MATERIALS NOTES

B A 2 SEMESTER
PLASTICS
What Is Plastic?

Plastics are synthetic materials that originally derive from organic

products such as hydrocarbon fuels (coal, natural gas, and crude oil),
salt, sand, and a number of other possible constituents. Most plastics
are created in one of two major processes: polymerization or poly
condensation - sometimes known as chain growth and step growth
polymerization respectively.

PLASTIC

Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Plastics that can be heated to Plastics that can be heated
their melting point, only once (typically during
cooled and re heated again the injection molding
without significant degradation process).
POLYMERIZATION

A chemical process that

A polymer is a long-chained molecule
combines several monomers
that is composed of individual units,
to form a polymer or
called monomers.
polymeric compound.
Poly - means many Mer - means part.
So, the word means many parts.

A molecule that can be bonded to other

identical molecules to form a polymer..
Glucose, vinyl chloride, amino acids, and
ethylene are examples of monomers. Each
monomer may link in different ways to form
a variety of polymers.
 Why plastic
Plastic is no longer just for the low-budget
families. It is a lot more than a staple material
for informal spaces. Plastics are now known
to rival other fine materials such as metals
and timbers. Looking back into the ‘60s and
‘70s, you would realize how far plastic has
come. The advanced techno polymers of
today are a lot better than the glossy,
colourful plastics from the past.

Plastic is so mouldable that it can be

manufactured into different shapes, sizes,
colours and even strengths. It is waterproof
and electric proof, making it a safe option for
many homes with children and pets.
Plastic can also be lightweight compared to
other materials that are used for panelling,
flooring, even furniture. Furniture pieces such
as tables and chairs can be moulded into the
design that you want.
Where in interiors?

Plastic Wall Panels

Plastic Flooring
Plastic Furniture
Plastic Ceilings

Plastic Wall Panels

One of the most popular alternatives in the

market these days are plastic wall panels.
These wall materials are durable, meaning,
they offer a longer lifespan compared to their
wood counterparts.
Plastic wall panels require low maintenance,
what you just need to clean them is a damp
sponge of cloth. Compared to wallpaper,
plastic wall panels are also flame resistant.
 Plastic Flooring

There are a lot of flooring options out there

but if you consider yourself cost-savvy, then
you have to be willing to look for style in the
most unconventional means. Plastic flooring
can be ordered to look like any material that
you want. It can be made to look like wood,
rustic stone, marble, or the most colourful
tiles. Plastic flooring can be bought in sheets
or tiles and they can be imprinted or
moulded. Plastic flooring is also an effective
noise reducer. It is soft so it won’t make a lot
of noise despite a huge amount of foot
traffic.
Plastic Furniture

Plastic furniture will be able to

sustain cat and dog scratches. Say
goodbye to stains, mould and
mildew. Plastic furniture is colourful,
it is available in almost any colour
and shade, plastic is the perfect
medium for your playful colour
palette. Plastic is durable its almost
physically unbreakable unless it is
some cheap plastics, this makes
plastic the ideal furniture for any
space. Plastic comes in all grades
and quality depending upon the
user.
 Plastic Ceilings

Plastic ceilings are easy to clean

using any household cleaners or a
damp/dry cloth. Plastic ceilings just
need a quick wipe from time to
time to keep them looking like new.
Plastic ceilings do not need
painting. No more weekends spent
painting and repainting bathroom
ceilings with expensive paint. Plastic
ceilings come in the chosen colour
ready to install. Easy to install,
Plastic ceilings are easy to install
with limited tools. Plastic ceilings
can be installed on a wooden or
metal framework. Plastic ceiling can
be used as a suspended ceiling.
Plastic Collecting techniques
 STUDY
Approximately 300 million tonnes
of plastic is produced every year,
A 2017 report published in the
Environmental Science and Technology
journal revealed that 88 to 95 per cent of
the plastic waste transported to the ocean
via rivers comes from just ten rivers. These Here are four projects attempting
include the Nile, the Yellow River and the to stop plastic from reaching the
Ganges. ocean:
An estimated 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of  The Bubble Barrier
plastic end up in the oceans each year.  Floating boom
Circular-economy charity the Ellen  Interceptor
MacArthur Foundation estimates that by  Mr. trash wheel
2050 there will be more plastic than fish in
the oceans.
 INTERCEPTOR

The Interceptor is an
autonomous solar-powered
device that uses a barrier
stretching across a river to
collect plastic. The barriers
funnel plastic waste into the
mouth of the plant, which is
powered by solar panels and
operates without the need for
human operators.
A conveyor belt separates the waste
from the water and moves it up to a
shuttle, which automatically dumps the
waste into containers on a separate
barge docked below.

The device's solar panels charge lithium-

ion batteries, which allow the plant to
run 24 hours a day, seven days a week,
without noise or fumes.

When the containers are all full, the on

board computer system alerts local
partners to bring a boat and tow the
barge of plastic waste away for recycling.
Each system only spans part of the river,
so boats and wildlife can manoeuvre
around it.
 Mr Trash Wheel

Mr. Trash Wheel and Professor Trash

Wheel, the latter of which was installed
in December, are solar- and hydro-
powered trash interceptors based in
Baltimore's Inner Harbour, clearing
debris before it enters the Chesapeake
Bay. Over a million pounds of trash has
been pulled out of the water by Mr.
Trash Wheel since it was installed in
May 2014.
Powered by the current of the
Jones Falls River, a wheel
cranks the conveyor belt. Backup
solar panels can keep the wheel
moving when the current is slow.
Dumpsters
The wheel’s speed can be
controlled via the Internet;
remote monitoring also indicates
when Dumpsters need to be
swapped out.

River trash tumbles into a

Dumpster. When the container is
full, a boat tows it to a transit
station.
The largest amounts of trash are
collected from the strong currents
following a heavy rain or storm.

