NCM 111 Elements Enroll those specific subjects or objects

SAMPLING DESIGN within your research

Clinical Instructor: Mr. Mark Ebony Sumalinog, RN

SAMPLING POPULATION STUDIES

● Involves selecting people, events, or other elements with
which to conduct a study.
● Process of deriving and choosing the right sample, size, and
elements to be included in the study
● The entire population is the target of the study
● Done by or government-funded research endeavors during
national census made by government
● Use data available in large databases
● Main advantage: When you are able to tap large databases,
it is easier more the researcher to arrive at a more
generalizable conclusion (findings are applicable to the
population under study)

HYPOTHETICAL POPULATION
● Assumes the presence of a population that cannot be
defined by a list of members of all the population
● WHY IS IT NEEDED? Some populations illusive and
constantly changing, the researcher will need to have a
hypothetical population
○ Example:
■ Hypothetical pop’n: Individuals who
successfully lose weight
POPULATION ● In reality, the number of individuals in
the population, who they are and
● Is the entire group of interest how much weight they have lost, or
● TARGET POPULATION is the entire population of interest. how long they have kept the weight
● ACCESSIBLE POPULATION is the portion of the target off, and how they achieve the weight
population accessible to the researcher. loss is unknown.
● Is specified by the researcher using ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA ● The researcher will need to have a hypothetical situation but
where should they base this?
○ Various meta-analysis results looking into the same
phenomenon under study

SAMPLING OR ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

● Include a list of characteristics essential for membership or
eligibility in the target population
● Based from the research problem, purpose, RRL, conceptual
and operational definitions of study variables and the design
○ Researcher will assign and indiviate eligibility criteria
for good candidates to be included in the study
● Heterogeneous vs homogeneous samples

HETEROGENEOUS VS HOMOGENEOUS

HETEROGENEOUS
TYPES OF POPULATION
● Diverse members as
Target ● Is the entire population of interest subjects: various
Population ● E.g., you wish to conduct a study on characteristics (members
Velez College students but specifically and subjects)
among the nursing students ● Example: A sampling criteria is to limit
○ The Target population are all heterogeneous sample
students in Velez College increases ability to
enrolled in Nursing only. generalize finding to target
population
Accessible ● Is the portion of the target population ● In descriptive and
Population accessible to the researcher correlational studies, the
● E.g, you wish to conduct a study on sampling criteria may be
Nursing Students, and as a student defined to ensure a
doing research, the most accessible heterogeneous population
population are the nursing students in with a bread range of
your own school. values for the variables
● For practicality & convenience being studies
● In reality it might be that difficult to ● Example: You are
really gather or take out your samples conducting a descriptive
from the real target population. Unless correlational research and
you have all the means to do so such it’s way better for us to
as enough time, manpower, as well as include a more
cost heterogeneous sample,
meaning the eligibility
criteria is much broader. In
The population is specified by the researcher using ELIGIBILITY
order for us to achieve
CRITERIA
more generalized findings.
● Example: Eligibility criteria
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA will be male and female
age 18-49 years old
Population Those living in Cebu City regardless of educational
status or ethnicity, etc.
Target Members of the whole pop’n possessing
Population eligibility characteristics
Accessible Most accessible to you as a researcher
Population
Sample Compute and determine
HOMOGENEOUS
● More applicable for quasi-
experimental or
experimental studies
● Its primary purpose of
the effect of extraneous
variables on the particular
interaction between the
independent and
dependent variables.
● Basically, there is a
disadvantage when we try
to limit so much the
characteristics of elements
within the sample because
when you have a very rigid
or very homogenous
sampling, (1) you may
have difficulty in freely
gathering or coming up to
an adequate number of
sample size (2) you will
have a difficulty in reaching
a more generalized
conclusion after.
● Remember: The more
heterogeneous the sample
you have, the greater
chance for you to
generalize your findings.
However, we have to look
into also if we have a larger
sample size, just make
sure that the elements
included in your sample set
do possess the eligibility
criteria characteristic that
you are looking for in order
to answer your study
questions.

