CHAPTERT MOTION IN A PLAI ‘Components of Motion Components of motion is the components of vector quantities in rectangular or x and y directions. ‘Motion was generally limited to one-dimensional or straight-line situations, with the motion taken along the x- or y-axis. For example, suppose an object moves with a constant velocity along a path at some angle to the x-axis. The constant velocity vector may be resolved into x and y components, vy and vy, where v= vyx + vyy. The displacement components in the x and y directions are then expressed by the equations x= Vet y =vyt ¥ Fig. 1.1 Components of motion. Example 1.1 An airplane flies on a heading 30° north of cast with a speed of 150 kava. How far will it travel in 2.0 hours? Vx = ¥ cos = (150 knv/h) cos30° = 130 km/h vy=v sin @ = (130 knv/h) sin30° = 75 km/h ‘The component distances traveled in 2.0 hours are then X= Vy 130 kin/h) x (2.0 b) = 260 km y= vyt=(75 kmvh) x (2.0) = 150 km Hence, the actual path length of the motion is d= fety? = (260)? + G50)? = 300 km <= Atan angle of @Projectile A projectile is an object upon which the only force is gravity. Projectile motion Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an object or particle (called a projectile) is thrown near the earth's surface, and it moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only. The only force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts downward to cause a downward acceleration. Projectile motion is equivalent to two different motions occurring at the same time. ‘The object moves aiong the horizontal direction with constant velocity and it moves inthe vertical direction with a constant downward acceleration of magnitude g = 9.8 ms", Projections at an Angle (2) Time of Flight(T) For maximum height (H), Wy = erst 0 =vosin Q=gt ¢, aYesin, @ Ta, = resid, gQ) Maximum Height(H) le =Vot-tgt Yavot= 58 H= v,sin0,t, - jet i 17 = ssi | ! | (vgsind,¥ _ 1 (vasing, 2 (3) Horizontal Range(R) Revyot = v,008, 2v,sin®, _ ¥aQ2sind,cosd,) 8 vasin20, g R sind, cost, (4) Maximam Range (Roux) For maximum range 0,=45° visin(2x 45°) g R, 4 8 The speed (magnitude of the velocity) of the projectile at any instant is v= je +vi The direction of the velocity of the projectile at any instant is @ = tan’ ~2. Ve Note: The time taken is the same for both horizontal and vertical motions, Example 1.2 An airplane flies on a heading 30° north of east with a speed of 150 km/h. How far will it travel in 2.0 hours? Solution: Given: v= 150 kin/h, 9 = 30°, and t= 2.0 b, ‘Then, resolving the velocity into x and y components, ¥ cos @ = (150 knv/h) cos 30°= 130 km/h vsin 6 = (150 km/h) sin 30° = 75 knv/h‘The component distances traveled in 2.0 hours are then X~ Vat = (130 krn/h)(2.0 h) = 260 km and y= vyt = (75 ken/h)(2.0 h) = 150 km Hence, the actual path length of the motion is deyx?+y? d= (2607 + (150) =300km eas @=tan'@y= ean SSP 30° ( north of east or relative to the x-axis.) x Vertical Projections Vertical projections are in one dimension and involve objects that have been projected either vertically upward or downward. Example 1.3 A person throws a ball vertically upward with an initial velocity of 48 fi/s. (a) How high above the point of release does the ball go? (b) How long after being thrown does it take for the ball to return to its starting point? Solution; (@)__Itis given that vjo = 48 fis. vy =0 at this point, = Vig ~2gy and 2 Yio __ (4880s) sh = set lands 20m from the building. lie ~y=Vot—=1 Y= Vol ze and Example 1.5 Suppose the projectile were given an initial velocity of 14 m/s at an angle of 60° relative to the horizontal. What are (a) the maximum height and (b) the range of the projectile? Solution: With ¥, = 14 mvs and @ = 60°, the x and y velocity components are Vo =¥50050=¥, cos 60° = (14 m/s) (0.500) = 7.0 mis Vio = Vosin® = vosin 60° = (14 mis) (0.866) = 12 mis (2) maximum height (Vmax), where v, = 0 Vy = Vo Bt=0 and the upward travel time ty is 1, = te 2 12s tos .8a/s* Then, Yur =¥yo ty ~ Fatt = (12m. 23)-1 0 8mist)f.2s) =73m => (&) The total time for both up and down vertical motions is t= 2 —20.2s)=24s, During this time, the projectile travels a horizontal distance of R=x= Vyot™ (7.0. m/s)(2.4 5) = 17m = 5-Example 1.6 An artillery shell with a muzzle velocity of 4.0 x 10° fs is fired at an angle of 35° to the | horizontal. If the shell explodes 10 s after being fired, what is its location? Solution: Itis given that vo= 4.0 X 102 ft's, @=35°, and t= 10 s. Then, ‘Yao = ¥eoos 35° = (4.0 x 10° ft/s)(0.819) 3 x 10° fs Vig =V, Sin 35° =(4.0 x 10? fi/s)(0.574) = 2.3 x 102 fis and KEVot = (3.3 x 10? fi/s\(10 s) =3.3 x 10° — = (2.3 x 10° fi/s)(10 s) 4 (32 fr/s*\(10 s)* =(2.3 x 10°) - (1.6 x 108) 0.7 x 10° f= 700 ft = Example 1.7 A stone is thrown with a speed of 20ms"' at an angle 30° above the horizontal. (a) What is the horizontal range and maximum height reached? (b) What is the time of flight? Solution: ‘We have vo= 20ms”. 0,= 30°, g =10ms?, vjsin24, 8 R= 20) sin(2x30") io =34.64m ox ‘The maximum height, H= fear (20sin30°)? 2x10 =Sm ges (@) The horizontal range, R= 2vesin®, g (b) Time of flight, 2x 20sin3? 10Example 1.8 An airplane flying at 100ms", horizontally drops a box at 4 height of 2000 m above the arth. (a) How long does it take the box to reach the earth? (b) How’ far does it travel horizontally? (c) What is the velocity when it strikes the ground? Solution: (a) vo=100ms", @,=0 If tis the time taken to reach the ground, y = - 2000 m y =(v,sind, )t -4 gt 2000 = (100 sindyt aoe At=20s = (b) The horizontal distance traveled during this time is X= vyt=vot = 100%20 =2000m = gen (©) The velocity when it strikes the ground is Vix= Va = Vo =100 ms vy=Vo sin®,- gt 00 sin 0 - 10x20 200 ms" Therefore, the magnitude of the velocity is vefeav v=4{(100)' + (-2007 =224ms! <= rect y, Direction, 9 = tan" y, tan 20 6340 100 Centripetal Acceleration The acceleration necessary for uniform circular motion is called the centripetal (“center seeking") acceleration.Example 1.9 A communications satellite in @ circular orbit at an altitude of $00 km (310 mi) makes one complete revolution in 95 minutes. What is the centripetal acceleration of the satellite? Solution: ‘The altitude of the satellite is h = 500 km = 0.5 x 10° m, but the radius of the circular orbit ist Re +h = 6.4 x10° m+ 0.5x 10° m= 6.9 x 10° m, where R, is the radius of the Earth (obtained from Appendix 2). The period of time to make one revolution is 1=95 min x 60 s/l min=5.7 x 10's. = ‘The distance traveled in this time is the circumference of the circular orbit, d= c= 2ar, and the orbital speed is 2nn_ 2nf6.9x10'm, i 7 STR .6 x10" avs ‘Then, the centripetal acceleration of the satellite toward the Earth is ? _ (7.610 avs}, ~~ 6.9x10°m = 8.4 avs? =10. UL 12, 13. 4, 14. 