Floating booms
funnel trash toward
rotating forks, which
lift the refuse onto a
conveyor belt.
 BUBBLE BARRIER
1. Plastic in water
Plastic in the water, which flows
through the Amsterdam canals to
the Bubble Barrier and is guided by
the bubbles into the catchment
system.
2. Boats

Boats can sail through the Bubble

Barrier without a problem.
3. Bubble Barrier
The Bubble Barrier is placed
diagonally in the river, in a precisely
calculated angle for the maximum
capture of plastics.
4. Catchment system
The catchment system which retains
the plastic until removal.
5. Compressor
Electric compressor which supplies
the air for the Bubble Barrier (placed
in an insulated container)
6. Result
Water without plastic waste flows
via the river IJ into the North sea.
INNOVATIVE PLASTICS
Precious Plastic's

Recycling initiative Precious Plastic's

open-source machines are being used
to recycle plastic and turn it into face
shields, respirator masks and hands-
free door handles to fight coronavirus.
Groups in Germany, Spain, Greece,
Austria and Switzerland are using the
open-source machines, which shred
and remould old plastic, to make face
shields, masks for ventilators and
handles that allow the user to open a
door without touching it.
Hospitals treating coronavirus patients need this
emergency PPE to keep their staff safe, as medical
workers are particularly vulnerable to being seriously
infected.
 Marina Tex

Marina Tex is made from fish

scales and skin waste products
that would usually be buried in
landfill or incinerated.
It is translucent and flexible,
making it a candidate for single-
use packaging such as bags and
sandwich wrappers, and Lucy Hughes
importantly, it will break down in
home composts or food-waste
bins within four to six weeks.
Marina Tex: Used in food packaging

Marina Tex: Used for

sandwich packing
French designer Dorian Renard has applied
traditional glassblowing techniques to a series
of plastic furniture and sculptural pieces, in a bid to Dorian Renard
present the maligned material in a new light.
Collection was created entirely from plastic sheets
or tubes, which were melted and blown to create
warped, undulating shapes
Various Manufacturing Process
ROTOMOLDING:
Rotational Molding, also
called Rotomolding or
Rotocast, is a
thermoplastic process for
producing hollow parts by
placing powder or liquid
resin into a hollow mold
and then rotating that tool
in an oven until the resin
melts and coats the inside
of the mold cavity. Next the
tool is cooled and the part
is removed from the mold.
 BLOW MOLDING

Blow molding is a manufacturing process by

which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is
also used for forming glass bottles. In
general, there are Three main types of blow
molding: Extrusion blow molding, Injection
blow molding, and Injection stretch blow
molding.

The blow molding process begins with

melting down the plastic and forming it into a
parison or in the case of injection and
injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a
preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of
plastic with a hole in one end through which
compressed air can pass.
The parison is then
clamped into a mold
and air is blown into it.
The air pressure then
pushes the plastic out
to match the mold.
Once the plastic has
cooled and hardened
the mold opens up and
the part is ejected.
EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING

In Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded

into a hollow tube (a parison). This parison is then captured by
closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is then blown into the
parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container,
or part. After the plastic has cooled sufficiently, the mold is
opened and the part is ejected.
INJECTION MOULDING

Injection molding is the most common modern method of manufacturing

plastic parts; it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object.
Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools,
packaging, bottle caps, automotive parts and components, game boys,
pocket combs, some musical instruments, one-piece chairs and small
tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most
other plastic products available today.
Stage 1
Granulated or powdered thermoplastic plastic is fed from a hopper into the
Injection Moulding machine.

Stage 2
The Injection Moulding machine consists of a hollow steel barrel, containing a
rotating screw. The screw carries the
plastic along the barrel to the mould.
Heaters surround the barrel melt the plastic as it travels along the barrel.

Stage 3
The screw is forced back as the melted plastic collects at the end of the barrel.
Once enough plastic has collected a hydraulic ram pushes the screw forward
injecting the plastic through a sprue into a mould cavity.
The mould is warmed before injecting and the plastic is injected quickly to
prevent it from hardening before the mould is full.

Stage 4
Pressure is maintained for a short time (dwell time) to prevent the material
creeping back during setting (hardening).
This prevents shrinkage and hollows, therefore giving a better quality product.
The moulding is left to cool before removing (ejected) from the mould. The
moulding takes on the shape of the mould cavity.
VACUUMM FORMING
Vacuum forming is a simplified version of
thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is
heated to a forming temperature,
stretched onto a single-surface mold, and
forced against the mold by a vacuum. This
process can be used to form plastic into
permanent objects such as turnpike signs
and protective covers.
There are numerous patterns one can
make with vacuum forming. The most
inventive way to use vacuum forming is to
take any small item, replicate it many times
and then vacuum for the new pattern to
create a more cohesive form.
METALS
Classification by Iron Content

The most common way of

classifying them is by their iron
content.
When a metal contains iron, it is
known as a ferrous metal. The
iron imparts magnetic properties
to the material and also makes
them prone to corrosion. Metals
that do not have any iron content
are non-ferrous metals. These
metals do not possess any
magnetic properties.
Periodic Table Classification by Atomic Structure
Metals and advances in
manufacturing processes gave us the
industrial revolution. This lead to an
exponential growth of human
civilisation bringing us where we are
today. Today, different types of metals
are all around us.

A large number of metals are available in

nature. They can be classified in a variety of
ways depending on what property or
characteristic you use as a yardstick.
 FERROUS METALS

IRON

Thus, it is an incredibly easy metal to

find. Pure iron is an unstable element
though Extracting iron from its ores
uses a blast furnace. Pig iron is
achieved from the first stage of the
blast furnace which can be further
refined to obtain pure iron. This iron
often ends up in steels and other
alloys. Almost 90 per cent of
manufactured metals are ferrous
metals. Pure iron is stronger than
other metals
STEEL

Steel is a popular building material thanks to its

excellent properties. Over 3500 grades of steel
are available today. It has high tensile strength
and a high strength-to-weight ratio. Steel is also
extremely durable. This means a steel structure
can last longer and withstand external factors
better than other alternatives. It is also ductile
and can be shaped into required forms without
compromising its properties

Depending on the iron content, steel is

classified into three categories.

 Low carbon steel.

