Small Animal Theriogenology

Contents

Preface: A Profession Dedicated to Healthy Breeding Programs xiii

Bruce W. Christensen

Canine Semen Evaluation and Processing 921

Bruce W. Christensen and Stuart Meyers
Advances in canine semen evaluation have progressed over time in fits
and spurts, interspersed with long periods of relative inactivity. Despite ex-
citing advances in the semen analysis, clinical canine theriogenology has
been in a period of relative inactivity for a number of decades since initial
advances in canine semen freezing in the mid 20th century. This review de-
scribes ways that the clinical practice of canine semen evaluation should
improve, given the state of current knowledge.

Progesterone Analysis in Canine Breeding Management 931

Alan J. Conley, Kristine L. Gonzales, Hollis N. Erb, and Bruce W. Christensen
Progesterone is a worthwhile addition to the clinical assessment of cycle
stage for breeding, elective cesarian delivery, and reproductive manage-
ment in the bitch if reliably measured. Clinical decisions based on systemic
progesterone concentrations also require the rapid return of results. Most
commercially accessible analyses capable of returning results within a day
still rely primarily on immunoassays of one kind or another. Point-of-care
instruments utilizing similar technology have been developed more re-
cently to enable results to be generated in-house. Repeated monitoring
of progesterone on whatever platform can be useful if consistent collection
and analysis protocols ensure acceptable precision, accuracy, and
repeatability.

Incorporating Genetic Testing into a Breeding Program 951

Bart J.G. Broeckx
Genetic tests are powerful tools that enable (1) a focus on genetic diversity
as mating outcomes can be predicted and thus optimized to minimize or
even avoid exclusion and (2) working toward breeding goals by improving
a phenotype.

Ophthalmic Disease and Screening in Breeding Dogs 965

Kathryn A. Diehl, Sonia Kuhn Asif, and Freya Mowat
This article describes the history and infrastructure associated with canine
breed-related eye screening and certification by Diplomates of the Amer-
ican College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists. Some of the common or oth-
erwise particularly problematic specific inherited ophthalmic conditions
are discussed.
viii Contents

Cardiac Disease and Screening in Breeding Dogs 985

Michael Aherne
Acquired and congenital heart diseases are relatively common in dogs,
particularly in certain breeds. Modes of inheritance and genetic causes
have been established for several cardiac diseases within various breeds.
Breed screening is used to try and reduce the prevalence of certain canine
cardiac diseases. Although breed screening seems to help reduce the
prevalence of canine heart disease, the outcomes of specific breeding
programs are variable and depend on multiple factors.

Common Orthopedic Traits and Screening for Breeding Programs 1013

Jessica J. Hayward and Rory J. Todhunter
Orthopedic diseases are complex traits, meaning genetics and environ-
mental factors affect risk, making identification of genetic associations dif-
ficult. In the United States, hip and elbow scores, patellar luxation scores,
Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, and shoulder osteochondrosis affectedness
are available in the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals registry. Distraction
indices and extended, ventrodorsal hip conformation scores are recorded
by PennHIP. Application of estimated breeding values for hip and elbow
dysplasia in breeder selection reduces the severity and prevalence of
these traits. Genomic prediction and whole-genome sequence technolo-
gies and methods should improve knowledge of genetics underlying or-
thopedic diseases, leading to improved canine orthopedic genetic quality.

Body Condition and Fertility in Dogs 1031

Jennifer Sones and Orsolya Balogh
Ideal body condition and nutritional status in dogs is essential for quality of
life, including reproductive health. Herein, we review the implications body
condition, particularly fat, has on puberty, fertility, pregnancy, and parturi-
tion in dogs. Ideal body condition at puberty is necessary for dogs to
achieve sexual maturity and reproduce. Moreover, over and under condi-
tioned female dogs have increased risk of adverse pregnancy, parturition,
and neonatal outcomes. Less is known about body condition and male
dog fertility but some evidence is provided in this article. Finally, recom-
mendations for maintaining an ideal body condition in intact adult dogs
for optimal fertility are provided.

Update on Brucella canis: Understanding the Past and Preparing for the Future 1047
Mary K. Sebzda and Lin K. Kauffman
The genus Brucella is known by veterinarians as a primary cause of repro-
ductive diseases. It is widely known to cause financial devastation in live-
stock species, and is lesser known as a problem for dog breeders and
fanciers with similar reproductive diseases seen in dogs. Now there are
concerns about the dispersal of Brucella canis into countries that have en-
joyed a fairly low incidence, through the importation of dogs from endemic
countries. B canis, much like Brucella abortus, suis or mellitensis, is zoo-
notic and handling or working with infected dogs can lead to human dis-
ease. Only within the last few decades has the risk of brucellosis in
dogs, and the people who own and work with them, been more fully
 Contents ix

acknowledged. This review will focus on new information that has been
obtained since our last B canis article in 2018. Readers are encouraged
to look to that article for information not presented within this update. Cur-
rent B canis epidemiology along with a complete review of diagnostic test-
ing options will be covered. Regulations for the international movement of
dogs will be discussed in addition to concerns for increased zoonosis po-
tential. Future goals would include better management of this disease in-
cluding proposed screening of all imported dogs. Canine brucellosis
prevention, owner and shelter/rescue education along with proposed
therapies for the future will also be explored.

