Chemistry - Notes

Class Combined & Coordinated Sciences

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Teacher Ms. Parinaz Dastoor

States of Matter
3 States of Matter

Table to show the characteristics

State Arrangement Movement Volume Density Shape

Vibrate about
Solid Lattice their fixed Fixed High Definite
position

Close together, Slide past each

Liquid Fixed Moderate Indefinite
irregular other

Spread far
Random
Gas apart, totally Not fixed Low Indefinite
movement
irregular

Changes in state

Temperature or pressure can cause a change in state

Melting (Temprature increase, pressure decrease)

Solid to liquid

Melting point

When a solid is heated

Boiling (Temprature increase, pressure decrease)

Liquid to gas

Boiling point

When liquid is heated up

Molecules escape from the entire liquid not only the surface

Evaporation

Liquid to gas

Occurs at a temperature lower than boiling point

Chemistry - Notes 1
 Molecules escape from surface

Slower than boiling

Condensation (Temprature decrease, pressure increase)

Gas to liquid

Heat is given out to surroundings

When gas is cooled

Freezing (Temprature decrease, pressure increase)

Liquid to solid

When liquid is cooled

Freezing point (same as melting point)

Pure vs Impure substances

Pure substances

Only one substance, no impurities

Melts and boils at a definite and precise temperature

Impure substances

Melts and boils over a range of temperatures, not at a precise point

Effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of gas

More temperature = More kinetic energy and particles occupy larger volume

More pressure = Pushes particles closer and particles occupy smaller volume

Kinetic Particle Theory

All matter is made up of very small particles (atoms, molecules, ions)

Particles are moving all the time (higher temperature, higher average energy of the particles)

Freedom of movement and arrangement of particles is different for the three states of matter

Pressure of a gas is produced by atoms or molecules hitting the walls of the container. The
more often the particles collide, the greater the pressure

Intermolecular Space

Space between molecules

Heating and cooling curves

Illustration to show a cooling curve

Chemistry - Notes 2
 Diffusion

Particles move down a concentration gradient

Rate of diffusion in liquids > rate of diffusion in gases

Diffusion of gases

Gases diffuse to fill up all the space available to them

Collisons with other particles slow down the rate of diffusion

Mass and diffusion

The higher the mass, the slower the diffusion rate

Lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier ones

Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Elements, compounds and mixtures

Elements

A substance that cannot be further divided into simpler substances by chemical methods

Compounds

A substance where two or more elements are chemically combined

Mixture

A substance where two or more elements are mixed together without being chemically
combined

Compounds vs Mixtures

Table to show the differences

Chemistry - Notes 3
 Compounds Mixtures

Single substance 2 or more substances

Involves chemical reaction No chemical reaction

Properties are different from the elements present in the Properties of the elements in the mixture are still
compound present

Atomic structure and periodic table

Structure of the atom

English Chemist - John Dalton (1807)

Atoms were the basic building blocks of the elements

Indivisible particles that could join together to make molecules

Discovery of Subatomic Particles (Chronological Order)

Electron - 1897

Proton - Unknown

Neutron - 1932

Subatomic Particles

Proton

Positively charged subatomic particle, inside the nucleus

Relative mass of 1

Charge of +1

Neutron

Neutral subatomic particle, inside the nucleus

Relative mass of 1

Charge of 0

Electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle, in orbits / shells around the nucleus

Relative mass of 1/1840 (negligible)

Charge of -1

Proton number and nucleon number

Proton number / Atomic number

Number of protons in an atom

Depicted as ‘Z’

Mass number / Nucleon number

Number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom

Depicted as ‘A’

Chemistry - Notes 4
 Format

AXZ

X = Element Symbol

Calculations

Protons

Neutrons

A–Z

Electrons

Z (factoring in ionic charge)

Electronic Configuration

Niels Bohr, working with Ernest Rutherford in 1913 developed an atomic theory

Electrons are in orbit around the nucleus of the atom

Electron orbits are called energy shells and have different energies

Shells are filled starting with the one with the lowest energy (closest to the nucleus)

First shell can only hold 2 electrons

Second and subsequent shells hold 8 electrons (only true for first 20 elements)

Full shells are the most stable arrangement

Noble gases

Stable electron arrangement

‘Full’ outer shell

Very low reactivity

Do not form bonds with other atoms as they are already stable

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that have the same proton number but a different number of
neutrons hence a different nucleon or mass number

The nucleon number of the element is calculated by taking the average nucleon number,
considering it’s proportion

Formula to calculate the average nucleon number of an element

((Isotope Nucleon 1 x Proportion in percentage) + (Isotope Nucleon 2 x Proportion in

percentage)) / 100

Characteristics

Same chemical properties as they have the same atomic number, therefore the same
electronic configuration

