Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

CHAPTER 1 systems by methods or usage not in

ELECTRICAL THEORY conformity with this code.
(On a separate pdf) ➢ FPN No. 2: It is highly recommended
that a licensed electrical practitioner be
consulted for any electrical
CHAPTER 2
requirements, including changes.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL MATERIALS ➢ FPN No.3: Fire Hazard, electrocution,
AND EQUIPMENT serious injury or even death may also
(naa sa end) occur with lack or improper
maintenance of wiring system.
CHAPTER 3
> Intended as a design specification or an
BUILDING ELECTRICAL DESIGN
instruction manual to qualified persons. >
PRINCIPLES Relation to Other International Standards.
The requirements in this code address the
ELECTRICAL CODES, LICENSES AND fundamental principles of protection for safety
PERMITS contained in Section 131 of IEC 60364- 1,
Electrical Installation of Buildings.
THE ELECTRICAL CODES
-an electrical code specifies for the written ➢ FPN. IEC 60634-1, Section 131.
provisions necessary for protecting people and Encompasses protection against
property from the improper use of electricity thermal effects, protection against
and electrical equipment. overcurrent, protection against fault
currents, and protection against
NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE overvoltage.
• The National Electrical Code (NEC) is
a set of specifications and standards in SCOPE
the form of a model code that can be • This code covers the installation of
adopted into local law by the local electrical conductors, equipment and
government entity. raceways: signaling and
• The NEC was established in 1897 communications conductors.
through the combined efforts of • Does not cover the (1) installations in
insurance, electrical, architectural, and railway rolling stock, aircraft or
other interested groups. In 1911, the automotive vehicles. (2) installations of
National Fire Protection Association railways for generation, transformation,
(NFPA) became the sponsor of the transmission, or distribution of power
NEC and continues to act in this used.
capacity.
AUTHORITY
PHILIPPINE ELECTRICAL CODE (PEC-
• This code has been approved and adopted
2017)
by the Board of Electrical Engineering and
PRC.
GENERAL PROVISIONS
• By virtue of authority vested the Board
Introduction
under RA 7920, it hereby direct strict
adherence to the provisions of this code.
PURPOSE:
>Practical Safeguarding of persons and ENFORCEMENT
property from hazards arising from the use of • This code intended for mandatory
electricity. application by the office of the Building
>Adequacy - Contains provisions that are Official/EE over electrical installations.
considered minimum requirements necessary • The Office of the Building Official/EE shall
for safety. have the responsibility of implementing, the
provisions of this code.
➢ FPN No. I: Hazards often occur • This code may require new products,
because of overloading of wiring constructions, or materials that may not yet
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
be available at the time this code is
adopted.
MANDATORY RULES, PERMISSIVE
RULES,
EXPLANATORY MATERIAL
APPENDICES
• Mandatory rules-are those that identify
actions that are specifically required or
prohibited and are characterized using
terms shall or shall not.
• Permissive rules-identify actions that are
allowed but not required, are normally used
to describe options or alternative methods.
• Explanatory material- references to other
standards, references to related sections of
this code
- Information related to a code rule in the
form of fine print notes (FPN).
• Appendices - are not part of the
enforceable requirements of the PECI but
are included for information purposes only.
MANUFACTURING STANDARDS
• Today, all electrical equipment,
applications, and devices should meet
specific safety standards based on regular
product testing. An approved product
meets minimum safety standards as
determined by extensive testing by an
independent testing company or
organization.
• Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. (UL), is a
not-for-profit product safety testing and
certification organization. Is the leading
third-party certification org. in the United
States and has been evaluation products in
the interest of public safety since 1894.
• The National Electrical Manufacturing
Association (NEMA) is the leading trade
association in U.S. representing the
interests of electrical manufacturing.
NEMA'S member companies
manufactured products are used in the
generation, transmission and distribution,
control, and end use of electricity.
• The Council for Harmonization of
Electrotechnical Standards of the
Nations of the Americas is known in most
other countries in North and South America
as Consejo de Armonizacion de Normas
Electrotecnicas de la Naciones de las
Americas (CANENA). The purpose of
CANENA is to facilitate and promote the
development of harmonized
electrotechnical codes and standards and
uniform conformity assessment methods.
AND
LICENSING
• Most municipalities have local laws that
require that any person who wishes to
engage in the business of installing
electrical systems must be licensed. This
means that the person must have a
minimum number of years of experience
working with a licensed electrician and
must pass a written test that deals with the
electrical code being used and with
methods of installations.
• By requiring a license, it is assured that the
electrician knows, at a minimum, the code
requirements, and the installation
procedures.
PERMITS
• Most municipalities require that a permit be
issued before any electrical installations
may be made on a project. A complete
electrical construction drawing may also be
required for review and approval by a plans
examiner before installation begins.
• Municipalities that require a permit will
have electrical inspectors who check the
project during regularly scheduled visits.
These inspectors will inspect the
installation after the rough writing is in but
before it is concealed behind construction
materials.
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
• An Electrical Construction Drawings shows
the layout and design of an electrical
installation.
• In order to convey the desired design
information to the contractor, it is a MUST
to obtain complete set of construction
drawings and specification of the building
electrical system.
The following construction drawings and
details are generally required:
1. Complete plans and specifications of all
electrical work.
2. Labeling criteria of all electrical
equipment.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
3. Lighting floor plans including electrical
circuit indicating conduit
and wiring sizes.
4. Power floor plans including electrical
circuits indicating conduit and wiring sizes,
equipment, and disconnected switches.
5. Exit sign / means of egress lighting
location and power supply.
6. Panel board Schedule.
7. Lighting Fixture Schedule
8. Symbol Schedule Diagrams.
Specifications and drawings should
include requirements for:
1. Race way and conduit with fittings.
2. Wire and Cable.
3. Electrical boxes, fittings, and
installation.
4. Electrical Connections.
5. Electrical Wiring Devices.
6. Circuit and Motor Disconnects.
7. Hangers and Supporting Devices.
8. Electrical Identification.
9. Service Entrance and Details.
10. overcurrent protection
11. Switchboards
12. Grounding
13. Transformers
14. Panel boards
15. Motor control centers
16. Lighting fixtures
Symbols are specifically used in construction
drawings to represent lighting and power
distribution components and equipment.
Predominantly there is no specific symbol
universally accepted by the industry the
symbols on the next slides are typically
modified by the engineers consulting firm used
on their drawings.
*Insert Abbv. & acronyms, Electrical symbols
- Symbols are well-arranged on the
drawings in the form of a one-line
diagram.
- One line represents the conductors
extending between two symbols
regardless of the number of
conductors.
- Generally, the single line without any
additional identification indicates a two-
wire set of conductors either an
ungrounded (hot) and grounded
conductor or two ungrounded
conductors.
BUILDING SYSTEM VOLTAGES
SUPPLY VOLTAGE
- expressed as a nominal voltage
because it varies slightly. Supply
voltages can vary from about 90 to
105% of the nominal voltage under
normal conditions. Variations from
nominal voltages are caused by a
number of reasons, including variations
in load and changes in conditions in the
power supply system.
SYSTEM VOLTAGE
The principal voltages available in a building.
- Medium and high voltage systems
carry ages cove 600 V may be used in
special cases such as for large
signage.
- Low voltage systems that carry
voltages less than 600 V are typically
used in buildings.
- System voltage is expressed as a
nominal voltage because it varies
slightly for the reasons mentioned
earlier.
CIRCUIT WIRING
• Ungrounded (hot) conductor
- is the initial current-carrying conductor
in an AC system. The ungrounded
conductor is frequently known as the
hot or live conductor because it feeds
current to the circuit.
• Grounded (neutral) conductor
- is required to complete a single-phase
circuit by connecting the ungrounded
(hot) conductor to ground. The neutral
conductor is a grounded conductor that
serves more than one circuit.
• Grounding (ground) conductor
- A third conductor that provides
supplementary but important grounding
protection. The grounding conductor is
not normally a current-carrying
conductor, but is energized only on a
temporary, emergency basis when
there is a fault between an ungrounded
(hot) conductor and any metal
associated to the electrical equipment.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
COMMON BUILDING SYSTEM VOLTAGES
A comparison of the number of conductors and
voltages between conductors on common
building system voltages is found in Table. The
following is a description of the common
building system voltages used in the United
States and Canada.
120 Volt, Alternating Current, Single-Phase,
Two-Wire System
(120 V AC, 1-2W)
• The most basic system voltage used. It was
used in the first electrical services to
buildings; however, nearly all have since
been upgraded. The service entrance
provided to the switchboard or panelboard
is by two conductors: one ungrounded (hot)
conductor carrying 120 V and one neutral
conductor. Voltage measured between the
ungrounded (hot) and neutral conductors is
120V.
120/240 Volt, Alternating Current, Single-
Phase, Three-Wire System (120/240 V AC, 1-
3W)
• The most common residential electrical
service in use today. It is also used on a
limited basis in light commercial buildings
such as small office buildings, churches,
and retail shops and stores. On a 120/240
V system, a 120 V branch circuit provides
electrical energy to convenience outlets,
small appliances, and light fixtures.
120/240 Volt, Alternating Current, Single-
Phase, Three-Wire System (120/240 V AC, 1-
3W)
• A 240 V branch circuit serves large
appliances and equipment such as electric-
resistance baseboard heaters, water
heaters, and air conditioning equipment. A
120/240 V branch circuit provides both 120
V and 240 V to an appliance such as range
and clothes dryer, controls, and light
fixtures. Typically, small motors run on 120
V and heating elements operate on 240 V.
A grounding conductor runs continuously
through all branch circuits and serves as a
safety circuit in case of a short- circuit.
208 Y/120 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System (208Y/120 V AC,
3-4W)
• An older electrical service found in small
commercial buildings and high-rise
buildings where three-phase motors,
above about 12 horsepower, and
equipment such as large air conditioners
are used. It is not used very often in
industry because a 480 V system is more
economical for largeCmotor loads.
480 Y/277 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System (480Y/277 V AC,
3-4W)
• Is a common electrical service in most
modern medium to large commercial
buildings. The 480 V three-phase power is
used to power specially designed heavy
machinery. High-voltage, 277 V fluorescent
lighting and other single-phase devices
have also been developed specifically for
use with this system. Large retail shopping
malls, schools, grocery supermarkets, and
office buildings may use this system for its
277 V fluorescent lighting capabilities,
where fixtures are not located closer than 3
ft away from windows, platforms, and fire
escapes.
480 Y/277 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System (480Y/277 V AC,
3-4W)
• When compared with the 208 Y/120 V
system, the 480Y/277 V system has
economic advantages from the standpoint
of equipment and conductors. Because a
given conductor can carry more than twice
the VA load at 480 V than at 208 V, the
savings in wire size for feeders can be quite
significant with the 480Y/277 V system.
Additionally, the smaller current at 480 V
for any supply transformer capacity permits
the use of protective devices with both
smaller frame size and interrupting rating.
Both factors permit significant savings.
600Y/346 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System (600Y/346 V AC,
3-4W)
• Is a less common electrical service in large
commercial and industrial buildings that is
used to power specially designed heavy
machinery. This system is designed like the
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
480Y/277 V AC, 3-4W described earlier,
except that 600 V and 346 V are available
in the circuit or feeder configurations.
600Y/346 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System (600Y/346 V AC,
3-4W)
• The 600Y/346 V system has additional
economic advantages from the standpoint
of equipment and conductor sizing in
comparison to the 208Y/120 V and
480Y/277 V systems. However, the 550 V
or 575 V equipment used on the
600Y/346V system is not as readily
available as the 460 V equipment used on
the 480Y/277 V system. As a result, this
electrical service is used primarily in
industries where the 600Y/346 V systems
area tradition.
240/120 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System
(240/120 V AC, 3-4W)
• Is another fairly common electrical service
found in commercial and industrial
buildings where three-phase motors,
above about 12horsepower, and
equipment such as large air conditioners
are used. On this three- phase, four-wire,
delta-connected system, the mid-point of
one phase winding is neutral to provide 120
V between Phase X and ground and Phase
Z and ground only.
240/120 Volt, Alternating Current, Three-
Phase, Four-Wire System
(240/120 V AC, 3-4W)
• There are 240 V between the windings of
each phase-that is, between Phases X and
Y, Phases X and Z, or Phases Y and Z.
Between Phase Y and ground there is 208
V available. Phase Y is known as the high
leg or wild leg because it has a higher
voltage to ground than the other legs.
SYSTEM, UTILIZATION, AND MAXIMUM
VOLTAGES
System Voltage
• is the target voltage entering the service
panel. System voltage will vary slightly for
different buildings because of variations of
voltage available at the transformer and
voltage drop in the service conductors. The
standard for the system voltage is actually
120/240 V.
Utilization Voltage
• A voltage drop occurs as current flows from
the service equipment through the branch
circuit conductors to the outlet. On a
120/240 V system, approximately 115/230
V is available at the outlet of the Branch
Circuit. Measured voltage at an outlet or
connection is called the line voltage.
Maximum Voltage
• Wiring devices such as switches,
receptacles, relays and conductors are
designed to endure voltages slightly higher
than the utilization voltage. The highest
voltage to which a wiring device can be
exposed is known as the maximum
voltage.
GROUNDED AND UNGROUNDED
CONDUCTORS
1. Grounded conductor
2. Neutral conductor
3. Load balancing
WHAT IS GROUNDED CONDUCTOR?
• A Grounded conductor is defined as a
system or circuit conductor that is
intentionally grounded. When something is
"grounded in accordance with the National
Electrical Code (NEC), it is connected to
ground of da conductive body that extends
the grounded connection.
• In a single branch circuit, a grounded
conductor serves as the grounded leg of
the circuit. It completes the circuit by
connecting the ungrounded (hot) conductor
to ground. Thus, in circuit design, the
grounded conductor is considered to be a
current carrying conductor because it
serves as a return path back to the circuit's
power source.
• Grounded conductors are meant to keep
people from getting shocked when using
electrical devices or appliances.
• It keeps the metal of the outlet from getting
hot and causing electrical shocks.
Neutral conductor
• A neutral conductor performs the function
of a grounded conductor for at least two
ungrounded (hot) conductors that have
sources from different voltage phases,
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
such as on a multiwire branch circuit,
multiwire feeder, and the electrical service.
It is a grounded conductor that is shared
between two or more ungrounded
conductors. Thus, a neutral conductor is
frequently called a shared neutral or
common neutral.
Example:
The neutral load on a 120/240 V, three-wire
feeder circuit carries an unbalanced load
on the ungrounded conductors of 68 A on
Phase A and 58 A on Phase B. Determine
the grounded neutral conductor load.
Unbalanced load = 68 A - 58 A = 10 A
The grounded neutral conductor load is
10 A for these conditions.
Ungrounded conductors are also called the
hot wire. Although both the grounded and
ungrounded conductors Com the earth, if an
accident occurs, like an appliance breaking,
you can get electrocuted if you come into
contact with an ungrounded conductor.
Load balancing is the practice of dividing
loads as evenly as possible between the
ungrounded conductors on a multiwire circuit,
feeder, or service. A well-designed neutral is
balanced so that under load little or no current
flows through the neutral conductor. On a
multiwire circuit, each ungrounded conductor
should carry loads equally.
Example:
In a 120/240 V single-phase, three-wire
circuit, if one ungrounded (hot) conductor
feeds a 16 A load on one circuit and the
other feeds a 4 A load on the other circuit,
the common neutral conductor carries 12 A
to ground is the difference between the two
loads.
SYSTEM AND CIRCUIT GROUNDING
GROUNDING
- Grounding offers excess electricity the
most effective and safest route from an
appliance back to the ground by way of
an electrical panel. Electrical grounding
is a backup pathway that is generally
only used if a fault in the wiring system.
- Grounding Conductor is a continuous
conductor that connects the ground to
the neutral bus bar and the grounding
conducting bus bar in the service
equipment/main panelboard.
- Grounding Conductor uses. It safely
carries current to ground in the event of
a lightning strike or in cases of damage
or defect in the circuiting, appliances,
devices, or equipment. It also provides
safety feature to the wiring system.
2 TYPES OF GROUNDING REQUIREMENTS
SYSTEM GROUNDING
- Is the part of a building electrical
system that provides protection against
electrical shock, lightning, and fires.
- It also relates to bonding (connecting)
all building electrical system
components at the service entrance
equipment at the neutral bus of the
main panelboard or switchboard.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
- It refers to a grounding conductor or
grounding path that connects the
noncurrent-carrying metal components
of equipment.
BONDING
o Both Equipment and System
grounding must be bonded. It
accomplished by installing an
additional grounding conductor
or by permanently joining metal
components in a circuit.
The equipment-grounding conductor is a bare
conductor or a green- colored, insulated
conductor that connects (bonds) the outlet
boxes, metallic raceways, other enclosures
and frames on motors, appliances, and other
electrical equipment.
DOUBLE INSULATION
Double insulation of an appliance or power
tool protects the user from electric shock by
creating a nonconducting barrier between the
user and the electric components inside the
appliance or tool.
- Small appliances and power tools with
double insulation are not required to
have a grounding conductor- that is,
they are allowed to have a two-prong
plug.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
- The primary difference between an
appliance with a three-prong plug and
an appliance with a two-prong plug is
the appliance casing. If an appliance
casing is a good conductor (e.g., made
of metal), then it must have a grounding
conductor and three-prong plug.
THE BUILDING ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
• There are many possible electrical systems
that can be used to distribute power in a
building. Typically, system design begins
with selection of a building system voltage,
which is dependent on sizes and types of
the connected loads, utilities near the
building, local codes and ordinances,
economics, and safety.
Subtopics:
01 Residential Systems
02 Multifamily Dwellings
03 Commercial/Industrial Systems
RESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
- means a ground-mounted or roof-top
distributed solar generation system
designed and installed for residential
applications, which is leased by, or
subject to a power purchase agreement
with, the owner of a residence for the
purpose of generating Electricity for
that residence.
MULTIFAMILY DWELLING
- is a single building that's set up
accommodate to more than one family
living separately. That can range from
a duplex, which has two dwellings
within a single building, to homes or
small apartment buildings with up to
four units.
- Multifamily dwelling units (e.g.,
apartments, condominiums), power is
brought from a utility transformer to the
building service equipment. It is then
divided at a main distribution panel,
passes through Individual meters, and
is distributed to the individual dwelling
units through feeders.
- Each dwelling unit is served by a
separate panelboard located in the
dwelling unit. Branch circuits extend
from a panelboard to feed outlets within
the unit. A house panelboard has
branch circuits that serve common
areas (e.g., corridors, laundry rooms,
lobbies, and so forth).
COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
- Large commercial and industrial
facilities have large and varied power
requirements that necessitate different
types of systems for different building
occupancies. Essentially there are so
many variations that there is no
standard type of system. In a typical
large building, electrical power is
provided to a transformer located
outside the building or it enters a
transformer vault located at the service
level in the building.
Examples of Residential Electrical
Installations:
Underground Electrical Distribution
- lines serving a residential development
being buried in a trench.
Underground Distribution Lines
- lines readied for connection to exterior
transformer.
Electrical Meter
- A 120/240 V-150 A, underground
service entrance for a single- family
residence.
Electrical Meter for Multifamily dwelling
unit
- Underground service entrance for a
multifamily dwelling unit.
Electrical Meter and Main Disconnect
- A service entrance with the electrical
meter and main disconnect (below
meter and above circuit breakers).
Circuit breakers are properly marked
on the panelboard face
Panelboard
- A close-up view of the inside of the
panelboard.
Circuit Cables
- Circuit cables can pass through floor
and ceiling joists.
Exposed Lighting
- Exposed lighting fixture.
Exposed Box
- An Exposed box in finished drywall.
Receptacle and Faceplate
- Unattached receptacle and faceplate
Outlet
- Covered convenience receptacle.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