 Medium Carbon steel.
 High Carbon steel.
 NONFERROUS METALS

COPPER

Copper is a pink or salmon red colour

when polished. It is a reasonably soft
metal and is both malleable and ductile.
Copper has until the invention of the
fiberoptic cable been almost extensively
used for the lines for the
telecommunication industry. When left
to oxidise it turns a soft green colour or
patina.

copper can be used in more interior design

styles from traditional to contemporary. It is
cool to the touch despite its warm appearance.
Scientifically, copper has been proven to rid of
harmful bacteria. It is mostly used in kitchen
and bathrooms.
 ALUMINIUM

Aluminium being lightweight, it is

still a strong, flexible, and very
easy to handle metal. It is widely
used in kitchens as an accent, in
doors, trims, and wall panels. It
withstands different climates,
easy to preserve, comes in a
variety of colors, rust, water and
fire resistant, lasts for a long time,
and insect proof. However, it also
has a lot of disadvantages like it
has a tendency to dent, it is
naturally noisy, and limiting in the
sense where it is less workable
than work and design options
can’t be as limitless.
BRASS

Brass, like most metals, comes in

various grades including gilding
and cartridge brass. Brass is
classified according to its Zinc
content. Because brasses are
resistant to corrosion we see them
used a lot in situations where they
are exposed to the elements and in
particular the sea. Ship’s brass is a
particular type of brass and is
particularly resistant to the salt
water however it will still corrode
which is why we see the polishing
and maintenance of fittings on
ships and yachts.
 BRONZE
Brass, like most metals, comes in
various grades including gilding and
cartridge brass. Brass is classified
according to its Zinc content. Because
brasses are resistant to corrosion we
see them used a lot in situations where
they are exposed to the elements and
in particular the sea. Ship’s brass is a
particular type of brass and is
particularly resistant to the salt water
however it will still corrode which is
why we see the polishing and
maintenance of fittings on ships and
yachts.
PAINTS AND VARNISHES
PAINT
Paint consists of pigments and an oil or water-based binder (the binder
being the majority in volume). With most paints, long-term storage will
cause the two constituents to separate in the can - the pigments
generally 'drop out of solution' to form a thick, treacle like sludge at the
bottom of the can
The proportion of pigment to binder in any paint dictates the amount of
gloss the finished product will have. The glossier the finish, the more
hardwearing it will generally be. There are various categories of finish:
matt, gloss and a range in between the two which varies according to
the manufacturer and are designated in a number of different terms -
silk, satin, semi-gloss, eggshell etc.

Water-based paint dries purely by evaporation, while oil-based paint

has a chemical drying agent added. Paints with a water base are not as
hard or durable as those with an oil base although they are improving
all the time. The greatest advantage of water-based paint is that
brushes and rollers can be washed out in water; no special cleaning
agent is needed.
PAINTS
Distemper is a water based paint which is a combination
of components like powdered chalk, lime and size.
Distempers prove to be ideal for temporary and interior
paint jobs.

TYPES OF DISTEMPERS Acrylic Distemper is a water-based, interior wall paint. It

ACRYLIC DISTEMPER
SYNTHETIC DISTEMPER
gives walls a smooth and matt finish. Its fortified
formulation delivers a combination of good looks and
durable performance. Acrylic distemper is ideal for
surfaces like fall ceiling, plasters, etc. It is a washable and
easy to clean distemper.

Synthetic Distemper is a water-based finish with exciting

direct shade offerings that give your home a beautiful
look for years to come.
OIL BASED DISTEMPER

It is recommended for use on interior walls. It gives smooth &

elegant finish. It can be washed with clean water. It is available in
wide range of shades. It may be used on plaster and even brick
walls. It is helpful in decorating the wall and ceilings. The paint is
perfect for interiors use only.
Advantages of oil bound DISADVANTAGES OF OIL BOUND DISTEMPER
distemper It is not washable, and steadily
1. Easy to use, with a variety emerges out when moist.
of shades.
2. Durable and affordable, that
provides a sleek matt finish. DRY DISTEMPER
3. Dry rapidly, touch dry within
four hours. Dry distemper is water based wall paint and is more
4. Non-flammable, Eco friendly since durable than color wash. It contains a glue and tinted
it is lead free and includes powdered chalk used to achieve softness like velvet.
absolutely no petrochemical
dependent components.
 CEMENT BASED PAINTS
Cement paint is water based paint and is applied to either
exterior or interior including brick work and
concrete.
 It is used for painting exterior wall surface mainly for
preventing water penetration and reductions of dirt
collection.
 It is suitable for coating concrete as well as decorating
indoor and outdoor
 walls.
 It is available in the market in different colors.

Apply cement paint on concrete surface,

plaster surface and bricks. It gives best
result on porous surface.
APPLICATION OF CEMENT PAINT

Prepare the surface

•Clean the surface

The surface must be cleaned of mortar droppings, dirt, dust, grease and other foreign
matters such as growth of molds, algae, moss by brushing and washing. Efflorescence
deposits must be cleaned also.

•Repair the patches

Patches on painting area must be repaired by plastering followed by application of a coat
of waterproofing cement paint on patches after wetting the surface completely.

•Clean existing paint/whitewash

Clean old/existing surface, previously treated with whitewash and color wash thoroughly
by scrapping all whitewash, color wash when water proofing cements paint is required to
apply on existing surfaces.
Do mixing thoroughly

Step1: Mix cement paint and water in proper

ratio

Take 2 parts of cement paint and one part of

water and stir thoroughly. Take care to
add cement paint gradually to the water and
not vice versa.

Step 2: Add remaining water

Add remaining one part of water to the
mixture

Step 3: Shake the solution

Stir the solution thoroughly to obtain uniform
finish
Apply first coat of cement paint
•Apply the solution
Apply prepared solution with brushes or spray machine after
cleaning and wetting cement or concrete surface. hake the
solution during application and use it within one hour after
mixing otherwise it would be thicken and affect the finish.

•Getting good finish

Take care that the thickness of paint is uniform. Brush out
the laps well and dampen the surface after days work.

Apply second coat of cement paint

•After the first coat is set at least for 24 hours, apply second
coat by repeating application process of the first coat.

Do proper curing
Since hardening of paint film depends on the availability
of moisture for chemical reaction with cement, the water
should be sprinkled on painted surface at least for two
days.
Precaution for cement paint

Do not apply cement paint on surfaces which are already

treated with whitewash, color wash and dry distemper unless
the surface is thoroughly scraped and cleaned properly.

