m ina te d by th e tr ib e s R a e ti, iii 42 4 E trus ca n. i 1 54, 434
. . -

unde r t he p res ide ncy o f th e co ns u s , i l . R a g a e , iii 2 89 .

36 8 A fte r 333, a ll t he fo ur no mina t e d

. R a ia , mo th e r o f S e r to rius , iv 2 8 1 .

b y the co mit ia tr ibu ta , i 37 5 I n 333, . R a ma ‘s , i 53, 55. 5 6

l lg l
. .

the p e b e ia ns e i ib e fo r a ll th e qua e s R a p h ia , ii 44 4
I
.

tors hip s , i 37 5 ncr e as ed to e i h t , iv

. . g R as e nna e , i 1 50 n
-

l l
. . .

1 1 2 ,1 B y S u a t o tw e nty , iv 1 1 2 , 1 2 3
. ll . . R a udine P a in, ba t t e o f th e , iii 44 8 j : .

The ir functio ns , iv 1 2 3 n R a is e d by . . S ite o f, iii 44 8 n . .

Ca es a r t o fo r ty , v 339 Qu a es tor e: . . R a ve nna , i 1 5 6 ; ii 2 2 0 ; iii 5 1 7 ; v 2 0 7

. . . .

cla s szcz, fo ur ; t h e ir a p p o int m e nt a nd

' '

R e a dmim s tra tio n o f t h e s a me o fi ce r e

fu nctio ns , ii 45 , 5 8, 2 0 7 ; iv 1 1 2 n , s t r icte d, i 40 2

l
. . . .

Pro vincia , iii 34 ; iv 1 2 3 n R ea te , S a b ine to w n, re ce ive s czm tas s ine

’ ’

1 2 3n . . . .

Q ua e s tors in t h e M unicip ia, iv 1 33 s ufi a g zo , i 4 9 2 S e e S a b i ne s

L
. . .

Q u a
-
f ur , iii 9 4 R e a ti ni p e n e t r a t e into a t iu m , i 1 4 5

L
. .

Q ue rque tula ni, a bo ut 370 , me mbe r o f the R ec zpe r a to r es , m ix e d R o ma no a tin co ur t -

La tin lea g ue , i 44 8 n. . fo r co mm e rc ia ca se s , i 2 0 0 l .
 I ND E X 575

R ecr uitin g i C mp i n a an a, i 45 7
.
36 5 ; iv 36 2 Occup ie d by R omans,
g
.

g y m fM
.

R ecruit in s s te o a r iu s , iii 4 5 7 , 4 5 8 . ii . 1 2 . M u t iny of a rr is o n, ii. 1 8 . I ts

R edicu lu s Tu ta nu s , i i 339 . a t t it u de P y rrh us , ii 1 8, 2 1
t o w a r ds . .

'
R eg za , i 1 40 , 1 4 1 n
‘
C a p t ure d b y th e R o ma ns, ii 38 Ex
l
. . . .

e mp t e d fr o m a nd s e rvice , ii Re
43 . .

lk
R e g illu s , a e , b a t t e a t , i 4 38 ; ii 50 , 7 0 l . . m a ine d fa ithfu in S ocia w a r , iii 50 2 l l . .

gl
R e u us S e e A t iliu s R e t a ine d, e v e n a fte r a dm iss io n to
C l
.

R ef, i 1 90 . R o m a n i t ize ns h ip , its co mm u na co n

g
R e li io n o f th e E tr usca ns o o m y a nd gl s t it u t io n , iii 2 4, 5 1 9 R e ma ined uh
lL
. .

t ir e so m e my s t icis m , i 2 32 2 35 Pre -
a ff e cte d b y t h e e ne ra a t iniz in , iii g g .

lg lg
. .

do m ina nce o f m a i n a nt a nd cr u e o ds , 51 9 iv
I
.

i 2 33
. nte rp r e ta t io n o f s i n s a nd p o r g R h e t o r ic in R o m e , iii 1 9 2 f l; iv 2 1 6 f l, . .

l
.

te nts , i 2 33/ Z R udim e nts o f s p e cu a t io n,

. 2 5 3f ; v 4 sr f .
i R h ine , th e , G e rma n fr ontier of R ome ,
lg
R e i io n o f th e ta ia ns , its fu nda me nta I l l v 49
l
p r incip e s , i 32 35
- R h o da in S p ain fo unde d, i 1 86 M as . .

lg l
.

R e i io n, R o m a n , a bs tra ctio n a nd p e r s i i a n mar it im e s ta tio n, iii 4 1 5 .

s o r ifi ca t io n, i 2 0 6, 2 1 1 - 2 1 4 A t fi rs t R h o de s , ii 31 9 ; iii 2 34 , 2 80 , 2 9 2 ; iv . . .

k
. .

una ff e cte d by th e in ue n ce o f Gr e e 1 6, 1 0 3 fl
I ts trea ty w ith R ome , ii 3, . .

ide a s , i 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 S y s te m a tic c la s s ifi 46 . I ts p o s it io n a ft e r th e se cond Pu nic

k g g l
. .

ca t io n a nd r a n in o f t h e o ds e ss e nt ia , w ar , ii 40 6 / Z W ar w ith P h i ip , ii 4 1 1 , . l .

i 2 1 2 / I P ractica te nde ncy o f R o m a n

. l 4 1 2 , 4 1 4, 4 1 6 , 4 1 8, 4 2 0 , 4 2 2 , 4 38 o ins . J
w o rs h ip , i 2 1 4, 2 2 5 I ts ch a ra cte r o f
. in th e w a r w ith A nt io ch us , ii 446 f t,
. .

l
fe s t a j oy , i 2 2 1 ; mo difi e d by th e .
450 , 4 55 , 4 7 4 I ts a ttitu de dur in th e . g
gl
fru a ity a nd s o br ie ty o f t h e p e o p e , i w ar w ith P ers e us , ii 4 94, 49 9 Hu l . . .

T e nde ncy t o ins ip id ce r e m o nia , m ilia t e d, ii 5 1 3 5 1 5 ; iii 2 7 4. I ts w ars l .

-
.

i 2 2 2 1 : Op p o s e d to al l a r tis t ic e ff ort a a ins t th e p ira t es , iii 2 9 2 R e sis ts g . .

l
.

a nd s p e cu a tiv e a p p r e h e ns io n o f th e M ith r a da tes , iv 33, 40 , 47 R e w a r de d . .

lg
r e i io us ide a , i 2 2 4 /I B ut inte i ib e b y S u a , iv 54 E x e mp t fr o m tax a t io n, ll g l ll . .

g l
.

l g
,

t o a ll, a nd p r es e rv in th e s imp ici ty o f iv 1 5 7 S ea t o f p h i o so p h ic tr ainin , . .

fa ith , i 2 2 7 F r o m th e p r a ct ica t e n
. iv 1 9 9 , 32 5 R h odia n schoo o f rh e tori l . . l
l
.

de ne y o f w o r sh ip the p rie s ts de v e o p e ia us , v 455

l g g
.

th e mo ra la w , i 2 2 5 j , 2 2 7 F o r e i n R h o ne , p as s a e o f, b y H a nnib al, i i 2 5 5 f .
‘

. . .

w o rs h ip s , i 2 2 8 2 31 ii 7 0 1 ? O r ie nt a -
R h y nda cu s , b a t t e o n th e rive r, iv 32 8 l l
I
. . .

ig io ns in taly , iv 4o 8 f ; v 44 5 f R ice , ii i 6 4 71
’

" l
. . .

g ll
. .

F a ith be co me s t orp id o w in t o H e e n R o ad fr om Ar r e tium t o B ononia, ii 37 4

I l
. .

is m, iii 1 0 9 , iv 1 9 5 P u b ic F r o m ta y , t hro u h Ga u , t o S p a in, ii. l g l

L
. . .

w ors h ip b e co m es mo re cos t y , ii 7 1 37 5 F r o m R ome to l

u na , ii 37 5

L
. . . .

iii 1 0 9 j : S upe r s t itio ns , ii i 1 1 4 j : F r o m u ca t o Arr e tium, ii 37 5. Com

L
.

lg
. .

a te r s ta t e r e i io n , iv 2 0 4 2 0 6 -
U nde r p a r e V ia .
-
.

Ca e sa r . V 430 f , 4 43 44 5 R o a ds , co ns tr uctio n o f, ii 85 , 1 2 0 . Pav

-
.

lg
R e i io n, S a be ia n a nd U m br ia n, e s s e n ll ing o f s tre e ts unde r Ca esa r, v 374
g g L
.

t ia lly a re e in w it h th e a t in , i R o bb e r b ands S ee B r i an ds . . g
lg
R e i io us ch a nts , i R o ozg a lza , i 2 0 8
.
'

R e mi» V ' 50 9 54, 85 R os g'us , i 2 0 8 .

R emus , ii 1 0 5 R ag a iza, i 9 4
’

. .

R e nts in R o m e , iv 8
1 4 v 385 / Z R o m a ou a a m ta , i. 62
.
’
.

R e p rese nta tiv e ins t itut io ns u n no w n t o R o m a nce s , v 4 83 k .

q
anti u ity , iii 330 , 332 , 5 0 6 ; W 1 35 ; v . R o m e , e e nds as t o its fo unda tio n, i 1 0 7 . . lg .

32 6 fl 1 1 1 A t t e mp ts t o fix t h e y e ar o f its
l
.

R esp ons a , ite ra ture o f j uris t ic Op inio ns , fo u nda tio n, ii i 1 90 S ite of, i 5 3, 5 7 [ 3 . . .

iv. 2 55 Or i ina l y ce ntr e o f a n a r icult ural g l g

R e tog e nes , N um a nt ine , iii 2 31 co mm u nity , i 2 6 1 A t th e same t ime
l L
. . .

R e ux inal es S e e R o x o a ni. e m p o r i um o f a t ium, i 5 66 0 Gradua . . l

R ex , i 8 1 ris e o f t h e city , i 6 0 j : Th e S e ve n
l
. .

R ex : a cr om m , i 31 6 , 32 4 A w ays r in. w a s o r s ep t zm on tiu m , i 6 3 j :

. g -
ll '

g
.

p a tr ician, i 38 5 . A ma l a m a t io n o f th e Pala tine a nd

R he s ium. i 6 . 2 66 . 4 5 6 ; u 2 94. 333. 35 0 . u i r i na re io ns , i. 1 0 6 - 1 0 9 . Th e Q l g
576 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

unite d city w a b y S e r v ius , i 7 1 , ll d i

e n S a cr ificia l a nima s , h o w p ro cur e d, i 9 2 l
h ill k
.

L l
.

T h e s e ve n s , i 1 39 71 Ta e n . S a cr ip o r tus in a tium , b a t t e a t, iv 83
l
.

k g
.

a nd bur nt b y th e G a u s , i 42 9 .
f S a da las , in o f th e Odry s ia ns , iv 30 7 .

Thr ea t e ne d by Py rr h us , ii 2 3 T h re a t S a dduce e s , iv 2 4 4 f
’

l
.

l g
. .

e ned b y H a n niba , i i 338 j : Occup ie d . S a e cu a r a me s , ii i 1 2 5

ll g
.

b y S u a , iii 5 39 R e a ined by t he . . S a ep ta / a ha , v. 37 5
M ar ia ns , iv 6 5 j : Occup ie d by S u a , . ll S a e tu r nus , i 2 0 8, 2 1 3, 2 9 0 n
l
. .

iv 84 ; a nd ma inta ine d in the ba tt e a t M S a e v iu s N ica no r P o s tumu s , tea ch e r o f

ll g
. .

th e Co ine a te , iv . 89 R o m a n ite ra ture , iv 2 1 6 l .