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 an accurate result in comparison to the
sample mean as to that of the population
mean, it means you have achieved precision.
2 TYPES OF ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA Meaning, sample representativeness is being
observed in your own data results.
INCLUSION EXCLUSION ○ You can define parameters by conducting a series of
CRITERIA/SAMPLING CRITERIA/SAMPLING descriptive and correlational studies each of which
examines a different segment of the target
● Characteristics that a ● Characteristics that can population. Then, perform a meta-analysis to
subject or element must cause a person or estimate a population parameter.
possess to be part of element to be ■ In this case, it would really require us
the target population eliminated or excluded researchers to have more time in
● Example: The research from the target establishing sample representativeness.
participants should be population ■ The easier way would be by basing it on the
18-25 years old; had ● Individuals with these existing RRL.
finished at least 2 years characteristics would be
in college; and excluded from a study POPULATION (PARAMETER)
regardless of civil status. even if they met all the
inclusion criteria. ● A numerical value of a population
● Example: Clinical trials ● Can be estimated from the identified values obtained in
of a certain drug is being previous studies examining the same variables.
done and if ever, that ● PRECISION is the accuracy with which the population
particular subject parameters have been estimated within a study
develop another medical ○ And this can be observed when there is already an
condition within the existing meta-analysis among various researchers,
conduct of that trial, that studying on the same research problem.
would be a ground for
excluding him to
SAMPLING ERROR
continue the study, even
if beforehand he has
● Looking into the representativeness of the sample size. The
successfully met the
first curve from the left is the normal curve of the target
inclusion criteria set
population, and the next curve is the normal curve of the
● This is set by the researchers themselves way before the sample size. Then they try to look into the specific parameter
conduct of the study. on population mean and try to compare.
○ Data sampling plan and method is pretty important, ○ The population mean = μ and the sample mean = x̄
it’s like another way of designing, an integral part of ○ The middle part is the sampling error, which should
the research methodology aspect of your proposal. be very well understood by the researcher and
● The inclusion and exclusion sampling for a study should be before conducting the study, they should look out for
different and not repetitive. it because sampling error will have significant effects
○ Example: You should not have inclusion criteria of on the features that it results in.
individuals 18 years of age and older and an ● It is the difference between a sample statistic and the
exclusion criteria of individuals less than 18 years of estimated population parameter that is actual but unknown
age, because this is repetitive. ● LARGE sampling error means that the sample statistic does
● Researchers need to provide logical reasons for their not provide a precise estimate of the population parameter; It
inclusion and exclusion sampling criteria and certain groups is NOT REPRESENTATIVE
should not be excluded without justification, because if we do ○ It means it did not reflect
this, there might be some ethical considerations and the ● Inversely proportional with sample size
researcher might not be able to observe the principle of ○ The smaller the sample size, the greater chance of
justice or fair treatment among various members of the committing sample error and vice versa
society, specially those considered to be vulnerable ones like ● Reduces the POWER of the study
women, minorities, elderly adults, or economically ● Results from either Random Variation or Systematic
disadvantaged people. Variation
● In setting inclusion and exclusion criteria, make sure to have
a rationale for each and it should not be repetitive or
redundant, and it could adequately answer and refine the
research questions.