ADVANTAGES OF CEMENT PAINT

•Economical
•Better performance for outdoor protection and decoration.
•Available in various colors and can match up with any
shade.
•Has matt finish, an inexpensive way to cover large areas
such as cellars and garages.
•Maintains good look for many years despite exposure to
worse environments.
•No chance of drying it up since its available in powder form
which is mixed into water before application.
;
ANTI CORROSIVE COATING OR PAINT.

A paint containing corrosive-resistant pigments such as zinc chromate, lead

chromate, or red lead. This type of paint is used as
a primer on iron and steel products.
Anti-corrosion refers to the protection of metal surfaces from corroding in
high-risk (corrosive) environments. When metallic materials are put into
corrosive environments, they tend to have chemical reactions with the air
and/or water. The effects of corrosion become evident on the surfaces of
these materials. The function of this coating is to act as a barrier that inhibits
contact between chemical compounds or corrosive materials with the metal
housing.
EMULSION PAINT
Emulsions are water-based, with vinyl or acrylic resins
added to make them more hard-wearing than
traditional emulsions. This results in varying degrees of
sheen in the finish; as the shine increases, the paint
tends to be more hard wearing. The ranges usually offer
matt, eggshell, silk, satin and full gloss. a paint having
water usually as the volatile phase with various
nonvolatile substances (such as a linseed-oil varnish) in
emulsion as the binder.
Emulsion is the most popular paint for
walls and ceilings due to the fact that it is
water based and has less smell, dries
comparatively quickly and is easy to apply.
There are three main types of emulsion used for walls and
ceilings, each giving a different finish:

Vinyl matt emulsion gives a matt, non-shiny finish that is good

for not showing small imperfections on the wall or ceiling. (The
shinier finishes reflect back more light and highlight any
imperfections). Generally speaking, however, it does not wear as
well as the glossier emulsions.

•Vinyl satin emulsion gives a subtle soft-sheen finish and is a

more durable surface than vinyl matt. It is suitable for areas
that might need to be occasionally lightly washed or sponged.

•Vinyl silk emulsion gives a high sheen finish and is the most
durable of all the emulsion paints. It is good for rooms that are
subject to a lot of moisture i.e. condensation. Some
manufactures make specific Kitchen & Bathroom paint which is
ideal for areas of high humidity.
COMPOSITION OF PAINTS

PAINT MAINLY CONSISTS OF

 PIGMENT Pigment, binder or film former, and solvent or thinner,
 BINDER
 THINNER OR SOLVENT and the relative proportions of these ingredients can
 ADDITIVES be varied to produce films with any desired physical
and application characteristics.
FUNCTIONS OF PAINT
The functions of major ingredients are as follows:

Pigment:
Pigments provide color and opacity (or hiding power), enhances film durability and hardness and,
in metal primers, inhibits corrosion.

Binder or film former:

Binders bind or “cement” the pigment particles into a coherent film which adheres to the
substrate. In modern paints, the mechanical and resistive properties of the film are controlled
very largely by the binder.

Thinner or Solvent :
They are used to render the pigment/Binder mixture sufficiently fluid for the transfer from one tin
/ vessel to another and also for application to a surface in the form of a uniform film.

Additives :
Additives are present in small quantities (1-4%) which perform specific but very important role.
APPLICATIONS OF PAINTS

Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension (aerosol) or a

liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results
desired.

SOLID APPLICATION

As a solid usually used in industrial and automotive applications,

the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high
temperature. This melts the powder and causes it to adhere stick
to the surface.
GASEOUS APPLICATION

As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended in solid or

liquid form in a gas that is sprayed on an object. The paint sticks to the
object. The reasons for doing this include: This application mechanism
is air and thus no solid object ever touches the object being painted.
The distribution of the paint is very uniform so there are no sharp lines
in this type of application.

LIQUID APPLICATION

In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application

using brushes, paint rollers, blades, other instruments, or body parts.
Examples of body parts include finger-painting, where the paint is
applied by hand.
 BRUSH APPLICATION

Brush application is used for

decorative coating of relatively small
and complex areas. Brush painting is a
slow application method but it
provides good penetration of the
paint.

ROLLER APPLICATION

Roller technique is applied for coating

large flat surfaces. The method is
faster than brush application. In
contrast to the brush method roller
painting is not suitable for applying
high film build.
AIR SPRAY APPLICATION

In the air spray application method the paint in

form of atomized droplets is delivered by a
stream of compressed air. The paint is pumped
from the tank into the gun where it is atomized
(broken into small droplets) by the flowing
compressed air.
DEFECTS IN PAINTING

A paint defect is in many cases due to a number of

causes. In some cases, several defects may occur
simultaneously and hinder the determination of the
causes and redemption works. To achieve good
painting work, applicators and site supervisors
should understand the causes and preventive
measures of common defects that occur at different
stages of works.

BITTINESS

A defect in which the appearance of a paint

finish is marred by small particles of
extraneous material like dust, grit, or broken
paint skin and fragments of bristle from
brushes.
 BLISTERING

Formation of bubble like shapes on the

painted surface is known as blistering. The
primary cause of this defect is that water
vapors are trapped under the paint layer, it
creates bubbles under the film of paint.

BLOOMING

Formation of dull patches on the painted

surface is known as blooming. The
primary cause of this defect is poor
quality of paint and improper ventilation.
FADING

When there is a gradual loss of color from the

pained surface, it is known as fading. The main
cause of this defect is the reaction of sunlight
on pigments of paint.

FLAKING
In this type of defect, some portion of the
paint film is not sticked properly with the
surface; resulting flaking off of the paint
layer. This is caused due to poor adhesion
between paint and the surface to be
painted.
FLASHING

Presence of glossy patches on the painted

surface is known as flashing. The cause of this
defect is mainly due to poor workmanship,
cheap paint or weather actions.

GRININING

If the thickness of the final coat of paint

becomes very thin, the background can be
seen clearly. This is known as grinning. Poor
workmanship is the main cause of this defect.
RUNNING

This type of defect is seen when the

surface to be painted is very smooth. In
case of smooth surface the paint runs back
and leaves small areas of surface
uncovered.