CONDUCTOR REQUIREMENTS Temperature Correction

Factor
CONDUCTOR MATERIALS ▪ ambient temperature is
- Copper and aluminum are the most the temperature of a
common conductor materials used in surrounding medium
building electrical wiring, although other (e.g., air, soil)
materials can be used. ▪ In the case of electrical
- As a general rule, solid copper wiring, it is the
conductors are used in small conductor temperature of the
sizes (up to about 8 AWG) because medium surrounding.
safety issues associated with aluminum ▪ As ambient temperature
are avoided and weight and cost are rises, less current
not significantly affected. generated heat is
- Stranded aluminum conductors larger needed to reach the
(above 30 A) circuits equipment, and temperature rating of
appliances are serving. the insulation.
Therefore, ampacity is
CONDUCTOR INSULATION governed by
- Conductors are covered with insulation contribution of ambient
to provide electrical isolation and heat.
physical protection of the conductor ▪ The ambient
material. temperature rating of a
- The type of insulation material conductor refers to the
determines the environment in which a normal temperature
wire or cable can be used safely. range in the
- Insulators like plastic and rubber are environment in which
used as a covering for electric wires. that conductor is to be
- This makes electric wires safer to used (e.g., the
handle because the insulator protects temperature of the
you from the current surrounding air, water,
or earth).
CONDUCTOR AMPACITY REQUIREMENTS ▪ Conductor ampacity is
- In building electrical systems, the adjusted for changes in
ampacity of a conductor may need to ambient temperature,
be adjusted with correction factors including temperatures
when conditions related to the below 78°F (26°C) and
temperature of the surroundings and above 86°F (30°C).
the number of conductors in a raceway ▪ A temperature
(e.g., conduit or cable) fall outside correction factor (F) for
normal operating ranges. conductors is applied
- Correction factors typically applied are based on the ambient
addressed in the following sections. temperature of the
- The succeeding tables contain conductor.
ampacities for various conductors, Bundling Correction Factor
conductor insulations, and sheathings. ▪ When several current-
- Ampacities provided in these tables are carrying contained in a
values based on a normal operating raceway or cable, the
temperature of 86°F (30°C). temperature of the
- Ampacity values for each conductor conductors will increase
size are for different equipment under normal loading
terminal (where connections of wiring conditions.
are made) temperatures. ▪ A bundling correction
- Heat generated at the equipment factor (FN) must be
terminals can damage the conductors if applied for four or more
it is not properly dissipated. conductors in a raceway
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
or cable installed in the
same raceway or
conduit or any bundled
cables that are more
than 24 in (0.63 m) long.
Example
Determine the ampacity of a
No. 8 AWG copper
conductor with THHN
insulation that will be used
in a 120 V, two-wire circuit in
an industrial environment
with an average ambient air
temperature of no greater
than 125°F (51.7°C). Three
similar circuits will be
carried in a conduit.
Assume that a shared
neutral is not used.
Solution:
From the main body of
the text, the temperature
correction factor for
THHN insulation in an
ambient temperature
range of 123° to 131°F
(51° to 55°C) is 0.67.
From the main body of
the text, the temperature
correction factor for
more than 6 conductors
in a raceway is 0.80. As
in Example 19.2, circuit
conductors are sized
according to 140°F
(60°C) for equipment
rated 100 A and less.
From Table, the
ampacity of this
conductor is 40 A.
*Insert continued solution*
CONDUCTOR VOLTAGE DROP
REQUIREMENTS
• In addition to ampacity requirements,
branch circuits and feeders should be
analyzed for voltage drop because of the
adverse effect it can have on performance
and operating life of appliances and
equipment.
• Total voltage drop in the feeders and
branch circuits should not exceed 5%.
• The basic formula for determining voltage
drop (Edrop) in a two-wire AC circuit or three-
wire AC single-phase circuit with a
balanced load at 100% power factor
(neglecting reactance) is based on the one-
way circuit length (L), in feet or meters;
conductor resistance (R), in 0/1000 ft or
Q/1000 m; and the circuit load (1) in
amperes:
Edrop = 2 LRI / 1000
• The percentage of voltage drop is
determined by the ratio of voltage drop and
system voltage.
*Insert example*
INSULATION COLOR CODING &
IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS
• The insulation on small- and medium-size
conductors is color coded for identification.
• Larger conductors requiring color
identification are marked at the terminal
ends with a hand-painted stripe or colored
tape wrapped around the conductor
insulation.
• The grounding (ground) conductor
insulation must be color coded green,
green with one or more yellow stripes, or
may be a bare conductor on small
conductors in cables.
The North American standard for color coding
is black or any color, except white, gray, and
green (ungrounded/hot); white
(grounded/neutral); and green (ground).
The commonly used but not mandatory
color sequence of conductors serving
single-phase circuiting is:
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
CABLE, RACEWAY, AND REQUIREMENTS
Cable and Raceway Requirements
All building wiring must be enclosed in a cable,
conduit, wireway, or raceway.
• During installation:
✓conductors are snaked through conduit or
tubing, are laid in a wireway, or are
contained in cables, and
✔secured to structural framing.
• Care must be exercised in placing
conductors, as conductors and insulation
can be easily damaged.
• Example: If a conductor is pulled through a
tight conduit, it can stretch. (Deformation
caused by stretching reduces the cross-
sectional area of the wire, thereby reducing
its ampacity. This creates an unsafe
condition because the conductor can
overheat).
Conductors that are run through a raceway
must have sufficient open-air space to prevent
overheating.
• The number of current-carrying conductors
that can run through a raceway is limited by
code.
• A current-carrying conductor found in a
raceway is any ungrounded conductor or
grounded conductor.
- Equipment grounding (bare or green-
colored) and shared neutral conductors
are not current carrying and are not
counted.
These recommended values are less than
those typically established as maximum
values in the electrical code.
- They are recommendable because:
✓ Allow for less cumbersome
installation
✓ Based on industry experience
- They allow for future expansion.
CABLE AND RACEWAY REQUIREMENTS
Rigid conduit and tubing
✔rigid metal and nonmetallic
conduit
✔IMC
✔EMT
✔ENT
- are favorite raceway materials used to
protect conductors in all types of
buildings.
- it is available in straight lengths,
therefore, must be bent to
accommodate changes in direction.
✔ bends must be made no
smaller than the minimum
radius specified by code, about
6 to 8 times the conduit
diameter. ✓conduit and tubing
can have up to four 90° bends
or the equivalent 360° total in
one run.
✔ In runs requiring more bends,
a pull box is added in the run to
assist in pulling conductors and
to allow access.
✔ Bends can be made at the
factory or at the job site for small
to medium conduits.
Flexible conduit
✔flexible metal conduit
✔liquid tight flexible metal
✔nonmetallic conduit
- offers the advantage of easier
installation and can be salvaged easily
when circuits are rearranged.
- It is used where mechanical protection
is needed and easy relocation of
equipment is desired. It can have up to
four 90° bends or the equivalent (360°
total) in one run.
Conduit should be supported to prevent
wearing away against structure and to avoid
stressing its end fittings.
- Rigid conduit and tubing must be
supported within 3 ft of a box or other
connection and at intervals of 10 ft
(about 3 m).
- Continuous, metal conduit can be used
as the grounding conductor.
- Flexible conduit must be supported
every 4 to 6 in (1.35 m) and within 12 in
(300 mm) of a box, except up to 36 in
(about 1 m) is allowed at usage points
where flexibility is required (e.g., a
pump motor or air conditioner
condensing unit) and 6 ft (about 2 m)
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
between a recessed light fixture and a
box.
Grounding conductor
- IMC and EMT can be used as
grounding conductor if it is continuous
and properly bonded.
- It is required for flexible conduit.
- It can be bare or insulated.
Rigid nonmetallic conduit and tubing (ENT)
- Cannot be use as the grounding
conductor.
- Manufactured from thermoplastics that
have very high rates of thermal
expansion (over 6 in for a 100°F
temperature change per 100 ft/over
300 mm in a 50°C temperature change
per 30 m).
✓ Provisions must be made if it is
exposed to significant temperature
changes.
Nonmetallic-sheathed cable (NM and NMC)
- Permitted in single- and multifamily
dwelling units and some other
buildings.
Restriction of use in:
✔Underground
✔buildings that are more than three stories
above grade or in commercial garages
✔Motion picture studious
✔Theaters
✔Places of assembly Elevator hoist ways
✔Other corrosive or hazardous locations
- NM and NMC must be supported every
4-6 (1.35 m) and within 12 in (300 mm)
of a box.
Armored cable (AC)
Is for use in dry, indoor applications.
Restriction of use in:
✓ commercial garages
✔Motion picture studious
✔Theaters
✔Places of assembly
✔Elevator hoist ways
✔Other corrosive or hazardous locations
- Bends are limited to no less than five times
the diameter.
- Conduit and cable should be installed away
from locations where building occupants might
use it as a handhold or footstep.
- Drain holes should be provided at the lowest
point in a conduit run.
- Drilling and culling burrs should be carefully
removed to prevent damage to conductor
insulation.
- It must be supported every 4 to 6 in (1.35 m)
and within 12 in (300 mm) of a box, except up
to 24 in (600 mm) is allowed at points of usage
where flexibility is required (i.e., at a pump
motor).
- AC cannot be embedded in masonry,
concrete, or plaster.
BOX/ENCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS
- All electrical connections must be made
in a protective enclosure such as
panelboard, junction, or device box,
fixture, or appliance.
- Every switch, outlet, and connection
must be contained in an electrical box
and every lighting fixture must be
mounted in a box.
- All wirings must begin or terminate at a
panelboard or in a box that is housing
switch, luminaire connection,
receptacle, conductor junction, or some
similar terminal fitting.
- Junction boxes must be mounted so
that the blank cover plate is visible and
readily accessible.
- All electrical boxes must be adequately
secure to the building structure.
Any box can be used for any purpose.
- There are no requirements that specify
that a certain type of electrical box be
installed for a specific purpose.
- Typical trade practice:
o Octagon and round boxes for
lighting outlets o Normally
installed overhead for lightning
installation.
o Rectangular and square boxes
for switches and receptacle
outlets
The size and number of conductors to be
installed in a box influences selection of type of
box and box size.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
- The more conductors and/or the
conductor size, the bigger the box must
be.
- The capacity of a box, in cubic inches,
is determined by its length, width, and
depth.
- An increase in one or more of these
dimensions increases box capacity.
o Some boxes are designed so
they can be ganged together to
increase box capacity.
- By convention, a conductor that runs
through the box is counted as one
conductor and each conductor that
terminates in the box counts as one.
The size and number of conductors to be
installed in a box influences selection of type of
box and box size.
- Fixture wires and conductors that do
not leave the box, such as an internal
grounding wire, are not counted.
- One conductor is deducted for one or
more grounding conductors that enter
the box.
- Conductors in an electrical box must
have sufficient open-air space to
prevent overheating.
These recommended values are less than
those typically established as maximum values
in the electrical code.
- They are recommendable because:
✓ Allow for less cumbersome
installation
✓ Based on industry experience
- They allow for future expansion.
BRANCH CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS
Branch circuiting
A building electrical system consists of several
circuits that extend out from the switchboard or
panel board. A branch circuit is that portion of
the building wiring system that extends beyond
the final over current protection device that is
protecting the circuit.
- It provides power from a circuit breaker
or fuse in the panel board to single or
multiple points of use called outlets.
- An outlet is a point in a wiring system
where current is taken to supply an
appliance, piece of equipment, or
lighting installation.
- A branch circuit is composed of an
overcurrent protection device (fuse or
circuit breaker), wiring, and one or
more outlets.
Types of branch circuit
01 Individual Branch Circuit
- This of branch circuit serves one
receptacle or piece of equipment such
as for a range, clothes dryer, large copy
machine, or other piece of machinery.
These circuits usually lead directly from
the distribution panel to the appliance
and do not serve any other electrical
devices. The individual branch circuit is
sometimes known in the trade as a
dedicated or special purpose circuit.
02 General Purpose Branch Circuit
- A branch circuit supplies two or more
outlets for lighting and appliances. This
type of circuit may be referred to as a
lighting circuit; this is a carryover from
the days when electricity was first used
in buildings and its predominant
purpose was lighting. There are usually
a number of general-purpose branch
circuits supplying lights and outlets in
different rooms around a residence,
commercial or industrial building.
03 Appliance Branch Circuit
- This is the type of branch circuit that
supplies energy to one or more outlets
to which appliances are to be
connected. They supply fixed electric
equipment, such as refrigerators,
washers, and other large appliances
and electrical devices. Appliance
branch do not supply lighting fixtures.
Appliance branch circuits cannot
exceed 20 A.
04 Multiwire Branch Circuit
- A branch circuit consisting of two or
more undergrounded (hot) conductor
having a voltage between them and a
common neutral (grounded) conductor
that is shared between the ungrounded
conductors such as in a 120/240 V
three-wire circuit. Other branch circuits
specific to a particular occupancy may
also be required. For example, the
following branches are required in
health care facilities such as hospitals,
nursing homes, and dental facilities.
05 Life Safety Branch Circuit
- An emergency system of feeders and
branch circuit that provides adequate
power to patients and personnel. It
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
must automatically connect to an
alternate power source such as a
generator when the normal power
source is interrupted.
05 Critical Branch Circuit
- An emergency system of feeders and
branch circuits intended to provide
power to task illumination, special
power circuits, and selected
receptacles serving areas and
functions related to patient care. It must
automatically connect to an alternate
power source such as a generator
when the normal power source is
interrupted.
Split Wiring Receptacles
- Split wired duplex receptacles are fed
with a 120/240 V circuit having two
ungrounded (hot) conductors, a
grounded neutral conductor, and a
grounding conductor.
- One grounded (hot) conductor feed
power to upper outlet and the and the
other ungrounded (hot) conductor
feeds the lower outlet.
- The grounded (neutral) conductor is
shared between both circuits.
- Split wiring allows power to be drawn
from two separate circuits on one
duplex receptacle.
BRANCH CIRCUIT RATING AND LOADS
The branch circuit rating is determined by
the rating of the overcurrent protection
device (fuse or circuit breaker) used to
protect the wiring in the circuit from
excessive current flow.
The wiring in the circuit must safely deliver
current to the connected load and the over
current protection device protects this
wiring, so the circuit rating matches the
rating of the over current protection device.
The connected load on a branch circuit is
the sum of all loads connected in a circuit.
It is found by totaling the connected volt-
amp (VA) load at each outlet connected to
the circuit.
Design of a building electrical installations
computations with power (P), expressed in
Watts (W); voltage (E), in volts (V);
amperage (1), in amps (A) and volt-amps
(VA) in volts and amperes.
All electric-resistant appliance or pieces of
equipment such as an oven, water-heater,
and space-heater (no blower) and lights
generally have power (wattage) ratings