SAMPLE REPRESENTATIVENESS

● Characteristics of samples must be similar to the target

population in as many ways as possible
● Main Purpose = To attain generalizing of findings
● Usually evaluated by comparing the numerical value of the
sample (e.g. mean) with the same values from the target
population
RANDOM VARIATION
○ The accessible population must be representative of
the target population, so if the accessible population
● It is the normally-occurring and expected difference in
is limited to a particular setting, the individuals
values that occurs when one examines different subjects
seeking care at that setting may be different from the
from the same sample
individuals who would seek care for the same
● Values of individual subjects vary from the value of the
problem in other settings or from individuals who
sample mean.
self-manage their problems. In that case, you need
● The difference is random because the value of each
to draw samples from various settings just to achieve
subject is likely to vary in value and direction from the
representativeness.
previously-measured one.
○ For this aspect, comparing the numerical value of the
● As the sample size becomes larger, overall variation in
sample (ex. mean) with the same values from the
sample values decreases, with more values being close to
target population, if you are able to achieve that, the
the sample mean.
accuracy with which the population parameters or
● To understand random variation, we have to know what is
statistic have been estimated within the study refers
the mean (average or common ground among all the
to as precision.
participants). Now, variances from the mean means like from
■ Example: There are various studies before
the word “random variation”, the mean is letter “a”, now we
which identified the population parameter
have various different members of the sample (other letters),
specially among meta-analysis studies (the
they may have similar characteristics. But there are certain
collection of various research studies sharing
characteristics that make them randomly different from each
the same research objective or research
other and a way from the mean itself.
topic, and their focus). A researcher would
● Example: (The letter V a lil bit far away from letter A, there
need to look into their population mean and
are 3 places away. The letter N is also distant, but the Letter
after conducting the study or statistical
i is a lil bit close.). Random variation can affect sampling
analysis and treatment unto your sample
error in such a way that it can affect the values of the
size, then you are to compare if and there is
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 individual subject however, mahulog ang random variation
naturally or normally occurring, especially you handle human
as participants in research and you have heterogeneous
samples
SYSTEMATIC BIAS OR VARIATION
● Bias or variation obtained when subjects in a study share
various characteristics, making the sample less
representative than desired. Their resemblance to one
another makes it more likely that demographics and
measurements of effects of interventions will be quite similar
for most of them.
○ Both systematic bias and random variation makes
the sample less representative than the desire and
this is very much related to the non-random
sampling process.
● Sampling error is related to the nonrandom sampling
process.
○ So it is a consequence of selecting subjects whose
measurement values are different or vary and in
some specific way from the population. So because
the subject has something in common, their values
tend to be very similar to the values of others in the
sample and different in some way from the values of
the population as a whole.
● Increases as the REFUSAL Rate increases.
○ And Systematic bias of variation increases if the
refusal rate increases.
Example: Nursing Students Among in Velez & CDU:
You try an adequate amount of sample from the 2 schools,
however once you do your conclusion and presentation of
findings it may not be adequate enough for you to when you say
that your findings is applicable to all nursing students in the
Philippines or in the Cebu City because you have only referred
to 2 nursing schools and that these 2 nursing schools could
have a systematic bias and such a sense that there are certain
similarities among the characteristics of nursing students in both
school.
For example both are private institutions, knowing also we may
somehow pursue that students in both private institutions are
members of a society with middle to high economic status.
So there might be a problem with that in the future and this
could affect the increase of probability of having higher sampling
error.
REFUSAL RATE
● Is the number & percentage of subjects who decline to
participate in the study.
● The higher the refusal rate, the less representative the
sample is of the target population.
● Formula: Refusal rate
number of potential subjects refusing¿ participate
number of potential subjects meeting sample criteria
● Example:
○ You have a number of 40 potential subjects who
refuse to participate. Then you divide that to your
calculated sample size which is 200.
■ 40/ 200 X 100% = 20% (Refusal Rate)
ACCEPTANCE RATE
● Sampling frame - Part of accessible target population for
● The number and percentage of the subjects who agree to
participate in a study.
● Formula: Acceptance rate
number of potential subjects agreeing ¿ participate
● potential
number of Sample - subjects
● Example:
○ Total number of subjects agreed to participate, 160
then divided by 200 which was the sample criteria
then times 100%
■ 160/ 200 X 100% = 80% (Acceptance Rate)
Or
■ 100% - Refusal rate = Acceptance Rate
SAMPLE ATTRITION RATES
● The withdrawal or loss of subjects or study participants from
a study before its completion.
● Researchers must publish the attrition rate and the reason
behind.
○ Death of subject
○ Other personal reasons
● Low attrition rate allowable range: <10% - 15%
● Formula: Attrition rate
(number of subjects withdrawing)
sample ¿ x 100 % ¿
RETENTION RATE
● Opposition of attrition rate
● The number and percentage of subjects completing the
study
● The higher the retention rate, the more representative the
sample is of the target population, and the more likely the
study results are an accurate reflection of reality
● Target of researchers to have at least 80% or higher
SAMPLING ERRORS CAN OCCUR
● In random variation
● In systematic variation
● When sampling is not random
● High refusal rates/low acceptance rate
● High attrition rates/low retention rate
● In small sample sizes
RANDOMISATION
● Remember when we say Randomization, this means that
each individual in the population should have a greater than
zero chance to be included in the study.
● How randomization works
○ Details of everyone taking part in the trial are put into
a computer
○ The computer puts each person into a treatment
group at random
■ The researcher has no control themselves
○ The computer programme takes into account details
such as age and stage of cancer to make sure the
groups are as similar as possible
■ In other words there is a form of matching.
(experimental designs)
■ In non experimental design, randomization is
also highly useful especially in ensuring the
validity & reliability of future study results.
¿ x 100 %
SAMPLING FRAME
●
Target population - population of interest in which the
researcher wants to generalize the results of the study
study (the sample can be taken from accessible target
population and not from the entire target population unless
researcher has access to entire target population)
○ The research will now have to compute the specific
¿
sample size
x 100 %
Actual units selectedsample
meeting for the study
criteria
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 SAMPLING PLAN
● Describes the strategies that will be used to obtain a sample
for a duty
● To enhance representativeness
● Reduce systematic bias
● Decrease sampling error
SAMPLING METHOD
● Is highly scrutinized during proposal because an inadequate
or questionable sampling method could affect the final results
and integrity and validity of data.
● The detailed process of selecting a group of people, events,
behaviors, or other elements that represent the population
being studied
● Quantitative Designs use Probability and Nonprobability
Sampling designs
● Qualitative Designs and Mixed Methods Research use
Nonprobability Sampling designs
○ Simple Random Sampling with Replacement
■ After picking the members, you have to
replace the representative with a new
member. Para everytime mo pick siya ug
lain, naa jud siyay representative sa exact or
same number of population. So that there
would be an equal chance.
■ At any given point of time during the bunot-
bunot, it remains the same number of
possible chances to be picked.
● Methods of doing simple random sampling:
○ Draw by lots