SAGGING

This type of defect is more prominent

when a thick layer of paint is applied on a
vertical or inclined surface.
 SAPONIFICATION

Formation of soap patches on the

painted surface is termed as
saponification. Chemical action of
alkalis is the cause of this defect.

SHRIVELLING
It is also known as wrinkling or
rivelling. Shrivelling is likely to be
most severe if the paint has been
heavily applied. The formation of a
surface ‘skin’ reduces the supply of
oxygen to the underlying paint
 VARNISH

Varnishes are more or less transparent liquids

which are used to provide a protective surface
coating in much the same way as paints do” At
the same time they allow the original surface to
show but add a lustrous and glossy finish to it.

Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish

or film primarily used in wood finishing but also
for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a
combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a
thinner or solvent. Varnish finishes are usually
glossy but may be designed to produce satin or
semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting"
agents.
Components of Varnishes

The major components of a

varnish are as follows:
- Resins
- Solvent and Thinner
- Drying oil
- Metallic dryers.

WHY VARNISH?

Wood kept outside is normally exposed to big

variations of temperatures and weather. It is
also exposed to Ultra Violet(UV) rays in the
atmosphere. Changes in humidity also affect
the wood which results in contraction or
expansion of wood. These all factors damage
the wood or wooden articles. Hence,
varnishes can be used to protect wood and
wooden articles.
 Types of Varnishes

Natural varnish:

Body made from natural resin obtained from

certain trees. Natural resin obtained from
gum
living trees or from fossils. They are discharged
from these kinds of trees. Plants produce dammar
resins either naturally or in reaction to certain
injuries.
Copal, shellac, mastic, gum, dammar, amber,
sandarac, balsam, etc. are resins.

shellac
Synthetic resin varnish:
•Synthetic varnish produced by plastic
industry. Chemicals used include
nitrocellulose, amino resins, silicon etc

Silicon varnish
Oil varnishes
These varnishes use linseed oil as solvent in
which hard resins such as amber and copal are
dissolved by heating. These varnishes dry
slowly, but form hard and durable surface. Oil
varnishes are recommended for all external
wood work, and for joinery and fittings.

Spirit varnishes or lacquers

These varnishes are methylated spirit of wine
as solvent in which soft resins such as lac or
shellac are dissolved. They dry quickly, but are
not durable. French polish is a variety of this
type varnish. It is commonly used on furniture.
Water varnishes
These varnishes are formed by dissolving
shellac in hot water, using enough
quantity of ammonia, borax, potash or
soda. Water varnishes are used for
varnishing wall papers, maps pictures,
book jackets, etc.

Turpentine varnishes
These varnishes use turpentine as solvent in
which soft resins such as gum, dammer,
mastic and rosin are dissolved.
The varnish dries quickly, but is not so
durable. These are cheaper than oil
varnishes.
USES OF VARNISH?

Varnishes can be used to protect

wooden surfaces like windows,
doors, floors and roof trusses from
atmosphere. Varnishes may be
applied as a topcoat on worn
finishes. Varnishes can be used to
brighten the look of natural grains in
wood.
When a varnish is applied to the surface of wood or
metal, it dries and leaves a hard and generally
transparent coating. It is a shiny coating which is
applied on a floor or furniture. It dries clear and
luminous. It gives a hard, lustrous and transparent
finish to the surface.

It gives furniture, wooden materials, artwork and

other objects a glossy look. It also protects the
surface. Usually varnish is prepared from resin,
solvent and oil.
Some varnishes harden immediately as the
solvent evaporates. So, it produces a film. The
other varnishes harden slowly over a period
of time.

Shellac, Resin and Lacquer dry immediately. Resin

Acrylic and some of the water based
varnishes evaporate the water or solvent and
dry over a period of time.

Oil based, polyurethane and epoxy

varnishes also dry slowly to hard finish.

water based varnishes

ACOUSTICS
Acoustics

Acoustics is defined as the science that deals with the production,

control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound

Excess noise can be a problem in many

places. Offices are the obvious example,
but it can be an issue in restaurants,
shops, auditoriums, libraries and other
places too. The usage of acoustic materials
would solve this issue.
Points to consider while designing acoustically
acceptable spaces:
1.Sound requirements for the space.
2.Who uses the space, how and for what purpose.
3.Interactions, privacy and ambiance needed.
4.Sources of sound both inside and outside the space.
5.Effect of surface materials, fixtures and furnishings.
6.Assess design options for acoustics enhancement.
7.Convenience and wellbeing of people living/working
in that space.
8.Type of acoustic panels that serve the purpose best.
IMPORTANCE OF ACOUSTICS

Sound is created by vibrations of air or other materials. When we

speak, our vocal cords vibrate and creates vibrations in the air
that travel to the ears of the listeners like ripples in a pond when
you throw in a stone.
Large specialized rooms like auditoriums, gyms, and cafeterias
needs careful acoustical engineering and should be designed
using certain thumb rules, In these spaces lot of noise/sound is
produced within and outside the environment. So the excess or
unwanted sound which is not required needs to be cut off/
controlled. This is the reason installation of acoustical materials
are necessary to create the productive spaces.
WHY ACOUSTICAL PANELS

Unwanted sound is Noise and it can be a nuisance. It can disturb

and distract us; harm us physiologically and psychologically. In a
large room with several groups of people in conversation, the
overall effect is a lot of noise. Enough sound must be absorbed
instead of reflecting off the walls. Typical cafeterias are built
without much sound absorbing material, so they are very noisy.

 Acoustic panels help reduce the noise from activity in the

room.
 Acoustic Panels absorb the reflected energy which causes
“echo” within a space and speech becomes clear.
 Listening becomes easier and music sounds better.
 People tend to become more efficient, effective and
relaxed.
 It cuts down the external noise which is a major
distracting factor in education.
ACOUSTICAL WALL INSTALLATIONS
ACOUSTICAL CEILING INSTALLATIONS
ACOUSTICAL FLOOR INSTALLATIONS
 Acoustic Panels are products which can be used to control
the sound quality of different spaces. They may be
classified into categories based on their absorption and
diffusion properties. To understand these categories, it is
necessary to understand the basic differences between
absorption and diffusion.

