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Unit I : Defining Civilizations, Historiography, Urban Revolution And Bronze Age, Debating Metal Technology

UNIT II : Bronze Age Civilizations: India And China (Shang Dynasty )

UNIT III : Bronze Age Civilizations- Mesopotamia (Sumerian And Akkadian Period)/Egypt (Old Kingdom)
Ecological Context, Kingship And State, Social Pattern And Economy. Art, Religion And Culture

Unit Iv : Ancient Greece: Minoan And Mycenaean

Harappan
Civilization
Why Called Harappan Civilization ?
• Because The Remains Of The
Indus Valley Civilization Were
First Discovered At Harappa
Now In Sahiwal District Of
Pakistan Therefore Called The
Harappan Civilization
Important
harappan sites
 Introduction
• Most Distinctive Artefact Of
Harappan Civilization

• Made Of A Stone (Steatite)

• Images And Signs Of Animals

• Script – Undeciphered Harappan Seal

 Harappan Culture

Terms
- Seals
Culture means - Beads
group of object - Weights
distinctive in - Stones
style - Baked bricks
 Harappan Culture

Time

c.2600 – 1900 BCE

Subsistence Strategies
Of Harappan Civilization
• Harappans Ate Wide
Range Of Grains , Plants /
Animal Products ,
Including Fish
Subsistence Strategies Of Harappan Civilization

Grains

Barley चने Chickpeas

Wheat गेहूं जौ
Subsistence Strategies Of Harappan Civilization

Grains Gujrat

Rice millets
मसर
Lentil
दाल
Rare बाजरा
Subsistence Strategies Of Harappan Civilization

Animal bones
• Cattle
• Sheep
• Goat Domesticated
• Buffalo
• Pig
Horse Was
Not
Domesticated
 Agriculture
• More Difficult To Reconstruct
Actual Agricultural Process

• Method Of Sowing The Seed Was

Not Clear

• Pictures Of Bull On Seals And

Terracotta Sculptures Indicate
Probable Use Of Bull And Oxen Terracotta bull
For Ploughing
 Agriculture

• Models Of Plough Made Of Terracotta Found At Cholistan

(Pakistan) And Banawali (Hissar District , Haryana) Suggest
Their Use Of Plough

• There Is Also Evidence Of A Ploughed Field At Kalibangan

(Rajasthan). The Field Had Two Sets Of Furrows At Right Angles
To Each Other . It Appears That Two Different Crops Were Sown
Together.
 Agriculture
• Archaeologists Have Tried To Identify The Tools For Harvesting –
Whether The Stone Blades Were Used With Wooden Handles Or
Metal Tools Were Used.

• Most Of The Sides Could Be Found In Semi-arid Regions

Indicating The Practice Of Irrigation. Traces Of Canals Have Been
Found In Shortughai In Afghanistan .
 Agriculture
• Wells (Irrigation)

• Water Reservoirs (हौज) Found

In Dholavira (Gujrat)

• Suggest ( Storage Of Water

For Irrigation)
 Planned urban centers
• Excavations Disclosed Indus People Developed Great Urban
Centers .

• Most Unique Feature Of Harappa Civilization

• Mohenjo-Daro (Well Known Site) (Sindh , Pakistan )

• First Site To Be Discovered – Harappa (Pakistan)

Mohenjo-Daro
• Oldest Planned City In The World

• Bank Of River Indus , Larkana District

Of Sindh (Pakistan)

• Mohenjo-Daro – Place Of The Dead

(Many Skeletons Found)

• Chief Center Of Social Activities

Mohenjo-Daro
• Mohenjo-Daro Settlement Is Divided Into Two Sections, One
Smaller But Higher And The Other Much Larger But Lower.

Citadel The Lower Town

Citadel
• The Citadel was built on high platforms of mud bricks, consist of
large building and was surrounded by high wall separating it
from Lower Town.
Citadel
The Lower Town
• Larger But Lower

• Lower Town Was Also

Walled .

• Several Buildings Were

Built On Platforms , Which
Served As Foundations.
The Lower Town
• Lower Town Was Much Larger And
Was A Residential Town. Many
Buildings Were Built On A High
Platform.

• It Appears That The Settlement Was

Planned.
Signs Of Planning 10
• Fixed Ratio Of Bricks

• Length And Breadth

= 2 X Height

• Mud Bricks Were

5
Uniformly Used Of The 10
Same Size In Length And
Width.
 Laying out drains
• Another Distinctive Feature Of
Harappan Cities Was The Drainage
System. The Roads And Streets
Were In Grid Pattern Intersecting At
Right Angles.
Grid Pattern
 Laying out drains
• It Looked As If The Streets Were Laid First And Then The
Houses Were Built So That The Domestic Water From Every
House Flows Into The Street Drains.
 Laying Out Drains
• They Were Covered With Big Bricks And Stones Which
Could Be Lifted Easily To Clean The Drains .

• All This Shows That The Indus Valley People Took Great Care
To Keep Their Cities Neat And Clean .
 Domestic architecture
Buildings

Residential Public baths

Large buildings
 Domestic architecture

Residential
• Many were centered on a
courtyard, with rooms on all
sides. The courtyard was
probably the center of activities
such as cooking and weaving,
particularly during hot and dry
weather.
 Domestic architecture

Residential
• Each House Had Its Well And
Drainage System.