PROBABILITY (RANDOM) SAMPLING METHOD STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

● Used when the researcher knows some of the variables
● Means that every in the population that are critical to achieving
member (element) of representativeness
the population has a ● Age, gender, ethnicity, SES, diagnosis, geographical
greater than zero region, type of institution, type of care, care provider, and
opportunity to be site of care
selected for the ● 2 types:
sample ○ A. Disproportionate sampling (equal number per
● Aka random strata)
sampling methods ○ B. Proportionate sampling (selected in proportion
● More likely to their occurrence in the population)
represent the
population and
decrease sampling error
● Thus validity of the study increase
● E.g.,
○ We have 12 members of the accessible population
and after computation of the required sample size,
nigawas si 4 and when you do probability random
sampling method, you randomly pick who you will ● How to compute the strata:
going to enter for your sample set. Though some ○ Specific number of elements in a strata divided by
was not picked, they had an equal chance that nga total number of elements among all strata
pwede unta sila ang naa diri, pero lahi man ang
nabunutan.
○ Here the researcher will not know or will not make a CLUSTER SAMPLING
conscious decision of picking out who will be
included. Because that will be a violation. ● Is similar to stratified random sampling but takes advantage
of the natural clusters or groups of population units that have
similar characteristics.
Simple Random Sampling 1. A simple random sampling would be prohibitive in
terms of time and cost
Stratified Random Sampling 2. If individual elements making up the population are
4 TYPES OF unknown, preventing the development of a sampling
PROBABILITY Cluster Sampling frame
SAMPLING DESIGNS ● Multistage cluster sampling
Systematic Sampling ● Advantage: can get a larger sample size at a lower cost
than simple random sampling
● Single Stage Cluster Sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
○ Our entire population is divided into clusters or
sections and then the clusters are randomly
● “Pick out randomly from the members of the population”
selected.
● 2 Main Types:
○ The researcher will randomly select among all the
○ Simple Random Sampling Without Replacement
clusters within the barangay. A researcher can also
■ Sampling WITHOUT replacement, during the
randomly select within the clusters as well.
picking of the second member of the sample,
there might be bias. Because you will
decrease the probability of other members of
the population to be picked.

