Simon 6 Faolain: The Technology of Late Bronze Age Sword Production in Ireland

The Journal of Irish Archaeology, IX 1998
THE TECHNOLOGY OF LATE BRONZE AGE SWORD

PRODUCTION IN IRELAND
and J.P. NORTHOVER

SIMON 6 FAOLAIN
ABSTRACT
The depositional pattern of Irish Late Bronze Age swords makes their method of fabrication, and the environment in
which this iwas undertaken. dificult to assess. This study considers the fabrication process, using experimentation and
metalhlrgical analicses to complement the archaeological data.
INTRODUCTION general area of prehistoric metallurgy, particularly
Some 640 sw ords of Late Bronze Age (LBA) date have through the contributions of Tylecote (1962; 1970; 1973;
been recovered in Ireland. In his catalogue Eogan (1965) 1986; 1987; 1992) and Northover (1980; 1985; 1988),
lists 616 examples, while some 24 bronze swords have have also lent new impetus to sword studies, as has the
been discovered in the intervening decades. In the latter completion of a corpus of British swords which includes
publication this corpus is divided into six distinct classes, a consideration of their production technology (Burgess
primarily on the basis of form. The production of bronze and Colquhoun 1988).
swords in Ireland began some time in the Bishopsland Experimental work in mould production and
Phase (c.1200-1000BC), and continued down until the casting has only rarely been brought to publication
end of the Dow\\ris Phase around the 6th century B.C. The standards (e.g. Tylecote 1973; Bareham 1994; McNally
form and appearance of Irish sword types generally 1996) and has never dealt more than summarily with
mirror those of contemporary. or slightly earlier, types in post-cast treatment of the product. A number of scientific
Britain and Western Europe. papers are relevant here, particularly regarding
Finds of LBA swords on contemporary interpretation of the metallographic results received for
habitation sites in Ireland are extremely rare, with almost the experimentally cast swords. These include works by
all those recovered being found accidentally during Coghlan (1971), Allen et al. (1970), Hodges (1964), Scott
agricultural or peat-cutting activity. In the majority of (1990) and Slater (1985). This recent research has added
cases these are single finds, with swords represented in considerably to the earlier studies of Irish sword
only 20 out of some 150 Irish LBA hoards (ibid.. 164-8). production. Finally, the author has also gained personal
As in Britain and the Continent, finds of Irish bronze insight into LBA metalworking practice from an
swords are generally divorced from the settlement record. examination of relevant artefacts housed in Irish museum
This, along with their frequent recovery from wet collections.
contexts such as lakes, bogs and rivers, has led to The experimental work referred to above was
suggestions of deliberate deposition, probably of a ritual the result of limited collaboration between the author and
nature. These factors make the study of LBA sword Mr. Liam McNally of the McNally Clan Trust Ltd. This
fabrication in its original workshop environment difficult experimental work, undertaken as part of the author's
to achieve. M.A. thesis (O Faolkiin 1997), is the first body of research
Two main sources of data were utilized in this to examine all stages of LBA sword production in Ireland.
study of LBA sword production in Ireland. Previous However, it should be emphasized that they constitute
archaeological and scientific research into this area is only a tentative foray into an area truly requiring
reviewed and a programme of experimentation focusing sustained long-term investigation.
on sword casting and finishing initiated. The objective of these experiments was to
examine the production of LBA swords in clay moulds,
SWORD PRODUCTION along with the technology involved in their finishing.
The basic techniques used to make swords in this period Various experiments in clay mould fabrication were
have been effectively dealt with by several authors who undertaken in the McNally workshop. The initial
set out the general order of operations and the technical experiments made it clear that the casting process and, in
skills involved (Maryon 1937/8; Hodges 1954), most particular, the making of clay moulds would require a
specifically in Eogan's catalogue of Irish swords (1965). long period of study and effort. It took approximately 12
Further elements of LBA sword technology are discussed months of part-time work before bronze swords could be
elsewhere (e.g. Jope 1953; Coles and Livens 1957/8). In consistently cast to a reasonable standard. Experiments in
recent decades archaeological excavation in Ireland has mould production are referred to along with the
uncovered important new evidence of sword production, archaeological evidence discussed below.
mostly in the form of large assemblages of clay mould The latter part of this article deals with various
fragments (Table I). In Britain, the advances made in the experiments in the post-cast hardening and finishing of
69
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SITE ARTEFACT TYPES CAST.
WEAPONS TOOLS ORNAMENTS
sword spear rapier axe knife sickle gouge hammer chisel pin(sun) pin(stick) bracelet
I Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim. X

2 King's Stables', Co. Armagh. X
3 Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin. X X X X ? ? X
4 Oldconnaught, Co. Dublin X ? ?
5 Bohevny, Co. Fermanagh. X
6 Dun Aengus, Aran, Co. Galway. X X X X X
7 Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone. X X ? ?
8 Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. X X X ?
9 Lough Gur K, Co. Limerick. 2
Table 1. Irish sites yielding clar sword mould friagments of Late Bronze Age date. sholing other arte/act t pes represented in the
mould evidence.
bronze swords carried out in February 1997. Work was Regardless of this, it seems safe to assume that if stone
undertaken over a period of a week and the experimental moulds were used for casting swords in Ireland it was
sequence was designed, carried out and recorded by the probably a short-lived transitional phenomenon.
author alone. A detailed description of the techniques All extant mould evidence for LBA sword
employed and the experimental results are included in the production in Ireland is in the medium of clay (Table I).
text. The highly fragmentary nature of this evidence makes it
The production evidence will be discussed difficult to reconstruct these moulds and their manner of
below under three headings: clay moulds, casting and use. The fabrication of clay moulds for smaller bronze
post-cast treatment. The results of these experiments into objects is relatively easy, even for those engaging in
post-cast treatment are augmented by scientific analysis modem experiments without any previous experience.
carried out for the author by Dr. Peter Northover, in the However, the length of sword moulds and the resulting
Department of Materials, University of Oxford, who also fragility, makes their construction a process which takes
provides a general commentary on the metallurgy of Irish time and experience to master.
LBA swords. The following stages may be identified in the
preparation and use of clay moulds for making bronze
MOULD PRODUCTION swords.