Diffusers are used in spaces to make the

Acoustic room sound lively without creating
Absorbers are used to echoes. Diffusers do not absorb the sound
reduce the noise levels energy but instead disperse the sound
in a room by absorbing uniformly within the space without
the sound energy removing sound energy.
Absorption Diffusion
Acoustic Plaster systems

These are plasters with sound absorbing

properties . They are used when there is a
need for customization like curved walls or
ceilings, and also when no additional
suspended ceilings are possible.

it’s particularly suited for spaces where there

is a constraint for room height. These are
usually available in a standard white shade,
but can be tinted or painted over to suit the
requirements. The plaster may be applied to
the surface using a trowel or can even be
sprayed depending on the exact product to
be used.
Plasterboard Acoustic Panels

These are acoustic panels made of

plasterboard. To enhance the
acoustic properties of the panel, full
depth round perforations are made
to the panel. These are typically used
in high traffic area ceilings, library
ceilings, theater and auditorium
upper walls and ceilings. It usually
comes in a standard white shade
and is a fully recyclable, non-
combustible material.
Metal Acoustic Panels (Perforated Panel)

Acoustic metal panels are made of

perforated metal skins encapsulated
in acoustical sound absorbers. This
combination of metal and absorptive
material is particularly useful in
locations where durability and
aesthetics are needed along with
maximum noise absorption. Acoustic
metal panels are commonly used in
gymnasiums, industrial fabrication
areas, airports, concert halls, HVAC
noises etc.
Micro-Perforated Acoustical Ceiling & Wall Panels

These are panels perforated with 0.5 mm

micro-holes only perceptible at short eye
distance (+/- 250 000 holes/m²) and
laminated on a 16 mm thick MDF substrate
already perforated. The aesthetic of wood is
preserved while offering high acoustic
absorption performances.
Wood wool Acoustic Panels

BAUX acoustic panels are environment-

friendly, recyclable materials made from
wood wool, cement and water. Together,
its natural components provide many
functional characteristics. They are
available in 5 patterns; Quilted, Check,
Stripes, Lines and Diagonal—all designed
for infinite combinations.
Aluminum Composite Acoustic Panels

These are sandwich panels

made from an aluminium mesh
outer surface, acoustic fleece
mat and a 25 mm aluminium
honeycomb backing. The mesh
appearance and the panel can
be customized to adapt to the
specific needs of projects.
Polyester Acoustic Panels

Polyester acoustic panels are made

made from 100% polyester (60%
recycled fibre). It is completely
recyclable—making it an environment
friendly alternative to traditional
embossed fabric acoustic panels.
RUBBER
WHAT IS RUBBER
A tough elastic polymeric substance
made from the latex of a tropical plant
or synthetically.
TYPES OF RUBBER
Natural Rubber
Synthetic Rubber

Natural Rubber

Natural rubber is made from a runny, milky white liquid called latex that
oozes from certain plants when you cut into them. Although there are
something like 200 plants in the world that produce latex, over 99 percent
of the world's natural rubber is made from the latex that comes from a tree
species called Hevea brasiliensis, widely known as the rubber tree.

Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubbers are made in chemical plants using petrochemicals as
their starting point. Neoprene and styrene butadiene rubber are the two
famous synthetic rubbers widely used in rubber industry.
Natural rubber as initially produced, consists
of polymers of the organic compound isoprene
with minor impurities of other organic
compounds, plus water. Malaysia and
Indonesia are two of the leading rubber
producers. Currently rubber is harvested
mainly in the form of the latex from the rubber
tree or others.
The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by
making incisions in the bark and collecting the
fluid in vessels in a process called "tapping"
PROCESS

These rubber trees show the diagonal scars of

tapping patches. The place where latex flows
out of the tree and it is collected in
vessels/cups.
 Each night a rubber tapper must
remove a thin layer of bark along a
downward half spiral on the tree
trunk.
 If done carefully and with skill, this
tapping panel will yield latex for up
to 5 years. Then the opposite side
will be tapped allowing this side to
heal over.
 The spiral allow the latex to run
down to a collecting cup. The
work is done at night so the latex
will run longer before drying out.
As the cut is made, latex
begins oozing from the
newly injured laticifers and
running down the spiral cut.
 At the bottom of the spiral cut a
spout is inserted and the latex flow
directed into a glass collection cup
held around the tree trunk by a
spring.
 Each tree must be tapped each
night, working by head lamps.
 Each night a new thin layer of bark
is removed lowering the spiral
slightly.
 Once each tree is tapped, the worker
waits until morning to collect the
latex.
 Here the latex begins to drip
into the cup.
 Each night the tree will
yield 1/2 to 3/4 of a cup of
latex before the wounds stop
oozing.
 Latex collection is done at
night when the humidity is
high so the flow will last the
longest before drying. The
latex is collected in the
morning.
The latex is coagulated in metal pans using a
dilute acid. This pan is filled with a soft cake
of coagulated latex. As many as 20-30 rubber
trees were tapped to fill this pan

Coagulation is the process where

liquid form of latex turns into solid.
 After coagulation, the cake of
raw rubber must be rolled to
remove the water and washed to
remove the acid.
 A worker uses a wooden roller
to compress the rubber and
squeeze out the acidic water.
 Later the cake will be squeezed
through rollers to finish the
process.
 After rolling is completed, the
sheet of raw rubber is dried on a
rack and smoked over a wood
fire.
 Here a sheet of raw rubber dries
next to a sheet of smoked rubber
(left). Smoking stabilizes the
rubber and in this form it is sold
and transported to manufacturers
of rubber products.
 The texture seen on the sheet of
smoked rubber came from the
last set of rollers used
Vulcanization

During the 1830’s manufacturing rubber became a serious

problem. In the winter time became rigid and hard. In the
summer time it became very hot and would start to melt. An
American inventor named Charles Goodyear solved this
problem in 1830. He heated the rubber with sulfur and white
lead to make the material harder. With this method, the rubber
was durable in all type of weathers. This process is known as
vulcanization.