equal to their connected loading (VA
rating).
Design of a branch circuit involves sizing
conductors and over current protection
(fuse or circuit breaker) that match the
circuit rating.
In contrast, all electromechanical (having a
motor) appliances or pieces of equipment
generally will have a VA rating larger than
the power (P) rating.
General Purpose Circuits
General purpose circuits feed more than one
outlet for lighting or other purpose. According
to requirements, the rating of general-purpose
branch circuits must be 15 A, 20 A, 30 A, 40 A,
or 50 A. Maximum connected loads, voltages,
and other requirements for general purpose
circuit ratings are shown in Table 19.11.
General purpose circuits typically provide
power to convenience receptacles and lighting
outlets with ratings of 20 A and 15 A because
of their ease of running and pulling the slender
conductors required (No. 12 AWG and No. 14
AWG copper, respectively).
General purpose circuits are typically
limited according to what will be connected
to them:
• When a general-purpose circuit feeds fixed
appliances and luminaires or portable
appliances, the total of the fixed appliances
should be no more than 50% of the branch
circuit rating.
• When portable appliances will be used on
a general-purpose circuit, the limit for any
one portable appliance is 80% of the
branch circuit rating.
• In commercial applications, convenience
receptacles are computed at a load of 1.5
A (180 VA) per receptacle and are limited
to 80% of the rating. This limits a branch
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
circuit serving only receptacles to its rating
divided by 11/2 A.
• A 20 A, 120 V branch circuit would have a
theoretical maximum of 2400 VA (20 A 120
V 2400 VA), but it is common practice to
limit the connected load to 80% of the
circuit rating (e.g., 20 A 120 V - 80% 1920
VA).
• When the load on the circuit will be a
continuous operating load (e.g., for store
lights), the total load should not exceed
80% of the circuit rating. The lighting load
must include any ballasts, transformers, or
autotransformers, which are part of the
lighting system. Because a 15 A branch
has a full rating of 1800 VA, the limit would
be 80%, or 12 A and 1440 VA (e.g., 15 A
120 V 80% 1440 VA). A 20 A, 2400 VA
branch would be limited to 16 A and 1920
VA of connected load.
Individual Circuits
These circuits provide power to a single outlet
such as a receptacle serving a range, clothes
dryer, or copy machine. Although there are no
size limitations for an individual circuit rating,
appliances and equipment rated at above 25 A
must be placed on a separate individual circuit
because of the 50% maximum single load
limitation in general purpose circuiting. Usually
connected loads above 20 A are placed on an
individual circuit. It is good practice to provide
individual circuits for loads above 1500 W.
Motors above 1/8 hp should also be placed on
an individual circuit.
Generally, individual circuits are required
for the following appliances and
equipment:
•Kitchen range
•Oven
•Electric water heater
•Microwave (built-in)
• Waste disposal
• Furnace
• Boiler circulating pump motor
• Dishwasher
•HVAC air-handling unit
•Large machinery
•Large equipment
• Clothes washer
• Clothes dryer
Appliance Circuits
These circuits serve two or more outlets to
which only appliances are connected. In
dwelling units, two or more 20 A small
appliance circuits for convenience receptacle
outlets in the kitchen, dining room, pantry, and
breakfast room are required. These are in
addition to the other outlets required. Small
appliance circuits can supply any refrigerators
and freezers, but not an electric range or oven.
Tables 19.12 through 19.17 provide
recommendations for circuiting common
appliances and pieces of equipment.
Manufacturers' data should always be used in
computations.
Continuous Load
A continuous load is a connected load that
operates for 3 hr or more at any time. Many
electrical loads fit within this category such as
circuits serving office and classroom lighting
installations. When determining a circuit rating,
most loads deemed continuous must have a
circuit rating calculated at 125% of the circuit's
connected load.
The intent behind the 125% factor is from
the inability of the overcurrent protection
device to handle a continuous load without
overheating; that is, most circuit breakers
trip if they carry their rated load for any
significant time period. In many
installations, it is good practice for all
connected loads not to exceed 80% of the
individual circuit rating.
Another way of looking at this is that the
connected load on a continuous-load
circuit should not exceed 80% of the
individual circuit rating. Thus, the maximum
continuous load on a 20 A circuit is 16 A
(80% of 20 is 16).
There are several exceptions to application
of the continuous-load multiplier. On
circuits involving electric space heating, the
connected load is taken at 100% of the load
even though it may operate for more than 3
hr at a time. Any branch circuit serving a
single motor or a device containing a motor
should have an ampacity (amperage
rating) of not less than 125% of the motor's
full load current rating (this is the same as
saying that no motor can exceed 80% of
the branch circuit rating).
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
Branch Circuit Conductor Size
On a branch circuit, conductor size is tied to
circuit rating. Generally, ungrounded (hot) and
grounded (neutral) conductors in the circuit
must be sized so that conductor ampacity is at
least the branch circuit rating. The ampacity of
a conductor can be larger than the circuit rating
but not smaller. For example, the No. 8 AWG
copper conductor with THW insulation that will
be used in a 120 V, two-wire circuit in an
environment with an average ambient air
temperature of no greater than 86°F (30°C)
has an ampacity of 50 A. It can safely carry up
to 50 A without overheating.
Residential Branch Circuit Wiring
Type NMB cable (e.g., Romex) is the most
widely used wiring method in residential
dwellings. NM cable must have 194°F (90°C)
conductor insulation rating, which is
designated by a "B" on the cable sheath.
Typically, AWG No. 12, and AWG No. 14 are
used for receptacle and lighting circuits; AWG
No. 10/2 is commonly used for electric water
heaters; AWG No. 10/3 with ground for
electrical dryers and cooktops; and AWG No.
8/3 with ground or AWG No. 6/3 with ground
for ranges and wall mounted ovens. Type SER
or other four-wire cable is used for electrical
ranges, cooktops, wall ovens, and clothes
dryers.
Example
A 120 V, 20 A, two-wire branch circuit feeds
incandescent lighting that stays on for 3 hr
or more. Determine the maximum
continuous load permitted on this branch
circuit.
P= E*I
P= E*I = 120V 20 A 1.0 = 2400 VA
A lighting installation containing 16 to 100
W incandescent luminaires on one circuit
will be operated approximately 10 hr per
workday. Determine the circuit rating.
The 1600 W connected load is a
continuous load because it operates for
3 hr or more. The continuous load
multiplier (125%) must be applied:
1600 VA-1.25-2000 VA
The circuit rating is found by
algebraically manipulating the power
equation, PIE:
1-P/E-2000 VA/120-16.7 A
A 20 A circuit breaker is the closest
circuit breaker available for overcurrent
protection (see Chapter 18 for sizes
available). The rating for this circuit is
20 A.
*Insert continuation of solution*
DEVICE AND EQUIPMENT
REQUIREMENTS
Requirements for switches and receptacles
01 Switches must be selected to match the
load they control.
02 A panelboard-like enclosure called
lighting control panel is used huge lighting
installations that require many switches.
03 Receptacles must be selected to match
the appliance or equipment they serve.
04 Ordinary convenience receptacles and
switches are general wall mounted and
there are no specific
height requirements for switches and
receptacles.
05 Normally, switches are mounted
approximately 2 m) above finished floor
(AFF), convenience receptacles at 16 in.
(400 mm) AFF and convenience
receptacles in bathrooms and restrooms at
44 in. (1.1 m) AFF, unless otherwise
specified.
06 Receptacles are customarily installed
with the lot oriented downward.
07 Unless the receptacle is controlled by a
switch, the receptacle is frequently aligned
with the grounding slot upward.
08 Ordinary convenience receptacles and
switches are general wall mounted and
there are no specific height requirements
for switches and receptacles.
09 In contrast to historical practice, it is
recommended that receptacles be installed
with the grounding slot oriented upward to
improve safety.
10 By orienting the grounding slot upward,
the grounding pin would be the first blade
to contact the object, which would not
create a short-circuit.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
• An overcurrent protection (OCP) device, a
fuse, or circuit breaker serves to limit
current levels in a conductor by interrupting
power when current limitations are
exceeded. It prevents excessive heat from
damaging conductors and related
equipment.
• The voltage rating of a fuse or circuit
breaker must be equal to or greater than
the voltage of the circuit in which the fuse
is applied.
• The current carried (amperage) by the
electrical circuit or system protected by an
OCP device must not exceed the maximum
current rating of the circuit breaker.
• Furthermore, the amperes interruption
current (AIC) rating for circuit breakers
should be at least 5000 A and 10 000 A for
fuses.
- The fuse or circuit breaker must be
installed at a location in the circuit
where the conductors receive power
(generally at the panelboard).
- The OCP device must protect the
ungrounded conductors in a circuit to
ensure that power to the circuit is
interrupted by the OCP device.
- Lastly, the neutral (grounded) and
grounding conductors are not protected
by overcurrent protection.
FEEDER REQUIREMENTS
1. A feeder is a set of conductors that
carry comparatively large amount of
power from the service equipment to a
second panelboard, called a sub panel
board, where branch circuits further
distribute the power.
2. Feeders designed to provide sufficient
power to the branch circuit they supply
so feeder conductor size is based on
the maximum load to be supplied by the
feeder.
3. Feeders should be capable of carrying
the amount of current required by the
load, plus any current that may be
required in the future.
4. It is not likely that all connected loads
on a feeder will be in operation at a
specific time. Thus, feeder conductors
do not need to be sized to carry the total
connected load served by the feeder.
Additional capacity may be warranted
for future expansion.
SWITCHBOARD AND PANELBOARD
REQUIREMENTS
• Switchboards and panelboards can be
used as distribution equipment, at a point
downstream from the service entrance
equipment.
• Panelboards feeding lighting and
convenience receptacles and having at
least 10% of the circuits rated at 30 A or
less are identified as lighting and appliance
panelboards.
• In a single panelboard, not more than 42
overcurrent protection devices may be
used for protecting lighting and appliance
branch circuits.
• Power distribution panelboards feed other
panelboards (called subpanelboards),
motors, and transformers, but not circuits
powering lights and convenience
receptacles.
When locating overcurrent protection in a
panelboard, it is important to balance the
anticipated load so that both bus bars are
carrying a similar load.
In service equipment panelboards, the neutral
and equipment grounding conductors are
bonded (connected) together. In
subpanelboards, the neutral is isolated from
ground.
In general, a fuse or circuit breaker must be
installed at a location in the circuit where the
conductors receive power. Generally, this
location is in the panelboard or load center
before the conductors leave to convey current
to the outlets in the circuit.
SERVICE ENTRANCE EQUIPMENT
Service Equipment
Large enough to supply the compute load of
the building or area of the building being
served.
- All service equipment and electrical
panels shall have clear area 30 in (0.75
m) wide and 36 in (0.9 m) deep in front.
- An 8 ft (2.4 m) clearance is required
above low-sloped (less than 4 In 12
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
slope) rooflines. A3 ft (0.9 m) clearance
is required for steep- sloped roofs.
Commonly used aluminum conductors
- RHW, THWN, THIN, XHHW, and USE.
Residential service equipment
The most common sizes of residential service
equipment are 100, 125, 150, and 200.
Service Equipment
- It is also necessary to bury
underground conductors sufficiently
below grade to reduce the hazard of
unintentional contact.
- The required depth of burial can be
found in the Code.
- Minimum earth cover varies from 6 to
24 in (150 to 600 mm).
TRANSFORMER REQUIREMENTS
01 Transtormer combinations, such as
wye-wye (Y-Y), delta-delta (-), delta-wye (-
Y), and we-delta (Y-) are available for use
in buildings.
02 The first symbol (Y or) indicates the
ration of the primary es and the second the
configuration of the secondary windings.
03 A 480 V primary, 208 VY/120 V
secondary, three-phase transformer is a
popular unit used in large commercial
buildings and Industrial facilities.
04 From a four-wire 480/277 V supply, 277
V lighting and 480 V heavy equipment can
be powered before being stepped down to
a 208 Y/120 V, three-phase, four-wire
system for convenience receptacles and
light-duty equipment and appliances.
Primary and secondary conductors are
sized to carry 100% of the ampere rating of
the overcurrent protection. The equipment-
grounding conductor size is based on the
ampacity of the phase conductors.
OCCUPANT PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
Temper-Resistant Receptacle
Requirements
• The NEC has required tamper-resistant
receptacles be installed in all 125-V, 15-
and 20-A electrical receptacles in hospital
pediatric areas for nearly three decades.
Recently, the NEC introduced
requirements for all 125-V, 15- and 20-A
electrical receptacles in new residential
construction to be tamper-resistant
receptacles.
• Products such as plastic plug-in inserts and
wall plates with contact shutters are
available For tamper resistance, but do not
meet these requirements.
• There are many other settings where
children may be at risk, including; day care
centres, children's play areas, elementary
and nursery schools, doctor's offices and
lobbies, and retail establishments featuring
children's attire or toys.
• All tamper-resistant receptacles must have
either the words "tamper resistant" or the
letters "TR" (minimum 3/16 in or 5 mm
high) on the device as a clear indication
that this is a tamper-resistant receptacle.
GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
• The NEC introduced requirements for use
of GFCI in residences in 1973 when it
required GFCI protection of outdoor
convenience receptacles within 6 & 1/2ft or
(2 m) of grade level. In residential
Installations, GFCI protection is required at
all 125 V, single phase 15 A and 20 A
outlets in the locations listed below.
• The NEC introduced requirements for use
of GFCI in residences in 1973 when it
required GFCI protection of outdoor
convenience receptacles within 6 & 1/2ft or
(2 m) of grade level. In residential
Installations, GFCI protection is required at
all 125 V, single phase 15 A and 20 A
outlets in the locations listed below.
• The requirements do not apply to
equipment rated at 240 V (e.g., baseboard
heater, room air conditioners, welding
receptacles, or other outlets that are not
rated at 125 V).
The NEC introduced these requirements
beginning in the years listed:
• Outdoor convenience outlets within 6 & 1/2
ft or (2 m) of grade level (1973 edition) and
revised to include all exterior convenience
outlets (1993 edition)
• Bathroom convenience outlets (1975
edition)
• Readily accessible convenience outlets in
garages (1978 edition), except where not
readily accessible such as outlets
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
dedicated to an overhead door opener or
freezer.
• Convenience outlets within 6 ft (1.8 m) of
kitchen sink (1987 edition) and revised to
include all kitchen convenience outlets that
serve countertops, including islands (1996
edition) but not those serving fixed kitchen
appliances (e.g., range and oven) and the
refrigerator or freezer.
• Convenience outlets in unfinished
basements and crawl spaces, except
laundry (1990 edition)
• Convenience outlets within 6 ft (1.8 m) of
laundry, utility room, or wet bar sink (1993
edition)
Other locations requiring GFCI protection
on 120 V, single-phase 15 A and 20 A
outlets include:
Commercial kitchens
Restrooms in commercial, industrial,
and in any other non-dwelling type
buildings
Receptacles with grade-level access
and at rooftop locations
Commercial garages
Elevator pits
Agricultural buildings
Aircraft hangers
Wet locations in health care facilities
Boathouses, marinas, and boatyards
Receptacle outlets on roofs (except
dwelling units)
Circuits to resistance (impedance)
heating units such swimming pool,
spa, hot tub, de-icing and snow-
melting heaters.