It is clear from the archaeological record that LBA swords
in Ireland were generally produced in clay moulds. At Clay Preparation.
present there is no evidence that stone moulds were ever The clay used for mould fabrication appears generally to
used for sword production in Britain or Ireland during the have been of local origin, although this can rarely be
Bronze Age. The Continental evidence would suggest that confirmed. Clay containing a high level of refractory
stone moulds for swords were a rare occurrence in material may have been preferentially selected. In the
general, the best example from Western Europe being a author's experiments, both modern potter's clay and a
hoard of three valves for Erbenheim-type swords from river-bed clay from Co. Wicklow were used and proved
Piverone, north West Italy (Bianco-Peroni 1970). equally suitable for mould construction. The addition of
It is conceivable that the earliest attempts at refractory material to the clay, in the form of sand, is
casting leaf-shaped swords in Ireland and Britain might evident in all the Irish LBA moulds. This is obviously to
have been in stone, given that such swords are the prevent the clay from 'slumping' at high temperatures,
successors of Middle Bronze Age rapiers which were although it has also been suggested that a high proportion
commonly cast in stone moulds. Furthermore, leaf- of sand in the clay minimizes shrinkage during drying
shaped swords seem to have been first produced here in (Tylecote 1986, 89).
the Bishopsland phase, when clay was only beginning to The clay/sand mixture is most easily
replace stone as the preferred casting medium. Hodges homogenized when the operation is carried out in
(1954, 78), notes that a stone mould for casting leaf- standing water. In experiment this was carried out in a
shaped swords, supposedly from Ireland, was published bucket. However, depending on the amount to be mixed,
by Worsaae in Memoires des Antiquities th Nonl, 1877 any reasonably large receptacle would serve, such as the
who described it as having a plain tang with central rib. pottery vessel recovered at Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone
This description suggests a Ballintober type sword (Williams 1978, fig. 7), or on a larger scale the stone
(Eogan Class 1), which would have been current in the trough at Dun Aengus, Co. Galway (Cotter 1995, 13). If
Bishopsland phase. However, it seems likely that this may the mixing process is carried out in this manner then
have been an incorrectly identified mould for Group 4 provision must be made to dry the clay to a state where it
rapiers (Burgess and Gerloff 1981, appendix 2, no. 8). is solid enough for handling. The most efficient method
70
of achieving this is to tie the clay up in a large piece of
cloth which will allow the xwater to gradually drain off.
Such fabrics seldom survive on LBA sites, although some
pieces of cloth were recovered at Killymoon, Co. Tyrone,
where bronzes appear to have been cast (Hurl 1995, 26).
Mould Fabrication.
When sufficiently dry the clay was first thoroughly

kneaded to expel air. It was then rolled out into two long
cylinders which w-ere further flattened. These two strips
of clay were then placed into wooden formnners to become
the two valves of the mould. The concave shape of such
formers would have given the inner valves of the moulds
a regular rounded exterior, as seen in some mould
fragments recovered. The formers also prevent the
deformnnation wxhich could otherwise arise during moving
the moulds without support before they are dry. In the
case of many sw ord mould fragments and possibly also
some sickle and knife moulds, there is evidence for the
presence of a longitudinal stiffening rod which may be an
alternative method of support to external formers. These
stiffening rods vary in both shape and positioning. On
several examples they tend to\ards a round section, e.g.
Bohevny, Co. Fermanagh (Fig. 1, top), while at Lough
Eskragh they are semi-circular or rectangular (Fig. I,
centre). At Oldconnaught., Co. Dublin (Fig. 1, bottom
right) and Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim (Fig. 1, bottom left)
the rods were inserted into the outer wvrap, while at
Bohevny the inner clay layer \was favoured. This implies
that the rods were included at later stages in the mould
fabrication process at the formnner two sites than at the
latter.
An interesting question is whether these rods

were left in place throughout the drying and firing
process. Experiment suggests that the rods cannot be left
in during drying as the clay shrinking about the inert
wood causes severe cracking xwhich renders the moulds Fig. I. Clay sword mould 1fragments fivom Irish sites
useless, even ,%-hen the rods have been heavily greased to showing evidence of stiffLning rods. Top- Bohevmn; Co.
allow movement around them. It seems likely, therefore, Fermanagh; centre- Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone, bottom
that the rods were somehoxx removed during drying and
right-Oldconnaught, Co. Dublin: bottom left-Whitepark
perhaps reinserted before moving the moulds into the Bav, Co. Antrim (after Eogan 1965).
kiln. However, the cavities will have shrunk during mutually exclusive in their distribution. The use of
drying, so for reinsertion a rod of smaller section would stiffening rods may be an Irish innovation, such being
be necessary. One fragment of a mould from Lough absent in sword moulds from Dainton, Devon (Needham
Eskragh still contains part of a carbonized stiffening rod 1980) and Fimber, Yorkshire (Burgess 1968).
(Fig, 1, centre), suggesting that it had been left in place Once the two clay valves are in position in the
during the firing of the mould. Initial attempts at wooden formers, the rest of the fabrication process is
constructing moulds with stiffening rods proved basically that suggested by Needham for the Dainton
unsuccessful.
material (Fig. 2). The outer bevels visible on the parting
The absence of such rods fromn s.ord mould faces of some Irish sword mould fragments also agree
fragments at Dun Aengus, Co. Galway and The King's with this model. A wooden template of a sword is used to
Stables, Co. Armagh may suggest that alternative imprint the valves by sinking it to half its thickness in one
methods of construction were used, i.e. that it was and placing the other on top (Fig. 2, stages 2-4). A non-
possible to cast swxords using some external support other stick agent must be sprinkled on the valve faces and the
than a stiffening rod to secure the clay mould. template before impression. In experiments carried out by
Nonetheless, as sword mould fragments both with and the author both finely ground charcoal and soot were
without stiffening rods occurred at Rathgall, Co. Wicklow found to be effective in this regard, while fine ash was the
(Raftery 1971, 297), these methods do not seem to be most suitable substance tested. It is important to note that
71
Fig. 2. Method of construction suggested jor the assemblage of clay moulds from Dainton. Devon (after Needham I 980).
the wooden model should be somewhat larger than the fragment from The King's Stables had broken ends
sword to be cast, to allow for shrinkage in the clay during showing 'numerous fine holes, as though hairs, mostly
drying and also in the metal during cooling (see below). running longitudinally, had burnt out'(1977, 50). This
There are no convincing examples of surviving could possibly be interpreted as a type of gas-dispersal
wooden templates for swords in Ireland. Evidence that system.