• Built Of Bricks (Burnt And Good

Quality)
 Domestic Architecture

Residential
• Privacy – No Windows

• Own Bathroom – Bricks

• With Drains Connected Through

The Wall To The Street Drains.
 Domestic Architecture

Residential
• Staircases

• Wells ( total – 700)

Citadel
 Domestic Architecture
The citadels
• Harappan settlements
had small citadels
• Built for special public
purposes :
warehouses, great
bath
 Domestic Architecture
Great bath
• The Great Bath
Was A Walled
Water Tank
Probably Used
For A Special
Ritual Bath.
 Domestic Architecture
Great Bath
• Made Of Burnt
Bricks

• Connected With Fine

Drainage System
(Filling /Emptying)
 Domestic Architecture
Great Bath
• Steps On The North
And South Leading
Into The Tank,
 Domestic Architecture
Great Bath
• There Were Rooms On
Three Sides , In One Of
Which Was A Large Well
To Fill The Pool With
Water. After Periodic
Cleaning Of The Tank, The
Water Was Discharged
Into A Huge Drain.
 Craft Production
• The Harappans Were Gifted
With Great Talent Regarding
Crafts Industries

• Chanhudaro - Tiny Settlement

• Chanhudaro Settlement Was

Devoted To Craft Productions
Using Variety Of Materials.
Pottery
• Among the remains discovered at Harappan settlements, pottery forms an important
category. It represents the blending of ceramic traditions of Baluchistan and cultures
east of the Indus system. Most of the Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is
treated with a red slip and black painted decoration.

• The painted decorations consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf patterns,
scales, chequers, lattice work , palm and Pipal trees. Birds, fishes and animals are also
shown. Among notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are pedestal, dishes,
goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over, and various kinds of bowls. The uniformity
in forms and paintings on pottery is difficult to explain
• Craft Production : Bead Making , Shell Cutting , Metal Working ,
Weight Making
Variety Of Materials Used To Make Beads

Stones Metals Other Materials

Carnelian
Copper Shell
Jasper
Bronze Terracotta
Crystal
Gold
Quartz
Steatite
Shapes
Disc Shaped
Cylindrical Shape

Spherical Barrel Shape

Segmented
 Strategies For Procuring Materials

1. Establishing Settlements
• Shortughai - Lapiz Lazuli (Blue Stone) • Metal – Rajasthan

• Nageshwar And Balakot – Shells

• Lothal – Carnelian

• Steatite – North Gujrat And South

Rajasthan)
2. Sending Expeditions
• Khetri (Rajasthan) – Copper

• South India – Gold

• These Expeditions Established

Communication With Local Communities.
Contact With Distant Lands
• The Archaeological Evidences
Found At The Ancient Sites Point
Towards The Contact Of Harappans
With Other Contemporary
Civilizations

• Copper Was Brought From – Oman

On The Southeastern Tip Of The Arabian Peninsula
• Chemical Analyses Have Shown That Both The
Omani Copper And Harappan Artefacts Have
Traces Of Nickel, Suggesting A Common Origin.

A Large Harappan Jar Coated

With A Thick Layer Of Black Clay
Has Been Found At Omani Sites.
Such Thick
Coatings Prevent The Percolation
Of Liquids.
Mesopotamian Texts
• Refer To Copper Coming
From A Region Called
Magan, Perhaps A Name
For Oman,
 Seals , Scripts , Weights
• Seals And Sealings
Helped In Long
Distance
Communication
 Seals , Scripts , Weights
• Bag Of Goods Were Sent From One Place To Another With Its
Mouth Tied With Rope .

• The Knot Was Attached With Some Wet Clay On Which One Or
More Seals Were Pressed , Leaving An Impression.

• If The Bag Reached With Its Sealing Intact It Meant That It Had
Not Been Tampered . The Sealing Also Told The Identity Of The
Sender
Scripts

The Harappan Script Remains Undeciphered Till Date. It Was

Not Alphabetical, Includes Many Signs. (Pictorial Script)
Scripts
• Most Inscriptions Are Very Short

• Longest One Contains About 26

Signs

• The Script Remains Undeciphered As

It Has Too Many Signs ( Somewhere
Between 375 And 400)
Scripts
• It Is Apparent That The Script Was
Written From Right To Left

• Variety Of Objects On Which

Writings Have Been Found :-

Copper Tools , Rims Of Jar , Copper ,

Terracotta Tablets , Seals, Jewellery
Weights
Weights
• Exchanges Were Regulated
By A Precise System Of
Weights As Archaeologists
Mention

• Weights Were Made Of

Stones Called Chert And
Generally Cubical With No
Markings
Religion
• No Temples Or Any Positive Religious Material
Has Been Discovered In Harappa And
Mohenjodaro

• It Is Probable That They Had Developed, A

Complex Religion Based On The Worship Of
Mother Goddess And Animals
 Mother goddess
• The people worshipped in
mother goddess or earth
goddess