Chemistry - Notes 5
 Same physical properties as they have different mass

Chemical Bonding

Types of Compounds

Molecular / Covalent Compounds

Atoms are bonded together by shared electrons

Stable electronic configurations

Each atom contributes an equal number of electrons to each bond (there are many
exceptions)

Properties

Liquids or gases at room temperature

Low melting and boiling points

Inter-atomic forces are very strong

Inter-molecular forces are weak and are relatively easily broken

Do not conduct electricity

Ionic Compounds

Ions (charged atoms) are held together due to the charges / forces on the ions
(negative and positive)

Held together by electrostatic forces

Strong forces of attraction between particles with opposite charges

Properties

Solid at room temperature

Regular lattice structure

Each ion is surrounded on 4 sides with an ion of opposite charge

High melting and boiling points

Soluble in water

Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water (not when solid)

Types of bonding

Ionic Bonding

Definition

A strong electrostatic force of attractions between oppositely charged ions that

bonds them

Ions

Charged particles made from an atom, or groups of atoms (compound ions), by

the loss or gain of electrons

Chemistry - Notes 6
 Types

Cations (positively charged, lost electron(s))

Metals usually lose / give electrons (groups 1 - 3)

Anions (negatively charged, gained electron(s))

Non-metals usually gain / get electrons (groups 4 - 7)

Covalent Bonding

Definition

Chemical bonding formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons

between atoms

Types of molecules

Simple molecules

Diatomic Molecules

Molecules containing 2 atoms

Single bond

Where each atom contributes only one electron

Giant Covalent Structures

Macromolecules / Giant Molecular Crystals

Held together by strong covalent bonds

Diamond And Graphite

Structure

Diamond

Each carbon atom attached to 4 others

Atoms are arranged tetrahedrally

All atoms are bonded to each other via covalent bonds

Properties

High melting point as it’s strong covalent bonds extend in all directions
through the whole crystal

Does not conduct electricity

Hardest natural substance

Colourless, transparent

Sparkles in light

Graphite

Carbon atoms in flat layers of linked hexagons

Layers

Chemistry - Notes 7
 Each layer is a 2D giant molecule

Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others by strong covalent bonds

Between the layers there are weaker forces of attraction which results in
layers being over to slide over each other easily

Properties

Dark grey

Shiny solid

Soft

Layers can slide over each other

Slippery

Conducts electricity due to the 1 free electron

Uses

Diamond

Cutting tools

Drill bits

Diamond saws

Glass-cutters

Jewellery

Ornamental Objects

Graphite

Pencils

Lubricant

Electrodes

Brushes in electric motors

Metallic Bonding

Definition

Electrostatic force of attraction between the mobile ‘sea’ of electrons and the regular
array of positive metal ions (cations) within a solid metal

How it occurs

Metals lose it’s outer electrons in a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons to become stable and
become cations (positively charged ions)

‘Sea’ of delocalised electrons

Free, mobile electrons between the positive ions in a metallic lattice

Chemistry - Notes 8
 Because the metal atoms have lost electrons, they become positively charged ions or
cations. The charge of electrons are negative so the metal cations are attracted to the
mobile negatively charged electrons around them causing an electrostatic force of
attraction and hence there is bonding

The Periodic Table

Arrangement of Elements

Groups and Periods

Groups

Vertical columns of elements with similar properties

Atoms of the same group have the same number of electrons in their outermost orbit

Periods

Horizontal rows of elements

Atoms in the same period have the same number of orbits or energy levels

Metals and Non - Metals

Seperation

Separated by a diagonal divider of metalloids (semi-metals)

Metalloids

Shows some of the properties of metals and non-metals

Metals

Left side of the periodic table

Groups 1 - 3

Non metals

Top right side of the periodic table

Groups 4 - 7

Hydrogen

Is separate from the rest of the elements on the periodic table as it is the smallest atom of
all and the properties are unique

Does not fit into the trends or belong to any one group

Electronic Configuration

Atomic number can tell us the amount of electrons an atom has in it’s natural form

The electrons are distributed into orbits or energy levels

1st orbit

Holds 2 electrons

2nd orbit and further

Chemistry - Notes 9
 Holds 8 electrons

Group 1 Properties

Alkali metals

Form an alkaline solution when they react with water

Table to show properties

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Soft Highly reactive (most reactive group)

Reach with oxygen, so they are stored

Solid
in oil

Light-grey, silvery surface which

Low melting points
tarnishes after sometime of being cut

Low densities

Trends

Trend Pattern down the group

Melting and boiling points Decrease

Hardness Softer

Densities Increase

Reactivity increases

Group 7 Properties

Halogens

Table to show properties

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Relatively reactive (most reactive non-

metals

Diatomic molecules

Trends

Trend Pattern down the group

Reactivity Decreases

Melting and boiling points Increase

Densities Increase

State of matter Gas to solid

Intensity of colour Pale to dark

Transition Elements

Location

They are located in the middle of the periodic table

Chemistry - Notes 10
 Also known as transition metals

Table to show properties

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Hard Less reactive than metals in group 1 and 2