such models were used is provided by the wood-grain Finally, the two valves must be assembled
pattern reproduced on the surface of some bronze swords accurately and the outer wrap applied. Depending on the
(e.g. Maryon 1937/8, 214-5). The British evidence is state of the clay after impression, the valves may have to
more helpful. A wooden sword found on Orkney has a be left drying for several days before this is attempted.
blade 711 mm long (Stevenson 1958, 191-2). Because the Nonetheless, once the inner valves are assembled the
longest sword in the National Museum of Antiquities of moulds must be handled carefully at all times as any
Scotland has a blade 685 mm long Stevenson felt this undue pressure will flatten and/or distort the matrices. As
model was too long for a moulding template. However, noted by several authors (e.g. Liversage 1968, 148;
when the loss of length due to cumulative shrinkage of Needham 1980, 181) the outer layer generally forms one
c. 10 % between both clay and metal is taken into account, continuous wrap enclosing the two inner valves and
the model would produce a sword with a blade of c.640 lacking any parting faces. For this operation to be carried
mm long (see Plate 1). It is therefore possible that this out successfully the two inner valves may have to be
model is a casting template. Further evidence for wooden bonded together to retain accurate registration. Mould
sword templates is found in the grain impression in a fragments from Dun Aengus, Co. Galway display the
sword mould fragment from Jarlshof (Curle 1932/3, 115). impressions of cord which might have been applied for
When the template is carefully removed a pouring gate is this purpose. None of the other Irish assemblages indicate
cut from the terminal at the hilt-end of the matrix out to the use of cord binding and an alternative bonding agent
the edge of the valve to allow access for the molten metal might have been used. Among the sword moulds from
during casting. It is unclear from the present evidence The King's Stables one fragment may indicate the use of
whether this was cut into one or both valves. Unlike some a liquid clay/water slip for bonding (Lynn 1977, 50). In
stone moulds for long bladed weapons such as that for the experiments, such a mixture was found suitable both
rapiers from Knighton, Devon (Burgess and Gerloff 1981, for sticking the inner valves together and for securing the
appendix 2, no. 7) and the abovementioned Erbenheim outer wrap.
sword moulds from Piverone, which feature numerous
cut vents, no clay moulds for swords appear to have such Drying and Firing.
vents. However, due to the fragmentary nature of the clay Once the outer wrap has been applied the moulds
mould evidence we cannot be sure of this. The generally need two to three weeks drying time before they
experiments carried out here suggest the clay would have are ready for firing. To avoid cracking this drying must be
been sufficiently porous to allow air and gases to escape a slow process. A warm, dry atmosphere with no direct
during casting. However, Lynn notes that a sword mould exposure to heat is required, most probably provided by a
72
domestic dwelling. However, the possible existence of resulting from careless handling while applying the outer
specially constructed drying sheds cannot be ruled out. wrap prior to firing. Northover suggests a temperature of
As part of this study experimental firing was undertaken c.7000C or greater is desirable for sword moulds prior to
using a modern gas-fueled kiln. No prehistoric pottery the pouring of molten metal (Burgess and Colquhoun
kilns have been identified in Ireland, where the earliest 1988, 131).
examples are medieval in date (Flanagan 1992, 132). During subsequent experiments the sword
Needham suggests that temperatures of 650C, sufficient moulds were removed from the kiln after firing while still
to fire clay, can be achieved in a bonfire, and that no at a high temperature (c.500 - 600'C) and cast into
furnace is necessary (1980, 192). This may be the case straight away. This generally resulted in a complete
with small moulds, but it is likely that the production of casting, although the surface quality varied from near
sword moulds required a built furnace structure to ensure perfect to severely pitted (as in the two swords used for
exposure to even, controlled temperatures. the post-cast experiment discussed below), and the mould
in firing moulds the heat must be built up slowly temperature may be relevant here. This method of
to c.650-7000C over several hours. The heat throughout pouring into the moulds while still hot from firing may
the kiln must be even and there must be no direct have been utilized in the LBA as it cuts out unnecessary
exposure of the moulds to the fire producing the heat. fuel wastage in reheating the moulds.
After up to six or seven hours the heat is allowed
gradually diminish. If the kiln is opened before cooling Pouring Position.
the moulds may crack and spall due to thermal shock. The angle at which a sword mould was held during
Other problems may arise if the clay was not thoroughly pouring appears to have been important in allowing a
kneaded to expel all air. If bubbles are present the heat smooth inflow of metal and outflow of air and gases. This
will cause the air to expand, exploding the mould. Rapid is the case with long castings in general, such as rapiers
water evaporation will give a similar result if the moulds (e.g. Tylecote 1986, fig. 44). On the basis of a casting jet
are not dried for long enough before firing. Interestingly, in a hoard from La Blanche Pierre, Jersey, Northover
experimental work indicates that such high temperatures suggests the mould used here to have been inclined at an
are not necessarily needed. Several clay moulds, angle of 30-45' from the horizontal (Burgess and
thoroughly dried (though not baked) at a relatively low Colquhoun 1988, 131). Another jet from the Isleham
temperature for 15 hours, were cast into with some hoard also suggested an angle of about 30 (Northover,
success, although the failure rate was higher than with pers. comm.). Of relevance here is the casting pit at
properly baked moulds (McNally 1996, 16). These Jarlshotf, Shetland which is dug into the soil at an angle of
moulds were obviously not baked, as they were reduced c.36' (Curle 1932/3). A further desirable result of the
in water to a malleable clay once more. It might be inclination of long moulds may be that it helps prevent
tentatively suggested that such a method of producing severe gravity segregation of lead to the hilt area of the
recyclable moulds might have been employed where casting. Indeed, one metallurgical examination of a
access to clay reserves was denied, though their bronze sword from the Thames at Battersea showed
archaeological survival is unlikely. practically no segregation of lead had occurred (Coghlan
1971). In contrast, appreciable lead segregation has been
CASTING noted in some bronze swords, including one Irish
The following stages may be identified in the casting of example (Moss 1953, table 3). This raises the possibility
bronze swords in prepared moulds. that moulds were not always tilted, or that the inclination
was not always sufficient to prevent gravity segregation.