An Update on Male Canine Infertility 1063

Stuart J. Mason
Infertility in the dog is a common reason for presentation of stud dogs for
assessment with veterinarians. This article aims to discuss and outline
some of the tests that can be done to try to ascertain the underlying cause
of abnormalities found in a semen assessment. Topics discussed are se-
men alkaline phosphatase measurement, retrograde ejaculation assess-
ment, ultrasound of the male reproductive tract, semen culture, human
chorionic gonadotropin response testing, dietary assessment for phytoes-
trogens, environmental impacts on spermatogenesis, testicular biopsy,
supplements to improve semen quality and quantity, and when to expect
an improvement in semen quality after starting treatment.
Nutrition and Theriogenology: A Glimpse Into Nutrition and Nutritional
Supplementation During Gestation, Lactation, Weaning and Breeding Dogs and
Cats 1083
Hyun-tae Kim and Joseph J. Wakshlag
Feeding during normal reproduction is often not thought of until there is a
problem with conception or gestational losses. Energy demands of lacta-
tion and early puppy/kitten are of concern, particularly in large and giant
breed dogs where mineral balance is crucial to normal development. There
is a paucity of information around optimizing feeding during conception
and gestation with many myths around ingredients which will be explored
in this article along with supplements that may be able to support sperma-
togenesis and conception which primarily comes from the human literature
and may have validity in times of difficult conception.
Canine Pregnancy, Eutocia, and Dystocia 1099
Autumn Davidson and Janis Cain
Video content accompanies this article at http://www.vetsmall.
theclinics.com.

Veterinary care of breeding dogs begins before a breeding takes place,

during prebreeding consultations, through matings, gestation, and delivery
of newborns.
Canine Cesarean Section: Emergency and Elective 1123
Janice Cain and Autumn Davidson
Canine Cesarean Section (CS) is primarily performed to increase survival
of newborns and less commonly to save the life or reproductive future of
x Contents

the dam. Conducting proper ovulation timing to accurately predict the due
date will allow a planned, elective CS as an excellent alternative to a high-
risk natural whelping, and possible dystocia, for certain breeds and situa-
tions. Techniques for ovulation timing, anesthesia, and surgery tips are
provided.
Pathology of Perinatal Disorders 1147
Dalen Agnew
Perinatal deaths including abortions, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths are an
important economic and emotional challenge for companion animal own-
ers, breeders, and veterinarians. A protocol for the investigation of perina-
tal deaths in dogs and cats is described, including examination of the
placenta. Specific lesions of common infectious diseases leading to peri-
natal death are presented, as well as the more prevalent noninfectious
causes. These include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, metabolic causes, “ac-
cidents of pregnancy,” nutritional deficiencies, intoxications, hormonal
causes, and heritable and nonheritable congenital defects.
Canine Neonatal Health 1161
Sophie A. Grundy
This article provides a high-level overview of canine neonatal health for
clinicians to use as a mental framework so that when presented with a ca-
nine neonate it is easier to construct a logical and systematic clinical ap-
proach that is less overwhelming. As early detection of the at-risk
neonate results in earlier intervention, and improved health outcomes,
there will be a focus on pro-active care. Where appropriate, other articles
in this issue will be mentioned for a more in-depth discussion of specific
areas. Key points will be highlighted throughout the text.

Early Puppy Behavior: Tools for Later Success 1195

Ericka Mendez
Breeders have a unique ability to positively impact the lives of puppies.
Veterinarians have the opportunity to educate breeders on the importance
of implementing early behavior strategies, including bite prevention in the
form of early body handling, socialization, food bowl exercises, and object
exchange exercises, and emotional resilience training, early house train-
ing, and early life skill training such as crate training, recall, and sit to
say please. New puppy owners should be encouraged and educated on
how to safely continue this training and socialization after they pick up their
puppy and guided to enroll in a well-run puppy class.

Decision-Making on Recommended Age of Spay/Neuter for a Specific Dog: General

Principles and Cultural Complexities 1209
Lynette A. Hart, Benjamin L. Hart, and Abigail P. Thigpen
Many dogs and cats were euthanized in US animal shelters through the 1940s,
sharply declining in the 1980s. Early age neutering of young cats and dogs
grew frequent in the 1990s; adoptions from shelters increased, leading to a
decline in shelter euthanasia of dogs. Several publications, beginning in
2013, revealed heightened risks of joint disorders and some cancers for
 Contents xi

some dog breeds when neutered at young ages. These risks are breed-, gen-
der-, and body-size specific and related to neutering age. Current guidelines
suggest making a personalized decision for each dog’s neutering age. Rec-
ommendations are presented for 40 breeds and mixed-breed weight classes.
Pyometra in Small Animals 3.0 1223
Ragnvi Hagman
Video content accompanies this article at http://www.vetsmall.
theclinics.com.

Pyometra is a common disease in intact bitches and queens and occurs,

although less frequently, in most other female pets. In bitches and queens,
the illness is generally diagnosed within 4 months after estrus, in middle-
aged to older individuals. Complications such as peritonitis, endotoxemia,
and systemic inflammatory response syndrome are not uncommon and
associated with more severe illness. Ovary-sparing surgical options such
as hysterectomy could be considered in individuals with high-risk for det-
rimental side effects of spaying or without infection of the uterus but has
not yet been evaluated for safety in pyometra.