16, Questions and Problems (Chapter I) For a vertical upward projection, what is the velocity and acceleration at the top of the path? What are the constant quantities for a horizontal range? ‘What is the common factor between the components of motion fer a projection at an angle? Explain why the range for 2 30° and a 60° projection is the same for the same initial velocity. For a projection angle of 45°, how may the range be increased? A ball drops from a bridge strikes the water in 5 s. Calculate (a) the speed with which it strikes and (b) the height of the bridge. A ball is thrown vertically downward from the edge of a high cliff with an initial velocity of 25 ft s', How fast is it moving after 1.5 s? (b) How far has it moved after 158? A ball thrown vertically upward returns to its starting point in 4s. Find its initial speed. A ball is thrown upward at 15 ms", Calculate the magnitude and direction of the balls velocity, (a) 1 s after being thrown. (b) 2 s after being thrown. (Take g +10 ms) A stone is thrown horizontally from a cliff 100 ft high. The initial velocity is 208 s". How far from the base of the cliff does the stone strikes the ground? In the above problem, calculate the velocity of the stone as it hits the ground, A bomb is released from a jet plane flying horizontally with a spced of 300 ms", an altitude of 2000 m. When will the bomb strike the ground? A baseball is thrown at a velocity of 80 fis! at an angle 30° above the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum height of the ball (b) the time in the air (c) the horizontal distance (range) to the point where the ball strikes the ground? A golfer drives a ball with a velocity of 120 fi/s at: an angle of 45°. (a) What is the maximum height of the ball above the level fairway? (b) Whet is the length of the drive? A golfer drives a ball with a velocity of 120 fis" at: an angle of 48°, (a) What is the maximum height of the ball above the level fairway? (b) What is the length of the drive? A mass kicks the ball and ball does projectile motion with an angle of 53° to horizontal. Its initial velocity is 10 ms", find the maximum height it can reach, horizontal displacement and total time required for this motion A pool ball leaves a 0.60 meter high table with an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 ms", Predict the time required for the pool ball to fall to the ground and the horizontal distance between the table’s edge and the ball’s landing location, 9.17. Inthe given picture you see the motion path of cannonball. Find the maximum height it can reach, horizontal distance it covers and total time from the given information, (the angle between cannonball and horizontal is 33° and sin $3 0.8 and c0s53%= 0.6) 18. A batter hits a baseball so that il leaves the bat at speed v.=37m/s at an angle 4 °53.1°, (a) Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at (2s, (b) Find the time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its height / at this time. (c) Find the horizontal range R—that is, the horizontal distance from the starting point to where the ball hits the ground. -10-CHAPTER U FORCES : GRAVITITY AND FRICTION Newton Law of Gravitation . i on Newton formulated an expression for the attractive gravitational force that acts between the Earth and the moon, the Sun and the planets, and indeed, between any two spherical ‘point masses ml and m2. This is known as Newton's law of gravitation, Force of Gravitation (Gravitational Force) ‘The force of attraction which exists between any two objects in the universe is known as force of gravitation, Gmm, 7 where r is the distance between two point masses or the centers of two uniform spherical masses, and G is a constant of proportionality. The constant G ‘is called the universal gravitational constant. F= Universal Gravitational Constant (G) Universal gravitational constant (G) is the constant of proportionality in Newton's law of gravitation, which is believed to have the same value throughout the universe, G= 6.67 x 10" N-m?/kg, Example 2.1 What are the gravitational forces acting between the Earth and the moon? Solution: M, = 6.0 * 104 kg (the mass of Earth) Ma= 74 * 10°2 kg (the mass of Moon) F= 240,000 mi = 3.8 x 10%m. (the distance between the Earth and the moon) ‘The gravitational force on the moon due to the Barth is # Yoo x10* =21x10"N 0 cm (toward the Earth.) By Newton's third law or the same calculation, the: gravitational force on the Earth due to the moon is Fem = 2.1 « 10°°.N toward the:moon. This gravitational attraction of the moon is a major factor in causing tides on the Earth.‘Thus, Newton's law of gravitation states that every particle is attracted toward every other particle, For real objects, the net force is the vector sum of the individual particle forces. A Closer Look at ‘The gravitational force on an object on Earth is its weight force, F = mg. But this must also be the same as the force given by Newton's law of gravitation for the special case of two interacting masses, m the mass of an object and M, the mass of the Earth. @ For a distance h above the Earth's surface, the separation distance in Newton's law is r= Re +h, and an object's weight is given by GinM, oO where g(h) indicates that g is a function of height. 970.27 mis? 6Re é 20N (4.41b) 1/36 the attraction 38400 km (24000 ro) & gene Re aa 80N (18 Ib) 1/9 the attraction gz geranst Re [# 180 N (40 Ib) 1/4 the attraction 720 N (162 Ib) gr 0am Fig 2.1 Figure 2.1: Weight and gravity. The force of gravity and g decrease as 1/1", which results in small values, but an object has weight at any height. (Surface weight equivalent values are approximate for illustration.) i2Orbital Speeds of Earth Satellites Satellites can be put into citcular orbits around the Earth by means of rockets. The orbital speeds required for such orbits may be found by using Newton's law of gravitation, since this force supplies the necessary centripetal force, ie., Fy =F or where m and Me are the masses of the satellite and the Earth, respectively, and & is the radius of the orbit measured from the center of the Earth. Solving for v, we have cM, y= [OMe t = | OMe (Reh) where r = Re + h, or the radius of the Earth plus the height or altitude of the satellite's orbit above the Earth, Example 2.2 A satellite is in stable circular orbit at an altitude of $00 km (310 mi) above the Earth's surface, (a) What is the orbital tangential speed of the satellite? (b) What is its period of revolution? Solution: (2) It is given that # = 500 km =$,0 X 10° m. GM, RH 107" (6.0% 10 (6.4x10° +0.5x105) 6x10" m/s os (b) using equation devit and d=2nr a _ 2a vov _ 2aa(6.x10° 10D) 57y10's =e 76x10" mis 13Apparent Weightlessness Apparent weightlessness is a condition in which a body and its reference frame ate accelerating ("falling") at the same rate, and weight or the force due to gnivity is not perceived; sometimes incorrectly referred to as "zero gravity” [true weightlessness would require true zero gravity (g = 0)]. 2 tue weight seal «Img a mo {a) stationary e + a ‘ tess than fe weight sgaie| mg " 7 (b) descending | yaAno “elghtiess” A=0 mg (©) descending with ag Fig 22 Apparent weightlessness in an elevator, (a) in a stationary elevator, a person on a scale reads true weight. The weight reading on the scale is the reaction force R of the scale, (b) If the elevator is descending with an acceleration a < g, the reaction force is less than the true weight, (c) If the elevator were in fee fall, a - g, the reaction force of the scale (and indicated weight) is zero, since the scale is falling just as fast as the person. 