Mould Pre-heating. To hold the long moulds at such an angle would
Pouring of molten metal into a cold mould will result in be best achieved using a casting pit with sand packed in
extremely rapid solidification which, especially in the about the moulds to secure them in place. Possible
case of a long object such as a sword, is likely to lead to examples of a such structures include the
an incomplete casting. Failure to pre-heat moulds may abovementioned example at Jarlshof and, more
also give the casting a poor surface finish with severe tentatively, Site F, Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, where a sub-
pitting. Furthermore, in the case of clay moulds severe rectangular pit had been dug into the bed-rock alongside
cracking would result due to thermal shock. Initial a hearth (O Riordgin 1954, 418; 420-2). The presence of
attempts at heating the experimental moulds were mould evidence for long implements in the form of Group
undertaken using a domestic oven at the maximum 4 rapiers at the latter site is significant in this regard.
temperature of 450°C, which proved reasonably effective Another possible advantage of using such casting pits is
for small moulds such as those for chisels and gouges. that the insulation provided by the sand may help to slow
However, the single sword mould from this particular the cooling rate of the castings, giving better
casting operation gave only a partial cast. This may be homogenization of the metal. No use of casting pits has
due to insufficient mould pre-heating, but could also have yet been attempted in the experiments undertaken in this
been caused by a constriction in the moulding cavity study and this remains an area bfor future research.
73
Pouring to structural evidence, as casting furnaces generally
The only near complete example of a LBA crucible from require some clay and/or stone superstructure, while
Ireland was found in the excavations undertaken at hearths used in the annealing of sword blades may not
Rathgall hillfort, Co. Wicklow (B. Raftery, pers. comm.). differ in an archaeologically visible manner from normal
Crucibles of this size would have been too small to have domestic hearths. Unlike smelting and casting operations,
been used in casting bronze swords, where a large amount the finishing of bronze swords does not produce noxious
of molten metal was required for immediate use. The gases or involve the danger of molten metal, and thus
crucibles from Dainton, Devon (Needham, 1980, 188) ordinary hearths may have been used. On the other hand,
and The Breiddin, Powys (Tylecote and Biek in Musson given the specialist nature of sword production and the
1991, 225) would certainly have held sufficient metal for likely workshop environment, it is perhaps more
casting a LBA insular sword of average size, but certainly plausible that the finishing of swords took place at a
not more than one at a time. No doubt, crucibles of a location removed from the domestic area. In the absence
similar volume lie unrecognizable in the assemblages of settlement/workshop information, experimental studies
from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, Dun Aengus, Co. Galway combined with scientific analyses are one approach to
and Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin. Crucible size, and thus understanding how bronze swords were finished.
capacity, may have been kept quite small in order to Using the artefactual record, informed by
reduce the risk of breakage due to accident or overburden experimental experience, some nine post-cast operations
during casting, resulting in the loss of molten metal. Of may be identified in the production of bronze swords:
course, if the furnaces in use were large enough to house
several crucibles at once then the limited crucible Primary Treatment
capacity need not have prevented more than one sword (i) Fettling (i.e. removal of 'flashing')
being cast at a time. However, as noted above, our (ii) Removal of casting jet
knowledge of furnaces in the Irish LBA is non-existent. (iii) Rivet-hole perforation
Experiments in clay crucible construction have so far Hardening Treatment
been limited. One example, constructed in J1 style with (iv) Annealing (heat treatment)
pointed oval body (after Tylecote 1986), cracked during (v) Cold-hammering
the melting process, causing the metal to drain into the Finishing Treatment
furnace. Successful casting has thus been so-far limited to (vi) Filling of blow-holes (rarely necessary)
the use of a modern graphite crucible. (vii) Fitting of handle
Northover suggests that the optimal temperature (viii) Smoothing of surface (grinding, rubbing,
for pouring bronze into clay moulds is c.12000C. The and polishing)
experiments referred to here were generally carried out (ix) Sharpening
without the use of a thermocouple, so heat input could not A repair technique which was sometimes required is:
be accurately gauged. However, pouring was undertaken (x) Casting-on.
almost immediately once all the metal had melted, which
would have occurred quickly once 10830C (the melting Primary Treatment.
temperature of copper, the constituent of bronze with the We may reasonably assume that fettling and casting-jet
highest melting point) was exceeded. Therefore the metal removal were the first operations carried out. Which came
was probably between about I100 and 12000C at the time first may have depended on how extensive the flashing
of pouring. The choice of alloy type was also critical as was. Fettling may have been undertaken immediately to
the use of pre-alloyed bronze would imply that casting of allow greater ease of handling during subsequent working
swords could take place at temperatures closer to 10000C. once the sharp and jagged flashing was removed (small,
The air temperature in the immediate environment is also yet surprisingly painful puncture wounds sustained from
of some consequence, although the level of its effect is experimental swords during initial handling tend to
hard to gauge in the absence of information about the support this view). On the other hand, one of the
location of casting operations. unfinished swords from Ballycroghan, Co. Down was
reportedly still in possession of its flashing, though not its
POST-CAST TREATMENT casting jet (Jope 1953, 38). However, the illustration
The importance of careful finishing work in sword suggests that either the worst of the flashing had already
production has not generally been acknowledged, been beaten off, or that this was an unusually clean
emphasis usually being accorded to the casting process. casting. Fettling was probably carried out using a stone or
This is unsurprising, given that most archaeological bronze hammer with an anvil, to remove flashing, with a
evidence of sword manufacture survives in the form of final cleaning using a whetstone. In experiment this was
clay sword mould fragments. Evidence pertaining to found to be most efficient when the stone was fixed (in
finishing work on bronze swords is predominantly this case to a large wooden block) and the sword worked
unspecific, as exemplified by socketed bronze hammers off it, rather than vice versa.
which could have been used for many different purposes The removal of the casting jet is a task which
apart from post-cast treatment of blades. This also applies proved difficult in experiment, the accidental detachment
74
of the sword's hilt terminal resulting from the initial brittleness in the metal, often resulting in fractures and
attempt. This may possibly have been carried out without breakages. However, annealing at too high a temperature
heating the metal, the junction of the jet and hilt being will have the reverse effect, reducing the metals ductility.