Receptacle and lighting outlets near
swimming pools, spas, hot tubs, and
fountains
Receptacles in temporary locations
(i.e., on construction sites,
carnivals, circuses, and fairs)
Some types of equipment (e.g., appliances
with large motors) have inherent leakage
current levels that exceed the standard trip
setting of a GFCI. This will cause nuisance
tripping of GFCI devices.
GFCI circuit breakers may be added in panel
boards of older buildings to replace ordinary
circuit breakers. For homes protected by fuses,
the convenience receptacle or portable-type
GFCI protection is highly recommended.
ARC FAULT CIRCUIT PROTECTION
REQUIREMENT
• Future editions of the Code will likely
expand coverage to include commercial
and industrial applications such as use in
fire station sleeping areas, military housing,
hospitals, outpatient clinics, rest homes,
retirement homes, and in other locations
where extension cords or cord- connected
equipment may be used and where the
general occupancy may be at risk from arc
faults.
• Buildings wired with solid aluminum
conductors used in the late 1960s and early
1970s are prone to poor connections. Such
building electrical systems can also be
retrofitted with AFCI protection to identify
faulty connections.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN
Preliminary Design Guidelines
• Ideally, the electrical designer should be
involved in the of the project from the very
beginning.
• The electrical designer is the person who
could best discuss the electrical
component of project planning with the
power company.
• Checking of all of the utilities (whether
sewer, water storm sewer, natural gas
lines, and so forth) is needed early in the
design stage.
Before actually beginning the design layout
of the project, the designer will need to
accumulate certain information:
1 Determine whether electrical service is
available at the site, and what type of
system voltage is available (e.g.,
120/240 V AC,, 10-3W, 208 Y/120 V
AC, 3-4W, and so forth)
2 Obtain a list from the owner of all the
types and locations of equipment and
appliances to be used in the building
that will require electricity.
3 Work with the architectural designer to
best locate all the electrical equipment
and appliances on the floor plan.
4 Review with the architect where the
basic mechanical equipment (e.g.,
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
HVAC and plumbing), the service
entrance equipment, the power and
lighting panels, and the conduit or cable
will be located.
5 Discuss with the owners any future
plans for changing or 5 expanding the
facilities (e.g. remodeling, constructing
additions or other buildings, future
equipment requirements) and anything
else that could potentially affect the
size and location of the electrical
service.
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Experience guides the designer to a solution
that best suits the need of the building
occupant. The designer achieves a solution by:
• Observing and evaluating existing
installations and adapting them to meet
the project requirements.
• Applying electrical systems theory
• Applying Code requirements
Design of an electrical system begins with the
layout of all outlets or outlet connections. See
Figure Symbols are used to indicate the
approximate location of convenience
receptacles, lighting outlets, and special
purpose outlets.
*Insert symbols*
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR COMMON
SPACES
Convenience Outlets and Switches
- The number and type of lighting outlets
should be fitted to the various seeing
tasks.
- All convenience receptacles on 15 A
and 20 A general purpose circuits
should be of the grounding type,
minimizing the hazard of shock from
short circuits.
- GFCI protection should be provided on
convenience receptacles where
required by local code (e.g., where the
occupant is exposed to water).
- AFCI protection should be used on
convenience receptacles where
required by local code (e.g., in bedroom
circuits).
- All rooms that have more than one
entrance should be equipped with
multiple-switch controls (e.g., two-way
or three-way switching) at each
principal entrance. If this
recommendation would result in the
placing of switches controlling the
same lighting installation within 8 ft (2.5
m) of each other, multiple-switch
controls may not be required.
- Wall switches should be located at the
lockset or latch side of doors or at the
traffic side of arches, and within the
room or area where the lighting outlets
are located.
- Convenience receptacles in living
rooms, bedrooms, dining areas, and
other habitable spaces should be
placed so that no point along the floor
line in any usable wall space is more
than 6 ft (1.8 m) from an outlet in that
space. The intent is to eliminate cords
having to pass over hot or conductive
surfaces wherever possible.
Building Exterior
• One or more lighting outlets should be
located at or near all exterior entrances.
Outlets should be switched or
automatically controlled.
• For each single-family dwelling, at least
one duplex receptacle shall be installed
outdoors to be readily available from
ground level.
• One or more outlets may be required for
exterior equipment (e.g., swimming pool
pump, well pump, and so on).
Common Areas and Living Rooms
• Outlets for ambient and task lighting should
be provided. General illumination outlets
should be wall switch controlled.
• Convenience receptacles in living areas
should be placed so that no point along the
floor line in any usable wall space is more
than 6 ft (0.6 m) from a receptacle outlet in
that space.
• One or more receptacles for entertainment
equipment should be provided at
bookcases, shelves, or other suitable
locations.
• When general illumination is to be provided
from portable lamps, then at least two
separate wall-switched plug-in positions
should be provided.
• An outlet for a fireplace may be required.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
• A smoke detector/alarm on a 120 V circuit
should be considered.
Food Preparation/Kitchen/Cooking Areas
• Lighting design should provide for ambient
and local/task illumination of the work
areas, sink, range, counters, and tables.
• Special purpose receptacles should be
provided for all fixed appliances (e.g.,
range, built-in microwave, exhaust hood,
dishwasher, trash disposal unit, waste
disposal, and so on).
• At least two 20 A small appliance circuits
for kitchen countertops should be provided.
Outlets on these circuits should serve only
the kitchen, pantry, and/or dining room
areas.
• Convenience receptacles serving
countertop areas (e.g., except behind
refrigerator and those serving fixed
appliances) should be GFCI protected. It is
recommended that receptacles serving
countertop areas be split wired.
• A smoke detector/alarm on a 120 V circuit
should be considered.
Sleeping Areas/Bedrooms
• General illumination should be provided
from either ceiling or wall outlets, controlled
by one or more wall switches.
• A convenience receptacle should be
placed on each side and within 6 ft (1.8 m)
of the centerline of each probable individual
bed location.
• All 120 V branch circuits that supply outlets
in dwelling unit bedrooms must be
protected by an AFCI device. A smoke
detector/alarm must be provided on a 120
V circuit and should be AFCI protected.
• In master bedrooms, outlets should be
considered for a television and
entertainment equipment (e.g., DVD/VCR
player).
• In master bedrooms, an outlet for a
fireplace may be required.
Bathrooms/Restrooms
• Lighting sources at the mirror should be
capable of illuminating both sides of the
face.
• At least one GFCI-protected receptacle
within 3 ft of the outside edge of each
lavatory basin should be provided. The
circuit serving bathrooms should have no
other outlets. Where the 20 A circuit
supplies only a single bathroom, it can
supply power to outlets for other equipment
within the same bathroom (i.e., lighting
outlets or an exhaust fan).
• A wall-switched or timer-operated, built-in
ventilating fan capable of providing a
minimum of 8 to 10 air changes per hour
per water closet (50 cfm/water closet)
should be provided where no natural
ventilation through windows is included.
• Wall switches should be located so as not
to be readily accede while standing in the
tub or shower stall.
Laundry Areas
• Outlets for fixed lights should be installed
to provide illumination of work areas, such
as laundry tubs, sorting tables, washing,
ironing, and drying centers. Lighting outlets
should be wall-switched controlled.
• In the laundry area, one 20 A receptacle for
the clothes washer and a special
receptacle for the clothes dryer are
required.
• One outlet and one switch for a ventilation
fan should be provided.
• A smoke detector/alarm on a 120 V circuit
should be considered.
Halls/Corridors
• Ceiling fixtures should be installed for
proper illumination of the entire area with
particular attention paid to irregularly
shaped spaces.
• Convenience receptacles in hallways
within a dwelling unit should be placed so
that no point in the hallway shall be more
than 10 ft (1.0 m) from a duplex receptacle.
Each hall over 25 ft2 (2.3 m2) in floor space
should have at least one receptacle.
• In entrance foyers, convenience
receptacles should be placed so that no
point along the floor line in any usable wall
space is more than 10 ft (3.1 m) from a
receptacle in that space.
Stairways
• Fixed wall or ceiling lighting outlets should
be installed to provide adequate
illumination of each stair flight.
• Outlets should be so arranged that the stair
system can be fully illuminated from either
floor.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
• A smoke detector/alarm on a
considered at the top of the stairs.
Utility Rooms
• Lighting outlets should be placed to
illuminate furnace/boiler area and work
area. At least one lighting outlet should be
wall-switch controlled.
• Convenience receptacles should be
provided. Outlets should be provided for
each piece of mechanical equipment
requiring electrical connections such as the
boiler, chiller, furnace, water pump, or
compressor.
• A special purpose outlet may be required
for electric resistance water heater, and/or
an electric-resistance furnace.
Shops/Garages
• Lighting outlets should be placed to
illuminate the work areas. Task lighting
should be provided above workbenches.
Lighting outlet should be wall-switch
controlled.
• At least one duplex receptacle should be
provided for each space in a garage or
carport.
• Convenience outlets should be provided at
workbenches. In garages or near water,
these outlets should be GFCI protected.
• Outlets should be provided for automatic
overhear (garage door operators in the
ceiling above each bay
• Special purpose outlets should be provided
for special equipment such as air
compressors, welding equipment, tire
hanger, dust collection equipment,
machining equipment anon. Check with
owner on equipment voltage requirements,
load, and placement.
• A smoke detector/alarm on a 120 V circuit
should be considered.
Storage Rooms/Closets
• Generally, one lighting outlet for each large
closet or storage room should be provided.
• Wall switches or automatic door switches
are preferred, but pull switches are
acceptable.
Electrical/Telecommunications Closet
• Lighting outlets should be placed to
illuminate the area.
120 • A minimum of two dedicated convenience
receptacles on separate circuits is
required. Additional duplex convenience
receptacles should be placed at 6 ft (1.8 m)
intervals around the perimeter.
• Rooms should be located away from
sources of electromagnetic interference
(e.g., transformers, motors, x-ray
equipment, induction heaters, arc welders,
radios, radar systems, and so forth).
• Emergency power should be considered
and supplied.
• A smoke detector/alarm on a 120 V circuit
should be considered.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
An example of system design of a 61 ft-6 in by
36 ft., single-story, single-family residence is
used in the explanation. This residence
contains general lighting outlets), equipment,
and appliances, including what follows: water
heater, clothes dryer, dishwasher, range,
waste disposal, air conditioner, and garage
door opener.
CIRCUIT DESIGN
1.) Locate the receptacles on the floor plan
following the guidelines provided. GFCI
and AFCI-protected receptacles should be
located following the requirements
specified.
2.) Locate all Locate all appliance and
equipment outlets on the floor plan using
the appropriate symbols for the various
receptacles required.
- This process calls for coordination with
the architectural designer because each
appliance and piece of equipment must be
known to locate the outlets properly.
- The electrical designer should also check
the number of appliances or equipment
required. The Electrical designer will need
to know the specified voltage and
amperage requirements for equipment and
appliances.
3.) Locate the lighting fixtures, using the
appropriate symbols to represent each.
- The electrical designer should make a
list of types of luminaires and the load
requirements.
- This list will be used later when
grouping circuits. It may also be
included in the specifications or on the
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
drawings as a luminaire (light fixture)
schedule.
- The architectural designer or even the
building owner may decide the fixtures
that are to be used, often with
assistance of the electrical designer.
4.) Lay out the switches required to control
the lights, appliances, equipment, and any
desired receptacles. The discussion of
switches outlines where they are most
commonly used, and the symbols used.
5.) Locate the panelboard in a convenient
location. The location must be accessible
(e.g., not in a closet or storage room,
unless dedicated). Follow the requirements
outlined earlier.
6.) Layout circuiting for large appliances
and equipment served by an individual
branch circuit. Examples of individual
branch circuits would be circuits from the
panelboard to a dishwasher (120 V),
electric clothes dryer (120/240 V), an
electric oven or range (120/240 V), or an
electric water heater (240 V).
7.) Layout circuiting for lighting and
convenience receptacles on general
purpose (lighting) branch circuits. Usually
15 A and 20 A general purpose branch
circuits are used for convenience
receptacles, luminaires, and small
appliances.
- The designer must comply with code
requirements. In practice, a good designer
tends to be a little more conservative.
Because more and more small appliances
and equipment are being purchased and
connected to receptacles, the designer
must anticipate future requirements...
8.) Lay out the panel circuits, either on the
drawing or in a table.
- In large designs, with more than one
panel, this provides the electrician with a
schedule of what circuits will be served
from what box. Although a panel board
layout is not often done for a residence, it
is helpful to both the electrician and the
designer if one is included. For commercial
projects, a panel layout is almost always
included.
LOAD COMPUTATIONS
• Load computations involve computing the
demand load for a building system or a
distribution system extending from a
panelboard.
• This load includes the total of all general
lighting, appliance, and equipment loads in
the building.
• The demand load allowed by the code
takes into account that all of the electrical
connections will not be in use at one time
1. Compute the general lighting load. This is
calculated for all types of occupancies based
on the unit load given in the table (in watts)
times the square footage of the building
• The minimum general lighting load, based
on the specified 3 VA/ft2 for residence:
table (in watts) times the square footage of
the building
• 3 VA ft x 2214 ft² = 6642 VA
2. Compute the appliance and laundry circuit
load. Code requires at least two 20 A appliance
branch circuits for the kitchen. The load is
based on 1500 VA for each appliance branch
circuit in the kitchen. In addition, one 20 A
circuit is required for laundry room appliances.
• For the residential system example, this
results in a total of three 20 A branch
circuits for appliances:
Appliance and laundry load = 3 circuits x
1500 VA = 45000 V
SERVICE ENTRANCE DESIGN
The service entrance conductors and
equipment are designed based on the
computed total demand load.
1. The minimum service entrance size is found
by dividing the demand load for the building by
the voltage serving the building. Most
commonly, 240 V service is used. For the
residential system example, the total demand
load of 33 175 VA is divided by the 240 V
service for a mini- mum service entrance of 143
A:
minimum service entrance = 33 175
VA/240 V = 138.2 or 138 A
2. The next step is sizing the service entrance
conductors and any conductors between the
service equipment and the branch overcurrent
device (circuit breaker or fuse). The feeder size
is based on the computed demand load.
For the residential system example,
using XHHW 175 C 167 F) aluminum
service entrance conductors and a 150
A load, as calculated:
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

