Highway engineers are interested in the basic engineering properties of soils

because soils are used extensively in highway construction. Soil properties are

of significant importance when a highway is to carry high traffic volumes with a

large percentage of trucks. They are also of importance when high embankments

are to be constructed and when the soil is to be strengthened and used as interme-

diate support for the highway pavement. Thus, several transportation agencies have

developed detailed procedures for investigating soil materials used in highway

construction.

This chapter presents a summary of current knowledge of the characteristics and

engineering properties of soils that are important to highway engineers, including the

origin and formation of soils, soil identification, and soil testing methods.

Procedures for improving the engineering properties of soils will be discussed in

Chapter 19, Design of Flexible Pavements.

17.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin, formation,

grain size, and shape. It will be seen later in this chapter that the principal engineering

properties of any soil are mainly related to the basic characteristics of that soil.

17.1.1 Origin and Formation of Soils

Soil can be defined from the civil engineering point of view as the loose mass of min-

eral and organic materials that cover the solid crust of granitic and basaltic rocks of

the earth. Soil is mainly formed by weathering and other geologic processes that occur

on the surface of the solid rock at or near the surface of the earth. Weathering is the

result of physical and chemical actions, mainly due to atmospheric factors that change

the structure and composition of the rocks. Weathering occurs through either phys-

ical or chemical means. Physical weathering, sometimes referred to as mechanical

weathering, causes the disintegration of the rocks into smaller particle sizes by the

action of forces exerted on the rock. These forces may be due to running water, wind,

freezing and thawing, and the activity of plants and animals. Chemical weathering

occurs as a result of oxidation, carbonation, and other chemical actions that decom-

pose the minerals of the rocks.

Soils may be described as residual or transported. Residual soils are weathered in

place and are located directly above the original material from which they were

formed. Transported soils are those that have been moved by water, wind, glaciers,

and so forth, and are located away from their parent materials.

The geological history of any soil deposit has a significant effect on the engi-

neering properties of the soils. For example, sedimentary soils, which are formed by

the action of water, are usually particles that have settled from suspension in a lake,

river, or ocean. These soils range from beach or river sands to marine clays. Soils that

are formed by the action of wind are known as aeolian soils and are typically loess.

Their voids are usually partially filled with water, and when submerged in water, the

soil structure collapses.

Soils also may be described as organic when the particles are mainly composed of

organic matter or as inorganic when the particles are mainly composed of mineral

materials.

17.1.2 Surface Texture

The texture of a soil can be described in terms of its appearance, which depends

mainly on the shapes and sizes of the soil particles and their distribution in the soil

mass. For example, soils consisting mainly of silts and clays with very small particle

sizes are known as fine-textured soils, whereas soils consisting mainly of sands and

gravel with much larger particles are known as coarse-textured soils. The individual

particles of fine-textured soils are usually invisible to the naked eye, whereas those of

coarse-textured soils are visible to the naked eye.

It will be seen later in this chapter that the engineering properties of a soil are

related to its texture. For example, the presence of water in fine-textured soils results

in significant reduction in their strength, whereas this does not happen with coarse-

textured soils. Soils can therefore be divided into two main categories based on their

texture. Coarse-grained soils are sometimes defined as those with particle sizes

greater than 0.05 mm, such as sands and gravel, and fine-grained soils are those with

particle sizes less than 0.05 mm, such as silts and clays. The dividing line of 0.05 mm

(0.075 mm has also been used) is selected because that is normally the smallest grain

size that can be seen by the naked eye. Since there is a wide range of particle sizes in

soils, both the coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils may be further subdivided,
as will be shown later under soil classification.

The distribution of particle size in soils can be determined by conducting a sieve

analysis (sometimes known as mechanical analysis) on a soil sample if the particles are

sufficiently large. This is done by shaking a sample of air-dried soil through a set

of sieves with progressively smaller openings.