R o me, ii 1 1 0 n . . S a g a e i, ii 4 9 3
l ll g
.

R o milii, c a n v i a e , i 45 , 6 2 -
. g
S a ra s , b a tt e o n th e r iv e r , ii 7 0 l
l g
.

R omu us , t h e ac u is it io n o f the s ep ta”: q S a un tu m , iii 2 2 6 ; iv 2 9 4, 2 9 6 F o unde d, . .

ll
.
'

p ag z re fe rre d t o h im, i 59 . i 1 85 . A ie d w ith R o m e , i i 2 4 1

.
At
l
. .

R e mus a nd R omy lus, ii 1 1 0 a . . w a r w ith H a nnib a , a nd is s to r m e d, ii

g
.
'
R or a r zi, ii 7 4 2 46 , 2 47 R e a ine d b y R o m e , ii 32 0 ,
L
. .

l
.

Q .R os cius , th e actor , iv 1 40 , 2 36 ; v 47 2 . . 32 1 , 384 , 39 3 u s ita n ia ns s e t t e d a t .

S ex R oscius , v . 382
. g
S a untu m, iii 2 32 .

R os t , R o m a n o ra to rs p a t form , i 1 40
r a
’
l . S a la p ia , ii 34 1 ; iii 5 2 1 .

l
. .

ll
S o ca e d as de co ra te d W ith t he b e a s o f k S a a s s i, ii 2 5 3, 2 5 8 ; iii 4 1 6
. .

th e Antia te a e y s , i 46 2 / J g ll S a lda e , iii 4 1 0

l
. .

R ound te mp e , ii 1 2 0 n. . S a le r num , a b u r e s s co o ny , i i 39 , 36 5 g - l
l l
. .

R o x o a ni ( R e ux ina les ) , iv. 1 4, 1 7 , 1 8 n . S h a r e in th e S o cia w ar , iii 5 1 4

l ll
.

R ub i, iii 5 2 2 S a ii, Co ini a nd P a la tini, i 6 8, 1 0 6 f ,

I l
.

l
.

R ub ico n S ee ta y . 1 0 8 , 2 1 7 , 2 86 , A w a y s p a tr ician ,
R ufi nus S ee Co rne ius . l i
R ufus S ee C a e cilius , M inucius , P o m
. S a lle nt ini, i i 89 o in T ar e ntu m a a ins t
. . J g
p e ius, R utilius t h e L u ca n ians , i 4 83 War w ith R o me , . .

P R up ilius [co ns u ,
. iii 31 0 , 31 1 l . ii . 39
R usica de , ha r b ou r o f Cirta , iii 39 1 . C S a llus t iu s Cr is p us , iv
. .
48 9 n . v. 1 45
lg g
.

R us p ina , ba ttle a t , v 2 9 4 f ; H is e r r o ne o us ch ro no o y o f th e u u r
. J
P R u t ilius N udus , ie ut e nant in th e
. t h ine w a r , iii 39 8 n l Ch ara cte r o f th is . .

M ithr a da tic w a r, iv 32 6 b o o , iii 4 1 0 n . F ra m e nt o f th e H is k . g

L
.

P. R utilius up us [ consu , l
t o r ie s , its da te de t e r m i ne d, iv 2 9 7 n
iii. 50 3,
l
. .

50 8, 5 1 1 , 5 1 2 ; iv 1 0 2 n S a o na , iii 4 2 7 ; iv 1 6 8, 30 6
lI
.

lk
. . .

P R ut ilius R ufus [ cons ul , S a t no w n to th e p rim e va ndo G e r m a ns ,

iii 39 8, -

l
. .

4 0 0 . 40 1 , 459 , 4 8 1 . 482 , i 2 1
iv 1 1 2 S ta te mo no p o y o f, i 342 iii 2 0 ; . . . . .

M e mo ir s , iv 2 50 . iv 1 5 6 .

l
R utu i, a b odes , i 444. S a lta r , iii 7 4
Co n icts w ith fl .

l l l
.

R o m e , i 1 35. S ub due d, i. 445. D is

. S a us , t e mp e o n th e Ca p ito , ii 1 2 2 .

p ute w ith Aricia , i 44 7 S a lu v ia ns S ee S a ly es .

k g
.

R y e , iii 6 4 n S a lv iu s , in o f th e s la v es in th e s e co nd
l
. .

S icilia n s a ve -w ar ( Tr y p ho n) , iii 384

A
.

S BE L L I N S , iii. 1 0 0 A
H a v e itt e inte r S al y e s , iii 4 1 7 ; v 7 . l l . .

co ur se w ith fore i n na t io ns , i 2 5 2 , 2 83 S a me , ii 47 6 g . . .

g
P o s it io n durin th e S a mnite w ars , i S a mnite s , ii 80 , 2 80 , 36 5 ; ii i 2 4 A . . . .

46 8 Ar t , i 30 0 ; ii bra nch o f th e U mb r ia ns , i 1 4 Lan . .

L g g g g
. . .

S a b ine a nd a tin o dde ss , i 6 9 n u a e o f, i 1 4 f : Wr itin , i 2 7 8,

I
. .

l l
. .

S a b ines, ii 2 2 4 n ue n ce u p o n R o me , 2 82 fl
S e tt e in th e mo unta ins o f C e ntra
L I l Lg
. . .

i 5 4 j : P ene tra te into a tiu m , i 1 43,

. t a y , i 1 46 e e nd o f th e ir w a nde r . .

g l
.

1 45 . g
F i h t w ith R o me , i 1 34 S ubs e in s , i 1 4 6 S e c u s io n , i 1 47 Ab s e nce . . . .

l l l
. .

q l
ue nt y in b ut s i h t int e r co urse w ith lg
o f se p u ch r a de co r a t io ns , ii 8 1 F e de ra . .

R o me , i 4 44 S ubdue d b y R o m e , a nd
. co ns t i tu t io n w it h o u t ce ntra iza tio n, i
. l .

b e come czz/es s ine s uf mg zo , i 49 2

’

1 48 Wi th o ut e ffo r t a fte r co n u e s t, i '

q .

ll g g
. . .

A c uire fu q bur ess r i h ts , ii 48, 8 9 1 48 F irs t t re a ty w ith R o m e , i 4 5 3

-
.
f
g k
. . .

Writ in , i 2 8 1 U na fl e cte d b y G r e e infl ue nce s , i 4 5 8

’

l K gJ
.

g ll g ll
. .

S a b urr a , e ne ra o f in ub a , v 2 32 C o nt r as t w ith th e H e e nizin S a be ia n .

S a ce r me a nin o f, i 2 2 6
,
g
s to c s , i . S a m nit e w a rs , i 4 6 5 k . .

S a cr a m m tu m. S “ A ctio ns a t la w 4 8 1 , 4 86 49 3 S h ar e in the w ar w ith -

.
578 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

Se l e ucus II
Ca llinicus , ii 2 1 5 lg l g
N o t e is a tin , but ua r dia n o f th e g
I
.

l
.
,

Se e u cu s , p ir a t ic ca p ta in, iv 333 . la w , i 1 0 1 ncre as e o f its functions

l
. .

S e lg ia ns , iii 2 7 5 . o n a b o it io n of th e mo nar ch y , i 32 9 j : .

S e li nus , i 1 8 3 ; ii 1 4 5 . . l l
Of its p o it ica p o w e r , i 337 , 338 D is
l
. .

'

S e lla cu m lzs , cha r io t s e a t, i 83, 1 8 9 -

. t in ct io n, a fte r a b o itio n o f t he m o na rch y ,
ll
S e as ia , b a t t e of, ii 2 2 0 l b e t w e e n th e narr o w e r p a tr ician se na te
L
.

S e mo S a ncus, S a b ine a nd a t in de ity , i .

( f a ir er ) , for the ex e r cise o f th e a u cto
6 9 71 T e mp e o n t h e u iri na , i 2 80 l Q l .
'

n td s , a nd th e w ide r p a t r icio p e b e ia n l -

g g
.

'

S e mp ro nia , th e s is te r o f t h e Gr a cch i, iii b ody ( p a tr es com e n p tz) for ivin t h e ir

’

46 3 co ns zl zu m , i 330
'

R i h t o f co ns u ars
. . g l
A S e mp ro nius A se llio [p r a e to r , 6 6 5 ] mur to v o te fi r s t , i 330 f
’

Th e re fe r e nce t o
l g ll
. . .

de re d, iii 5 30 f : . th e c a n o r an iza t io n fa s into a b e y a nce ,

-

C. S e mp r o nius Gr acch us , iii 32 6 , 338 . . i 331

. N um b e r o f s e na to rs , i 33x
. .

l g
.

Ch a ra cte r , iii 342 344 M e mb e r o f th e .

-
. Cho s e n by co ns u , i 33x R i ht o f . .

land co mm is s io n, iii 32 3, 335 Q ua e s . . g

form e r ma istr a tes t o b e a dm it te d t o
tor, iii 34 1 P e b e ian t ribune , iii 342 l th e se na te , i 331 A ctin ma is tr a te s g g
I
. . . . .

370 S p e e che s o f, iv 2 5 1 m p r o v es ha v e a s ea t, b ut no vo t e , 331 Re

I l
. . . .

th e ta ia n ro a ds , iv 1 6 7 H is fa a nd . . ll v is io n o f ro ll
e v e ry fo u rt h y e a r , i 331 . .

dea th , iii 366 37 0 C o ntr as t b e tw e e n -

. l
P e b e ia n s e na to rs e xc ude d fro m de b a te , l
ll lg l
.

th e S u a n a nd Gr a ce ha m e is a t io n, iv . i 37 4
. Th e ir a dm iss io n, i 380 382
. .
-
.

1 10 /I Co ndu cts t he ov e rnm e nt a fter e u al g q

C S e m p ro nius T udita nus [ co ns u ,
. l iza tion o f the orde r s , i 40 6 R i h t of . . g
chro n i c e r iv 2 4 8
“
l
On th e M a is . . g g
th e ma is t r a t e t o r ej e ct s e na to r s fr o m
l l l
,

is t imite d, i 40 6 j :
"
tra te s , iv 2 5 2 . th e E s ta b ish .

P S e mp r o nius S Op h us [ cons u ,
. ii l . me nt o f th e r i h t o f p as t cur u e ma is g l g
1 1 3 S ub due s th e A e u i, i 4 84
. q . tra te s t o a p ro v is io na s e a t a nd v o te , l
P S e mp r o niu s S o p h u s [co ns u ,
. iii l . l
a nd to e nr o m e nt a t nex t ce nsus , i 40 7 .

1 2 6 iii 7 l
E x c us io n o f no n curu e s e na t o rs -
l
L
. .

P S e mp r o nius A s e llio , h is to ria n, iv 2 50

. . fr o m de b a t in , i 38 1 , 40 7 iii 7 g a te r

l
. . .