4Friction Ne=img cos io) Fig 2.3 Load and normal force Barly investigators of friction formulated the so-called classical laws of friction, which generally describe the frictional force between solid surfaces, According to these laws, the frictional force acting on an object is: 1. Always in a direction opposite to the motion of the object or the foree attempting to produce the motion, 2, Directly proportional to the toad, 3. Independent of the surface area, and - 4. Independent of the sliding speed. ‘The first law is valid for alt frictional situations. ‘The second law The load of an object on a horizontal surface is equal to the weight of the object (Fig. 2.3). But, for an object on an inclined plane, the load is the perpendicular component’ of the weight force. ‘The second law may be written foN where, f = frictional force N=normal foree (Where this law is not applicable for extremely large loads.) The third law implies that the force of friction between a surface and an object. ‘The fourth law is severely qualified and is only approximately valid for metal surfaces in slow relative motion. Coefficients of Friction Coefficients of friction is the dimensionless quantity that relates the frictional force (f) io the load or normal force (N), pe fiN. where = coefficient of friction 18Coefficients of Static Friction *p, Ifa force F is applied to an object resting on a surface and the object does not move, by Newton's laws there must be an opposing force that prevents the object from moving, namely, the force of static friction (Fig. 2.4). The force of static friction ft must be equal and opposite to the applied force. f,acp,N | where, 1, ~coefficient of static friction {static frictional force N= normal force Coefficient of Kinetic Friction ‘y," When the applied force on an object exceeds the maximum static force of friction, the object moves, and the motion is resisted by the force of sliding or kinetie friction fi, This frictional force is also proportional to the load focwN where, ji ~ coefficient of kinetic friction {= kinetic frictional force N= normal force increasing F ty © Figure 2.4 Static and kinetic friction, (a) and (b) As the applied force is increased, the force of static friction increases until a maximum value is reached, f,= 4, (diagram ¢). (d) When F > f= 44,N’, the block is set into motion, and the force of kinetic friction, 4, = 4.N , acts on the block. By Newton's second law, — f = ma, If the block raoves with * a.uniform speed (a = 0), then F~ f, 16Example 23 A 5.0 kg steel block is resting on a horizontal table. The coefficient of static friction (1) is 0.75 and the coefficient of kinetic friction (4) is 0.57. (a) What minimum force is needed to start this block moving? (b) What is the frictional force on this object as it moves? m=Skg (a) For the coefficient of static friction, &=usN = 1 W Hs mag .75 x5 x 10 sN <= (b) For the coefficient of kinetic friction, f= aN = ue W — weg O.57x5x 10 =29N <5 Example 2.4 A block weighing 200 N is pushed along a surface. If it takes 80 N to get the block moving, and 40 N to keep the block moving ai a constant velocity, what are the coefficients of friction ji and px? For the coefficient of static friction, f= us N= jw as =f PW 80/200 4s For the coefficient of kinetic friction, f= tk N= ew Mc = fk 7 W = 40/200 =020 <= 7Example 2.5 A group of workers attempts 10 move a 300-Ib wooden crate resting on a wooden floor. If the coefficient of static friction between the wooden surfaces is 0.58, what is the applied force necessary to move the crate for cases (a) and (b) shown in Fig ? (Neglect the friction of the pulley.) N Aten F i o F, Solution: (@) The load is the weight of the crate; «@= 300 Ib = N, and the crate will move when the applied horizontal force slightly exceeds the maximum force of static friction, i.e., j before the cvate slides, F=f, =p,N=(0.59(300Ib) =174h es (b) When the applied force is at an angle (15°) to the horizontal, the horizontal component of the applied force is equal to the maximum force of static friction just before the crate slides, ie., F(eos 15°) = f,=4,N But in this case, the load on the surface is reduced by the vertical component of the applied force, and the magnitude of the normal reaction force in this case is Ne=w- K(sin 15%) where w is the weight of the crate. Hence, Fos 15°) = 4.N = y,[w - F(sin 15°)] F(cos 15° + pi, sin 15°) = pg w Ho (costS" + 1, sin 15 ___(0.58)300) <= ~[0.97+ (0.58) 0.26)] 155 1b 18Example 2.6 A 10 kg wooden crate slides down a steel ramp with an incline of 20° under the influence of gravity. What is the acceleration of the crate? ( j= 0.30 ) = 0.30 The weight of the crate is w= mg =(10 kg) (9.8 nvs2) = 98 N ‘The component of the weight force acting down the plane is then R= w sin 20° = (98 N\\0.34) = 33 N The load is equal to the component of the weight force perpendicular to the ramp surface, which is equal to the normal force F, =N=weos20" =(98N\0.94) =92N The force of sliding friction opposing the motion is then f, =W.N = (0.30)(92 N) = 281N By Newton's second law, Fra = Fj ~ f= ma Ff, =ma and the acceleration is = Air Resistance For some falling objects, the effects of air resistance are quite noticeable. For example, a feather “floats” or falls slowly because of the upward air resistance. A common lecture demonstration is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. With air in the tube, the heavier coin always beats the feather to the bottom. However, if enough air is evacuated from the tube, giving a partial vacuum, the air resistance is negligible and the feather and coin fall together at the same rate, 19negligible air resistance sie resinanca ‘parit wacusen) o cy) Fig 2.5 Air resistance, (a) When falling in air, the motion of a feather is retarded more than that of a coin, (b) If most of the air is removed from the tube, the coin and feather falt together. 2010. i. 12. 1B. 14. 15, Problems (Chapter I) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the Sun (M, = 2.0x 10” ke) and the Earth (M, = 6.0 x 10° ke)? (Consider the Earth to be 1.5 10° km from the Sun.) Compare this to the force between the Earth and moon. A person with a weight of 637 N stands on a scale in an elevator with a downward acceleration. If the scale reads 585 N, what is the elevator’s acceleration? ‘A. man has a mass of 70 kg on earth. (a) What is his weight? (b) Calculate his mass and weight on the moon, ( gina 1/6 emt) ‘What is the gravitational force between following two objects? Object. A is 7x10" ke and object B is 1x10" kg. The two objects are 5000 m apart. The sun has @ mass of 2x10" kg and radius of 7x10° km. What mass must be located at the sun’s surface for a gravitational force of 470 N to exist between the ‘mass and the sun? A3.08x 10* g meteorite is on exhibit in New York City. Suppose this meteorite and another meteorite are separated by 1.27x10" m (a distance equal to earth's average diameter). If the gravitational force between them is 2.88x10"'® N, what is the mass of the second meteorite? The largest diamond ever found has a mass of 621 g. If the force of gravitational attraction between this diamond and a person with a mass of 65 kg is | xt07? N, What is the distance between them? Calculate the altitude at which a satellite of mass 2105 kg orbits earth. The gravitational force is 649 N and the universal constant of gravitation G is 6.673x10"" N-m"/kg’. The mass of the earth is $.988x10™ kg. Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth 5.98x10* kg and a 70 kg boy who is standing at sea level, a distance of 6.38 x 10° m from earth’s center. (G= 6,673x10"! N-m’/kg?) ‘What will happen to the force of gravitation between two objects A and B if the distance between them is reduced to half? A force at an angle of 30° above the horizontal is applied to a 100-Ib wooden crate on a wooden floot by means of a rope. What is the magnitude of the applied force necessary to move the crate? A person pushes a 30 kg shopping cart up a 10° incline with a force of 85 N. Calculate the coefficient of friction if the cart is pushed at a constant speed. A 10 kg wooden crate slides down a steel ramp with an incline of 20° under the influence of gravity. What is the acceleration of the crate? ( assume 4, = 0.3) On a wet racetrack, the maximum safe speed to avoid sliding on a ‘evel circular curve with a radius of curvature of 50 m is 75 km/h, What is the coefficient of friction between the car's tires and the track surface? A block is pulled by a string that makes an angle of 25° to the horivontal. If the mass of the block is 12.0 kg and the coefficient of friction is 0.25, what force would keep the block moving at a constant velocity? 2).16, 7 A block of mass M = 10 kg is sitting on a surface inclined at angle 0 = 45°. Given that the coefficient of static friction is y, = 0.5 between block and surface, what is the minimum force F necessary to prevent slipping? What is the maximum force F that can be exerted without causing the block to slip? Referring the following figure, if m, = 20 kg and jt, = 0.85 between the block and the inclined surface, what is the minimum mass mp that will colise m, to start to move up the plane? (Neglect the friction and mass of the pulley.) (b) If mz = 15 kg and jis 0.45 between the block and the inclined surface, what is the minimum mass for m1 that will allow it to move down the plane?CHAPTER IIL WORK, ENERGY AND POWER Work (W) Work is generally defined as the product of the magnitude of the applied force “F" and the parallel displacement (distance) “d” through which the force acts. ‘hak (0) WaAd=F (cos 0) d= Fd cosa IF the applied force is not parallet to the displacement, the component applied force F which is parallel to the displacement is Fy =F cos0 W=F d=F cosad = Fd coso The vertical component of the foree does no work. Work is a scalar quantity. ‘The units of work done are the joule, fi-Ib, erg. Work done by Variable Forces The work.done by variable force is Ws Fad where F is the average force.Fix) vo x v,20bd FoF Eke pabisFaok ott We Px = het tb) Figure 3.1 Variable spring force, (a) The force needed to compress (ot extend) a spring is a variable force, F = kx (xo 0), The force exerted by the spring is in the opposite direction to the displacement, (6) ‘The work done against the spring force is W = Y4kx’, The average force Fis graphically analogous to the average speed v of a uniformly varying velocity. Notice that the work is equal to the area under the curve or the area of the shaded triangle. The spring force is a variable force and is given by P= - kx where K is the spring constant and “x’ is the distance the spring has been compressed or extended from its equilibrium position x. The negative sign into cates that the spring force is in the direction opposite to the displacement, The average force is then, posh kero 1 2 2 2 Then the work done in compressing or extending the spring by an applied force is W~ F x=1/2kx?=area of the triangle under the curve. “The work done is equal to the area under the curve or the area of the shaded triangle. ky? Example 3.1 ‘A worker applies a horizontal foree of 75 Ib to move a crate a distance of 6.0 fl along a level floor. How much work is done? Of, W=? F= 75tb, . We Fd =(75 Ib) x (6.01) = 450 ft-lb = 24Example 3.2 A load on a skid is moved on a lift truck by a worker who pulls onthe lift handle at an angle of 30° (o the horizontal with a force of 150 N. If the skid is moved through a distance of 10m, how much work is done? F Fos ‘The component of force parallel to the displacement is F)=F cos@ . Then. WF d= F cos d = (150) cos 30° x 10 = 150x 0.866x 10 =1299J o> Example 3.3 How much work is required to lift .5.0kg box a vertical distance of 1.0m? Few=mg =5x98=49N ‘Then, in lifting the box a distance of 1.0M, the work done is W=Fd=49x1=49] = Example 3.4 A heavy coil spring is extended 0.01m when a mass of 5,0kg is suspended from it. How much is required to compress the spring 0.15 m from its equilibrium positien? F_ mg _ 5x98 et k=-=-—= =49x1 xox oor fxt Nm Then, the work required to compress the spring the distance of 0.15 m is WV2ke oe = 1/2 (4.9x 10°) (0.15) =55Nm=55) cs Energy Energy is the ability to do work. (The total mechanical energy possessed by an object is the sum of its KE and PE.) Kinetic Energy (KE) Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, KE = 1/2 my’ Work Energy Theorem The work done by an unbalanced force acting on a object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the object. Also note that if the change in kinetic energy (AKE) is positive, then the work is positive and the force acts to speed up the object, 25If the change in kinetic energy is negative, then the work is negative and the force acts to slow the motion (force and displacement in the opposite directions. Example 3.5 ‘A3.0 kg object moving initially with a velocity of 2.0 ms'' is acted upon by a force and the velocity is increased to 6.0 ms". (a) What is the final KE of the object? (b) How much work ‘was done by the applied force? (c) How much work is required to bring the object to a rest? Given: m= 3.0 kg, vo = 2.0 ms"! , ve= 6 ms" (@ The final KE of the object is 1 1 KE, = ym = 7. 046.0)? -54t (6) The work done by the applied force is W =AKE=KE, -KE, =}mi ~tawv! =) ©) vo=6ms", ve=0 The work required to bring the object to rest is W=KE;~ KE» =0~KEp = 1/2 myo? =-1/2 (3.0)(6.0)" “S45 ‘The work is negative because the braking force and the displacement of the object are in opposite directions, Potential Energy (PE) Potential energy is the energy of an object due to its position. Gravitational Energy The work done in lifting an object a distance Ah is equal to the change in the potential energy of the object. W=F Ah=mg (hr bo) ‘W = mghy~_mgho= PE—PEy= APE If hy = 0, as it is commonly taken to be, then PE=mgh=wh — where, w= mg is the weight of the object. Potential Energy of a Spring The potential energy of an extended or compressed spring is the “stored” work done in extending or compressing the spring, PE= 4 kx? The Conservation of Energy ‘The total energy of any physical situation is always conserved, E=KE + PE = Constant 26Example 3.6 A.10 Ib vise and 3.0 Ib hammer rest on shelves that are 4.0 ft and 6.0 ft high respectively, (a) What is the potential energy of each object relative to the floor? (b) How much work is required to lift the vise to the upper shelf? Solution: (a) PE of vise, myghy = woh (10) x (4)=40flb = PE of hammer, PE,= whe =GB.0)x(6)= 18 felb cs (b)The work required to lift the vise to the upper shelf is Ww, (ha — bi) = (10 Ib) (6-4)R=20 fr-lb =e Example 3.7 A spring with a spring constant of 150 N/m is attached to a mass of 0.50 kg resting on a horizontal surface. The spring is compressed a distance of 40 cm and then released, As the ‘mass passes through the equilibrium position (xo * 0), it has a speed of 6. m/s. How much energy was lost to the friction between mass and the surface? Given: k = 150 Nm, m = 0,50 kg, x = 0.40 m, v= 6.5 ms" When the spring is compressed the total mechanical energy of the system is all potential energy. By =PE= kx? = $50) x (0.4) =12.0 ‘As mass passes through the equilibrium position xo = 0 Its total mechanical energy is equal to its KE since PE = hed =0 1 Bol invt= 4 (0.5) (6.5)? = 10.65 2 The energy lost to friction is then, Q~Ey-E=12.0-10.6=14J 9 <=: Power (P) Power is the time rate of doing work, Work Power = Units: Js” or W (watt), erg s"!, ft-tb s! The common unit used to express power