placed on the edge of the anvil and struck sharply with a This can cause problems, as seen in the experimental
hammer, for instance. However, the amount of work results below. Thus the annealing temperature must be
which went into casting a sword led the author to the carefully controlled. It seems unlikely that hot-forging,
conclusion that no unnecessary risks would have been commonly used in the fabrication of iron swords, was
tolerated so close to completion. Thus, the jet/terminal undertaken, as the chances of severe damage and
area of the casting was probably heated to red-hot and the breakage occurring are high with regard to bronze. Also,
partition of the two attempted using a chisel and hammer. metallographic examinations of Irish and British LBA
The initial accidental breakage may be seen as the result swords show no sign of the use of hot-forging (Allen et
of inexperience, the method being effective on a further al. 1970; Coghlan 1971 ). The methods of hardening used
attempt. Interestingly, sword no. 2 from Ballycroghan on LBA swords are therefore roughly established,
lacks a terminal, an absence which Jope puts down to involving alternate annealing and cold-hammering.
faulty pouring (ibid., 39), yet which could equally have However, discovering the specific order in which they
resulted from a careless jet removal similar to the author's were carried out and the length of that process is far more
attempt. difficult. A recent metallographic examination of a large
The dimples where rivet-holes were intended to sample of British LBA swords, carried out in the
be perforated were cast in on most LBA swords and University of Sheffield, suggests that in the majority of
occasionally swords may have been cast with a number of cases cold-hammering was the final operation in the
their rivet-holes fully perforated. However, this method is hardening sequence (S. Bridgford, pers. comm.). The
unreliable and some alternative method would generally Irish material remains largely unexamined in this regard.
have been required. There are two other methods by In the experiments referred to here, several
which the perforation of rivet-holes might be achieved, different cycles of annealing and cold-hammering were
namely drilling and punching. The latter was chosen for carried out on different parts of the two swords for
use in the experiments described in the next section, and comparative purposes (see Fig. 5). The cycles which
while initial attempts met with failure, rivet-holes were yielded metallographic results most similar to those
eventually punched successfully. This method also seems recorded from LBA swords were the more rigorous
to have been used on one of the Ballycroghan swords examples, namely samples S. 1/4, S. 2/3, and particularly
(ibid., 39), although evidence is generally lacking for S. 2/4 (see below). Few swords from this stage of
other examples in Ireland and Britain. While drills have production have been recovered, however a fragment of
not been recognized from the insular LBA, they cannot be sword tip from one of the twin hoard deposits at Petter's
ruled out as an option. Drill-bows and strings would have Sports Field, Egham, Surrey is of interest (O'Connell
been of organic material and thus unlikely to survive in 1986, 49, no. 40). This fragment has been subjected to a
the typical archaeological context. Furthermore, evidence hammering of unparalleled severity, so much so that it
of drilling has been noted on Irish Early Bronze Age proved impossible to classify the fragment on the basis of
halberds (Penniman and Allen 1960; Parker, 1970) and
the technique must have been familiar from the working
of stone mace-heads and battle-axes in the Neolithic and
Early Bronze Age. Whether the immediate area of the
rivet-holes would have been heated before punching
probably depended on how thick the metal blocking the
bottom of the dimples was. In experiment, thin metal
could be perforated cold, while thicker metal caused
considerable difficulty, even when red-hot. The sharpness
and hardness of the punch being used was found to be of
some importance, while the hammer-blows had to be
gentle to avoid breakage.
Hardening Treatment.
The next process would be the hardening of the metal
through annealing and cold-hammering. Annealing is the
term used to refer to the process of heating a metal object
above the temperature at which the grain of the metal
recrystallises. This process begins at about 350°C in tin- Fig. 3. Tip of1 a LBA sword firon a hoard deposit at
bronze. Annealing restores the ductility of the metal lost Petter & Sports field, Egham, Surrei: Note extensive
during initial cold-working and allows further subsequent faceting of 'stJfiwe indicating severe hammering taier
cold-work which would otherwise cause extreme
O'Connell 1986).
75
its features (Fig. 3). The facets of the hammering are Bronze Age date feature metal handles (e.g. Evans 1881,
similar to those attained in experiment using a socketed 235).
bronze hammer. The unusual nature of the Petter's Sports The final smoothing of the sword depends, to a
Field fragment is puzzling. Given the generally smooth large degree, upon the surface quality achieved during
and even finish of most such swords, the aforementioned casting. The swords cast experimentally in this study
fragment may perhaps be the result of an exceptional were of sound construction but of very poor surface
attempt to push back the boundaries of attainable metal quality, and are thus probably unrepresentative of the
hardness. majority of LBA swords in this regard. The cold-
hammering process discussed above has the secondary
Finishing Treatment. (or perhaps equally important) effect of homogenizing the
A repair practice probably associated with this stage of surface, levelling out bumps in the metal. For final
manufacture is the filling-in with metal of surface blow- smoothing of the broader surfaces a large whetstone, such
holes fornned during casting. How this was achieved is as those frequently found on Irish LBA sites (e.g.
unknown, although it probably involved the heating of the Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath,
sword to a high temperature before the application of the Ballinderry 2, Co. Offaly) was probably used. In
molten metal in order to facilitate fusion. Two examples experiment, water mixed with ash or soot was a suitable
of this practice are noted on swords from Ardlow, Co. lubricant for this task. The more inaccessible areas of the
Cavan (Eogan 1965, no. 98) and Derryhogan, Co. hilt were smoothed using small angular stone rubbers, and
Tipperary (ibid. no. 257) respectively. A close prolonged friction with the bronze produced a similar
examination of all Irish swords would probably uncover smooth surface with rounded edges to that seen on rubber
other examples. The repairs are visible as regular stones in the Dowris, and Lusmagh hoards (Eogan 1983,
outlines, c.3-4 mm in diameter, of circular or oval shape 127, 124; ibid. 192-3). Finally, patient sharpening of the
on both blade surfaces (Plate 3). The substance present in blade using the whetstone allowed a high degree of
these cavities is clearly metal and drilling for sharpness to be attained.
compositional analysis has not been carried out on either
of the two swords. This practice raises many technical Casting-on Repairs.