Ti S e mp r o nius Gr a cch us [co nsu , 5 39 ,

. de f a ctb p o w e r s o f th e s e na te initia tiv e
ii 30 4, 30 5 , 333, 335,
. lg l
in e is a tio n, i 40 8 r i h t o f dis p e nsin g g
l l
.

Ti S e mp r o niu s Gra cch us [ co ns u , 5 7 7 ,

. fr o m th e a w s , i 40 8 ; no m ina t io n o f .

59 1 ce nso r , 5 8 iii 31 , 1 30 S a r dinian . . dicta to r , i 40 2 , 40 9 ri h t o f p ro o n in g l g g

g
.

w ars, ii. 37 6 I n S p a nis h w ar, ii 39 1 t e nur e o f o ffi ce o f ma is tr a tes , i 40 9

I
. . . .

j : iii 2 1 5 , 31 8 . nte r fe r e nce ag ains t l l

I ts a bso ut e co ntr o o f t h e a dminis tr a
ll
.

th e free dme n, ii i 5 3 . t io n, e s p e cia y o f fi na nce , i 40 9 j : iii .

l l l
.

T i S e mp ro nius Gr a cch us , ch ara cter , iii .

7 j i P o itica v a ue o f t his ins t i t ut io n,
Q
.

31 7 32 0 , 333
- ua e s to r , iii 2 2 8 . i G ra da t io ns o f ra n in, iii 7 f k .
‘

l l
. .

g
.

P e be ia n tr ib une , iii 32 0 32 5 A r ar ia n -
P r e p o nde r a nce o f th e no b i ity in th e
l
. .

la w , iii 32 0 / I D e a th , iii 32 5 32 7 -
s e na t e , iii 8 S p e cia s e a ts in th e
I g
. . . .

Ti S e mp r o nius Gra cchu s , t he s p ur io us ,

. t h e a tr e , iii 1 0 ns i nia o f s e na tors ,
. .

4 6 3, i 99 ; iii 4 , 5 n I ts numb e r s a cco rd

L g
. .

l
.

Ti S e mp r onius o n u s [ co nsu ,
. ii .
'
ing t o S u a s a r r a n e me nts , iv ll g .

2 66 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 3
'
a nd a cco r din t o Cae s ar s a rra n e m e nts , g g
T i S empr o nius o n us [co ns u ,
. iii L g l . v 349 / Z Ex t ra or dinar y sup p e m e nt t o ,
. l
44 ll
b y S u a , iii s4r ; iv 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 m ; a nd . .

ll
S e na Ga ica , mar it ime co o ny , ii 1 2 , 42 , l . by C a e s ar , v 339 A dmiss io n t o , co n
. .

49 , 2 2 0 B a tt e o f, ii 348 f I n th e l .
‘

. n e c t e d b y S u a w ith th e ll
u a e s t o rs h ip , q
l
.

fi rs t Civi w a r , iv 8 5 a n d no t w ith t h e a e di e sh ip , iv 1 1 2 l
g l
. .

ll
.

S e na te o ri ina t e s in th e c a n co ns titu tio n, -

N u mb e r b e fo re a nd a fte r S u a , iv 1 1 3 n .

l l ll
.

f
'

a nd re p res e nts it, i 9 6 , 9 7 N u mb e r . Ce nso r ia lectzo a b o is h e d by S u a , iv .

o f me mb ers fix e d, i 9 7 f M e mb e rs h ip B ut r es to r e d, iv 380 S e na
’

1 1 2 , 1 2 5 . .

l
. . .

fo r ife , i 9 8 l k g
Ch o s e n by th e in , i . t or s e x c ude d fr o m th e e u e s tr ia n ce n q
g i
. .

98 I p ffits fi t r e ro a t ve s : o ce o n e rr ex t u r ie s , iii 30 0 , 350 P o w e r s o f its ini .

lg l ll
. , .

i 98 fl fi m i f h l i con r a t on o t e res o u t o ns t ia t iv e in e is a t io n fo r ma y co nfi rm e d
ll g
.

of h mm t y i e/f co u ni t 1 00 as s ta t e b y S u a , i ii 5 4 2 ; iv 1 1 4 B u t a a in
. . .

ig i lly l g g
.

il i
,

co u nc f H d 1 0 1 a or na no a b o is h e d, iv 380 I ts r i h t t o ive
l
. . . .

l i f h ki g i 83
,

h
s a re i n e ect o n o t e n , . . dis p e nsa t io n fr o m a w s r e s tr icte d, iv.
 I ND E X 579

4 56 I ts sup re ma cy l imi te d by C . Cu . S ervilius Ge minus [cons u l , ii

.

l
.

G r acchus , iii 35 2 S e na t or ia co ur ts 2 7 3. 2 7 4. 2 7 9 , 2 8 7 . 2 89 . 2 9 0
l
. . .

S e e J ury ~c o ur ts D e c ine a nd corr u p . l P S e rv iliu s

.
[co nsu , P r is c us S tru ct us 2 59 ,
tio n o f th e s e n a t e , iii 2 9 3, 2 94 j : i 34 7 .

Lgl l
.

e a e na c tm e n t s a a i ns t t h e r a ve r g g P S e r v iliu s V a t ia I s a ur icu s [co ns u ,

.

a buse s , iv 4 5 6 Co te r ie s o r
“
c i ue s lq iii 38 2 n ; iv 1 38 , 31 3 .

l
. . .

g
.

in, iii 2 93j f , 2 9 8 , 5 33 A r r a n e m e n ts o f

. . P S e rvilius R ullus [p e b tr ib une ,
. .

Ca es ar , v 339 , 340 Op p o s itio n s e na t e -

iv 47 2 .

I l
.

l
.

o f th e ta ia ns , iii 5 0 5 , 5 0 6 n as a so o f . . l Q . S e rviliu s Ah a a [dicta to r , i 431

.

S e r to r ius , iv 2 84 ; a nd o f P o m p e ius , v . Q . S e r v iliu s C a e p io [co ns u l , iii .

2 38 n 2 89 2 2 4
S e no nes , i .
4 2 4, 4 2 7 , 434 . W ar w ith Q . S e rv ilius Ca e p io [co ns u l , iii. 37 6,
R o me , ii 1 0 Co n u e r e d q by th e 4 36 , 4 37 . 439 , 4 40 n u 46 6 , 4 7 1 n
I ly
.

ll
.

R o mans a nd ex p e e d fr o m ta ii Q S e rv xlius Ca e p io [ ua e s to r , 6 5 1 or
. q
ll l
,

1 0 1 1 2 2 0 ii i 4 7 1 .
484 F a s in th e S ocia .

l
, ,

S e nt inu m , b a tt e o f, i 489 j : . w a r , iii 5 1 2 .

C S e nt iu s [p r ae to r , 6 6 5
. iv 34 . S e rvius Tu ius S ee M as tar na ll .

S ep tem p a g z, i 5 8 S e s tu s , ii 4 1 7 , 4 4 8, 4 6 1
L
.

l
.

' '
S ep tem v zr z ef u lo n es S ee Tr e: m r z S e tia , a a tin co o ny , i 446 Abo ut 37 0 ,
L L
. . .

.S e p tim iu s a s s a s s in o f P o mp e ius, v 2 7 2
' '
. . a me mb e r o f th e a t in e a ue , i 44 8 m , l g .

S ef tzm on tzu m , i 6 3, 2 0 9 4 50
L
.

.S e p tum ule ius , iii 369 . l

S e tt e me nt, ri h t o f, unr es tricte d in g
q
S e uani. iii 4 34, 443 ; V 1 9 , 2 5 . 34 R o me , i 1 1 1 .

g
S e r ii, c a n vi a e , i 4 5 l -
ll g S e usa m ora , iv 4 1 4 .

L L ll
.

. g
S e r iu s Ca ti ina , cha ra ct e r , iv 4 6 5 j : l . l
S e x t ilius , ie u te na nt o f ucu us in th ird
C o ns p ira cy o f, iv 46 6 482 D e a th , iv .
-
. . M ith r a da t ic w a r , iv 339 .

48 5 C S e x t ius C a lv inus [co ns u , iii 4 1 7 l

L
.

l
.

Q S e r to r ius , ch a ra ct e r o f, iv 2 8 1 / i I n . . S e x t ius L a te r a nu s [p e b e ia n tr ib une ,

l l
.

th e M a r ian r e v o utio n, iv 5 8 , 6 0 , 6 1 , .
37 7 , 37 8 ; co ns u , i 380 , 382
6 2 , 67 , 69 I n th e w ar a a ins t S u a ,
. g ll gl
S h in e r o o fs in R o m e , ii 86 .

iv 80 , 8 1. I n S pa in, iv 9 1 f . In . . k
S h o e ma e rs , u i d o f, i 2 49 g l .

M a ur e ta nia , iv 9 3, 1 0 3, 2 8 2 B e co m e s S h o fe te s , ii 1 4 7
L
. .

g l
.

e ne r a o f th e us ita nia ns , iv 2 8 2 H is . . ll
S iby ine o ra c e s , i 2 2 9 f , 2 9 1 iii 4 1 j ; l . .

ggl
.

s tru e in S p ain, iv 2 S 3/ I , H is . v.

g
o r a niz a tio ns th e r e , iv 2 84 f f H is S ica ni, ii 1 4 3
L
. .

tre a ty w it h M ithr a da t e s , iv 2 9 9 , 32 4 . . .S iccius D e nta tus murder ed, i 366 /I .

H is co nte s t w ith P o mp e ius , iv 2 9 4 30 1 .

-
. S ice li, ii 1 43 .

H is de a th , iv 30 2 . l
S ici y , p o s ition o f, i 6 I ts e a r y trade . . l
S e r v ia n co ns t itu tion, a mi ita ry r e fo rm by l w ith R o m e , i 2 0 0 / l, 2 5 8 / I ; ii 80 , 2 1 0 . . .

l gq
e u a izin g
th e b ur e ss e s a nd m e l o ecz a s
’

I ts co ndit io n a ft er th e de a th o f A g a
t o ar my s e rv ice a nd tr zbu tu m , a nd tr a ns
-
th o cle s , ii 2 8 P y r r h us in, ii 2 8 35 . .
-
.

g lg
fe rr in th e se o b i a t io ns to a ll th e fr e e g
C a r th a inia n r u e in, ii 1 37 , 1 43 l . .

l l
ho de rs in th e s ta te w h o w e re ca p a b e P h o e nician p art y in, ii 1 56 Co ndit io n . .

g
o f b e a r in a r ms , i 1 1 4 1 2 2 k T h e w or .
-
. o f, b e fo r e fi r s t P u nic w a r , ii 1 6 1 S ur .

gl g l l
.

o f a r e fo r m in e is a t o r , p r o b a b y a ft e r r e nde r e d to R o m e b y Car th a e , ii 1 9 6 , g
L
.

th e mo de l o f t he k Gre e s o f ow e r 2 04 C o m p e t e y R o m a n, ii 31 4 S e nds l l
I ly i 3
. . .

ta . 1 2 g
ra in to R o m e , ii 34 4 iii 7 7 S a v e ry . . . l
ll m i f i 3 3
,

S i
e rv a n wa , re a ns o , . 0 n. in, iii 30 7 31 0 O ccup ie d by Ca e sa r ,
.
-
.

S ilii f m A lb
er v i 8 ro a, . 1 2 v 2 30 Co m munitie s o f, o b ta in [ u s
.