Vulcanization, chemical process by which the physical

properties of natural or synthetic rubber are improved.
This helps the rubber to have better physical properties
such as elasticity, strength and stability.
Marc Berthier designed the Tykho
radio for French brand Lexon, and
the colorful silicone-covered audio
box still holds up. Waterproof, with
just a few intuitive buttons to
manoeuvre, it works with soapy
hands the shower, foodie fingers
in the kitchen, at a picnic, on the
road, or anywhere you choose to
tote it along for some fresh fm
tunes.
Carving out every possible
nook for storage, the
staircase acts as both room
divider and organizer. The
stair “carpet” is made from
the same tough rubber that
is used to make tires for
semis.
 kitchen backsplash out of
Kitchen flooring out of rubber rubber
Australian fashion designer Molly
Younger has created a range of flesh-
like rubber bags and wallets cast from
natural latex. "The process varies for
each bag," Younger told. "I brush a latex
and paint mix onto the mould, building
up the layers one at a time with drying
time in between each layer."
"I wanted to produce from a process that combines
techniques from fashion practice with sculpting.
Studio Swine used very hard rubber to craft
this black furniture collection, designed
for American industrialist Henry Ford's failed
utopian city.
The duo used Ebonite – which is made
from vulcanised rubber, sulphur and
linseed oil
German designer Thomas
Schnur presented this table with
suction cups on the legs as part of
[D3] Design Talents. Called Rubber
Table, each product has five legs and
an irregularly shaped top, moulded
from dyed foam rubber.
Cologne designer Thomas
Schnur has created squishy
lamps made out of rubber. The
electrical components of these
lamps by Thomas Schnur are
encased in a heat-resistent
silicone shell, molded into the
form of a traditional desk lamp.
Rubber pellets made from recycled car
tyres form the knobbly surfaces of these
bowls and pots by Dutch
designer Debbie Wijskamp.
Wijskamp mixed recycled rubber
powder with glue to make the small
pebble forms, which were then
shaped onto moulds while sticky.
Taiwanese designer Yen-Wen Tseng, a student
at Konstfack University College of Arts, Craft and
Design in Stockholm, has created a set of rubber
candlesticks designed to feel like bicycle handlebars.
The candlestick is inspired by traditional bicycle
handlebars. The soft stripes provide an impressive
feeling of touch when gripping it. I followed the
simplicity of production and adjust the outline of the
stripes to be that of a classic candlestick.
Japanese designer Kei Harada has created
two chairs made completely out of
rubber. There are two seats in the Chair
for Dali series: one chair has a square
back rest and is made of rubber with 70%
hardness whilst the other has a rounded
back and is made of rubber with 90%
hardness, making the leg bracing
unnecessary.
Israeli artist Tsibi Geva has wrapped
his country's Venice pavilion in old
car tyres and filled it with a mixture
of found architectural and household
objects to explore ideas about the
home (+ slideshow).
The roof and upper walls of a house
in Tübingen, Germany, are covered
in rubber, like a fisherman's hat
pulled low over his eyes.
Carey jones architects and Jefferson Sheard
Architects have completed Soundhouse, a
rubber-clad music studio designed for
the University of Sheffield. The three-
storey building is covered with four 14 x 8
m rubber sheets, each weighing half a ton.
Rubber roofing is made of rubber or
plastic polymers or a combination of
both. Materials are eco-friendly,
made from recycled tires, sawdust,
and slate dust. Rubber roofing is used
to reduce leaking. Besides being
extremely durable, weather resistant,
and completely waterproof, rubber
roofing is also very resistant to
thermal shock. If installed properly,
rubber roofing shouldn’t crack or
become brittle due to hot or cold
temperatures.
GLASS
WHAT IS GLASS
Glass is a combination of sand and other minerals that are melted together
at very high temperatures to form a material that is ideal for a wide range
of uses from packaging and construction to fiber optics. Glass, chemically,
is actually more like a liquid, but at room temperature it is so viscous or
sticky it looks and feels like a solid. At higher temperatures glass gradually
becomes softer and more like a liquid. It is this latter property, which
allows glass to be poured, blown, pressed and molded into such a variety
of shapes.

.
IMPORTANCE OF GLASS
Modern life just would not be possible without glass. From the
jar that holds your marmalade, the mirror in which we brush
our teeth, the windows and car windscreen we look through,
the computer screens, smartphones and tablets many of us
use at work everyday, the communications infrastructure to
the light bulb we switch off last thing at night; glass is around
us everywhere.
GLASS TODAY
Today man has mastered the glass-making process and can
make many different types of glass in infinitely varied colors
formed into a wide range of products.
HOW IS GLASS MADE
Glass is made by melting together several minerals at very high temperatures. Silica
in the form of sand is the main ingredient and this is combined with soda ash and
limestone and melted in a furnace at temperatures of 1700°C. Other materials can
be added to produce different colors or properties. Glass can also be coated, heat-
treated, engraved or decorated. Whilst still molten, glass can be manipulated to
form packaging, car windscreens, glazing or numerous other products. Depending
on the end use, the composition of the glass and the rate at which it is allowed to
cool will vary.
IMPORTANCE OF GLASS IN INTERIORS

Glass is the most widely used material, glass has not become an optional
instead has become the most essential material. There are many uses of
glasses in interiors.

GLASS PARTITIONS:
GLASS FLOORS
GLASS SKYLIGHTS
GLASS DOORS
GLASS FURNITURES
TYPES OF GLASS ?
There are many different types of glass with different chemical and
physical properties and each can be made by a suitable adjustment
to chemical compositions. Depending upon the requirement these
glasses are used, various spaces use various categories of glasses.
Depending upon the space, zoning usage of these glasses occur.

 FLOAT GLASS
 WIRED GLASS
 COMMERCIAL GLASS
 STAINED GLASS
 BEVELLED GLASS
 BOROSILICATE GLASS
 ETCHED GLASS
 CLEAR GLASS
FLOAT GLASS

Float glass is sheet glass made by floating molten glass on a

bed of molten tin. This method gives the glass uniform thickness
and a very flat surface. Float glass is more commonly known
as window glass.