is the horse power (hp) 1 hp = 550 ft-lb s'=746 W 27Example 3.8 An elevator with an empty weight of 800 Ib has load capacity of 2000 Ib, If the elevator design is such that it can be raised in a 120 ft shaft in 30 seconds, what is the minimum horsepower rating of the lift motor, neglecting frictional loses? Assuming that the elevator loaded to capacity, the weight being lifted is F = 2000 Ib +800 ib Then traveling distance, d= 120 fin atime 30s, the power supplied by the lit motor is pe wv (800)x(120) t 30 = 11,200 felbys = 11,200 550 hp=204hp 9 <= Example 3.9 An electric pump in a well delivers water to the surface at a rate of 80 gal/min frora a depth of 50 ft, Assuming no power losses, how much power is supplied by the pum motor? {2 gallon of water weights 8.3 Ib) The weight of water lifted each second is W _ 80gal t 60s 60 ‘The power required to lift the water a distance = 50 ft at this rate is thea = (11 Ibis) (50 ft) P=SS0ftIb’S co Hence, the pump motor must be at least a “one horse” motor since $50 ft-b/s = 1 hp. Efficiency Efficiency is the ratio of a machine's work (or power) output and the work (or power) input. Itis usually expressed as a percent, Efficiene: Spi Los) = a0) Example 3.10 A small gasoline engine has a power input of 4.6 hp and measured brake horsepower of 3.5 hhp.(a) What is the engine’s efficiency? (b) How much energy is lost in 10 min of operation? Pin = 4.6 b, Pou = 3.5 hp W,, 3.5hy @) Byars = Se «100% = (b) Power lost = (100% - 76) Pin 24 = «4.6 = Lt hy HR) igo **6= "tho (OR) Power lost = Pin~ Pow =4.6~3.5=1.1hp 9 <== 2810. H. 12, 13, 14, 18. 16, 18. 19, 20. Questions and Problems Chapter III What goes negative work mean? What is the work on a graph of F ys x for a spring? If vy and vo are the final and initial velocities of an object, is the change in kinetic ‘energy proportional to (vy— vo)"? Explain. How can one increase power? Is there an absolute zero reference for gravitational potential energy in the form mgh? Is work related to how tired one becomes? Explain. A person sits ina moving car. Does the person have kinetic energy Expiain, What is the kinetic energy of a 2 kg ball that travels a distance of 50 meters in 5 seconds? A ball is dropped from a height of 10 m. What is its velocity when it hits the ground? A ball is thrown vertically with a velocity of 25 m/s, How high does it go? What is its velocity when it reaches a height of 25 m? A worker pushes a crate up a 10° ramp 35 ft in length by applying a force of 80 Ib Parallel to the ramp surface. How much work did the worker do? A sled is towed along a level surface by a rope at angle @ relative to the horizontal, If the rope is pulled with a force of 300 N, how much work is done in moving the sled a distance of 15 m if (a) 8 =0, (b) 0 = 37° A spring with a spring constant of 200 Nim is stretched 0.10 m and then stretched another 0.15 m. How much energy is stored in the spring? Ina stock room a 50 kg machine part originally on a shelf 0.60 m above the floor is moved to a shelf at a height of 2.0 m, (a) What is the change in potential energy? (b) What is the potential encrgy of the part on the top shelf relative to the floor? A spring with a spring constant of 2.0 {b/in is compressed 8.0 in from its equilibrium. Position, How. much potential energy is stored in the spring? An object is dropped from rest at a height of 200 m. At what height during its fall with kinetic energy be twice its potential energy? (a) A 2000 kg car is travelling 50 miles per hour. Find the kinetic energy in joules. (b) The same car is lifted vertically upward and then dropped from rest, Find the height from which it is dropped if it strikes the ground at 50 miles per hour (neglect air resistance), A 180 1b mountain climber climbs a 4000 ft mountain in 3.5 h. (a) What is the average work done by the mountain climber? (b) What is the climber’s average power? A horse pulling a plow exerts an average force of 150 Ib in plowing a furrow 50 ft ong in 2.0 min. What is the average power output of the horse in horsepower? A_100 hp motor raises # 2080 1b elevator 200 ft in 10.0s. (a) What is the efficiency of the elevator system? (b) How much energy is lost during the 10.0s? 29CHAPTER IV ROTATIONAL MOTION AND DYNAMICS Angular Displacement (9) If a particle rotates in a circle of radius (r) and moves along an are length (3), the magnitude of angular displacement is given by (radians) s/r. “9” is made in radians, degrees and revolutions. rs Angular displacement = length radius @(radians}= © r “0” is measured in degrees, radians and revolutions. 1 revolution = 2 7 radians= 360” when s =r, 0===1 radian r 1 radian =45,3° Angular Velocity (©) Angular velocity is defined as the time rate of change of angular displacement. on S80 2 A tet, At Average angular velocity @ = & Instantaneous angular velocity is in AO _ dO ) = fim 49 49 00 = Lim a Angular acceleration (0) Angular acceleration is the time rate of change of angular velocity. The average acceleration is given by ‘When a body is moving with constant angular acceleration, Z=a a= oe = 0, tat t ‘The relation between the angular displacement “6” and the tangential (linear) displacement “siss= 10,The relation between the angular displacement “6” and the tangential (linear) displacement’ “s"iss=10, oat ‘The relation between, the angular velocity “a” and the tangential (linear) velocity “v".is ara ‘The angular acceleration is the same for all the particles of the disk, but the tangential acceleration are different for particles with different radii since a= ra. The centripetal acceleration a, The net acceleration { =8,+ a, Linear Angular Analogies Linear x=Tt vv, 2 V=v, tat Lae X=Vv,t taal’ a2 vi +2ax Example 4.1 A particle in a disk rotating with a uniform angular speed of 2 rps is 0.2m form the axis of rotation, What are (a) the tangential speed of the particle and (b) the angle through which it rotates in 0.58? Given: = 2rps' =2x2n rads” r= 0.2m @) v=ro =(0.2)4n)=08nms! ) t=05s @=ot =(4m)@5)-2n ad = = 1 3Example 4.2 ‘A disk rotating at an angular speed of 10 rads"is slowed down by @ uniforra angular acceleration to a speed of 4 rads" in 3s, What is the angular acceleration? Given: co, = 10rads™ © =4rads* 1=3s, a=? @-0, t Ant Soa arad 5 = ‘The minus sign indicates that the disk is stowing down or deceleration, Example 4.3 A circular disk initially at rest experiences uniform angular acceleration of 0.25 rad s” through two revolutions, (@) What is the angular speed at the end of two revolutions? (b) How long did it take to make the two revolutions? Given: @,=0, @=0.25rack? , 9 =2xzrad @ of =0f +200 = 042(0.25)4arad s V2 =2Srads* go >), = 0, w@=2.5 rads", (=? 2 Torque and Moment of Inertia Torque Torque is defined as the product of the moment arm and applied force. Ineo ection 4 . Agriins ar ran, Pairain DF arf sin Or, 6 o ‘Where 1, =the moment arm or lever arm. The SI Unit of torque is (N.m) 32Torque = Force applied x lever arm 1=Fr ‘The lever arm is defined as the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. An unbalanced torque produces an angular acceleration or angular motion. Example 44 A force of $00 N is applied to the free end of a beam attached to a wall. The length of beam is 5 m. The force is applied at an angle of 30° to the beam. What is the mount of torque applied at the fixed end of the beam? T=1250 Nm F=500N, 0=30°, r=Sm, t=? t=Fr = SxFsin@=5 x500x0.5=1250Nm <= Rigid Body An object in which all the particles maintain fixed distances relative to each other is called a rigid body. Moment of Inertia(l) ‘The summation of the products of the masses and distances squared of the particles of a body about an axis of rotation and measure of rotational inertia. 