150 A fender demand load, 3/0 AWG

XHHW aluminum

3.The size of the neutral conductor may be

determined as 70% of the demand load
calculated for the range plus all other demand
loads on the system.

For the residential system example, the

neutral feeder demand load would be:
Range load (8000 W x 70%) =
5600 VA
All other demand loads =
25.175 VA
Neutral demand load = 30 778
VA

Neutral net computed demand load =

30 778 VA/240 V = 128.2 A
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

CHAPTER 2 -the steam is produced by heating water through

BUILDING ELECTRICAL MATERIALS burning of coals, all, natural gas or heat coming
from nuclear reaction.
AND EQUIPMENT The most economical power stations typically
generate power continuously, unless off line for
2.1 POWER GENERATION AND
maintenance or repairs. During periods of heavy
TRANSMISSION
demand, less-economical power stations are
brought on-line. If one generating station is off- line
Nearly all of the electrical energy consumed is
or fails, another is brought on line to take over the
generated, transmitted and distributed by large
load.
public or privately owned utility companies.
Consumers purchase electricity from these utility
▪ For economical transmission, a step-up
companies, either directly or through a cooperative
transformer steps up the voltage to above
association.
39 KV, usually between 115 kV to 765 kV
▪ Ultra high-voltage transmission is now
Electricity is usually produced at a power station
being explored for equipment and lines
and is conveyed through a transmission system of
rated for 1100 kV.
overhead metal cables supported on high towers.
▪ Distribution line voltages are generally
At the power station, electricity is usually generated
4160 V, 4800 V, 6900 V or 13,200 V,
in the range of 2.4 to 13.2 kV.
although higher voltages can be made
available if loads are large enough.
POWER STATION
▪ Power transmission at high voltages
-is an industrial facility that house equipment to
requires less amperage, and
generate electricity from primary energy.
subsequently, there are lower power losses
in the transmission lines.
Most power plants use one or more generators that
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy in
POWER SUBSTATIONS
order to supply power to the electrical grid for
society's electrical needs.

Efficacy rate of converting heat energy to

mechanical energy:
40% fossil fuel plant
30% nuclear plant

GENERATORS
-a mechanical device that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy

▪ Power substations are small facilities in

ARMATURE
fenced yards that contain transformers,
-rotated by the generator, is a shaft with conductor
switches and other electrical equipment.
windings wrapped around an iron core, through
▪ created to avoid danger of high-voltage
stationary magnetic field, to produce current flow.
power transmission in populated areas.
▪ to reduce or step down the transmission
TURBINE
voltages to safer distribution levels.
-a rotary engine, is connected to the generator and
drives the rotation of the armature shaft.
POWER UTILITIES
-generally generate, transmit, and distribute three-
STEAM TURBINE
phase AC power. Single-phase AC power is
-high-pressure steam moves through turbine thus
obtained from ONE phase of a set of three phase
rotating the discs attached to turbine shaft.
line.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
▪ Utilities use highest transmission and
distribution voltages consistent with safe
and economical use. It is very economical
to carry power at high voltage because
it requires smaller conductors. However,
high voltages introduce safety clearance
hazards, so high voltages are reserved
for use in unpopulated areas or special
applications.
The relationship between the generated.
Transmission, and distribution voltages and
associated current (amperage) for a 2000 kVA load
and a power factor of 1.0.
2.2. BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
SERVICE ENTRANCE
- passageway where wires are connected to the
load side of the meter enters the house or building.
▪ commonly used to supply power to your
home-carrying power from the
transformer through a metering device to
the building's service disconnects
▪ comprises three cables (two hot and one
neutral) that run from the utility lines to the
point of attachment at the weatherhead,
then down an entrance cable or conduit to
the meter socket. In this type of system, the
utility company's equipment ends at the
point of attachment to the house.
OVERHEAD SERVICE ENTRANCE
CONDUCTOR (SERVICE DROP)
▪ extend from a pole-mounted distribution
transformer to the building's service
entrance
▪ the penetration is sealed with a roof boot to
keep from leaking.
▪ Connections at the weatherhead is
extended at least 2 to 3 feet above the
roofline and at least 10 feet above the
ground.
UNDERGROUND SERVICE ENTRANCE
CONDUCTORS (SERVICE LATERAL)
▪ are direct burial cables and usually has
three conductors: two hot wires and a
neutral.
▪ The feeder wire is attached to the
transformer and is fed through a PVC
conduit sleeve attached to the utility
company's power pole.
▪ It should be trenched at least 4 feet
underground so to avoid damage.
SERVICE ENTRANCE EQUIPMENT
-receives the service entrance conductors. The
service equipment includes measuring power
through an electric meter, a method of cutting off
power, and overcurrent protection devices (circuit
breakers or fuses) that protect the service entrance
conductors.
ELECTRIC METER
-an instrument that is used by the utility company to
measure and record electrical energy consumed.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
▪ as the current flows, the disc rotates, and
pointers on dials revolve to record the
amount of power used in kilowatt-hours
(kWh).
FEED-THROUGH METER
-used in building services rated up to about 400 A
-this meter is a small electric motor
-with a speed that is proportional to the power
consumed
CURRENT-TRANSFORMER (C/T)
-used in building services rated above about 400 A
-measure amperage through each ungrounded
(hot) conductor.
-housed in an enclosure called a C/T cabinet that is
part of the service entrance equipment
SERVICE DISCONNECT
-a required part of the service entrance equipment
allows electrical service from the utility company to
be switched off so that power is disconnected to the
building installation. It is a set of fuses or a circuit
breaker that protects the service entrance
conductors.
SWITCH BOARD
-a large cabinet or assembly of metal cabinets with
electrical switches and devices
connects/disconnects electric circuits, either
manual or automatic.
▪ Generally distributes power to
transformers, panelboards, control
equipment, and ultimately to individual
system loads.
▪ Contains overcurrent protection devices
(fuses or circuit breakers) and instruments
designed to neutralize/divide a large
amount of electrical power into suitable
levels for other electrical equipment.
-Floor mounted, rated for current levels of 1200 to
6000 amperes (A), and voltages below 600 volts
(V).
PANELBOARD
-Wall-mounted, single unit of one or more metal
cabinets, including buses, automatic overcurrent
protection devices (fuses or circuit breakers).
▪ Equipped with or without controlling
switches for light, heat, and power circuits,
▪ It consists of a sheet of a metal box, a
cabinet, and a cover that encloses and
protects the interior section containing
vertical buses used to distribute power.
▪ It may be referred to as a power panel or
load center typically used in residential
applications.
TRANSFORMERS
-Usually, it works as a regulator to change the
voltage, current and phase of electrical power
transmitted and distributed from the primary power
source to a specific substation.
▪ A building transformer is rated in kVA.
Commonly from 3, 6, 9, 15, 25, 30, 37.5,
45, 50. 75. 112.5, 150, 225, 300, 500, 750,
1000, 1500 kVA, and larger.
EVERY TRANSFORMER COMES WITH A
NAMEPLATE THAT TYPICALLY IDENTIFIES:
kVA
Primary and secondary voltage
Impedance (if 25 KVA or larger)
Required clearances (if it has ventilating
openings
STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
-has a secondary voltage that is less than its
primary voltage.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
-typically used in buildings to reduce building
system voltages to useable levels
STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
-one with a secondary voltage that is greater than
its primary voltage.
TRANSFORMERS HEAT HAZARD
▪ Heat build up prematurely deteriorates a
transformer. The transformer's desirable
operation level is at only 20°F (11°C):
above this rate will cut the transformer's life
by half.
▪ It is caused by internal losses from loading,
high ambient air temperature, and solar
radiation in exterior locations
VARIOUS HEAT REDUCTION FEATURES
• small transformers use air cooling by ventilation
while larger ones are liquid-cooled
• ventilated dry-type transformer has its coils and
core in a gaseous or dry compound.
• Liquid-immersed transformer has its core and coils
immersed in an insulating liquid.
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
-has a single primary winding and single
secondary winding
-A 7200/240/120 V AC is a single-phase
transformer commonly used in most
residential and small commercial
applications.
-A 7200 V, two-wire power is transformed
and stepped down to a 120/240 V AC,
three-wire system.
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
-A three-phase transformer has three primary and
three secondary windings
▪ It has two main types:
the delta and wye system.
-Other subtypes are a combination of both systems
DELTA-CONNECTED TRANSFORMER (A)
▪ windings are connected in series, forming a
triangle, thus resembling the Greek letter
Delta (A). only a single voltage level is
available: the phase-to- phase voltages.
▪ Obtaining other voltages can only be done
using step-up or step-down transformers.
WYE- CONNECTED TRANSFORMER (Y)
-has three independent transformer windings
connected at a common point, called a neutral or
star point.
- the angular displacement of each winding
is at 120°, resembling a Y-shaped physical
arrangement of the winding.
DELTA-WYE (A-Y) TRANSFORMER
-an electrical device that converts three-phase
electric power without a neutral wire into three-
phase power with a neutral wire.
-Additional transformer combinations such as wye-
wye (Y-Y), delta- delta (A-A), and wye- delta (Y-A)
are available.
▪ Historically, standardized system voltages
related to delta transformers' use were
based on multiples of 120 V (e.g.. 120 V.
240 V, 480 V, 7200 V). Voltages that have
the 1.732 as a multiplier are wye
connections (e.g., 208 V. 4160 V 12.47
KV).
▪ New distribution transformers are very
efficient. with losses of less than 0.25% in
large units. Most large facility distribution
transformers convert at least 95% of input
power into useable output power. Smaller
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
closet transformers have efficiencies of
98% or above.
2.3 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION (OCP) DEVICE
-safeguards the circuit components from
overheating when the current flowing through the
circuit reaches an amperage that will cause an
excessive or dangerous temperature rise in
conductors
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION (OCP) DEVICE
-Fuses and circuit breakers serve as automatic
overcurrent protection devices that are designed to
open a circuit if the amount of current, in amps, that
flows through the circuit exceeds the OCP device
rating
CIRCUIT BREAKER
-an OCP that acts as a switch that can be opened
and closed manually, and it automatically "trips off."
which opens the circuit when the current flowing
through it exceeds the circuit rating.
- A voltage rating classifies it in volts (V) and
current-carrying capacity in amperage (A).
- The voltage rating is the maximum voltage
the circuit breaker can carry.
- The voltage of the electrical circuit or
system being protected by the circuit
breaker must not exceed the circuit
breaker voltage rating.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER
THERMAL- MAGNETIC TYPE
-most popular type of circuit breaker
- It consists of the bimetallic strip that bends
when heated by power loss
- When current flow is excessive. the circuit
breaker heats up. bends, and trips a
release that opens contacts and interrupts
the current flow.
- When tested in the open air, it can carry a
load of about 10% above its rating and hold
50% above its rating for a minute.
- Other characteristics include the current-
limiting feature that instantly trips at its
rating and the 100% rated part limiting the
load to 80% when the load is continuous for
over 3 hours.
The UL (Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.)
Standard circuit breaker ratings for electrical
current:
For Alternating Current
120 V. 120/240 V, 277 V.
277/480 V, 480 V. and 600 V
For Direct Current
125 V, 250 V, and 600 V
Circuit breakers that protect the ungrounded
(hot) conductors in a circuit:
SINGLE POLE (SP)
-protecting a single ungrounded conductor.
TWO POLE (2P)
-when protecting two ungrounded
conductors such as on a 240 V circuit.
THREE POLE (3P)
-used when protecting three ungrounded
conductors on a three- phase circuit.
FUSES
-an overcurrent protective device with a circuit-
opening fusible part that is heated and severed by
the passage of overcurrent through it (Smith, 2007).
- A reliable and simple OCPD made in
various configurations fundamentally
comprised of "fusible" links encapsulated in
a tube or housing connected to terminals.
The link's electrical resistance is so low that
it acts as a conductor until it encounters
current levels above its amp rating. Then it
melts and opens the circuit to protect
conductors, components and loads
(Campbell, 2020).
- act as "electricity's safety valve" by
providing a weak link in the circuit path that,
when properly applied, will melt and open
the circuit to minimize or eliminate any
damage that can be caused by an
excessive flow of current (Sharma, 2018).
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
TYPES OF FUSES
PLUG FUSES
-It comes in a screw-type configuration with a sight
glass that shows if the fuse is blown or not (Hanvey.
2015).
- The older type fuses have a brass screw
thread on the side and a central contact
point. The more contemporary style.
Edison-based, has a plastic line with a
spring-type contact and a centre contact
(Hanvey, 2015).
CARTRIDGE FUSES
-cylindrical in shape and have the contact points at
either end. These fuses are used in fuse panels and
disconnect for amperages over 30 amps (Sharma,
2018).
- It is used to protect electrical appliances
such as motors, air-condition, refrigerators.
pumps etc. where high voltage ratings and
currents are required (Thiele, 2019).
- They are available up to 600A and 600V
AC and widely used in industries,
commercial and home distribution panels
(Thiele, 2019).
TIME DELAY FUSE
-A special kind of fuse that allows electrical surge
for a short time before it blows. Its unique design
can bear electricity overload in a repeated cycle for
a short period without blowing (Andrew, 2010).
- They are desirable on circuits serving
electric motors such as air conditioners and
machinery because motors draw much
more current at a startup than during
regular operation.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE
RATINGS
OVERCURRENT RATING
-An OCP device's overcurrent rating is the highest
amperage it can carry continuously without
exceeding a specific temperature limit.
-The overcurrent rating of an OCP is listed
in amperes, such as 15 A, 20 A. or 30 A.
-If the current (amperage) flowing through
the protection device exceeds the device
setting for a significant period, the OCP
device will open.
-The amperage carried by the electrical
circuit or system protected by an OCP
device must not exceed the circuit
breaker's maximum current rating.
INTERRUPTING RATING
-The highest current at rated voltage that a device
is intended to interrupt under standard test
conditions (Edvard, 2015)
- An OCPD must be able to interrupt
destructive fault current energy safely. If a
fault current exceeds a level beyond the
OCPD's capability, it may rupture. causing
damage and posing a safety hazard
(Edvard, 2015).
- The amperes interruption current (AIC)
rating for circuit breakers is 5000 A and 10
000 A for fuses Circuit breakers and fuses
typically have an AIC rating of 10 000 A
2.4 UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT
▪ It is a broad category of electrical or
electronic machine or instrument designed
to perform a specific mechanical, chemical,
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

heating, or lighting function through the use - typically connected to a flexible cord that is
of electrical energy. attached to a portable appliance, light. or
▪ Electric motors, air conditioning. equipment
refrigeration and heating units. signs,
industrial machinery, cranes, hoists, Receptacles and plugs offer a simple way to
elevators, and escalators fit in the category attach or detach an appliance or piece of equipment
equipment. of utilization to/from an electrical outlet.

APPLIANCE
-end-use piece of utilization equipment designed to
perform a specific function such as cooking,
cleaning, cooling, or heating.

E.g., Electric ranges, refrigerators, clothes

washers and dryers, freezers blenders,
toasters, and hair dryers.

FIXED APPLIANCES
-permanently attached installations such as a built-
in electric cook top or oven
STATIONARY APPLIANCES
-situated and used at a specific location but can be
moved to another outlet such as a refrigerator,
clothes washer, or clothes dryer.
PORTABLE APPLIANCES
-appliances that can be easily carried or moved
such as a hair dryer or toaster

ELECTRICAL DEVICE
-An electrical device is a component in an electrical
system that is designed to carry but not use
electricity.
- This includes components such as
switches, receptacles, and relays.
OUTLET
-the location in a branch circuit where electricity is
used. For example, a lighting outlet is the location
in a branch circuit where conductors provide power
to a light fixture.
- female connecting device with slotted
contacts. Installed at an outlet or on
equipment, where it is intended to easily
establish an electrical connection with an
inserted plug.
PLUG
-a male connecting device that has two or more
prongs that are inserted into a receptacle to connect
to an electrical circuit.
According to National Electrical Manufacturing
Association (NEMA) standards:
- The different types of receptacles and plugs are
identified by a specific designation. The NEMA
designation ties the number and configuration of the
slots in the receptacle and the matching slots in a
plug to the voltage and amperage permitted.
E.g., 5-15R and 5-15P designation is
associated with the matching receptacle
(R) and plug (P) that are rated at 15
amperes and 125 V and have equipment-
grounding capability. These devices are the
matching receptacles and plugs commonly
associated with residential and commercial
wall-mounted outlets
-Different receptacles and plug combinations are
generally tied to a specific application.
E.g., The 5-15R receptacle discussed
earlier serves as a common outlet for
portable lights and small appliances, while
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
the 14-50R and 14-50R receptacle/plug
configuration is typically used to connect a
kitchen range or other heavy-duty electrical
equipment to an outlet.
The screw terminals on a receptacle are color
coded:
BRASS-COLORED SCREWS
-are for connection to the ungrounded conductor.
SILVER-COLORED SCREWS are for the grounded
or neutral conductor: and
GREEN-COLORED SCREWS are for the
equipment grounding conductor.
Receptacles marked "CO/ALR" can be connected
to copper, aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum
conductors. Those marked "CU/AL" were
formerly allowed for use with copper or aluminum
conductors, but can only be connected to copper
conductors. They are no longer deemed
acceptable for use with aluminum conductors.
SWITCHES
-A simple switch is a device placed between two
or more electrical conductors in a circuit to safely
and intentionally open or close the circuit or to
redirect the path of current in a circuit.
- Contacts in a switch open (switches off) a
circuit, close (switches on) a circuit, or
divert current from one conductor path to
another.
- Switches are rated by purpose, voltage,
and amperage, and are classified for AC or
DC.
- Safety switches are used in building
electrical systems. They are designed to
reduce the possibility of contact with bare
electrical conductors and have current
interrupting capability.
KINDS OF SWITCHES
SAFETY SWITCHES CATEGORY
HEAVY-DUTY SAFETY SWITCHES
-designed for heavy industry, commercial, and
institutional applications where safety.
performance, and continuity of service are
required. These are enclosed and may be fused or
unfused. They are used extensively as motor
circuit switches, service entrance switches, and
feeder disconnects, as well as for industrial
furnaces, capacitors, transformers, and
welders. Ratings up to 1200 A, 600 V are available.
GENERAL DUTY SAFETY SWITCHES
-intended for industrial, general commercial and
residential loads where economy is important
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

and requirements are less stringent. They are -used to provide control from one point by opening
used on lighting, heating, appliance, and or closing the ungrounded conductor in the circuit
intermittent motor loads. Ratings up to 600 V are THREE-WAY (S3) & FOUR-WAY (54)
available. -used when multiple control points are needed.

SWITCHING TERMINOLOGIES 18.8 through 18.14. common switching

configurations are described in the following:
POLE
-refers to the number of conductors the switch is CONTROL FROM ONE POINT: One single-pole,
opening and closing single-throw switch (S) is required. See Figures
18.8 through 18.10. Control from two points: Two
THROW three-way switches (S3) are required. See Figures
-refers to the number of operations a switch can 18.11 and 18.12.
perform
CONTROL FROM THREE POINTS: Two three-way
SINGLE-POLE, SINGLE-THROW (SPST) switches (53) and a four-way switc (54) are
SWITCH required. The Four-way switch must be wired
- a simple on/off switch. between the three-way switches.
- It opens or closes a single ungrounded
conductor in a circuit. It is the most CONTROL FROM FOUR OR MORE TWO THREE-
commonly used switch found in buildings, WAY SWITCHES POINTS: (53) and two or more
where it is typically used to control a lighting Four-way switches (54) are required.. The four-way
installation from a single location. switches must be wired between the three-way
switches.
SINGLE-POLE, DOUBLE-THROW (SPDT)
SWITCH
- diverts current from one conductor path to
another.
- A special type of SPDT switch is known as
a three-way switch (S3), which allows the
control of an installation from two locations
(for instance, tuming a light on or off from
either end of a flight of stairs).