Today, float glass is the most widely

used form of glass in consumer
products. Due to both its high quality
with no additional polishing required and
its structural flexibility during production

USES
•Automobile glass (e.g. windshields,
windows, mirrors)
•Mirrors
•Furniture (e.g. in tables and shelves)
•Insulated glass
•Windows and doors
WIRED GLASS

It is manufactured primarily as a fire retardant, with wire mesh inlaid in

the glass to prevent it from shattering and breaking out under stress
or when exposed to high temperatures. With the window intact, the
glass keeps the fire at bay, protecting those on the other side from the
harmful effects of smoke and flame. Wire glass is a common sight in
schools, businesses, and hotels across the nation.

This glass is a smart addition in any area where a solid fire barrier
and safety glass are beneficial. This includes public areas such as
schools, public buildings, and businesses, and particularly in areas
of these buildings that provide escape routes in case of fire.
STAINED GLASS

Stained glass, in the arts, the coloured glass used for making decorative
windows and other objects through which light passes. Strictly speaking, all
coloured glass is “stained,” or coloured by the addition of various metallic
oxides while it is in a molten state; nevertheless, the term stained glass has
come to refer primarily to the glass employed in making ornamental or
pictorial windows.
BEVELED GLASS

Beveled glass is usually made by taking thick glass and creating an angled
surface cut bevel around the entire periphery. Bevels act as prisms in sunlight
creating an interesting color diffraction which both highlights the glass work
and provides a spectrum of colors which would ordinarily be absent in
clear float glass.
 Beveled glass is widely used as a decorative glass feature in doors and
windows.
 The main characteristic of beveled glass is that the edges are cut at an angle so
as to give a different kind of look and finish to the glass.
 The edges act as a prism that tends to refract light and split it into the different
colors of the rainbow . This gives depth and a third dimension to the glass.
Advantages of Beveled glass
• Bevel glass is cut to precision as per the size
of the door or window opening.
• The beveled edge refracts light like a prism
and creates a very interesting rainbow
effect.
• Beveled glass is a safety glass as the edges
are polished and one cannot get injured by
touching the sides.
Advantages of Beveled mirror-

 Beveled mirrors look very decorative and are mainly used as an accent
feature in the room.
 These mirrors do not have to be framed as the beveling on the sides
creates a frame in itself.
 The multiple reflections of beveled mirror makes the room looks very
big and bright. In many places beveled mirrors are used to make the
dull rooms look bright.
 Beveled mirror also have very smooth edges and are available in
various shapes and sizes.
BOROSILICATE GLASS

Borosilicate glass is resistant to temperature change because it

does not expand like ordinary glass. It has a smoother transition
between temperatures, and can even withstand different
temperatures at the same time.
Borosilicate glass (or sodium-borosilicate glass) is made mainly of
silica (70-80%) and boric oxide (7-13%) with smaller amounts of the
alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) and alumuinium oxide.
Borosilicate glass has both excellent chemical durability and
thermal shock resistance - meaning it doesn't break when changing
temperature quickly.
 USES
 sodium borosilicate glass is widely used across the chemical
industry, pharmaceutical sector for laboratory apparatus.
 common household oven and cook wares.
 It even has a leading role in the arts. Stage lights can reach
high temperatures during a three-hour show. Borosilicate
glass is used in both the spotlights that keep performers lit
onstage
COMMERCIAL GLASS

Commercial glass is normally colorless, allowing it to freely transmit

light, which is what makes glass ideal for windows and many other
uses. Additional chemicals have to be added to produce different
colors of glass such as green, blue or brown glass.
Most of the glass we see around us in our everyday lives in the
form of bottles and jars, flat glass for windows or for drinking
glasses is known as commercial glass or soda-lime glass, as soda ash
is used in its manufacture.
Glass etching comprises the techniques of creating art on the
surface of glass by applying acidic, caustic, or abrasive
substances. Traditionally this is done after the glass is blown or cast

Use masking tape or stencils to

mark where you want to be
etched. Make sure you use your
nails or a popsicle stick to press
the edges down securely onto the
glass.
With a brush, heavily apply the glass etching
solution to the area you want to be etched. Make
sure that you get the solution in every nook and
corner of your pattern. Also, make sure that you
cannot see the glass beneath the solution to ensure
maximum coverage.

After the two minutes, wash the solution off of

the glass. Remove the tape and wipe the glass
clean. If your tape leaves residue, wash the
glass again with soap or Goo Be Gone to clean
it off.

Once you finished

etching the first part,
continue this process
until the whole thing is
done
GLASS MAKING TECHNIQUES

CORE FORMED GLASS

Core forming was one of the earliest glassmaking techniques.

Glassmakers shaped the body of the vessel around a core of ceramic-
like material, wound colored trails of hot glass around it, and added
handles and a rim. They then let the vessel cool and removed the core.
FREE BLOWN GLASS

Free-blown glass is formed without the use of molds. The glassblower

inflates the glass on the blowpipe and manipulates it with tools to make
the desired form, such as a bowl, pitcher, or drinking glass. o make a
simple vessel, the gaffer or his assistant uses the blowpipe to collect
a gather of glass from the pot in the furnace. He rolls it back and forth on
a metal table (or extremely smooth stone) called a marver in order to
shape and cool the gather. The gaffer blows through the blowpipe to form
a bubble and begins to shape the glass.
BLOW MOULDING

Blow molding, in glass production, method of forming an article of glass by blowing

molten glass into a mold This operation is performed with the aid of a hollow metal
tube that has a mouthpiece at one end. A gob of molten glass gathered onto the
opposite end of the tube is enlarged by a bubble of air blown into it through the
tube. This preliminary shape is then lowered into a mold and inflated by blowing
until it has assumed the desired shape and pattern.
CASTING

Casting is a technique of pouring hot glass into a mold. After the glass
cools, glassmakers use various grinding and cutting techniques to refine
the vessel's form and decoration. Decorative patterns are sometimes cut
into the sides with a cutting wheel.
Bowls were the most common cast vessels. Pendants, inlays, and other
small objects were also created using this technique
THANK YOU