1-Yimgy (kg m’.gem? , slug ) are the units of moment of inertia for a rigid body . Torque and moment of inertia are related as rala Example 4.4 What is the moment of inertia for a wheel as illustrated in the figure? Consider the mass of the axle and spoke to be negligible. Assuming the wheel to be a hoop mad up of individual particles. 1=Song? = (m)R*+m,R’ + (m+ mg— 1=MR?Axis of rotation f ! fom | ' mass m “ye of light rod te MAe solid sphere of mass m (= 2Ma hollow eyiinder of mass M Ja SMURF +A sold cylinder of mass M l= unt 34 Moment of Inertia of Some Common Uniform Objects Axis of rotatior circular cise of mass M $uae hoop or thin-walled cylinder of mass M Ia MRE rod ot mass Mj iedwe ! | \ tod of mass M eo Ia gme an tExample 4.5 A solid wheel and a spoked wheel of equal mass and radius (20 kg and 0.5m) are set into rotation by descending masses of 4 ke. What is the angular acceleration of each object? For Solid wheel t=LR? 2 1 = fen. 5)? = 2.Skgm* ERE _ Ring) It T (0.5)(4x9.8) 25 a= =7.8 rads? <= For spoked whet T=MR? = 20 (0.5)"=5 kgm? Rotational Work, Power, and Kinetic Energy Rotational Work (W) The product of torque and angular displacement, W=18; unit > joule) Rotational Power (P) ‘The rotational work per unit time, P= Wit=r8t=r3; unit > watt(W) Where © is the average angular speed. Rotational Kinetic Energy When a rigid body rotates the kinetic energy of each particle of the body may be expressed as KE=1?2 to? where [= moment of inertia of the body © = angular velocity 35Work-Energy Theorem for the Rotational Case W= w=100 = [deer -0?] =the? 2 W=AKE *, Rotational work ~ change in rotational kinetic energy. A rolling object has both translational and rotational tie energies, ke=L vt + tu? 2 2 where M = total mass of the object v= velocity of the object 1 = moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass of the object = angular velocity Example 4.6 A tangential force applied to a stationary flywheel with a mass 40 kg and a radius of 0.5 m angularly accelerates the wheel uniformly through revolution in a time of 2 s. How much (a) work and (b) power was done by the force in this time? (Take | for flywheel, |= MR’) =o,t+hot? =044a0? 8=a,t zal = O45 at 2 20 20am) prods? ? Qs t= Ia=(MR*)o 1=40(0.5)2n=2Nm=3.14Nm Then W = 16 = (a Nm)(2a rad) ea) W=2n?=20) 0 ges (b) Witht=2s W _ 205 = =0W => t 2s 36Example 4.7 ', What is the linear A ball initially at rest rolls without slipping down an incline of height“ speed of the ball when it rolls onto the horizontal surface? By the conservation of mechanical energy, Total PE at the top= Total KE at the bottom Mgh = Mv? +Ltot 2 2 “P° for solid sphere about the axis through the center of mass is 2 MR?. 1 af2 vy Thus, >Mv? +=! mv +kg.m?s™ AL Angular momentum is related to torque, T = x Conservation of Angular Momentum, In the absence of an unbalanced external torque acting on a body, the angular momentum is conserved, L= 1 =constant Tand © can change , but the product (1 «») is still constant. 3Brawaene 10. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 7. 18. 19, Questions and Problems — Chapter IV What is meant by angular displacement? How is the angular velocity related to the tangential velocity? What is the moment of inertia for a particle in circular motion? Given the rotational analogs for (a) mass, (b) Newton’s second law and (c) work? What kinds of energy does a rolling object have? How is angular momentum related to torque? ‘What is angular momentum conserved and if so." is the angular velocity always constant? A particle is moving in a circle according to the equation @=3t'+2t where @ is measured in radians and t in seconds, Caleulate the angular velocity and angular acceleration. ‘A flywheel whose diameter is 3m is rotating at 120rpm. Calculated the linear velocity of a point on the rum, A flywheel turning at 900 rpm slowed down to 300 rpm in 5 min.(@) Caleulate the angular accelerations of the fly wheel.(b) How many revolutions did it make during this time interval? A lathe rotates with an angular speed of 6% rad s"If the speed is decreased to 2m radian s" in 1.5s what is the average angular acceleration? ‘The fly wheel of a motor is accelerated form rest to a speed of 1500 rpm in 5.0s. If the flywheel has a moment of inertia of 40 slug-ft?, what is unbalanced torque on the wheel? A flywheel in the form of a spoked wheel with a mass of 6.0 kg and at a radius of 0.80 m rotates with an angular speed of 20 rad s'. What is kinetic energy of the wheel? The rotor of a motor rotating initially with an angular speed of 50 rads" is slowed to 30 rad s" while making 10 revolutions. If the rotor has a moment of inertia of 12kgm? (a) how much work is done in slowing the rotor and (b) what is the average applied torque? A solid sphere and a solid cylinder of equal radii and masses of 40kg and 32 kg, respectively, roll together down an inclined plane from rest. Which reaches the bottom of the incline first? What is the angular momentum of a 0.20 kg particle traveling in a circular orbit with a radius of 40cm at a speed of 12 rad s'? What is the angular momentuzn of the Earth due to its daily rotation? [M, =6.0x10"kg:R,, = 4000mi= 6400km| A3.0kg mass is place 2.00m to the right of the pivot point of a see-saw, What is the the magnitude and the sign of the torque applied? 1+ 22 yl & mg ‘We want to place another mass on the see-saw of Problem 15 to keep the see-saw from tipping. The only other one we have is a 5.0kg mass. Where would we place this to balance the original 3kg mass that was placed 2,00m to the right of the pivot point? be —2 1g 2 CaS ea mg | 39CHAPTER V SOUND ‘The Nature of Sound Sound is any longitudinal disturbance in an elastic medium. The frequency range of human hearing is called the audible region, which is approximately from 20 Hz to 20 kHz (20,000 Hz). The Velocity of Sound Longitudinal (sound) waves propagate in solids and liquids as well as gases. The speed of sound in a medium depends in general on the elasticity of the medium and the inertia of its particles. The speed of sound or longitudinal waves in a thin rod can be expressed as — (solid rod) where Y = Young's modulus ( Nm) 1ass density of the material (kgm?) Pp Y = speed of the sound { ms"!) In liquids, the speed of tie sound is given by v e (in liquids) where B = bulk modulus (Nm) p = mass density of the liquids (kg m”*) v = speed of the sound ( ms") (upper teed vltrasonic sucibie frequency 20H infarone Fig 5.1 Sound frequency spectrumExample 5.1 ‘What is the speed of sound in (2) a steel rod and (b) water? Solution: Using the moduli and densities given in Tables 12.2 and 15.1, respectively, (@) Yee = 20 * 10! Nim? and pect = 7.8 * 10° kg/m? Nim PY = [BOON im” sax 10ms (17x 10fs) pV 78x10 kein (b) Byzo = 0.22 « 10'° Nim? and pro = 1.0 « 10° ke/m? x10 Nin? B [O2EX10 Nin 15x 10ns (4.9% 10s) pV 10x10" kgm ‘The speed of sound in air, the most common gaseous medium can be expressed as v=331+0.6T, m/s y= 1087+ 1.1 (Tp-32°) fs (speed of sound in air) where T; aad Tr are the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures, respectively. At Te=0°C, v=331 ms" Ts = 68°F, v= 1087 fts"' © 740 mi /hr Example 52 ‘What is the speed of sound in air at room temperature (20°C or 68°F)? T.