(A) ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY

 An atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons reside
inside the nucleus of the atom, while the electrons revolve around the nucleus in
stationary orbits.
 The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus whereas
mass number of an atom is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons.
 Charge of electron is -1.6*10-19C, proton is +1.6*10-19C and neutron is 0.
 Mass of electron is 9.1*10-31kg, proton is 1.67*10-27kg and neutron is 1.67*10-27kg.
 The atoms of the same element, having same atomic number Z, but different mass
number A, are called isotopes. Eg- 126C, 136C.
 The atoms of different elements which have the same mass number A, but different
atomic number Z, are called Isobars. Eg-2311Na, 1223Mg.
 The atoms having different number of protons but same number of neutrons i.e.,
different Z and A, but same A-Z are called Isotones. Eg-1123Na, 1224Mg.
 Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the process of spontaneous emission of α
or β and γ radiations from nucleus of atoms during their decay.
 If an atom undergoes a chemical change, there is a change in the number of orbital
electrons of the atom, whereas if the atom undergoes a nuclear change, there is a
change in the number of nucleons.
 When the radiations given out by radioactive substance are subjected to magnetic field
which turn towards left are positively charged alpha particles, towards right are
negatively charged beta particles, which pass undeviated are uncharged gamma
radiations.
 When the radiations given out by radioactive substance are subjected to an electric field
which turn towards negative plate are positively charged alpha particles, towards
positive plate are negatively charged beta particles and which pass undeviated are
uncharged gamma radiations.
 The β particles are deviated more than α particles because it is much lighter than α
particle.
 Ionising power α>β>γ
 Penetrating power α<β<γ.
 Biological damage α<β<γ.
 An alpha particle is doubly ionized helium atom, beta particles are fast moving
electrons and gamma radiations are electromagnetic waves having speed same as speed
of light in air.
 Due to the emission of α particle, atomic number decrease by 2 and mass number
decreases by 4.
 Due to the emission of β particle, atomic number increases by 1 and there is no change in
mass number
 There is no change in atomic number and mass number due to γ emission but the excited
nucleus comes to its ground state.
 Medical uses of radio isotopes are-1. Gamma radiations obtained from cobalt-60 are used
to treat cancer. 2.Radio-sodium chloride, radio iron and radio iodine called the traces
are used for diagnosis.3.γ rays emitted by the radio isotopes are used for sterilization.
 Scientific use—1. Alpha particles are used as projectiles for nuclear reactions.2. radio
active tracers are used in agriculture science to study the growth of plants.3-carbon-14
is used to estimate the age of excavated material, rocks and buried plants called
carbon dating.
 Industrial use---1. 92235U is used as fuel in atomic energy reactors.2. Radio isotopes are
used by engineers in factories to avoid the accumulation of charge on the moving
parts of machines due to friction.3. The ionizing effect of radiations is used in
making luminescent signs.
 Safety measures while establishing a nuclear power plant---1. Ensure that the people
working are not exposed to radiations.2.Power plant must be shielded with lead and steel
walls.3.Reactor must be housed in an airtight building.4. There must be back-up for
cooling system.
 Safety measures while handling radioactive materials---1.People working should put on
special lead lined aprons and lead gloves.2.They should handle the radioactive materials
with long lead tongs.3. The radioactive substance must be kept in a thick lead container.
 Sources of background radiations. (i) Potassium(K-40),carbon(C-14) and radium present
in our body are the internal sources.(ii) Cosmic rays, naturally occurring radioactive
elements such ad radon-222 and solar radiations are the external sources.

(B) NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

 The Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation is E=∆mc2 where ∆m is the loss in mass
in kg, c is the speed of light 3*108ms-1 and E is the energy in joule.
 1 a.m.u = 1.66*10-27kg =931MeV.
 Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus is splitted into two lighter
nuclei by bombarding it with slow neutrons.
235 1 144 89 1
92 U + 0 n------------> 56 Ba + 36 Kr +30 n +190MeV

 The two isotopes of uranium 92235U and 92238U are fissionable but 92235U is easily
fissionable because fission of 92238U is possible only by the fast neutrons where as fission
of 92235U nucleus can be even by the slow neutrons.
 The three neutrons released can fission the other uranium nuclei under suitable conditions
and a chain reaction is formed with a release of tremendous amount of energy.
 Nuclear bomb is based on uncontrolled chain reaction, that is used for destructive use.
 In controlled chain reaction some neutrons are absorbed by means of moderators such
as graphite or heavy water in a nuclear reactor to generate electric power for constructive
use.
 Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy
nucleus with a release of huge amount of energy.
3 2 4 1
2 He+1 H-----------> 2 He + 1 H + 18.3 MeV

 Nuclear fusion is not possible at ordinary temperature and ordinary pressure. Fusion
reaction is also called as thermo-nuclear reaction.
 For the same mass, the energy released in the fission process is less than that in the
fusion process.
 The fissionable substance is found within limit where as fusionable substance is found
in abundance.
 Fission process can be controlled where as fusion reaction cannot be controlled.
 Nuclear bomb is based on the uncontrolled fission reaction where as Hydrogen bomb
is based on uncontrolled fusion reaction.