Strong Corrosion resistant

High Density Variable oxidation states

Produce coloured compounds

Can act as catalysts

High melting and boiling points

Noble Gases

Table to show properties

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Non-reactive

Atoms do not combine to make molecules

or any structure

Complete outer shell of 8 electrons

Stable electronic configuration

Generally exist as single atoms

Metals
Properties of Metals

Physical Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

Meaning of Properties

Melting point

The temperature at which a substance melts or becomes liquid

Boiling point

The temperature at which a substance boils or becomes gas

Electrical Conductivity

The ability of a substance to conduct electricity

If a substance has good conductivity, they are conductors

If a substance has poor conductivity, they are insulators

Thermal Conductivity

The ability of a substance to conduct heat or thermal energy

If a substance has good conductivity, they are conductors

If a substance has poor conductivity, they are insulators

Chemistry - Notes 11
 Malleability

The ability of a substance to be bent or beaten into shape

Ductility

The ability of a substance to be drawn out and stretched into wires

Luster

The reflectiveness or shininess of a metal

Table

Physical Property Metals Non-Metals

Melting and boiling points High Low

Poor, insulators (except

Electrical Conductivity Good, conductors
graphite)

Good, they are

Thermal Conductivity Poor (except diamond)
conductors

Malleability Good Poor, not malleable

Ductility Good Poor, brittle

Luster High, lustrous Low, dull

Chemical Properties of Metals

Reactivity Series

List

Lithium (Li)

Potassium (K)

Sodium (Na)

Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg)

Aluminum (Al)

Carbon (C) - included for reference

Zinc (Zn)

Iron (Fe)

Tin (Sn)

Lead (Pb)

Hydrogen (H) - included for reference

Copper (Cu)

Silver (Ag)

Gold (Au)

Chemistry - Notes 12
 Key

Blue Colour - Reacts with cold water to give hydrogen, react very strongly with
HCl and other acids to give hydrogen

Green Colour - Reacts with steam to give hydrogen, reacts less strongly with HCl
and other acids to give hydrogen

Purple Colour - Does not react with steam or cold water, reacts very mildly with
HCl and other acids to give hydrogen

Red Colour - Does not react with steam or cold water, does not react with HCl
and other acids to give hydrogen

Orange Colour - Included for reference

Uses of Metals

Aluminium

Aerospace Applications (Planes)

High strength-to-weight ratio (lightweight, yet strong)

Constructive Purposes (Cars, naval vessels)

High strength-to-weight ratio (lightweight, yet strong)

Food and Beverage Containers (Cans)

Lightweight and corrosion resistant

Corrosion resistant because of the protective layer of aluminium oxide that forms
on its surface

Electrical Cables

Conductor of electricity

Aluminium Foil Containers for Food

Corrosion Resistant

Window Frames

Resistant to weathering

Copper

Water Pipes and Roofs

One of the least reactive metals in common use

Statues

Become coated with a green layer of basic copper (II) carbonate known as verdigris
when exposed to the atmosphere for a long time

Electric Cables and Domestic Wiring

High electrical conductivity and very ductile

Circuit Boards of Smartphones

Chemistry - Notes 13
 Can be highly refined to very pure form using electrolysis so conductivity of electricity
can be maximised

Alloys and their Properties

An alloy is a compound of two or more metals in order to perform a certain function or use

Formed by mixing molten metals together and allowing them to cool

Properties and Uses

Particular
Alloy Composition Particular Uses
Properties

‘gold’ coloured
musical
Harder than pure instruments,
Brass Copper, Zinc
copper ornaments,
electrical
connections

Harder than pure Statues, bells,

Bronze Copper, Tin
copper machine parts

Stronger and
Mild Steel Iron, Carbon harder than pure Car bodies
iron

Cutlery, surgical
instruments,
Iron, Chromium, Harder than pure
Stainless Steel reaction vessels in
Nickel, Carbon iron, does not rust
the chemical
industry

Lower melting
point than tin or Making electrical
Solder Tin, Lead
lead, electrical connections
conductivity

Structure

Contain atoms of different types distributed throughout the structure

Chemistry - Notes 14
 Regular lattice arrangement

Held together by metallic bonding (delocalised electrons between layers)

Contains ‘impurity atoms’ (larger atoms than the other ones) which make the layers more
difficult to slide over each other

This results in the alloys being harder and stronger but more brittle than the metals it
is made from

Alloys share the same characteristic properties (electrical and thermal conductivity) as
the metallic elements

Chemistry - Notes 15