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 QUANTITATIVE / MMR QUALITATIVE

● Convenience sampling ● Purposive/purposeful

○ There is quite a sampling
questionable ○ The researcher
representative of constantly
the target selects certain
population that participants,
improves with elements,
increasing events, or
sample size in incidents to
quantitative include in the
research. study.
○ Convenience ○ Qualitative
sampling is by researchers
the convenience select
of the researcher information-rich
● Quota sampling cases or cases
○ Use of that could teach
stratification for them a great
selected deal about the
variables in central focus or
quantitative and purpose of the
outcomes study.
research and ● Network or Snowball
make the sample ○ The researcher
more will start off with
● Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling presentative one respondent
○ A researcher will pick within the states and then from than or informant, and
the districts and from the villages and lastly from the convenience then after asking
households. sampling. him/her. The
○ Stratification that researcher will
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING we used to ask him/her to
provide a greater refer to other
● Can be conducted when an ordered list of the population is understanding of people whom
available subgroups of he/she knows
● The process involves selecting every kth individual in the list the population to who share
● Starting point must be RANDOMLY SELECTED increase the similar
● K = population size/ sample size desired representativene characteristics
ss of the with him/her.
phenomenon, ● Theoretical sampling
SUMMARY: processes, or ○ This is basically
cultural elements done in
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE. The researcher will pick out being studied. grounded theory.
randomly, with no particular order, on who will be included This is for the
in the sample set. main purpose to
2. STRATIFIED SAMPLE. The researcher is most likely advance the
needed to group the samples according to their development of
characteristics, and pick out randomly who or which is to selected theories
be included in the sample. or models
3. CLUSTER SAMPLE. The researcher will pickout samples throughout their
by group. research
process.
○ The researcher
gathers data
from any
individual or
group that can
provide relevant
data for theory
generation

TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

● Maximum variation sampling

NONPROBABILITY (NONRANDOM) SAMPLING FOR
QUANTI & QUALI RESEARCH
● Not every element of the population has an opportunity to be
included in the sample
● Increase the likelihood of obtaining samples that are not
representative of their target populations
● Researchers often include any subjects willing to participate
who meet the eligibility criteria
○ You design or establish the inclusion criteria in the
broadest way possible.
● Homogeneous sampling
○ You deliberately choose people who have more
similar or the same characteristics.
● Typical case sampling
○ You get the type of sample or person who has the
most typical case.
● Extreme case sampling
○ Those who have very out-of-the-usual cases or
unique cases.
● Intensity sampling
○ You take out who or what has the most intense
experience of the research focus of the study.
● Stratified purposeful sampling
● Reputational case sampling

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN SAMPLE SIZE IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

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● POWER
○ The deciding factor in determining an adequate
sample size for correlational, quasi-experimental,
and experimental studies is POWER
○ POWER is the capacity of the study to detect
differences or relationships that actually exist in the
phenomenon.
○ 0.80 or 80% minimum acceptable power
● POWER ANALYSIS
○ The method in determining adequate sample size in
quantitative research
○ Usually include: standard power of 0.8, level of
significance set at 0.05, effect size, and sample size.
○ The computation and discussion of the power
analysis are quite very much technical

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

● Identified by Kraemer & Thierman (1987)

1. The more stringent the significance level (ex. 0.001 vs 0.05),

the greater the necessary sample size.
2. Two-tailed statistical tests require larger sample than one-
tailed tests.
3. The smaller the effect size (ES), the larger the needed
sample size.
4. The larger the power required, the larger the needed sample
size.
5. The smaller the sample size, the smaller the power of the
study
6. Factors that affect power: ES, type of study, number of
variables, sensitivity of measurement methods and data
analysis techniques.

SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES

● The sample size and sampling plan are determined by the

purpose and philosophical basis of the study
● Saturation of data a.k.a. Informational redundancy →
occurs when additional sampling provides no new information,
only redundancy of previously collected data

RECRUITING & RETAINING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS:

● Next step after sampling plan development

RECRUITING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

● Involves identifying, accessing, and communicating with

potential study participants who are representative of the
target population.
● The way you approach them will have a big effect on the
success of the retention rates
● Best time to give out informed consent, explain your study,
and let them understand your purpose

RECRUITMENT

● Recruitment method
● Incentives
● Convenience
○ Both you and your participants
● Courtesy
● Benefits
● Endorsements
● Persistence
● Sharing results

RETAINING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

● Involves the participants completing the required behaviors of

a study to its conclusion
● If low retention rate then the sampling will increase
● and the sample representativeness will decrease. For there
is a bigger risk for the research study to be not finished,

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