= 20°C or Ty = 68°F, v=331 + 0.6 T, m/s = 331 + 0.6(20) m/s = 343 m/s or v= 1087 + 1.1 (Tp - 32) fs = 1087 + 1.1 (68-32) f¥s= 1127 fs <== As general rule, the speed of sound in air at normal temperatures is on the order of 1/5 mis"! The wavelength % of sound in a particular medium may be computed from the wave relationship. Mev Example 5.3 Compute the wavelengths of sound waves in the media in the previous examples if the frequency is 2000 Hz. Solution: In a steel rod.with v= 5.1 = 10° m/s, _¥ _ 5x10 mis “ft 2x10 In water with v = 1.5 10° m/s, v_ 1.5 x10? m/s im =e 1S mn osm cen F 2x10 = In air with v= 343 mvs, 343 mis SO m8 20172 m — f£ 2x10°/s 41Sound and Hearing Loudness and Intensity The loudness of a sound is related to the energy of the disturbance. Sound or acoustical energy is commonly described in terms of acoustical power (in watts), which denotes the time rate of energy transfer. (Power = energy per time, P = E/t.) i.e., 1 energy/time/area or power/area Intensity ‘The intensity I is the rate of energy transfer through a cross-sectional area A of a surface. Et AA (intensity) The human ear can detect sound of very low intensity. The smallest detectable sound intensity, known as the threshold of hearing, is about 1x10"? Wm? Sound that is intense enough to damage the ear. Since the energy of a wave is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude, it follows that the intensity is also proportional to the square of the wave amplitude. acoustical power, ———}2 (watts) in HT Intensity = poweriarea ‘The area through which the sound power from the source passes is the area of a sphere, A= 4m¢, hence intensity level in bels ‘The unit for measuring intensity levels is called the bel (abbreviated B, in honor of Alexander Graham Beil), and the intensity level (1L) is defined by IL= log z (B) lb intensity level in decibels However, the bel turns out to be a rather large unit, so the decibel (4B) is commenly used (1 bei 10 decibels). The intensity level is then given by H.= 10 fog (ap) is a2Example 5.4 What are the intensity levels dB for the intensities (a) [ = [p= 10°? Wm? and (b) I = 1.0 m7? Ip= 10°? Wm’ is the reference intensity, and. I to? IL=10 log — = 10 log > log 7 = 10 log Ta sinee log 1 = log 10° = 0. (Recall log 10° = 1) Hence, the reference intensity is the "zero" of the dB scale. = 10 log 1 =0dB (b) With I= 1.0 Wm, IL= 10 log 1 7p 7 HOw iw 10 log 10"? = 10(12) = 120dB <= 6 The intensities of sounds are easily compared by their decibel differences: An increase of 10 dB increases the sound intensity by a factor of 10, ‘An increase of 20 dB increases the sound intensity by a factor of 100, An increase of 30 dB increases the sound intensity by a factor of 1000, and so on, Example 5.5 Show that a sound with an intensity level of 70 dB has intensity 1000 times: greater than that of a sound with an intensity level of 40dB. Solution: The intensity level difference is 70 dB - 40 dB = 30 dB, or 10 log = = 10 log fa =30dB where Jo and Jap are the intensities of the 70-dB and 40-dB sounds, respectively. Recalling that log a— log b = log ab, we have (i) I =10 log = =30 10 lo * [he te [, and L log 2 eT ince log (10°) = 3, by comparison - =10° or 1, =10%, =10001,, ems Notice that this factor is given directly by the power of ten of the intensity difference in bels, 30 dB =3 B, and 10° = 1000. 43Example 5.6 The sound from a foudspeaker has an intensity level of 80 dB at a distance of 5.0 ft. How far from the speaker will the sound have an intensity level of 40 4B? Assume the speaker to be a point source. Solution: The intensity level difference is 80 dB - 40 B= 40 dB =4 B Hence, the intensity will be reduced by a factor of 10 ~ 10,000, or. is 1/10,000 of, ic, = 10/,. Then, using equation 14.6 with ri = 5.0ft, =n Gon) HOG and B=25 «108 so =Sx10R=S00R == Example 5.7 A particular sound has an intensity of 1xi0 Wm. What is this in decibels? If the intensity is increased by 15 dB, what is the new intensity in Wm? Ix10* 1x10” In this is increased to 75 dB, the new intensity can be found like this: I 75*10 log — ee IL=10 tog = 10 log, =10log(1x10*) =10(6) = 604B, fo So log = =15 T= Ip =x 1075 = ( 1x10") x (3.16 x 107) = 3.16x 10° Wm? <= This is 31.6 times as much as the original intensity. ‘The Doppler Effect ‘The apparent change in frequency of a sound source due to relative motion between the source and the observer is called the Doppler Effect. I Moving source, Observer at rest (stationary) (i) moving source (toward), stationary observer, Gi) moving source (away from), stationary observer, I Moving observer, Souree at rest (stationary) (moving observer (toward), stationary source, (ii) moving observer (away from), stationary source, Il Both source and observer move : (both source and observer are moving towards each other (ii) both source and observer are moving away from each other 44I Moving source, Observer at rest (stationary) (i) When the source is moving towards an observer at rest | moving source (toward), stationary observer When the source is moving away from the observer at rest Gi) e-[ y | +: moving source (away from), stationary observer vee where f' observed frequency as heard by the observer f= the frequency of the source v= the speed of the sound viz the speed of the source IL’ Moving observer, Source at rest (stationary) (iii) When observer is moving towards the stationary source v [ee | : moving observer (toward), stationary source When observer moving away from a stationary source Gy) f i =Yo |s : moving observer (away from), stationary source v Where Vo the speed of the observer Ifthe observer approaches the source +Vo. If the observer receds from the source -Vo. 45If Both source and observer move (v) When both source and observer moves towards each other Y+¥o |p — : both sourve and observer are moving towards voVs cach other (vi) When both Source and observer move away from each other : both source and observer are moving away from each other vo = velocity of the observer, v = velocity of sound or light in medium If the observer and source approach each other +Vo,-Vs If the observer and source recede from each other —Vo, Ws. Example 5.8 The driver of a car blows the horn, which has a frequency of 500 Hz as it passes by a stationary observer, If the car travels 60 mi h', what is the frequency of the frequency of the horn as heard by observer? (a) as the car approaches and (b) as the car recedes? (Assume the speed of sound to be 1088 fs) Solution: SODEI, v= 60 mi W560 x 22 = 88 fh, v= 1088 (@) For approaching source and stationary observer pr] jp =| 1088 s00 vow, |" [1088788 f'=544H2 c= (b) For (away from) recedes source and stationary observer e[ | [aa fasee 1088+88, =463HzExample 5.9 A fixed source emits sound of frequency 1000 Hz, What is the frequency as heard by a observer (a) at rest (b) Moving! towards the source at a constant speed of 20 ms and (c) Moving away from the source at the same rate. (Velocity of sound in air, v= 340 ms") Velocity of sound in air, v= 340 ms", source frequency, £= 1000 Hz, Velocity of observer, Vo= 20 ms‘! (@) When both the source and observer are at rest, apparent frequency is sare as true frequency = 1000 Hz Frequency as heard by listener at rest = (b). Observer is moving towards the source Apparent frequency {" feels v sere 00 = 340 00 1059Hz <== (©) Observer is moving away from the source -. Apparent frequency ra), v 340-20 340 i000 = 941 Hz = 4710. ML 12, 13. “4 15, 16. 