Ah l [m g i
.

l
,

C S ili q i m L a tzn u m , v F o r m s a c ose d

’

. er v us a a a ste r e u tu , 36 4 . .

i 37 6 cus to m s dis tr ict , iv 1 60 -

T a x a tio n o f, .

d S i il i
.

C S . li mm d i
e rV i us , c o an er n s ec o n c an iv 1 5 8, 1 6 1 n , 1 6 4 f l T w o ua e s t o rs , q
il lg l
. .

S erv iii 38 6 e w ar, . iv 1 2 3 n . P r iv i e e in j udicia p ro.

C S e r vilius [p ra e t o r , 6 6 3] mur de re d a t
. ce du r e , iv 1 32 Co inin , iv .1 81 . g . .

A sculu m , iii 50 0 Co mp a r e S a v e s l
l
.

C S e rV iliu s G a ucia , as so cia te o f S a tur Cn S icin ius [p r a e to r , ii 4 9 7 , 499

L
. .

nir uS . iii 46 5 . 46 6 . 46 7 . 4 7 2 , 47 4. 47 5 . S icmius [p e b tr ibune , iv 37 1 l

é L
. . . .

47 l
S icu i or S ica ni, a tin, i. 2 6
580 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

S icy on under ta es th e s th mia n a m es , k

I n S ici y , firs t, iii 30 9 31 1 I second, iii. g l .
-

iii 2 7 3 383 387

-

S ide in Pu p hy lia , iv 31 1 S in s , ii 7 6 n iii 4 5 8

. l g . . .

S idicini in T e a num , i 4 5 8 S my r na , ii 40 6 , 446 . 4 5 3. 46 1 . 4 7 3 3 iv. 43

.

S ido n, its de c ine , ii 1 4 2 lS o ani, iv 4 1 6 . .

g
S i a . ii 354
’

S o czz m ar/ a les , i i 1 7 4

''

L
.

S ig nia , a a tin co o ny , i 4 45 ; ii 49 ; i i i l
S ocra te s , B i th y nia n p re te nder, iv 2 4
. . .
.

36 P e rh a p s a b o u t 370 , a me mb e r o f S oda lzcza S e e Co lleg ia

L
.

l g
.

th e a t in ea ue , i 4 48 45 0
. . N ot S o do m y , i 1 9 1
L
.

R o ma n b ur e ss g -
co mmunity , ii 49 . S o l, S a b i ne a nd a tin de ity , i. 69 n.
S ig o v e sus, i 4 2 3 l
S o i, in Ci ic ia , ii 4 7 5 l .

l l
.

5 1 12 1 , fores t o f, ii 38 S o o n, a w s o f, ii 86 T h e ir in ue nce o n fl
L
. . .

S ilarns , ii 36 5 th e a w s o f t h e T w e ve T a b e s , i
36 2 l l
L
.

l l g l
.

S i as , ru er o f y s is , iv 430 .
f i ; ii 6 5 R o ma n co ina e fr o m S o o nian
. .

l
S i o S t e P o mp a e dius
.
p a t t e r n, i i 7 9 .

S ilt/a m; i 2 0 8, 2 1 3 . S o luntum , i 1 86 ; . ii . 1 43, 1 85

l
S i ver s upp a nte d in co mm erce b y o d, l gl S o p a ter , ii 1 82 , 42 2

l l
.

iii 88 . E tru sca n s i v e r co ins o f e ar ie s t

. S o p h e ne , iii 2 8 1 , 2 85 ; iv 5 , 31 6
. .

p e r iod, i 30 6 M ine s , S p a nish , ii 2 39 ,

. . . l
S o p h o c e s , iii 1 6 7
l g
.

39 3. S i ver in t he R o ma n co ina e , ii . S o ra , in th e S a m nite w ars so me time s

87 f i; iv 1 7 8/ i I ts e x p o r t t o th e C e tic l R o ma n, s o m e time s S a m nite , i 4 5 3, 46 3,
L
.

l
.

territo ry p roh ibite d, iii 9 5 A r ti c es o f, . .

47 5 , 4 7 6 A a tin co o ny , i 4 85 l
l
. .

in R o ma n h o u se h o ds , i 39 2 ; ii 8 5 , . . S o r a cte , i 2 5 0 .

xssf i ; N 5 0 7 3, i 2 2 9 n . .

S imon M acca ba e us, iii 2 8 6 Co ins o f, . . S o sa nder , iii 2 7 6 a . .

iii 2 86 n
. . g
S o s i e ne s , Gr e e ma th e ma ticia n, a ids k
S indi o n the Ca ucas us , de pe nde nt o n Ca e sar in h is r e form o f t he ca e ndar , l
P a ntica p a e um, iv 1 5 . v. 4 38
S inna ca , s urp r is e a t , v 1 6o f I S os ilu s o f S p arta , ii 2 44
. .

S ino pe , to wn, ii 40 7 , 40 8 ; iv 6 , 1 2 , 1 6 , S p a in, P ho e nicians in, ii 1 42 , 1 44 U nde r

. . . .

s o , 333. 334. 4 40 . 44 7 P o ntic r e s i H a m i ca r , ii 2 38, 2 39 .S i v e r m ine s o f, l . . l

deney , iii 2 8 1 Co o nize d by Ca es a r , v
. . l
ii 2 39 ; iii 2 1 4 ; iv 1 5 7 A R o man . . . . .

42 5 p r o vince , ii 331 Cu t ure a fte r s e co nd . . l

S inope , Pontic o v e rn ors h ip , iv 32 g P u nic w ar , ii 384 387 Co ns ta nt w a r . .
-
.

S int i, iv 50 . far e in, ii 387 39 1 D iv ide d into t w o .

-
.

S inuessa , ma ritim e c o o ny , i 4 9 2 ; ii 4 2 , l
p r o vince s , F ur th e r a nd H ith e r S p ain,
. .

49 l
S a v e ris in , iii 30 9 -
g
ii 38 9 Co n icts t h e r e in t he fi r s t h a f
. . fl l
ll g
. .

S ip hnus p i a e d by th e p ir a t e s , iii 2 9 2 o f s e v e nth ce nt ur y , iii 2 1 5 2 32 ; in t he . .

-

S ip ontum, b ur e ss co o ny , ii 36 5 g -
l
se co nd h a f, iii 4 1 5 f l, 47 9 . I n the l . .

S ir e ns , i 1 7 7 . fir s t Civ i w ar , iv 9 2 f : I n th e S e rt o r ian l .

S iris , i 1 7 0 . w ar , iv 2 8 1 2 86 , 2 9 3 30 2 Ca e sa r as .
- -
.

S iscia or S e g es tica , iii 4 2 5 , 4 2 7 p r a e to r t h e r e , v 6

. Ca e sar a nd the . .

P S itt ius, iv 4 88 ; v 2 9 5 , 30 1 , 42 4 . P o m p e ia ns in S p a in, v 2 1 9 2 2 7

. T ax a .
-

g
.

l
.

S a ve s , i 30 A t fi r s t no t nu me r o us , i tio n, iv 1 5 8/ i U r b a n r i h t s in, iii 2 1 4,

L
. . .

g
. .

2 47 The ir incr e as e ;
. icinio S e x t ia n 2 32 , 2 33 ; iv 1 9 0 Co ina e , iv 1 8 1 -
. . .

la w s e na ct th a t a ce rtain p ro p o rt io n o f S p a r ta . ii 3. 31 8 , 4 384 40 . 4 s1 i . 4 80 . 48 1 :
l
fr e e a bo ure rs b e e m p o y e d by a nd iii 2 6 5 2 6 7 , 2 6 8 ; ivl 38 Co mj a r e l
L
. . .

l
o r ds , i 38 1 , 38 7 ; ii 7 7 ; iii 31 2
. S tern a ce da e m o nia ns . . .

dome s t ic discip ine a mo n , iii 1 1 8 l

S p a r ta cus , iv 35 7 36 4 g . . .
-

Emp o y e d in rur a l a b o ur , i 34 5 ; ii l l
S pa r to cida e , r u in fa m i y in P a ntica . . l g l
7 7 iii 6 8 7 1 M a na e me nt o f b us ine s s p a e u m, iv 1 5 g
I
. . .

'

b y , iii ncreas e o f, iii 31 3 ; iv

. S p a ti u m , i 2 9 6 . . .

1 77 f i; v 36 8 39 3 f : T ra de in , iii
. S p e e che s , ite r a tu re of, its b e innin s , iii l g g
g
. .

9 9 2 . 3° 6 fi ; iv 1 74 R e s ult o f th e 1 89 I n th e s e ve nth a nd e i h th ce n tur ies ,

. .

s ys te m, iii 30 5 f ; iv 1 74 v 34 1 f f , iv 2 50 ; v 50 1 50 6 -

I
. . . . .

l l
.

394. Co ns p ira cie s a nd ins ur r e ct io ns o f, S p e t ( f a r ) , ch ie y cu tiva te d in ta ly , fl

I
in tal y , ii 8 3 ; iii 1 0 2 , 30 9 31 1 , 380 f ,
. i 2 40 .
-
. .

g 80 f G adia to ria w a r , iv 35 7 36 4l S p e rch e ius , ii. 396 l .

-
.
382 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

th en de m ocra tic, i 47 7 T h e m os t . . T aur us , i i 47 2 ; i ii 2 7 5, 2 82 ; iv 2 3

. . .

g
fl o ur is h in s e a t o f co mme rce a nd ma nu T a uta mus , s ucce s so r o f V iria thu s , iii 2 2 6 .

fa ctures in M a na G r a e Cia , i 1 7 4 I ts g T a x a tio n , dir e ct , u n no w n, i 9 1 P ries ts k

I L
.

ll
. . .

comme r ce w ith E as t e rn ta ly , i . co m p e e d t o p a y t a x e s , iii 1 1 0 ai d . .

2 5 2 ; ii 80 B y tre a ty c o s e s t h e A dr i
. . l o n t he p r o v ince s , iii 2 9 5 ; iv v . . .

a tic to R o me , ii 1 2 , 4 2 I ts r e s o u r ces 5 60 f l S y s t e m o f, iv 1 6 4 1 7 0 ; v 360

-
. .

l l
. .

fo r w ar , ii 1 7 I t s m e r ce nar ies , i 46 5 .
f l E m p o y me nt o f s a v es in, iii 30 7 f . .

g
.

l
.

fi ; ii 3 I ts b u r e ss army , ii 31 -
. . Ca mp a r e As ia , Ga u , Africa , M a ce do nia ,
k g
. .

M a es he a d a a ins t t h e S a mnit es , i tn ba tu m
’

4 5 5 , 4 60 , 46 6 A t t itu de dur in th e
. g T ax ile s , M ithr a da tic g e nera l, iv 4 1 , 32 4 ,
.

S a mn ite w a r , i 4 6 8 , 49 1 S up p o rt s ( in 331 339

l g
. .

l
,

dire ct y ) the S a mnit e s a a ins t R o me , i . T e anum A p u u m , i 47 4 .

47 8 P e a ce w ith R o m e , i 4 8 2 / I H es i . T e a num S idic inum, ii 30 3, 340 ; iii 49 2 ; . .

k
.

ta tes to j o in th e Lu ca nian s , ii 1 0 , 1 2 . . iv 9 1 v 2 0 8 U nde r Gr e e in ue nce , fl

k k
. . .