DOUBLE-POLE, SINGLE-THROW (DPST)

SWITCH
- opens or closes two conductors in a
circuit. It is equivalent to two SPST
switches controlled by a single mechanism.
- It can be used to switch off the ungrounded
and grounded conductors in a single
lighting circuit that is serving a paint spray
booth containing explosive vapors.

Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) and three-

pole, single-throw switches are also available:

SWITCHING CONFIGURATIONS
-switches provide control from one or more points
in a circuit
SINGLE-POLE, SINGLE-THROW SWITCH (S)
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

Single-pole, single-throw (S). Three-way (53)

and Four-way ($4) switches generally control
operation of lighting installations.

Dimmer switches (sometimes identified as SD)

-can used to adjust brightness of a lighting
installation by adjusting the current flowing through
the circuit.

Key-operated switches (SK) require a key to

operate the switch. These are used where
operation of a lighting installation or other piece of
equipment must be further controlled by limiting
operation to personnel holding a key such as in
lighting in a high school gymnasium or large
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

meeting room and equipment in a manufacturing

plant. INFRARED SENSORS
-respond to the motion of an Infrared heat source,
SPECIALTY SWITCHES such as a person or animal,

AUTOMATIC SWITCHES ULTRASONIC SENSORS

-deactivate a circuit after a preset time period has
lapsed.
- Available as a twist-turn device where the
operator determines the operating time
interval by how far the switch is twisted or
as an electronic device that looks like a
normal on/off switch but is designed to
automatically switch off after a preset
time.
-emit a high-frequency sound that is in the range of
25 to 40 kilohertz and well above the capacity of
normal human hearing.
- they do not require a direct line of sight to
the occupant.
Both infrared and ultrasonic sensors work well in
inferior spaces such as classrooms and offices.

DIMMER SWITCHES (SD)

-is a device in the electrical circuit for varying power
to a circuit.
- Dimmers are usually included in a lighting
installation to vary the intensity of light
emitted by the lights.

TIME CLOCKS
-can be used to control the time period that a
piece of equipment or a lighting installation
operates.

ELECTRONIC TIMERS
-allow greater flexibility as they can easily be set for
7-day cycles.
2.5 CONDUCTORS
- They do require relay switching on large
loads.
CONDUCTORS
-any material that conducts electrical current.
-A wire is a common electrical conductor.
-Electrical conductors are either solid or stranded.
PHOTOCELL CONTROLS
-sense light and open or close a circuit with the
presence of light. •They can be used to control night
lighting in lieu of a time clock.

PHOTOCELL SWITCHES STRANDED CONDUCTORS

-Recent advancements in photocell technology
allow them to be used effectively to control
illumination levels in spaces that have daylight
available.
OCCUPANCY SENSORS
-control a lighting or equipment installation by
sensing occupants in a space. These are usually
mounted on the wall or ceiling.
-consist of smaller wire strands. The basic reason
for using a stranded conductor is to make the
conductor flexible.
SOLID CONDUCTORS
-Constructed of one single piece of metal.
- tougher than a stranded conductor but
rigid and less flexible.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

- more likely to break if subjected to frequent -contains more than one conductor bundled
flexing than stranded conductors together in a factory assembly of wires.
- An outer sheathing encases and protects
CONDUCTOR MATERIALS the conductors. simplifying the installation
of multiple wiring.
SILVER
-the best electrical conductor material (other than a TYPES OF CABLE
superconductor material) it has the least resistance
of common materials Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable
- silver wiring was used in the first mainframe Underground Feeder Cable
computer. Service Entrance Cable
- just like gold (excellent conductor), silver is Armored Cable
too costly for building installation. Metal-Clad Cable

COPPER
-used in building conductor (wiring) installations as
a compromise between good conductivity and
economy.
- The wire core is aluminum with a thin
coating of copper that is metallurgically
bonded to the core

ALUMINUM
- has significant weight and cost advantages over
copper. Copper does, however, conduct electricity OTHER TYPES OF CABLE
better than aluminum, so an aluminum wiring
installation requires a thicker gauge. FLAT CONDUCTOR CABLE
- Also, extra care in splicing and terminating -a wiring system conductors and special connectors
aluminum wire is important. and terminals.
- composed of very thin cable with three or
CONDUCTOR INSULATION more
-covered with insulation that provides protection of - designed to rest between the topside of a
the conductor material. smooth continuous subfloor and carpet
- prevents loss of power and the danger squares.
electrical isolation and some physical of
short circuits and ground faults.

THERMOSTAT CABLE
COMMON CONDUCTORS - used in applications with voltages less than 30 V.
such as wiring to doorbells, chimes, and
thermostats.
- generally contains No. 16 AWG or No. 18
AWG conductors that are bundled in a thin
plastic sheathing.

CABLE
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
CORD
-made of stranded conductors within a flexible
insulated sheathing material
- They are designed for flexibility and
bending.
CONCEALED KNOB-AND-TUBE WIRING
- A wiring method uses knobs, tubes, and
flexible nonmetallic tubing to protect and
support single insulated conductors.
CONDUCTOR POWER LOSS
-Heat generated by current flow through the
conductor results in a loss of power. This lost power
is referred to as power loss or line loss. Power loss
(Ploss) in a conductor can be computed with
amperage (1) or voltage (V) and resistance (R) by
the following formula:
- Power loss is converted directly to heat.
Power loss is equivalent to the heat
produced. The relationship between power
and heat is 1 W 3.413 Blu/hr. The following
formula can compute the heat created (a)
for a known power loss (Ploss):
CONDUCTOR AMPACITY
-the maximum current that a conductor can carry
continuously under the conditions of use without
exceeding its temperature rating.
- Current is measured in amperes or "amps."
You must use the correct size wire for the
current (load) requirement of the circuit to
prevent the wire from overheating.
AMPACITY IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING:
Wire thickness (thicker wires have larger
cross-sectional areas and can carry more electrical
current without overheating)
Type of conductor material (at a specific
current and conductor size, aluminum produces
more heat than copper)
Insulation and sheathing type (some
insulation materials handle heat better than others)
Number of conductors bundled in the
sheathing or in the proximity of one another (more
conductors concentrate heat in an area)
Temperature and exposure of the
conductor (e.g., buried, in free air, in the affic, in
crawl space, and so forth).
Voltage Drops in Conductors
-Because of power losses, voltage is reduced in a
closed circuit - that is, the voltage across two
conductors is lower at the usage end than at the
power supply end of the circuit.
- Voltage drop is directly proportional to
power loss
2.6 ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
ENCLOSURES
-are electrical boxes and cabinets that are made of
metal or non-metallic materials that protect
conductors, connections. controls, and other
equipment
- they protect wiring, devices, and equipment
from damage from accidental contact,
wear, corrosive, atmospheric exposure,
and sunlight.
- for faulty enclosed conductors.
connections, controls, and electrical
equipment, enclosures contain the arc and
flaming, thereby confining damage from
fire.
ELECTRICAL BOXES
-are metal and non-metallic enclosures that hold
devices such as switches or outlets and safety
permit wiring connections boxes are in four primary
shapes: square, rectangular. octagonal, or round
- boxes can be joined together to
accommodate multiple outlets or switches.
gangs, or four gang boxes namely, two-
gang, three gangs, four gang boxes
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

JUNCTION BOXES (J-BOXES)

-special type of electrical box used to enclose
conductor connections
-connections are commonly called junctions in the
trade

PULLBOX
-kind of junction box that allows access to a
raceway for snaking conductors through
the raceway
KNOCKOUT
-in most boxes and enclosures, it con be
easily removed to allow wiring to enter the
box
COVER PLATES
-required for various single or combinations
of switches, convenience outlets, blank CONDUIT AND RACEWAYS
covers, and dimmers; plastic is a commonly
used material RACEWAY
-attached with screws to the switch or -an enclosed channel such as conduit, tube, or
receptacles gutter used for holding wires, cables, or bus bars
-all the boxes should be finished with a - in some cases, metal raceways that are
cover plate fully bonded serve to provide a path for the
flow of fault current to ground
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3

EXAMPLES OF RACEWAY MATERIALS OR

SYSTEMS

RIGID METAL CONDUIT

-a heavy galvanized steel or aluminum tube that
looks like the galvanized steel pipe used for
plumbing applications. except it is much smoother
and is labeled with a UL Listed stamp or label
- permitted in damped locations and can be
set in concrete above ground
- can also be solvent welded to rigid polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) conduit
- can be used in any building, but special
precautions are required when used more
than three floors above grade
- has threaded connections much like a pipe
RIGID NONMETALLIC CONDUIT
- can be used in contact with the earth and
-thin-walled pipe of PVC
embedded in concrete
-joined with fittings that are solvent welded
INTERMEDIATE METAL CONDUIT (IMC)
FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT
-a galvanized steel or aluminum tube that has a
-similar to armored cable yet, installed without
thinner wall than rigid metal conduit
cables or wiring in it; wiring must be pulled
- has threaded connections much like pipe or
threadless connectors and couplings
LIQUID TIGHT FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT
- can be used in contact with earth and
-similar to flexible metal conduit but covered with
embedded in concrete
plastic, a watertight jacket that is sunlight resistant
unlike flexible metal conduit, the special connectors
ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING (EMT)
are watertight
-thin-walled galvanized steel or aluminum tube in
nominal diameters up to 4 in.
LIQUID TIGHT FLEXIBLE NONMETALLIC
- cannot be threaded
CONDUIT
-a flexible plastic conduit used similarly to flexible
ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING (EMT)
metal conduit
-labeled with UL Listed stamp or label
- cannot be used over 6 ft. in length
- joined with threadless compression
couplings. couplings that are crimped into
CELLULAR CONCRETE FLOOR RACEWAYS
the tubing with a special indenting tool, or
-are hollow voids in floors made of precast concrete
fittings that are tightened with screws
slabs (core slabs) found in certain precast concrete
buildings
ELECTRICAL NONMETALLIC TUBING (ENT)
-a flame-retardant corrugated plastic tube that is
semi flexible such that it can be bent by hand. must
be used behind fire-rated finish materials
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
CONDUIT AND OTHER RACEWAYS
▪ the use of rigid conduit, EMC, EMT, and
ENT involves cutting, bending, and
threading lengths
▪ cutting is typically done with a saw
▪ bands must be made to avoid damage so
that the internal diameter of a conduit will
not be reduced
▪ bends can be made at the factory or field
with a manual bender called hickey, or a hot
box heater for plastic conduit
▪ a run of conduit should be straight and
system before any direct
▪ raceways must be installed as a complete
conductors are pulled into them
▪ straps or hangers must support the conduit
in the entire run
▪ the number of supports needed and
spacing depends on the type of condult
used
▪ the number of conductors is based on the
size of the conduit, type of conductor
insulation, and size of conductors
▪ several conductors fed into conduit should
be kept parallel, straight, and kinks and
bends-free
BUSWAY
-is of a standardized, factory- assembled enclosure
consisting of outer duct-like housing, bus bars, and
insulators
- busway systems are used in service
equipment or as feeders because they are
designed to carry a large amount of current
FEEDER BUSWAY
-A type of busway system that used to deliver a
large amount of power with low voltage drop
- available in sizes from 600 A to several
thousand amps
PLUG-IN BUSWAY
-Another type of busway system used to provide
power top-offs at multiple points
- available in 100 A-3000 A sizes make
power distribution flexible
BUSWAY
-Power is available anywhere along the busway
without necessitating the major service interruption.
- Connections may be made at any point
along the busway.
- Rigid and flexible conduit or flexible bus
drop cable extends from the busway to the
equipment piece.
- are only used in large commercial and
industrial installations where large loads
are concentrated (600 A and above), where
large numbers of tops are required, or
where superior fire. and mechanical injury
protection is desirable.
- can also be salvaged and moved more
easily and cost-effectively than ordinary
conductors.
WIREWAYS
-wire gutters or wireways are sheet metal or
nonmetallic, flame-resistant plastic through that
serve as housing that protects conductors
- access to the enclosure interior is through
a hinge door or removable cover
- wire gutters or wireways carry large
conductors
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
2.7 ELECTRIC MOTORS
ELECTRIC MOTORS
- -drive exhaust/ventilation fans, air-handling
unit blowers. refrigeration equipment, air
and fluid compressors and pumps. heating
system circulators, and manufacturing
equipment and machinery.
- designed to operate at slower speeds are
larger, run quieter, and last longer because
they encounter less friction.
Most AC 60 Hz electric motors used in North
America are designed to operate at theoretical 1800
or 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm).
When delivering its rated horsepower, the actual
speed of a motor will be somewhat less, about 1725
and 3450 rpm
MOTOR RATINGS
-Electric motors are rated in horsepower (hp).
- 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb (foot-pounds) of work
per minute (550 ft-lb/s). This is about 1/8
the power an adult can produce
continuously.
- Inrush current - at startup, consumes
substantially more electrical power
In theory, one horsepower is equivalent to 746 W.
However, because of losses from heat and friction,
an electric motor delivers less work than the
theoretical equivalent: more power is consumed
than is produced.
For example, a 1 hp motor draws about 1400 W.
much more than the theoretical equivalent of 746
W.
A 230 V. I hp motor that normally draws about 1000
W (4.3 A) under full load may draw 6000 W (26.1 A)
or more at startup.
It is an advantage over fuel-powered motors. It does
require more power, 230 V 1 hp motor can deliver
11/2 hp, but it will draw more power (about 1700 W)
and amperage (7.4 A).
An electric motor's locked rotor amperage (LRA)
is the highest amperage that a motor pulls.
- A motor operating at its rated speed,
voltage, and horsepower draws current at
its full load amperage (FLA) or running load
amperage(RLA)
- electric motor's LRA is usually four to six
times greater than the FLA/RLA.
Most electric motors are designed to run at 50% to
100% of rated load, with maximum efficiency
typically near 75% of rated load.
For example, a 10-horsepower (hp) motor has an
acceptable load range of 5 to 10 hp: peak efficiency
is at 7.5 hp.
TYPES OF MOTORS
UNIVERSAL MOTOR
-It is a fractional horsepower motor designed to
operate on both AC and DC power.
- It operates at high speeds under light
load and low speeds with a heavy load.
- It can free idle at up to 20 000 rpm.
- It is used on appliances such as blenders
and vacuum cleaners and power tools such
as routers and electric drills.
SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR
-The motor windings are configured so that single-
phase AC power is split into two phases that are
1/2 out of phase. Available in sizes up to 1/3
horsepower.
- This type of motor starts slowly with low
torque, so it cannot begin to heavy loads.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
INDUCTION MOTORS
-These motors use electromagnetic induction to
cause the motor rotor to turn.
- Repulsion-start induction motors are
capable of handling heavy starting loads.
CAPACITOR MOTOR
-This type of motor operates on single-phase AC
only.
- Capacitor-start motors have a capacitor
that stores and discharges energy to help
start the motor rotor.
- Capacitor-run motors have one or more
capacitors to help start and run the motor.
- It is more efficient and has a better starting
torque than the split-phase motor.
THREE-PHASE MOTORS
-Large motors operate more efficiently on three-
phase AC power.
- A single-phase motor rated at 71/2 hp
draws a large amount of instantaneous
current at startup (up to 200 A on a 240 V
single-phase circuit).
DUAL VOLTAGE MOTORS
-Motors above 1/4 hp are designed to operate on
one of two different line voltages such as 115 V or
230 V.
- Larger motors operate more efficiently on a
higher line voltage because of lower 12R
losses. So, if a higher line voltage is
available, it is used.
The specifications of an electric motor are
typically listed on the nameplate. Information
provided may include:
- Manufacturer's type and frame designation
Insulation system designation
- Horsepower output
- Revolutions/minute at rated load
- Power factor
- Frequency
- Number of phases
- Maximum ambient temperature for which
motor is designed
- Rated load current
- Voltage
MOTOR CONTROLLERS
-a switching device designed to start, stop and
protect the motor.
- provide functions such as reversing jogging
plugging. operating at several speeds or
reduced current and motor torque levels.
- They are grouped together into motor
control centers (MCC)
MOTOR CONTROL CENTERS (MCC)
-a centrally located, sheet metal, a cabinet-like
enclosure that houses starters and controls that
control and protect several motors,
- The front panel of an MCC contains
operator controls and gauges.
- The interior of the MCC contains plug-in
units such as starters, controls, and
specialized units.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)
-a solid-state electronic power conversion device
used for controlling the rotational speed of an AC
electric motor
- when a VFD starts a motor, it initially
applies a low frequency (typically 2 Hz or
less) and voltage to the motor.
2.8 OCCUPANT PROTECTION
As an engineer, contractor, manufacturer, or
maintenance personnel, and whether one's
business is electrical or not, electrical safety is a
concern shared by all building industry.
Electricity is a serious workplace hazard resulting in
serious injuries and even fatalities.
In the US, hundreds of people are accidentally
electrocuted each year.
Electrocution occurs when a small amount of
electrical current flows through the heart for 1-
3 seconds.
TAMPER-RESISTANT RECEPTACLES
- resemble regular receptacles, but they're
so much more.
- provide a permanent solution to childhood
shock caused by tampering with electrical
outlets.
- feature built-in safety shutters that block
foreign objects from being inserted into the
receptacle.
GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTION
-Unintentional flow of electrical current between a
power source, such as ungrounded (hot) wire, and
a grounded surface.
- Occurs when electrical current leaks
escapes to the ground.
A ground fault becomes a danger because:
- Only a very low current is required to affect
human heart rhythm.
- The main danger of ground faults comes in
the likelihood of shock.
COMMON CAUSES OF GROUND FAULTS
Water leaking into an electrical box can cause a
ground fault since water is a conductor of electricity.
Worn hot wires or hot wires that are not completely
seated into their terminals may contact ground
wires or grounding devices or boxes.
Without proper insulation, power tools or appliances
can cause a ground fault if faulty wiring causes
current to flow directly to the ground.
CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPE
- By providing overcurrent protection as a
circuit breaker and serving to provide GFCI
protection, the GFCI circuit breaker serves
a dual purpose:
o it will interrupt power in the event of
a ground fault
o it will trip when a short circuit or a
power overload occurs.
THREE TYPES OF GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT
INTERRUPTER (GFCIS)
PORTABLE TYPE
-frequently used in construction and outdoor
settings with electric tools. mowers, trimmers, and
similar devices.
- It should not be used as a permanent
alternative to a regular GFCI.
- They are intended to be used when you
must bring power from an unprotected
outlet into a hazardous situation
ARC FAULT PROTECTION
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Arc Fault
-unintentional electrical discharge characterized by
the low and erratic current.
- arcing generates high-intensity heat and
expels burning particles, which can easily
ignite combustible materials.
PARALLEL ARCING FAULTS
- caused by loose, damaged, or corroded
-Result from direct contact of two wires of opposite
wires and terminals.
polarity.
- Current residential breakers only detect
- Frayed/ruptured appliances or extension
and react to power overloads. not arc faults
cords
- staples or other fasteners that pierce or
COMMON CAUSES OF FAULT ARCS AND THUS
pinch insulation on construction wire and
POSSIBLE FIRE IN WIRING
appliance or extension cords
- Cracked wire or cord insulation caused by
age, heat, corrosion, or bending stress