• People believed in female

energy as the source of all
creation John Marshall named
it as Maha devi
 Worship of shiva
• A Male God Was Also Worshipped
By The Indus Valley People On A
Seal We Find A Three Faced Figure
Sitting Cross Legged In The Posture
Of A Yogi Wearing A Horned
Headdress Surrounded By Animals
Such As Elephants Tigers And
Buffaloes
 Worship of shiva
• The Figure Is Identified As Lord
Shiva Who In Later Literature Is
Described As Maha Yogi And
Pasupati
Animal Worship
• The Indus Valley People Also Worshiped Animals Like The
Bull ,The Tiger. The Goat, The Rhinoceros ,The Crocodile And
The Snakes

• Some Of The Animals Worshipped By The Indus Valley

People Later Taken On Became The Vahanas Of Some Hindu
Gods

• Buffalo – Yama , Tiger – Kali , Elephant – Indra , Bull – Shiva

 Worship Of Trees
• The People Of Indus Valley
Also Worshiped Trees One
Of The Sacred Trees Was
The Peepal Tree Which
Continues To Be An Object
Of Worship Among The
Hindus Even Today
The End Of Civilization

1. Floods
Frequent Occurrence Of
Floods In The Indus
Might Have Submerged
Vast Territories And Thus
Buried Them Under Thick
Layers Of Mud
 2. Famines
• It Is Possible That The Rainfall
In Sindh Which Might Have
Been More Plentiful Than It Is
Now Could Have Become
Scanty And Sindh Might Have
Become A Desert As A Result
The People Might Have
Migrated To Other Areas
3. Earthquakes
• It Is Also Possible That Earthquakes Might
Have Brought A Havoc In The Indus Valley

• Vast Areas Might Have Been Split Thus

Destroying The Cities
 4. Changes In
The Course Of
River Indus
5. Invasions Of Aryans
• Probably The Invasions Of
The Aryans Brought About
The End Of The Flourishing
Indus Civilization Because
Soon After The Harappan
Culture Vanished A Warrior
Race Called The Aryans Fell
Upon India
Shang
Dynasty
• The Bronze Age in China began at Erlitou in the
central valley of the Yellow River, to the
southeast of modern Luoyang City in Henan
Province, near where the Luo River meets the
Yellow River.

• the Bronze Age was known as the era of “The

Three Dynasties” (sandai), a term derived
from tales of mythic dynastic founders with
sage-like and even magical powers.

• These Three Dynasties are individually known

by the names Xia, Shang, and Zhou.
Because the Three Dynasties’ civilization occupied the Yellow River valley, this geographic area
is often called the birthplace or cradle of Chinese civilization.

The Kingdom

• the Shang Dynasty was founded sometime around 1600 BCE by a virtuous man named
Cheng Tang, who overthrew the evil king of the legendary Xia.

• The Shang Dynasty was a monarchy governed by a series of kings, 29 or 30 in total, over the
course of almost 600 years.

• The king was served by officials who held specialized positions of authority and function;
and the officials belonged to a hereditary class of aristocrats, usually related to the king
himself.
• Cheng Tang is said to have
established the dynasty’s first
capital at a town called Shang
(near modern-day Zhengzhou),
but later kings moved the
capital many more times, the
last being a place called Yin
(near modern-day Anyang).
Religion

• The Shang worshipped the “Shang Di,” who was the supreme god that ruled over the lesser
gods of the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain, and other natural forces and places.

• They also worshipped their ancestors because they believed that although their ancestors
lived in heaven after their death.

• they sacrificed animals to royal ancestors and to various nature gods.

• the Shang believed in the afterlife and ancestor worship

Economy

• The basis of Erlitou’s economy was agriculture.

• Farmers in the extensive hinterland of the city of Erlitou grew staple grains such as wheat,
various types of millet, and rice (in southerly areas), as well as vegetable crops, and
raised domestic animals such as chickens, pigs, and silkworms.

• Trade clearly made an important contribution to the wealth of Erlitou Culture. Salt, copper,
jade, cowries, turquoise, kaolin clay, precious stones, timber, animals, foods, and fine
crafted goods were imported into Erlitou both from nearby towns
Bronze Production

• The Shang Dynasty existed during China’s bronze age.

• At that time, bronze represented power, wealth, and luxury.

• By looking at the way bronze was used by the Shang, only those with any degree of power
in the kingdom had access to using bronze objects.

• Bronze was not used for common tools, such as hammers.

• Shang bronzes fall into two categories: weapons or ceremonial vessels for food and wine.
By far, most of the pieces are ceremonial vessels and speak of a society and culture that
valued rituals, such as rituals for burial, celebration, and worshipping gods and ancestors
• The advancement of bronze technology and the use of bronze weapons gave the Shang
military great advantage over their enemies and completely changed the way they fought
wars.

• The chariot, which had most likely been introduced from western Asia, completely changed
the way battles were fought.

• Chariots allowed commanders to supervise their troops efficiently and across great
distances.
 The Shang Dynasty ended in about 1050 BCE, when
conquerors from the state of Zhou invaded the capital and
successfully toppled the Shang Dynasty