A t ta c o f its m o b o n the R oma n e e t, fl i 456 S e e s a id fr o m R o m e , i 4 5 8

k L
. . . .

ii 1 2 f A t ta c o n Th ur ii, ii 1 3f
. At . e ft b y R o m e t o t he S a m nite s , i 45 9 n . .

tem p ts a t p ea ce o f th e R o m ans , ii 1 4 . . Occup ie d b y th e la t te r , i 46 4. Pas sive

l
.

S ub mits its e f t o P y rr h u s , ii 1 5 Re . . g
bu r e ss r i h ts , iii 2 3 f l
-
g
g l
.

ma ins occup ie d durin P y r rh us S ici ia n

’
T e a te , t o w n o f th e M arru cmi , ba t tle in
e x p e ditio n, ii 30 f : A fte r P y r rh u s
.
’
l
S o cia w ar a t , iii 5 2 1 .

dea th h a nde d ov e r to the R oma ns , ii . l

T e chn ica s ty e , R o ma n, ii 1 1 4 l
l
.

37 f I ts fa te , ii 38 I ts r e a tio n t o . .
‘

g
T e cto s a e s in A s ia M i no r, ii 40 1 , 47 1 .

R o me , ii 5 3 F a ith fu t o R o me in l g
T e cto s a e s in Ga u , iii 44 3 l
k
. . .

se co nd P unic w a r , ii 2 94, 333 Ta e n . . g

Te e a , iii 2 6 7
l k l l
.

by H a nnib a , ii 31 7 , 335 R e ta e n b y . . T e a m o n , b a tt e o f, ii 2 2 5 f l .

R o me , ii 342 R u ine d by th e w ar , iii . . lg

T e e o nus , ii 1 1 0 n .

l
. .

1 00 As t he co o ny o f N e p tun ia , iii . l
T e e s ia , ii 2 8 1
g l
. .
'

37 4 R e ma ins u na fl e cte d by th e e ne ra Te lle nii, a b o u t 370 , me mbe r o f Latin

L
.

a t inizin , iv 1 9 1 /f g l g
e a u e , i 448 n . .

l ll
.

Ta r co ndi m o tus , C i icia n te tra rch, iv 438 . Te u s , i 2 0 7 , 2 1 3

ll
.

Tar p e ia n H i , th e , i 1 37 n . . T e lm is s us , ii 474 ; ii i 2 80 . .

Ta r quinii, h o me o f t h e , i 1 5 9 B a nish . . T e m e sa , i 1 7 0
l l
.

m e nt o f th e w h o e c an , i 31 6 ; ii 1 0 5 . T e m p e , p a s s o f, ii 4 2 9 , 50 3 .

Tar quinii, o ne o f th e t w e v e E tr us ca n l l
Te m p e , no n e in e a r i e s t R o ma n r e i io n, l lg
t o w ns , i 1 61 f . A ids V e ii a a ins t g i 2 2 4 f l, 30 5 T us ca nic, o r i ina tin . g g
k
.

R o m e , i 42 6 Wa r w ith R o m e , i 4 32
. . . unde r Gre e in ue nce , i 30 4, 30 5 fl . .

J : Tr e a tie s o f p e a ce W ith R o me , i Wo o de n, no t s to ne , i 2 34 R e a tio n to l

I
. . .

433, 47 9 A r t a t , ii 1 2 6
. . D o r ic a nd o nic fo r ms , i 30 8 .

Ta rr a cina ( T e rr a cm a ) , v 2 1 1 Te m p o r Temp lu m , i 2 7 , 2 2 5
L
. .

l
.

a rily a t in co o ny , i 4 46 M e ntio ne d . . T e m p s a s e ize d b y r obbe rs , iv. 364

in tr e a ty o f R o me w ith Car t h a e , i g . T e ncte r i, v 31 , 37 , 60 .

346 n , 450 /I R e v o ts fr o m R o m e , i l . T e ne do s , ii 4 1 7 ; iv 48, 32 9 , 334 .

g l
. .

l
,

46 1 R o ma n b ur e s s co o ny , i 46 2 ; ii -
. . T e nth s , S ici ia n, ii 2 1 2 ; iv 1 5 8 I n Sar . . .

l l
.

42 The t o mb o f E p e nor sh own th er e ,

. dinia a nd e s e w h e re , iv 1 5 8 D is t inctio n . .

'
i. 1 77 b e t w e e n tax te nth a nd th e p r op rie to r s -

Tarra co , ii. 32 1 , 32 9 , 39 3 t e nth , iv 1 5 8 n.

L lg
.

Ta r u t ius , as tro o e r , v 4 46 . Te r ebr a , i 2 8

k k
. .

T as w o r , i 9 1 , 31 6 ; iii 2 2
-
. . g
T e r e ste , v 1 0 3 .

T a tius , s to ry o f h is de a th , i 1 90 n ii 1 0 5 . . . C T e r e ntius V a rr o [ consul ,

. ii 2 84 , .

Ta ula nt ii, ii 6 2 87 2 9 1 , 2 96 , 2 9 7 , 2 9 8
-

L
.

T a ur ia ns in th e C r im e a , iv 1 7 , 2 2 . M T e re nt ius V arr o u c ul us r e g u a te s l l
l
.

T a ur ini, ii 2 5 9 , 2 6 8 as S u la n o ffi ce r t h e no r th er n b oundar y

I l
.

Ta ur is ci, ii 2 2 6 ; iii 4 2 4 4 2 8
. .
-
of ta y , iv 1 2 2 n .

l
.

T a u ro e nt iu m ( Ta u ro e is ) , iii 4 1 5 B a tt e . . M T e r e ntiu s Va rr o , v 2 1 9 , 2 2 7 , 444 , 483

. .
'

ofi , v 2 2 8 .
49 2 . 49 2 M 49 4 . S t e 5 1 3 -

Ta ur o m e niu m, ii 1 6 1 , 31 3 iii 31 0 . . . P T e re nt ius A fe r , t h e p o e t, iv 2 2 1 , 2 2 4

. .

S y ra cusa n, ii 2 0 4 E xe mp t fro m tax a . . 2 2 9 I n th e S cip ionic ir c e , iv 2 2 0

. C l .

t io n, iv. 1 5 7 P. T ere n tius Varr o A ta cinus, v. 41 6, 480

 I ND E X
T e r ina , i 1 7 0 , 4 54. Th e rm o py a e , ii 457 ; iii 2 6 8 ; iv 4 1 l . .

l
. .

Te rma ntia, iii 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 . B a t t e a t , ii 4 5 8 .

Ter m in a l ia , i 2 0 8 . Tlzes a u m s , i 2 30 , 2 6 0 n . .

'
Ter m in i Gr acclza m , iii 335 ; iv 1 6 7 . . T h e s p ia e , ar t tr e a s ur e s ca rrie d 0 5 b y -

Te r m in us , i 1 2 7 , 2 1 3 M umm iu s, iii 2 7 0 I n th e firs t M ith ra .

g ll
. .

Te rr ito ry o f R o me , o r i ina im its , i 5 8 , . da t ie w ar , i v 35 .

1 2 5 B o undar y o f th e T ibe r , i
. i 1 31 f l . l
The s sa o nica , ii 5 0 0 , 5 0 8 ; ii i 2 6 3 In . . .

S ubj e ctio n o f th e t ow ns b e t w e e n th e s cr ip t i o n o f iii

42 8 .

l
,

Tibe r a nd th e A nio , i 1 2 5 f l E x te n . T h e s s a y . ii 39 6 . 4 2 9 . 4 38. 456 , 4 5 7 . 4 5 8.

s io n a fte r th e fa o f A b a , i 1 2 5 f l , 1 34 ll l . 4 7 6 , 4 7 7 , 4 8 5 , 4 9 8. 5 0 0 . 50 2 . 5 0 4. 5 1 7 ;
f l P o sse s s io ns o n r i h t b a n o f T ib e r g k ii i . 61
6 6 ; iv 35 , 4 1
2 , 2 .

l o s t, i 4 1 4 . R e cov e r e d, i 4 1 9 . V e ii . . T h e uda lis in A frica , ta x -fre e , “

ii
“i
O0 G

. 2 59
q
co n ue re d, i 4 1 8, 4 2 5 f l S o u th E trur ia
. Th e v e s t e , ii 1 39 , 2 36 .

co nque re d, i 432 E x te ns io n o f t e r ri T hisba e , t o w n in B oe o tia,

. . i i. 49 8, 50 1 ,

tory e as t an d s ou th w a r ds , i 443 446 .

-
.
50 3 n .

E x te nt o f, a t e nd o f S a mnite w a rs , i C T h o ra nius [ u a e s tor ,

. ie u te na nt in q l
l l
.

49 2 f Afte r th e P y rr h ic w ar , ii 39 , . t h e G a dia t o r ia w a r , iv
35 9
ll
.

4 6 49 - Practica y e x te nde d t o th e P o
. g
Th o r ins fi h ts a a ins t S e r to ri us , iv 2 8
4 g .

ii 37 2 f l Th ra cia ns , ii 31 7 , 4 35 , 44 8 , 4 53, 47 5 , 4 7 7
k I
.

Tesse ra e , to e ns a t fir s t fo r the fo ur nva de M a ce do nia a n d E irus iii

p 42 6 ;
g I
.
,
"
ni h t w a tch e s ,- i 2 55 n . . iv 34 . nv a de A s ia , iii 4 2
.
3 I n th e
ll
. .

T e s ta me nt S e e Wi . ar m y o f M i th ra da te s , iv 2 0 I n th e . .

T e uce r , so n of A ax , iv 439 j . R o ma n ar m y , iii 45 8 Thr a ce , iii 2 6 0 , . . .

Te ut a , ii 2 1 8 ; iii 42 1
. . 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 9 , 41 4 S ub due d by th e .

T e ut ob o d, iii 444 , 446 . R o ma ns , iv 30 7 .

T e u to ne s , iii 4 30 , 44 4 447 .
-
Th re e , t h e numb e r , in o de st p ries t y l l
Th a e na e , iii 2 5 8 . ll g
co e es , i 5 4 .

l
Th a a , iii 40 2 Th ur ii ( Co p ia ) , a t w a r w ith th e L uca nia ns
L
.

T h a p s u s , ii 39 f l iii 2 44 . E x e m p t fro m . . i 4 54, 45 5 , 4 6 6 A s sa i e d by the uca n

. . l
ta x a t io n, iii 2 59 B a tt e o f, v 2 9 8
. . l . . l
ia ns , a p p ie s t o R o m e fo r aid, ii 9 , 1 0 , .

Thasos , ii 4 1 1 , 4 1 5 , 42 5 , 438, 47 8 Th as ia n
. . 1 1 Ca p t u re d by t he T a r e ntine s , ii 1 3
. . .

w ine , iv 1 7 2 . F a te of, in s e co nd P unic w a r , ii 2 9 4 , .

T ha u ma ci, ii 4 2 7 336 , 350 E x e mp te d fr o m a nd s e r v ice ,

. l -

L
.

Th e a tre , no p e rma ne nt, in R o me , iii 1 38 . ii 4 3 A . a tin co o ny , ii 5 2

.
36 5 l .

l g
. .