GROUND ARCING FAULTS

-Arcs between a single conductor and ground,
such as:
- wire or cords that touch vibrating metal.
- in appliances, wall plugs, or switches
where the internal wires are not installed
correctly.
- where connections became loose
TYPES OF ARC FAULTS COMMON IN
BUILDING WIRING

ARC FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER (AFCI)

-provides enhanced protection from fires resulting
from arc faults.
- It uses electronics to recognize an arc fault
and interrupts the circuit when the fault
Occurs.
- detects low-level arc faults that traditional
overcurrent protective devices (fuses and
circuit breakers) cannot see.
SERIES ARCING FAULTS
-Occur across the break of a single conductor
- For example, in the case of an electrical
wire cut by a nail or screw used to mount a
wall hanging.
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FOUR BASIC TYPES OF ARC FAULT CIRCUIT

INTERRUPTER (AFCIS):

CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPE

-A branch/feeder AFCI breaker with protection
provided to branch-circuit wiring in the form of a
circuit breaker.

CONVENIENCE OUTLET TYPE

-An outlet AFCI for protecting connected cord sets
and power supply cords in the form of an outlet
receptacle. NUISANCE TRIPPING

PORTABLE TYPE The tendency of GFCIs and AFCIs to trip frequently

-Portable AFCI for protecting connected cord sets because both of them extremely sensitive. This can
and power- supply cords that can be moved from be caused by: • Appliances that are beginning to fail
outlet to outlet. - should be repaired or replaced. are

CORD-MOUNTED TYPE Lightning for this reason, it is not a recommended

-cord-mounted AFCI for protecting the power- practice to connect essential equipment and
supply cord connected to it (in the form of an appliances that contain perishable products into an
attachment plug on a power-supply cord). outlet with GFCI or AFCI protection

EXTREMELY LOW-FREQUENCY
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
-silent, invisible magnetic fields produced any time
electricity runs through a wire, an appliance, or
piece of equipment.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

-Produced by high levels of EMF.
-Are visible screen jitter in video displays,
-humming in telephone/audio equipment and data
errors.
-Higher levels of EMF can cause computer monitor
interference and raise potential health concerns

In the United States, EMF is measured in units

called milligauss (mG).

In most of the world and in scientific community, it

is measured in microtesla (µT).
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
1 μT = 10 mG
ELF (EXTREMELY LOW-FREQUENCY) METER
-Instrument used in measuring EMF radiation levels
from fans, electrical appliances. wiring, and power
lines.
-The most significant exposure to EMFS is from
household appliances or business equipment, not
power lines in the US.
-Shielding of magnetic fields to reduce EMF levels
include:
Passive shielding by using a conductive
sheet material in front of the appliance or
equipment.
Active shielding uses a system that
senses the existence of a magnetic field in the
building area to be shielded.
2.9 EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
GROUND FAULT PROTECTION (GFP)
- designed to detect and rapidly interrupt
low- level equipment ground faults.
- operates on the same principle as GFCI
(ground fault circuit interrupter) protection
by monitoring the current drawn through
the conductors of an electrical circuit and
quickly shutting off power when the current
is not equal.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)
-A particular type of sensing transformer. It
encircles the conductors in the switchboard or panel
board and produces a low-current output signal if all
current flowing to the load does not return to the
source through the phase or neutral conductors.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)
-The low-current output is sensed by a ground fault
relay with adjustable sensitivity and time delay
settings. When a signal above the sensitivity setting
persists beyond the time delay setting. the relay
operates to open the switch or circuit breaker.
POWER SURGE
-A sudden increase in electrical current or voltage
that is very short in duration.
-The said increase may be caused by a lightning
strike or by a sudden power spike caused by a
problem in the utility transmission and generating
system.
-May damage sensitive equipment such as
computers, televisions, machines, etc.
SURGE RATING
-A measure of the level of surge that an SPD can
withstand.
-Manufacturers specify the surge ratings of their
SPDs.
SURGE PROTECTION DEVICE (SPD)
-An electrical device that prevents power surges
from reaching electric and electronic equipment or
another device.
-They work by instantly limiting the transient voltage
from a power surge to a safe level for the equipment
they protect by diverting the large surge current
safely to the ground.
-It also diverts the surge by allowing the current to
flow past rather than through the protected
equipment.
TYPES OF SURGE PROTECTION DEVICES
(SPDs)
METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)
-A semiconductor device used mainly on AC power
applications with surge ratings ranging from a few
hundred to many thousands of amps.
GAS DISCHARGE TUBES (GDT)
-A primary surge protection component with a surge
rating of several thousand amps comprises a
sealed tube containing a particular gas that breaks
down at a given voltage rise time.
Quen - Electrical Engineering Utilities – Chapter 1 to 3
ZENER DIODE
-A secondary surge protection component used for
accurate clamping of surge voltages.
-It has a quicker response time than the GDTS and
provides a more accurate clamping voltage than
MOVS.
HYBRID CIRCUIT
-A circuit comprising different types of surge
protection components, taking advantage of each
component's strengths. A hybrid may combine the
high surge capability of a GDT with the accurate
voltage clamping of a surge diode.
INRUSH CURRENT OR INPUT
CURRENT
- It refers to the peak instantaneous current,
measured in amperes (A), drawn by an
electrical appliance or piece of equipment
(e.g. power supplies, AC motors, lamps,
and lighting ballasts) is first turned on.
- An inrush current can also be reduced by
an inrush current limiter, which protects
circuits that encounter high inrush loads up
to 30 times the rated current for the one-
half cycle at 60 Hz and eliminate nuisance
tripping. However, many techniques are
used to limit inrush current.
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
(NTC)
THERMISTORS
-are the most used inrush current limiter for power
supplies and motors.
-a thermally sensitive resistor with a resistance that
changes significantly and predictably due to
temperature changes.
-When equipment is first turned on. the NTC
thermistor is cooled, and its resistance is high,
limiting current flow.
-Resistance decreases rapidly as the thermistor
self-heats, allowing near-full current to flow (at 612).
-A disadvantage is that when the NTC thermistor is
switched off, it initially retains heat, so, it offers little
resistance and cannot limit the inrush current until
heat is dissipated. .
-The cooldown time varies according to the device,
its mounting method, and ambient temperature.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
SURGE - -Lightning discharges have been measured
from 2000 A to more than 200 000 A, with
rise times to peak current of less than 10
microseconds (10 millionths of a second).
As a result, lightning causes more damage,
injuries. and deaths each year than
fornadoes, hurricanes, or floods.
- -Lightning discharges have been measured
from 2000 A to more than 200 000 A. with
rise times to peak current of less than 10
microseconds (10 millionths of a second).
As a result, lightning causes more damage.
injuries, and deaths each year than
tornadoes, hurricanes, or floods.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
-He first suggested protecting buildings and other
structures from the effects of direct lightning strikes
by the use of protective conductors.
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-His theory stated that lightning protection must

provide a direct path for the lightning bolt to follow
to the ground, and it must prevent destruction,
injury, or death as the current travels that path.

VERTICAL LIGHTNING RODS

-sometimes called air terminals, are placed at the
top of the protected structure. These lightning rods
have equally spaced a maximum of 20 ft. apart from
the structure's high points.
-A network of conductive copper or aluminum tape
(thick, flat cable) bonds the rods to grounding
electrodes driven into the earth. Metal roof vents in
the proximity of the lightning rods are also
connected to the conductive tape.
-The system of vertical rods, tape, and ground
electrodes is designed to present a low impedance
(resistance) path to the lightning current that diverts
current away from the building's structural parts.
-A surge protection device can minimize the
damaging effects of a lightning strike. Additionally,
power passing through electrical circuits can
generate relatively high magnetic fields that
damage electronic equipment. Shielding the wiring
can minimize damage.

EQUIPMENT FOR HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

• In a hazardous location, such as a gasoline

station, paint spray booth, or factory, explosion-
proof or explosion- resistant equipment and wiring
must be Used.

• A hazardous location is when fire or explosion

hazards may exist because of flammable gases or
vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dust, or
quickly ignited fibers under regular operation or
abnormal operating conditions.

• Types of hazardous locations are grouped by

class and division or by zone. Buildings or building
spaces identified as hazardous locations must meet
regulations specific to the group it falls into.

• In contrast, explosion-resistant equipment is

designed to prevent the ignition of explosive or
flammable material. A Nationally Recognized
Testing Laboratory (NRTL), such as UL,
accomplishes testing 254-257/259 explosion-proof
or explosion-resistant equipment and wiring
components.