questions such as whether the metal composition of the The casting-on operation is a repair procedure which,
infill is different from the sword. If it has the same unlike the filling in of blow-holes, is not generally
impurity pattern this might indicate repair directly after considered to be part of the finishing process although, as
casting by the same smith. It is unlikely that such small is argued below, at times it may have been (see Evans
flaws would have had any notable effect on the sword's 1881, 282; Eogan 1965, 5; Coghlan 1971, 64-5, Tylecote
performance, and these repairs may emphasize the role of 1986, 66). It was generally undertaken to replace a part of
the sword as an object of prestige and display, although the sword which has broken off, most frequently the hilt.
without diminishing its functional role in combat. The it is a common practice among Irish LBA swords, with
very smooth, almost imperceptible join between the about seventy examples present in Eogan's catalogue
sword's surface and that of the repaired area suggest the (1965). In some cases more than one casting-on was
latter was in place before final smoothing of the surface carried out on the hilt of the same sword, as in an example
was carried out. from Douglas, Lanarkshire in Scotland (Coles and Livens
The handle plates would also have been riveted 1957/8).
onto the tang-web at this stage. Handles of Irish LBA
Missin-g hilt
swords were of organic material, the remains of bone
(Lisleitrim, Co. Monaghan, Eogan 1965, no. 29;
Mullyleggan, Co. Armagh, ibid, no. 91) and wooden hilts
(Derryoober, Co. Galway, ibid. no. 175; Ballykilleen, Co.
Plan
Offaly, ibid. no. 233; Kildrinagh Ford, Co. Laois, ibid,
no. 192) surviving in several instances. It seems that these
handle plates were attached before the final smoothing of Runner Risep
the surface, as the area originally covered by the plates is
noted in some specimens as slightly thicker than the Preheated
adjoining surface of the blade (ibid., 4). There is no clagt mould

evidence for swords with hollow metal hilts of
continental type in Ireland, such as the few
Antennenschwerter from British contexts (Burgess and sfade
Colquhoun 1988, nos. 751-5), nor are there any native End to be melted in
variants with solid cast metal hilts, such as the Cherwell
variant of Ewart Park swords in Britain (ibid nos. 600- Section through mould
7a). This might perhaps be regarded as surprising, given Fig. 4. Method of *casting on'a new sword hilt (aifter
the fact that several Irish daggers and rapiers of Middle Coghlan 19975).
76
Plate I. Experimental sword casting witl mould ad11l Plate 2. Irish swiord (National :Aluseum of Ireland I1W5).
wooden template. Note loss of c. 10% in length between
View of 'pper area shlowi(ig 'cast-on' hilt 'ith oaxidied
template and sword cast. metal at the .foil.cThe smfife of this swaord is ooo:
featuring ni~ me'roi.s tilF" blow-holes.
Plate 3. Sword fiom Ard/owp Co. Cavan. Close-upq ofp/art /ofilthe h/ade sioi'lg fil/L-i h/ow'-hole.
Plate 4. Tool~ used in slt'ord/ lfnishhing e7eriment, includein,, a replica socketed bronze hammerhead, replica crescentic-
hlladedl lranled chisel, copp!r lluh a117d t'Io i'tater-roll/ed l tllestne crohhleS Ils.ed as ll hammelllrs'toncs.
Plate 5l . 11auIner'itg blaCde /sof'word I, using -unhalted limestone cobble aid wooden anvil.
Plate 6. X or I. Samiple/ /, c ocr: mni//ced cavst struictiwre, V/25.
Plate 7. SS()ord I, Sample 2, cast and hanmmered. showing dendrites, eutectoid and slip traces. .v500.
Plate S recyrstallisation
partial Sword I. Sample3, 'cast. Ihauinered,
beneath; and(1
some residual aIIlex500.
coring, d: showing hand o ,recrystallised grains at the sufiace and
Plate 9. SSworl 2, Sample 3, cast, annealed and hammered: partiully recryvsta/llsed, partial/v homogenised structure with
slip traces, x500.
The casting-on process involves construction of chemical cleaning.
a mould for the missing part of the s'word, Ewhich also A further interesting possibility is that such
houses the broken end of the weapon onto which the new flawed swords, even with the damaged area cast back on,
part is to be fused (Fig. 4). To facilitate the grip of the may have been considered unsuitable for combat. These
newly cast part, grooves w-ere cut into the broken end of swords may therefore have been preferentially selected
the sword, as in an example from Barrowford, Co. for votive deposition, the inherent weakness of the metal
Kildare which features three short grooves parallel to the being of no importance in this regard. Indeed, many cast-
blade and one larger groove perpendicular to these three on swords, including almost all those referred to here,
(Eogan 1965, no. 189). The operation must have been a were recovered from rivers and bogs, suggesting a
difficult one, for in order to fuse the new part the broken possible votive context. With many problems and
end of the sw-ord had to be heated to a high temperature, possibilities evident, the practice of casting-on is
as did the encasing mould. To further aid this process the certainly an area which would benefit from experimental
molten metal Would probably have been super-heated to research in the future.
well in excess of its melting temperature. A further
problem \would have been to prevent oxidization at the EXPERIMENTS IN POST-CAST TREATMENT OF
interface betw\een the old and the new metal, as seen in BRONZE SWORDS
one Irish example (N.M.1: W. 5) where its hilt was cast During experiments undertaken in February 1997, two
on, albeit successfully in this case (Plate 2). These swords in their as-cast condition were finished and
problems are reflected in several unsuccessful attempts at hardened using methods as close to those of the LBA as
casting-on from the archaeological record. One example possible (the exception being that a gas-hearth was used
from Canbo, Co. Roscommon (Eogan 1965, no. 246) had for annealing). The questions addressed here included the
a cast-on hilt. Howev\er. it appears that the join did not labour investment and skill required to complete this
fuse properly and the two parts wvere separate at the time process, the basic order of operations and the efficiency
of recovery, possibly being held together in antiquity by and suitability of the tools selected for this task. The latter
the handle-plates. The area of the hilt onto xwhich the new were, as far as possible, based on those recovered from
the archaeological record. The work recorded below took
metal \was cast had been thinned doyen to facilitate the
process. place over a period of about a week because, upon
The number of breakages \which occur at the hilt completion of each operation, careful consideration of the
end of swords is interesting. Northover notes that, unlike condition of the swords was necessary before moving
the blade, this area of the weapon would have been ahead to the next step.