17. Questions and Problems (Ch V) ‘What is the frequency range of the human ear? In what type of media is the speed of sound generally greatest? If you moved three times as close to a point sound source, how would the sound intensity be affected? What increase in dB increases the sound intensity by a factor of (a) 2 (b) 10 and (©) 10007 Ifa sound source and an observer are both moving with the same velocity, is there a Doppler shift? Explain. What are the wavelength limits of the audible range for human hearing? (Use 340 m/s for the speed of sound.) A steel rail on a railroad is struck with a hammer. Assuming that the disturbance is transmitted along the track without interruption, how long will it wke for the longitudinal wave to travel one mile in one direction? A large circular water storage tank has a diameter of 50 ft, How long would it take for a disturbance to travel across the tank? What increase in temperature will cause the speed of sound in air to increase by {@) 10 m/s and (b) 10 fs? A person 20 fi from a loudspeaker receives a certain intensity level of sound. How far toward the speaker would the person have to move for the received sound intensity to be (a) 10 times greater and (b) 100 times greater? (Assume the speaker to be a point source.) A worker in a machine shop works each day 5 hours in an area where the sound intensity is 10° Wm? and 2 hours in another area where the sound intensity is 107 Wm7, Considering the combined effect of the permissible noise exposure limits in each area, is this a safe industrial practice? ‘A worker driving to work down a straight road toward the factory at a speed! of 60 mih” hears the factory whistle blow. If the frequency of the whistle is 6000 Hz and the air temperature is 27°F, what is the frequency heard by the worker? A car and a truck approach each other on highway both traveling at 60 mi h’!. If the Griver of the truck sounds the truck hom which has a frequency of 1000 Hz. what is the frequency heard by the driver of the car? (Assume the speed of sound to be 1100 fis") As a train pulls out of the station going 50 ms’! it blasts its hom, what is the frequency heard by the train if the passengers still at the station are hearing 384 Hz. Mike is on a motorcycle speeding down the highway at 47 m/s until he sees a traffic jam ahead. The honking roade by the stopped cars is 785 Hz, what frequency docs Mike hear the sound at? A sound wave of frequency 300 Hz is emitted towards an approaching car. The wave is reflected from the car and is then received back at the emitter at a frequeney of 315 Hz. What is the velocity of the cat? (Take the speed of sound to be 340 ms") A source and listener are moving towards each other with the speed of 54 km/hr, If the true frequency of sound emitted by the source is 500 Hz, calculate the observed frequency when both source and listener are moving towards each other. (Velocity of sound in air = 330 ms") 48CHAPTER VI FLUID MECHANICS Density ‘The mass density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume. mass volume am ‘ ery The weight density of a substance is defined as the weight per unit volume. weight volume mass density =. Weight density = p=% where, weight = w=mg 1B Thus, Da 7-58 =pe Units In metric system, the units of mass density p are kg m? and gem? In the British system, the unit of p is slug ft? The unit of weight density D in the British system is Ib fe> Specific Gravity Specific gravity of a solid or liquid is defined as the ratio of weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water, __ Weight of a given volume substance weight of an equal volumeof water "3" refers to substance and "w" refers to water Surface Tension ‘The tendency of a free surface of a liquid to contract and behave like a sireiched membrane due to a net force on molecules at the free surface. Jn changing shape of the molecules, work is done by the surface of liquid and itis in a state of tension, so called surface tension, Cohesive Force ‘The molecular attraction between the like molecules of a liquid is called a cohesive foree, Adhesive Force ‘The molecular attraction between unlike molecules of different substances is called an adhesive force, Capillary action The rise or depression of a liquid in a capillary due to surface tensioa and adhesive forces.Viscosity The intemal resistance of a fluid to flow to flow under the application of a shear stress. Pressure of a fluid is defined as the normal force F per unit area A, r ° P=— P=peh=Dh A Pe where D = pg = the weight density and h = height of liquid Absolute Pressure: the pressure is referenced 19 complete vacuum. Atmospheric Pressure: the pressure is due to the gases of the atmosphere. Gauge Pressure is the difference between the absolute and atmospheric pressures. absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmosphere pressure Pays = Pgsuge * Patm Pavs gh + Pan (or) Pass ho + Poon Peauge = Pats > Patm Atmospheric pressure is measured by means of a barometer, Units of Pressure 1 atm = 760m of mercury (Hg) 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg bar Latm 10° mb = 10° Nm .01325 bar = 1013.25 mb Archimedes? Principle: An object ina liquid is buoyed upward with a force equal to the ‘weight of the volume of the fluid displaced by the object. Buoyant force: an upward force acting on the object in the liquid, Buoyant force = weight of displaced liquid Floating ‘An object will float in a fluid if the density of the object is less than or equal to the density of the fluid. Example 6.1 A cylindrical sea lab with a diameter of 10 ft and a height of 8.0 ft is lowered in. the ocean, so the top of the lab is 200 ft below sea level. What is (a) the pressure and force on the lab, and (b) the pressure on the bottom of the lab due to the sea water. (For sea water D = 64.0 lb/ft) @ P=pgh =Dh = (64.0) = (200) = 12, 800 tb/f ‘The area of the top of the lab is A= ar’ = 7 (5.0)"= 78,5 f and P = F/A; so F = PA = (12,800) (78.5) = 1,004,800 Ib = 502 tons (1 ton = 2240 Ib) = *(b) The bottom of the sea lab is b= 208 ft below sea level, so the pressure at this depth is P= Dh = (64.0) (208) = 13.300 Ise? = 30Example 6.2 What is the atomic pressure if the column height of a mercury barometer is 76 em? Given: h = 76 em =0.76 m. For mercury, p= 13.6 * 10° kg/m? P= pgh =(3. 6x10") (9. 8) 76) 0129 10° Nim? cas \ Example 6.3 A 10 kg block of wood 30 cm on a side is held submerged under water, What force is required to do this? ‘The length of a side of the block is 30 om = 0.3 m The volume of the block = V= 0.3 x 0.3 « 0.3 = 0.027 m* The density of water is p = 10° kg/m* The weight of the volume of water displaced by submerged block is w= mg = p vg = (10°) (0.027) (9.8) = 265 N. By Archimedes’ principle, this is the magnitude of the upward buoyant force F, ‘To keep the block submerged Fy = F + mg F=F,—mg=265N-(10kg) (9.8 ms*)=167N <= Example 6.4 A cube of material'20 cm on a side has a mass of 7200g. (a): Will the cube float in water? (b) If so. ‘what will be the weight of the cube extended above the water surface? (@) The volume of the eub is V=L? = (20cm)? = 8000 om? _m_ 72003 P= apopent TOIOwEM? eas Since the density of water is.p, = 1.0 g/em’ , then p,> , and then the cube will float. (b) The weight of the cube we = p, gV, will be balanced by the buoyant “orce Fp. That is Fy = 0.9 of the cube Since 90 percent of the cube is submerged, 10 percent of the cube's volume is above the water. Vevove # (0-1) Ve = (0.1) (8000) = 800 cm? 51