F re e a dm iss io n t o , iii 1 39 I n th e . S a v e r is in , iii 380 -

S to r me d by th e . .

g
.

se v e nth a nd e i h th ce nturie s , iv 2 35 f l g . la dia to r s , iv 35 9 Ch ar io t ra ces the nce . .

-

v 4 7 1 f l S e a t s in, s e p a ra te fo r th e s e na de r iv e d, i 2 9 6
L
.
.

t or s, iii 1 0 , 1 38 . fo r the e u ite s , iii q T h y a t ir a in y dia , iii 2 7 9 ; iv 5 2 . .

l g
.

35 1 ; iv 1 1 1 , 386 ; v 1 1 7
. B u i din o f . . T ibe r , i 4 2 , 5 6 , 5 9 f l I ts re u a tio n
. gl
a s to ne thea tr e by P o mp e ius , v 1 1 7 , 4 7 1 ne gl
e cte d, iv 1 6 9
'
Ca esa r s p r oj e ct . .

l g
.

The b es , th e B o e o tia n, ii 432 F ina ncial . . fo r a te r in its cours e , v 37 6 .

dis tr e s s o f, iii 2 6 5 P i a e s th e ne i h . . ll g g T ibur , i 49 , 1 2 6 I n th e Ar icine ea ue ,

. . l g
g
h ou t in co mmun ities , iii 2 6 5 J oms i 44 5 45 1 R e v o ts fr o m R o m e , i . l
L
. . . .

W i th C r it o la u s a a ins t R o me , iii 2 6 8 g . 447 Abo ut 37 0 , a me m be r o f th e a t in

.

l g lg
.

P unis hm e nt , iii 2 7 2 e a ue , i . 44 8 m Ob i e d t o ce de
.
, 4 50 .

T he b e s , Ph th io tic, ii 4 2 1 .
p a r t o f its t e rr ito ry , but re ma ins in
T he ft, i 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 I ts p u nish me nt miti
. . l l
fe de ra r e a t io n w ith R o me , i 4 6 2 N ot
g l g
. .

a te d, ii 6 5 Of fi e d p r o du ce , i. a R o ma n b u r e s s co mmu n ity , ii 4 ;
9
-
. .

g g
.

1 91 fl iii 2 5 , 36 . Ob ta ins b ur e ss r i h ts by . -

Th e mis cyra , iv 330 . th e J

u ia n la w , iii 5 1 9 l .

T he odos ia , iv 1 5 . T icinu s , fi h t o n th e , ii 2 6 8 f l g .

Th e o do t us , R o ma n p a inte r , iii 2 0 7 . T ifa ta , M o u nt , ii 338 B a t tle o n, iv 7 9 . .

l
.

Th e o p ha nes o f M it y e ne , co nfi da nt of f l T e m p e o f D ia na a t, iv 1 0 8 l .

Po mp e ius , v 4 2 0 . T ig o r ini, iii 435 n . 445 . 449

g
. o

T h e o p h iliscus o f R hodes , i i 4 1 1 . T i ra ne s o f A rm e nia , iv 5 , 2 3, 2 4, 49 . .

Th e o p h r as t u s , ii 44, 1 1 2 . ll
A ia nce w ith M ithr a da tes , iv 1 8 o ins . . J
T h e op o mp us , i 436 ; ii. 1 1 . . g
h im a ain s t R o me , iv 2 7 H is re a t ions . . l
Th er ma e S “ H ime ra
. with R ome , iv 3osf l Co nquers se veral .
534 H I S TO R Y OF R OM E

Par thian s a tra p ie s , Ca p p a do cia , S y r ia , T o rrh e bi in y dia co n fou nded with th e L

l
a nd Ci icia , iv 31 1 , 31 5 31 8 H is p a r t ta ia n E trus ca ns , i 1 5 5 -
. I l .

l l l
.

as r ea t gin , iv 31 8 H is co m p ica
- k g T o r tu r e o n y a p p ie d to s a ves , i 1 92 , 2 0 5
"
. . l . ,

t io ns w ith R o m e , iv 32 0 f , 32 3, 334 To ta = co m mu nity , i 85

L ll
. . .

33 8 H is c o n tes t w ith u cu us a n d T o ug e ni, iii 435 n ) 444 .

l
. .

P o mp e ius , iv 338 347 , 4 0 4 f l V a r ia nce T o w n li fe in A s ia M i nor s timu a te d by

.
- -

w ith M it hr a da te s , iv 40 6 f l Ope n r up P o mp e ius , iv 4 39 442 . .

-

t u re , iv 4 1 0 f l l
S upp ia nt t o P o mp e ius , Tra de s in R o me , a t fi r s t imp o rta nt a nd
l
.

iv 4 1 1 f l h o n o u r e d, i 2 48 Gu i ds , i 2 49 Ex . . .

l g
.

g g g
.

Ti r a nes , s o n o f fo r e o in , iv 40 6 , 433 e us io n o f a r t is a ns fro m s e rvin in th e .

T ig r a no ce r t a , iv 338 n F o u nde d, iv a r my b y th e S e rv ia n re fo rm, i 2

. .
49 f l .
.

31 7 B a tt e o f, iv 339 f l l S ubse u e nt p o s itio n o f, iii 84 Deca y

. q . .

l l
.

T ilp h oss ia n M o u nt , b a tt e a t, iv 37 o f, i n a te r t ime s , iv 1 7 3 . .

T im a e u s , i 435 ; ii 1 1 0 / l ; iii 1 8 6 , 1 8 9 T ra g y r ium, iii 4 2 2

. . .

k
.

T i m a rch us , s a t ra p o f M e dia , ma es h im T raj a n , th e E mp e ror , trea tme nt o f the

s e lf inde p e nde nt , iii 2 8 7 Gr e e s , iii 2 7 3 fi . k .

T im a rch us , S y ria n e nv oy , b rib es the s e n T r a e s ii 474 ; iv 45 ll , . .

a t e , iii 2 9 4 . T r a ns p a da ni c aim bur ess - ri h ts , iv l g g .

T im e , b a s is for me a s ur e me nt o f, i 2 6 3 2 6 4, 4 5 7 f
. 4 69 . 4 74. szz fl : V 1 3: m . .

l
T i m o e o n, ii 4 1 , 1 6 1 .
42 1
T in, t ra de in B r it is h , iii 4 2 0 ; v 1 7 T ra p e zus , iv 1 2 , 332
Lk
. . .

g
T in is , G re e , i 1 87 k
B e s ie e d by S e r T r as im e ne a e , b a t t e a t th e , ii 2 7 8 f .
. g l ’

l
. .

t o r ins , iv 2 8 2 T r a v e s , s cie ntifi c, iv 2 45 n . .

k g l l
.

T ip as , in o f th e M a e di, iii 4 2 8 T r e b a , ba t t e o n th e , ii 2 7 0 f l
L
. .

Tis a e a n p r o m o nt or y , iv 41 T r e b e llius [ p e b tr ib une ,. iv 39 4, . l . .

T i t l e s ( s add les i 5 3, 55 , 5 6 , 2 1 5 39 8 .

Tit inius , w r ite r o f co me dies , ii i 1 6 4 f l ; C T re bo nius , Ca e s a r s ie ute na nt, v 2 2 8

’
l
L
. . .

iv 2 30 Tr e m e lli us [ ua es to r, iii 2 6 3 q
I
. . .
' '

C T itius , o ra t or a b ou t 59 3, iv 2 5 1 Ex Tr es m r z ep u lones , iii 1 1 0 ncre as e d to . . . .

cite s in 6 6 5 m u t in y a a ins t Ca to , iii s e v e n, 1 2 6 g .

5 30 D r a s tic de s cr ip t io n ta e n fr o m Tr es m e ns a r zz, ii 343

. k ’

'
'

h is s pe e ch e s , iv 1 8 7 f l Tr es noctu r m o r cap ita l” , ii. 66

.

S e x Tit ius [t r ib u ne o f th e p e op e , 6 5 iii T re v e r i, v 32 , 37 , 7 2 f l l

L ll
.

l
. .

4 80 C Tria rius , ie u te na nt o f ucu us , iv . .

l
Tit e huntin in r e p ub ica n R o me , iii
-
g l .

43 iii 4 58 .

Tit th i, Ce tibe ria n tribe , iii 2 1 6 l T r ibal li, iii 4 2 5 . .

Q .
'
T itur ius S a b inus, Caesa r s ie u te na n t, Tr ibes o f th e c a ns ( R a m m a ns , Title s , l l ’

V 5 5 , 6 8, 6 9 , 7 °
T ius, iii 2 8 1 ; iv 333
g
T o a , i 89
L u cer es ) , i 5 3 5 6 F o r me r y co mmuni .
-
. l
. t ies , i 85
. Of itt e p rac tical si u i . . l l g
. fi ca nce , i 8 6 f l .

Tog a ta S t e F a bu a
. l
T ribe s , S e rvia n, e v y dis tr icts , i 1 1 7 l
l lgl g l
. .
'

Tog a tz o de s t e a de s i na t io n o f the T hr e e o f th e P a a tine , o ne ( co ll ina ) o f

I l
,

ta l ia ns a s o pp o s e d to t h e C e t ic br a c
'
the uir ina city , i 6 4 f l, 1 0 6 , 1 0
7 Q l . .

ca t z, ii 5 9 ; iii 1 6 4 n v 1 0 T he ir o rder o f p re ce de nce , i 1 0 8 f l

L
. . . .
.

T o le nu s , riv e r in a t iu m , iii 5 1 1 N u mb e r incre as e d t o t w e nty o ne the ir -

L
.

T o le r ini, a bo ut 37 0 , m e m be r o f th e a t in v o tin , i 35 9 f l T h e s e ne w dis tr icts g

l g
.

ea i 4 48 n ue, . .
( l
'

t r z zu s r u s tzca e ) ar os e o u t o f th e l
c an
T o lis to b og i ( o r To listo a g ii) , ii. 40 1 , 46 9 vill g a e s, i 45
. . F o ur ne w o ne s a dded
47 1 ; hr 32 5 in the y e ar 36 7 , i 4 32 T w o o th ers in
l l
» . .

To o sa , iii 40 9 , 436 ;
. v. 8
. S poi o f, iii . th e y e ar 4 2 2 , i 46 2. Tw o mor e in th e.

4 36 , 4 39 . 44° y ea r 4 36 , i 46 3 T w o mo re in th e
k g
. .

T o lu m m iu s , in o f Ve ii , i 4 2 5 .
y e a r 45 5 , i 4 85 ncrease d to th irty . . I
T o ma t oe s , iii 6 4 n . . fi v e : th e fo u r urb a n ra n in as t , i k gl
g I
.

To m bs , E tr us ca n p aintin o f, l. 30 8 .
39 6 f l n tim a te unio n o f t h e re s e c tive
p
Or na m e nts o f, ii 8 1 . ru r a l
t rib e s , i 39 9 D is o r a niza t io n, . . g
To m i, iv 30 7 . iii .

Te r bo le te s , ii 2 46 . Tr ié im a l, i 1 40 , 1 89 .
5 86 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E

ii .6 3, 8 1 f l Lite ra i y s i n ifi ca nce , ii g Va l e r iu s A nt ias , his to ria n, v. 49 6 fl

1 1 2 , 1 1 6 Va l e r us i Ca to , t e ach e r o f L i li at n tera tur e ,
T y nda r is , ii 1 84 v. 4 80
l l i Fl S ll g
.