relatively unworked after casting, making it more likely
to break under strain (in Burgess and Colquhoun 1988, Tools used (Plate 4):
132). Another factor is that the part of the sxword held (1) Bronze socketed hammer (replica of LBA type) with
during combat (the hilt) is effectively a fulcrum, and is wooden haft.
the part under the most pressure when a bloxw is struck. (2) Bronze trunnion chisel (replica of LBA type) with
The possibility of lead and/or tin segregation to the hilt- crescentic blade and wooden handle.
end of the sword during casting is noted above, and where (3) Copper punch consisting of a bar of round cross-
this occurs there would be a corresponding weakness in section c. 200 mm long.
that area. Furthermore, air and gas bubbles may (4) Unhafted hammer-stone (water-rolled limestone
concentrate in this area, causing serious flaws, as in a cobble).
sword from Battersea, London, where breakage occurred (5) Flat sandstone block set into a large wooden base.
in antiquity across several bubble-holes near the meeting (6) Several small angular 'rubbers' of sandstone (not
point of the blade and hilt (Coghlan 1971, 71 ). illustrated).
An interesting question regarding casting-on (7) Large flat-topped hardwood anvil.
practices is whether faulty swords were repaired after A bronze anvil was also cast for this experiment, but after
breakage in combat, or whether the smith pre-empted trials with miscast bronzes was considered unsuitable due
usage failure by breaking the defective area and casting- to its very hard and unyielding nature.
on before the sword was used. Given the serious, and
undoubtedly often fatal, repercussions for the wielder of Table. 2. Comparison of dimensions of experimental
breakage during combat, those who used these swords sword casting I with template from which it was cast.
may have quickly become good judges of metal quality, Sword I Template
possibly making the latter option more plausible. What
may add strength to this possibility is that one mnax. length: 586 mm 635 mm
abovementioned sword with cast-on hilt (Plate 2) has a max. width of butt: 58mm 63 mm
surface 'frosted' with numerous minuscule blow-holes,
max. width of blade: 51 mm 55 mm
which suggests that final smoothing was never
undertaken and that the casting-on took place on a sword max. thickness of butt: 9 mm 10 mm
which was never used. Nonetheless, this surface texture max. thickness of blade: 7 mm 9 mm
may be an unusual patination, or result from antiquarian
77
Sword 1 terminal. Reheated to bright orange colour. Held in pliers
(A) Severe flashing removed using stone hammer and
against the \wooden anvil by one person while the other
wooden anvil. wielded the chisel and hammer. This time the jet and
(B) Rest of flashing removed and edges smoothed using a terminal separated cleanly at the first blowv. A satisfactory
block of medium grade sandstone fixed in a large section result, without the breakage referred to in (D), might have
of tree-trunk in such a way that it could be gripped and been achieved in the first place if one person had been
held stationary between the knees while the sword was holding the sxvord at the correct angle and the other
held in the hand and worked off the stones flat surface. carrying out the operation. Such mistakes are obviously
Water and fine ash were mixed for use as a lubricant. To due to a lack of experience.
completely remove excess material from all edges of the (F) Both broad surfaces of the suword were lightly rubbed
sword by this process took approximately 60 minutes.
doywn on the mounted sandstone block to remove as much
(C) Dimensions of Sword I after fettling (not including of the surface impurities as possible. The surfaces of
casting jet) measured in comparison with the wooden sword I are seriously pitted and x\ould take a far longer
template from which it was cast (see Table 2). time than the approximately 30 minutes spent rubbing
(D) Attempted removal of casting jet. The immediate area them dovwn at this stage to remove all or most of the
was heated in a gas-hearth and when the jet and adjacent surface irregularities. A sword of such surface quality
area had reached a dull-to-medium red colour the removal would probably have been scrapped in the LBA.
was attempted using the trunnion chisel alone. Two such (G) Blade of swxord hammered using limestone cobble
attempts proved unsuccessful. After reheating to bright and wooden anvil (Plate 5). To hammer the edges on both
orange colour a third attempt was made with the chisel sides took 70-80 mniutes. The sword blade tended to bend
using the socketed bronze hammer for secondary downwards when one side was being hammered but
percussion. The result was that the hilt terminal snapped returned to shape when the other side was similarly
of with the jet still intact, leaving the sword incomplete. treated. The hammering did not result in any perceptible
(E) Continued to attempt separation of jet and broken-off lengthening or broadening of the blade. Although a small
Sword 1 Sword 2
0 .... ---
Sl/1 Unworked S2/1 Unworked
S1/2 Hammered
S2/2 Annealed
S1/3 Hammered & Annealed

S2/3 Annealed & Hammered
S1/4 Hammered, Annealed

S2/4 Annealed, Hammered,
& Hammered
Annealed & Hammered
50cm
Sword 1 worked using a stone hammer Sword 2 worked using a bronze hammer
Fig. . Tw~1o U)xperimental s'/vword castings showing the blade sections which underwent different c'cles of post-cast
Ihark/I s's lreatlmwfl.fe I
78
piece of woven cotton was used as a cushion for the palm, (D) After fettling was completed the dimensions of sword
the unhafted hammer-stone still proved very sore on the 2 were measured in comparison with the wooden
hand after prolonged use, particularly on the finger joints. template from which it was cast (Table 3).
(H) Having hammered the blade from the ricasso to the (E) Attempted rivet-hole perforation. Hilt area heated to
dull red colour. Socketed bronze hammer and copper
tip, this area w-as then arbitrarily divided into three areas
of roughly equal length (blade from tip to ricasso = c.540 punch used. Initially hammer blows very light but with
mm. Each of three areas = c. 180 nmm). The upper area little effect. Reheated and tried several sharp blows,
near the ricasso was left as hammered. The middle area resulting in the end part of the hilt breaking off across the
was to be annealed, and the upper or tip area was to be rivet-hole. It was, however, apparent that the rivet-hole
annealed and then hammered again (Fig. 5). was more or less perforated when this break occurred.