T y ndar is , p r o m o ntory of, b a tt e o ff th e , C . Va e r us a cons , i u an ov e r no r n

ii 1 78 S p i i 93 a n, v. ; v. 7
L ll l i
.

C V l i
'
Ty r e , ii 1 42 . a e r us T i i r a r u s, ucu us e ute nant,

l g l
.

T y rr h e ne P e as ian s , th e ir - re a t o n i to th e i 3 9 3 4 3
V 2 3 8 4
LVl
. .

E tru s ca ns , i 1 5 5 p a e r i us P li l [
o l co ai 98 co ns u 30 3
LVl i
. .

l 5 9;
.
,

. a e r us Fl [a ccus co ns u , 5 ce nso r ,

ii 4 7 5 ; iii
U 31 , 6 1
LVl i
. .

Fl l
BI I v .
,

U lb ia , ii 1 7 7 .
. a e r us [
a cons 6 co ns u , iii . 4 7
l
U ix e s , w h e nce de r iv e d i 2 5 8 ,
fl i 7
LVl
v. 2 n.
Fl l i
U mb r ia ns , ii 2 2 4 A b r a nch o f th e . a e ri us [
a ccus co ns u , v. 40 ,
I l L g g
. .

ta ia ns , i a n u a e o f, i 1 2 f , 3 74 7 4 298 n . 1 0 2 ft

LVl i
. . .

li
o

g
.

Fl f P m
1 6 f l , 2 8 2 ; ii 1 1 5 W r it in , i 2 7 8 , .
. a e r us a ccus , e ut e nan t o o

g
. .

p A i
e i us in s ia , v. 41 3
2 82 M i r a t io n, i 39 f l, 1 4 3 / l T h e i r
o r i ina
.

g l
dis trict , i 1 43 1 4 7 , 1 5 8 , 4 34
.

— L V l i Fl
. a e r us a ccus [p ra e t or , 69 1 ] de
f d d by C i
e n e ce r o , iv 7 3 n
J o m E trus ca ns in s ur p r is m g C um a e , i V l i
. .
.

M M
’
a e r us ax im u s [ dic ta to r , i
1 58 S ha re in th e S a m ni t e w a r , i 4 80
. .
. .

34 8
f l Th e ir a tt it ude in t h e s e co nd P unic
w ar , i i 34 7 T h e ir a r icu tu r e , i ii g l M
'
V a le r iu s M ax imus M e ssa lla [co ns u ,
. l
l
. . .

P o s it io n t o w a r ds p r o p os a s Of t h e 49 1 ce ns o r , ii 1 7 0 ; iii 44 n .

99
. .
.

g
y o un e r D ru s us , iii 4 86 R e m a in . .
Or de rs th e fi rs t fre s coe s to b e p ainte d
l
fa it hfu in th e S o c ia w a r , iii 50 1 l in R o me , iii 2 0 7 .

l
I
. .

ncip ie nt ins ur re ct io n, iii 5 1 3 f l, 5 1 9 .

M V al e r ius C o r v u s [co nsu , 40 6 , 40 8, 4 1 1 ,
.

ll
.

R e p re s s e d b y S u a , iv 9 1 i 40 3. 4 5 9 m ; iii
4 1 9 . 4 5 4. 1 7
ll l
.
.

N o t ca e d Ga e nus , iii 4 4 n
U rb a n co mm unity co nt ras te d w ith a .

l l
.

M V a e rius L a e v inu s [ cons u , i i.

s ta te , iii 330 f l, 50 5 / l ; iv 1 32 1 34
.
-
. .

Ur ba nita s , 30 5 . 31 4 . 31 7 . 41 5
( 77 55 , i 47
v. 45 2
P Val
. e riu s l
F a t o [ p ra e tor , ii. 1 95
U rs o ,iii 2 2 3
.

.
P Val i
. e r us L a e v inu s [co nsu l , 47 4 ] i i . 1 9,
3 2 1 2
U sa lis in A fr ica , ta x fre e , iii 2 59
P V l i
- ,
.

U s cuda m a ( A drian o p e ) , t o w n o f th e l a e r us P o p lico la , ii. 1 0 5

QVl i ll
.

a e r us Ca tu us , v. 1 40 f l, 4 4 5, 48 1
B e ss i, iv 30 7
.
.

U s ip e tes , v 31 , 37 , 6 0 .
4 83
' V a r da e i S ee A r dy a e i
U s u a r zu m , i 60
.

U s ury , i 36 4, 389 , 390 S ee nt e r e s t

.

I P .V a r in ius [p ra e t o r , e ne r a in g l
.

U s us in ma r r ia e , 1 1 1 3 n g
.

l
G a dia t o r ia w a r , iv 35 8, 35 9 l .

U t ica , iii 2 49 , 39 2 I ts r e a tio ns w ith

.

.
.

l Q .V a r iu s [p e b t rib un e , 6 6 3 l], ii i 50 3, l . .

g
.

Ca r th a e , ii 1 36 , 1 40 f l , 1 5 5 Off e r s .
5 1 6 ; iv 6 7 .

l
its e f to R o me , ii 2 0 7
'
S ci p io s co n . .
V a rr o S ee Te re nt ius
.

fl icts a t , ii 354 , 35 5 H o ds fi r m to . . l Va sco ne s , iv 2 9 7

Va l e s , i 2 86 , 2 9 8 n
.

R o me . u i 2 4 2 . 2 43, 2 44, 2 4s, 2 5 3. a sg

. .

l
f

' P V a t in ius [p e b tr ibu ne , iv 5 1 2 ;

2 87 C u r io s vict o ry a t , v . . .
v . 2 31 .

g
. .

v. 1 38 , 2 85
S ea t o f t he o ve rn o r o f Africa , iii 2 59 f l .

l za , i 9 2
'

V e cf zg a
U x a m a , iv 30 4
.

Ve dio v is , i 1 37 , 2 0 7 , 2 1 2
U m,
.
x e nt u ii . 2 93 '
V e ii, i 1 5 7 R o m e s ne a r e s t ne ig h bo ur
.

a n d chie f o pp o ne n t in E t r u r ia , i 1 5 7
fl
V A CC A S ee Va. g a C o n t e s t W i t h R o m e 1 1 34 T a e n by k
g
.
,

Va cca e i, iii 2 1 9 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 8, 2 2 9, 2 30 , 2 32 R o me , i 4 2 5 4 2 7 A s s i n m e n t o f t e rr i -

iv 97
1 90 , 2 to r y , i 37 8 Co o nize d, i 432 A r t a t, l
Lk l
. . . .

V a di m o ni um b a t t e a t th e , i 4 7 9 a e i 30 6 ; ii 1 2 6
g
.
, .

V a a ( V a cca ) , ii 38 3 ; iii 4 0 2 ; v 2 8 6 . . Ve la br u m , i 6 3 .

V a le nt ia in B r u t t i u m S ee V ib o . V e li a , r id e g be t w e e n P a l a t ine a nd Es q ui
l
Va e n t ia in S p a in, iv 2 9 5 , 2 9 6 Ob ta ins li i 63 ne ,
I l
.

t a lia n m u nicip a co ns t i tu t i o n, iii 2 32 ; . V l l

e ia ( E e a ) , P h o ca e a n co o ny , i l 1 66 I ts
l
. .

lv . 1 90 o ld re a t io ns w it h R o me , i 2 60 .
 I ND E X
l
V e ino , th e , w ide ne d, ii . 85 Via Afi za , i 4 7 1 Co nt inue d to Ca p ua ,
’

. .

Ve lzter , i 9 0 1 1 8 i 47 6 T o Ve nus ia , i 49 3 T o th e
’

I
. . . .

L
.

Ve litrae , a a t in co o ny , i 44 5 a 0p l . . o nia n S ea , ii 39 ; iv 1 66 . .

p o s itio n t o R o me , i 4 47 Ab o ut 37 0 , a Via A u r e lia , ii 37 5 ; iv 1 6 7 .

L
. . .

m e mbe r o f the a t in e a u e , i 4 4 8 l g . V ia Ca s s ia , i 4 86 ii 2 7 4 , 374 ; iv . . .

450 R e vo ts fr o m R o me , i 46 1 l
S e v e re . . 1 67

l
.
'

p u nis hme nt , i 4 6 2 P re s uma b y r e Via D o m itza , ii i 4 1 6 ; iv 1 6 8 . .

g g
. .

ra ined pa s s ive b ur e s s r i h ts , iii 2 3 -

. . Via Eg na tia , iii 2 6 3 ; iv 1 68 . .

T e rra co tta s , ii 1 2 2 - V o scian a n ua e . . l l g g V ia F la m in ia , i 4 85 ; ii. 2 7 4 ; iv 1 66 , . .

ma inta ins its elf th e re , ii 1 2 2 . 1 67

'
V 1a Ga bzm a , i ii 42 7 ; iv 1 67
‘

V e llocass i, iii 44 4 . . .

'
V e nafrum, to wn in S amnium, iii 50 9 V za P os tu m i a , iv 1 6 7
'

. .

I l
Ve ne ti, in ta y , i 1 5 6 , 434 ; ii 2 2 1 , 2 2 4, . .
'

Vza s acr a , i 1 38 n . .

2 2 8, 37 1 ; iii 42 4 V e ne t i in Ga u , v . l . Vza Va ler ia , i 4 85

’

Com/ a r e R oa d . .

l
.

1 5 . 1 6 . 5 5 57 - C. V ib ius P a nsa [p e b tr ib une , v. .

V e nu s , ii 7 1 1 80

L l
.

Ve nus ia, iii 49 2 ; iv 1 6 6 A La tin co o ny ,

. . . l Vibo ( Val e ntia) , a a t in co o ny , ll 5 2 .

i 49 3 R e info rce d, ii 36 6 Po p u ar l 36 5 ; iii 1 0 0

L
. . . . .

tr ib une s a t, ii 5 1 A ttitu de o f, in Py r . . . V ib ullius R u fus , v 2 0 9 , 2 1 0 .

r h ic w a r , ii 2 1 I n seco nd P unic w a r ,. . V ict o r , e me nda tio n o f, iii 4 2 8 n. .

ii 1 90 , 2 9 5, 343 I n S oc ia w a r, iii 5 1 0 , l Victor ia tus , iii 87 .

gl g
. . .

5 1 3. 5 2 3. 5 2 6 Victumulae , o d w as h in s a t, iii 38 1 , 4 1 5 .

Ve r ce lla e , ne ar th e s ce ne o f the b a tt e o f l V iew s , i 45 T uscus , i 1 5 9

. . .

t h e R a u dine P la in, iii 448 a . . V ie nna , v 8 .

V e r cin e to rix , v g i 2 55 n.
L l
. .

.V e r g inius, i 366 . P V illius [co ns u ,

. ii 4 2 8, 432 , 4 5 3 .

V e rm ina , so n o f S yp h ax , ii 382 . V ina l ia , i 2 0 8 .

V e r o na, i 42 3 ; iv 1 6 7 . V inda liu m, ba t t e o f, ii i 4 1 8 , 4 1 9 n l . .

l
.

C V e rr e s , iv 37 3 ; v 40 8
. . . V inde ici, i 42 3 a . .

Vcm , ii 7 6 n . . V inde x , i. 1 9 7
V e ru la e , i 4 85 V i 1 96 .

l
.

V e s o ntio , ca p ita o f S e ua ni, v 46 f l q . V indicius , ii 1 0 5 .

V e s ta , i 2 6 , 8 1 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3, 2 1 6 Te mp e o f, l l
V ine , cu tur e o f the its o r i ina ho me , i g l
I l
. . .

S e rvia n, i 1 40 . Afte r Gre e mode , i k l .

38 Ve r y a ncie nt in ta y , i 2 3, 1 5 8,
. .

k g
.

42 1 1 71 B e fo re th e G r e e imm i r a tio n, i
. .

Vrs ta lia , i 2 09 2 41 P r ies t y su p e rv is io n, i 2 2 5, 2 4 1 fi l

I
. .

l
.

Ves ta s , i 1 0 6 , 1 9 2 , 2 1 7 ; iv 2 0 7
. . ncre as e o f, i 80 , 30 5 ; iv 1 7 2 f M an . .

V es t ibu la r” , i 30 2 . a g e me nt , iii 6 7 n Out a y a nd r e tu r ns , . . l

V e s t ini, i 1 46 , 4 82 S har e in S ocial w ar ,
. . iii 80 n P r o h ib ite d to the Tr a nsa p ine s
. . l
iii 5 0 1 , 5 1 2 , 5 2 2
.
( r ound M ass i ia ) , iii 4 1 5 ; iv l . .

V e s uvius , ba tt e a t , i 45 9 n l . . V irdumarus , ii 2 2 8 .

V e t e ra ns of M a rius , al o t me nts o f a nd to , l l V iria th us , iii 2 2 0 2 2 6 , 2 6 7 .

-

iii 4 6 8 Of S u a , iv 1 0 8 f l
. ll . V itru vius Va ccus , i 46 3 .

g
.

C. V e t ilius , a a ins t V ir ia th us , iii 2 2 1 Ca e lius V ive nna , i 1 5 8

I L ll
. .

P V e t t ius S ca to , ta l ian ea der in S ocia

. l l V oco nius , ie u te na nt o f l
u cu us in t he

w ar, iii 50 9 , 5 1 2 , 5 1 3 . M ithr a da tic w ar , iv 32 9 .

T V e t tius, a t th e hea d of a sla ve-re vo t, l V oco ntii, iii 4 1 7 ; v 8 . .

g ll
.

iii 38 1 V o la t err a e , s ie e by S u a , iv 9 1 Co n .

L
. .

V e t to nes , sh are in us ita nia n w ar, iii 2 1 5 , . fis ca tion, iv 1 0 8 , 2 6 5 Obta ins fr o m . .

2 1 5 8, 2 2 ll
S u a the iu : o f Ar iminum , ii 5 2 n . .

l
.

V e t ulo nium, o ne o f th e t w e ve l Etrus ca n V o ca e Areco mici, iv 2 9 3 ; v 8

- . .

i Volca na l ia , i 2 0 9 ; iii 2 1 7
’

to w ns , . 1 61 . .

V e t u r ii, c a n v i a e , i 4 5 l -
ll g . l
V o ca nus, i 2 0 9 , 2 4 9 .

T V e t ur ius Cal vinus [co nsu ,

. l i .
47 0 l
Vo ci, o ne o f the tw e ve E tr uscan t o w ns , l
Via A e m zlza , fr o m A r im inu m to P
' '
l a ce ntia , i 1 61
. S e p ulchra cha mbe r s , i 2 5 3.
. l .

ii 37 4 ; iv 1 6 7
. . Ar t , i 1 2 6 .

Via A m il ia fro m Luna to Ge nua,

'

ii . l
Vo sci, the ir s e t t e me nts , i 444 T he ir l .

l
.

37 4 w a rs w ith R o me , i 1 35 C ie nts of the . .

588 H I S TOR Y O F R OM E

Etrusm ns , i r 8 r S ubdue d by R o me , . . W inds na mes of th e , h o w fa r bo rr ow ed,

l g
,

i 444 446
. R ev o t a a inst R o m e , i
-
. . i 2 54
.

46 1 .R e ce ive d, in r e a t p art , into t he g k

Wine , Gr e e , importe d to R o me , ui 1 2 3
g
.

k
.

R o ma n bur e ss-union, ii 48 ; iii 2 3 . . Wh e n drun unmix ed, iii 1 2 3 .

Vo ls inii, ch ie f tow n o f E t ruria , i 1 6 1 , . Wine p re se nte d to th e g overnor, iii. 3:

2 50 ; ii 1 2 1 Wars w ith R o me , i
. . . W itness , fa s e , i x9 1 l .

490 .R oman inte r ve ntion in fa v o ur o f l

Wo f, S he o f the Ca p ito , u. 9 2 , 1 0 6 , t a3, l
t h e civic aris t ocracy , i 436 / J ; ii. 57 . 1 2 8
l
V o lt inii, c a n vi la e , i 45 - l g . Woma n p osmo n o f, in th e R o man fami y ,
,
’

l
Vo ltumna, te mp e o f, in Etruria, as. l i. 7 2 7 7 . H er e ma ncipa tio n, iii xa x .
f
s e mbly a nd fa ir a t, i. 2 50 Wo me n in Ca es a r s '
time , v . 39 1 f Act
in the mimes , 4 69 , 5 1 6 5 .
v.
Vo lturnum, u 337 . Wonde rs a nd p rodi ies , w he n recor de d g
l
V o tur nus , i 40 . in th e A nna s , ii l .

V o lux , so n o f B occhus , iii. 40 8 l

Woo sp innin by w o men, i
-
gM en .

ll
Vo te by b a o t, iii 7 3. Co ntrol ed by . l t io ne d in e p ita p hs , i 7 4 u .

L
.

M a rius , iii 1 98 . Words 'bo rrow ed fro m Gre e in atin, i k .

Vow , 1i 2 2 3 . 2 42 n , 12 54, 2 66 Bea r thr oug h out D oric

. .

forms , i. 2 6 0
WALLS so -ca ll d Cy e clo pe a n, arose under Words borrowe d from Latin in S ici ia n l
I l
,

k
Gre e in ue nce in ta y , i 30 2 fl . Gr ee , i 2 54, 2 5 9 k .

l
War, de c ara tio n o f, R oman, i t o r R b . . Wo rds borro w ed fr om Orie ntal ang ua g es l
quire d, in th e ca se o f a re ss iv e w ars , gg reach th e a tin on y thr o u h L
the l g
th e co nse nt o f the bur e sse s , i 9 6 g . . me dium o f th e Gr ee s , i 2 60 in k .

l
.

F o rmu a o f, i 2 0 2 Co mme nce me nt o f, . . Writing ma ter ia s , o des t, i 9 80 l l .

g
s i nifi e d by s in e d b oo dy s ta fi , i zoo g l '
. .

War -chario ts , i 2 9 4/ I , 2 9 6 Ce tic, i 4a r Xa n'r urp m of S pa rta , ii. 1 8: tu., 1 8;

. . l . .

l '
E mp o y e d a a ins t Py rrhus ele p hants , g
ii 2 6. E R , e ide t R o ma n, i 2 6 8 Beg inning Y A . .

Wax e n mas s , iii 1 0 5 k of, fix ed at J a nua ry 1 , iii 2 1 5

. .

l
We a th, R o ma n, iii .

k
We e , R oman, i 2 6 7 Za m r iw s, u. 47 7 , 47 8
Z
.

g
We i h ts , s ta rt in - p o int, i. 2 6 3 / J D uo g
a ma r e ia , ba tt e of, ii 359 36 a. g l .

decima sy s te m, i 2 6 5 l Afterw ards .

'
N umidia n, iii 2 59 S ieg e tn ug urthine
. . . J
ll
mode e d o n the A ttico- S ici ia n, i 2 6 6 w a r , iii 398 m , 40 : l
I l
. .

l
Whea t, cu tiva tio n of, in ta y , ii 7 7 ; iii Za mo lx is , v 1 0 5 .

Z l
.

66 a nc e S ee M essa na .

l l g
Wi d anima s , fi hts o f, in R ome , iii. 1 2 6 Zaria drids , iv 5 .
.

iv 1 83, 1 84
. Z ar ia dr is, ii 473 .

ll g
Wi s , fo re i n to the primitive law , and Ze nice tes , p irate prince, iv. 31 ;
q
r e uir in g
sa nct io n b y decre e o f th e e no, the S to ic, iv r 97 , 1 8
9 Z ‘

Z
.

l
pe o p e , i 9 5 , 1 94 Pr iva te , a rise fro m
. e us, Ve nas ia n, “f 439
. .

th e tr a ns fe r o f all p r o pe rty to a fr ie nd e ux is of y dia, ii 4 1 2 Z L .

during t he o wner’s ife time , i. 1 9 8 : ii l

ie a, ba ttle of, v 9 83 Z l
Z
. .

65 y g i, iv. 4 1 ‘
S9 0 H I S TOR Y OF R OM E
59 2 H I S T OR Y O F R OM E

P r e s e nt
l
E a r ie r F ir s t En gl i h s gl
S e co nd En is h
A me n n ( Cro w n 8v o , ( De m y 8 v o ,
E dit io n
Edi ti ii
d . 1 862 -
6 6)

Vol I I I 3I o V o l I I I
. . . . 1 04 V ol I I I
. . 8 1 Vo l I I I
. . 85
32 0 1 1 4 9° 94
33° I 2 3 98 1 02
1 0 6
34 ° 1 32 1 1 1

35° I 42 1 1 4 1 2 0

36 0 1 51 1 2 2 1 2 8
37 0 1 60 1 30 1 36
380 1 70 I 3S 1 45
39 ° 1 79 1 46 1 53
40 0 1 88 1 55 1 62
41 0 1 98 1 62 1 70
42 0 2 0 8 I 7I I 79
4 30 2 1 6 1 78 1 87
44 0 2 2 6 1 86 1 96
4 50 2 36 I 94 2 04

4 60 2 45 2 02 2 1 2

4 7° 2 55 2 10 2 2 0

4 80 2 64 2 1 8 2 2 9
49 ° 2 74 2 2 6 2 37
50 0 2 84 2 34 2 46
51 0 293 2 42 2 54
52 0 30 2 2 50 2 63
530 31 2 2
58 2 71
54 0 32 1 2 66 2 80

335
344
354
36 3
37 3
38 3
39 2
40 2
41 1
42 1
4S I
44 1
4 5°
4 58
468
4 78
487
49 6
50 6
51 5
52 4
5 34
54 3
553
56 2
59 4 H I S T OR Y OF R OM E .

e rm a n
F ir s t En gl i h
s

( 8t EEdm on) .

V ol I I I
. .
4 2 6 Vol I V . . 41 5
4 34 42 2
44 1 4 30
449 4 38
4 57 44 6
46 5 . 4 54
4 73 46 2
48 1 469
4 89 47 7
496 485
50 4 493
51 2 50 1
52 0 50 9
52 8 51 7
536 52 5
544 S33
55 1 54 0
5 59 54 8
568 556
57 5 56 4
583 5 73
59 1 580
59 9 58 9
60 8 59 7
61 6 60 5
62 4 61 3
6 30 61 9

TH E EN D.