(I) The central and upper blade sections %were annealed in (F) Head of copper punch reworked to a finer point and
hardened. Using this and the bronze hammer once more,
a gas-hearth. This xxas carried out in such a ,xay that no
part of the treated area W\ould have been at dull-red heat an attempt to knock out the other unperforated rivet-hole
for longer than 90 seconds and probably generally no was successful without heating. However, the bronze
more than 60 seconds. Annealing had no perceptible blocking this rivet-hole seems to have been somewhat
effect on the surface of the bronze, apart from blackening thinner than that blocking the previous example.
it. (G) The blade of sword 2 was then annealed from ricasso
(J) The lower or tip section of the blade was hammered, to tip. This was carried out in a gas-hearth in a similar
again using the limestone cobble. This hammering took manner to that for sword 1, with heating to a medium red
nearly 50 minutes to complete. The surface texture was colour for no more than 60 - 90 seconds. Annealing had
slightly improved by this. While this hammering was no perceptible effect on the bronze except to blacken it.
being undertaken, the very tip portion of the sword, c. 10 (H) The area of the blade from ricasso to tip was then
mm in length, fell off. This part was not being hammered arbitrarily divided into three roughly equal lengths (blade
when it detached. The surface of the tip area of the blade from ricasso to tip: c.490 mm; top area: c. 170 mm; central
had, in places assumed a pale pink coloration. and tip areas: c. 160 mm. each). The top area, next to the
(K) Approximately 60 minutes smoothing off was carried hilt, was untreated after annealing, the central area was
out on the tip section of the sword using the sandstone hammered, and the lower or tip area was annealed,
block and several small angular sandstone 'rubbers' in an hammered, annealed and then hammered again (Fig. 5).
attempt to obtain a good surface finish. This process was (1) The bronze socketed hammer and wooden anvil were
discontinued as it became apparent that, in this case, it used to hammer the central and lower areas. While
would entail the grinding away of most of the sword hammering, the rest of the hilt broke off across the
before all or even most of the pits were removed (see F lowermost of the rivet-holes. This occurred while the
above). Surface finish is not, at any rate, a major concern other end of the sword was being worked. It appears to
in this experiment. have been cracked and to have fallen off due to the
constant vibrations caused by the hammering. The hafted
Sword 2. socketed bronze hammer proved to be far easier and more
The terminal of this scword did not cast during pouring effective in use, as well as far less painful, than the
and no casting jet was present. It had several unperforated unhafted hammer-stone. The flat head of the bronze
dimples where the rivet-holes 'were to be formed. hammer smoothed the surface of the bronze to a far
(A) The tip end of the sword was heated in the gas-hearth greater degree than the stone hammer with its highly
to a dull-red heat and the removal of flashing at this convex head. Also as a result of its shape it is possible to
temperature was attempted using the trunnion chisel, with hammer the very edges of the blade, which was not
little success. The removal of heavy flashing was also possible to do with the hammer-stone.
attempted at this temperature, using the socketed bronze (J) The lower area was annealed again to a dull-to-
hammer. However, this proved to be a slow and unwieldy medium red colour for 60-90 seconds.
method involving the risk of irreparable damage to the (K) After cooling, this area was hammered again, during
sword. which the very tip part (c. 10 mm) broke away. Again, this
(B) After cooling the heavier flashings were beaten off occurred while another part was under percussion. The
using the bronze hammer and wooden anvil. After this, area near the tip had acquired a light pink surface colour
the mounted sandstone block was employed, using which in places and also seemed fatigued, with numerous small
it took approximately 90 minutes to rub down the cracks present.
flashings on all edges, which were considerably more (L) As with sword 1, some final smoothing work, using
extensive than on sword 1. the mounted sandstone slab and small angular sandstone
(C) Both broad surfaces were then rubbed down for about rubbers, was carried out on the tip end. A better finish was
30 minutes to remove as much surface impurities as acquired than on sword 1, due largely, it seems, to the
possible. As with sword I, the surface was extensively effects of the flat-headed bronze hammer. Nonetheless,
pitted and a good surface finish would have been difficult the amount of time needed to finish the entire sword in
to obtain. this fashion, and the relatively small amount of
79
information obtainable from doing so, led this process to the metallurgy of s\words in Ireland it is inevitable that we
be left unfinished. have to look towards the corresponding developments in
Britain where there is a large body of analytical data.
Table 3: Comparison of dimensions of experimental The framework of the discussion must lie in the
sword casting 2 with template from which it was cast. typology and chronology. The most extensive typology of
Sword 2 Template swords in the British Isles is that of Burgess and
Colquhoun (1988) for the swords of Britain. For the
max. length: 549 - 551 mm* 593 mm earliest and latest types this work is quite effective but its
max. width of butt: 56 mm 60 mm attempt to bring order to the mass of Ewart Park swords
is not so successful. Recent research has brought the
max. width of blade: 46 mm 48 mm
question under review again (Bridgford 1999; Rogerson,
Bridgford, Northover and Gilmour forthcoming). This
max. thickness of butt: 9mm 11 tmm
work has demonstrated clearly strong regional variations
max. thickness of blade: 7 mm 9 mmtn
in both form and metallurgy but does not entirely support
* Estimated length in the absence of the hilt terminal. the chronological arguments of Burgess and Colqhoun.
The same detailed research needs extending to Ireland to
determine the specifically local features of Irish Ewart
THE COMPOSITIONS OF IRISH LATE BRONZE
Park type swords. For the moment we can say that in
AGE SWORDS
general Irish Ewxart Park swords are shorter, slighter and
J.P. Northover
less elaborate than their British counterparts (Bridgford,
There is some difficulty in determining the typical pers. comm.). This section of the paper will consider only
composition of Irish swords of LBA Ewart Park type whether there are distinctive metallurgical features
because so few have been analysed. There are thirty-four associated with Irish bronze swords. There is still too
samples analysed from twenty-six weapons, the results small a total of C14 or dendro-chronological dates
being set out in Table 4. The analyses come from four associated with Irish Bronze Age metalwork in general,
different groups. Fourteen were made on samples from let alone the particular case of swords. For absolute
thirteen swords in the collections of the Ulster Museum;
chronology we must relay on typological links with both
they were carried out at the Research Laboratory fobr Britain and continental Europe and also the current
Archaeology and the History of Art in the University of programme of absolute dating of British Bronze Age
Oxford at the request of Professor E.M. Jope. These metalwork (Needham 1996).
compositions were summarised by Eogan (1965, 182-83). The first major native type of sword in both
Four more analyses, of swords in the Pitt-Rivers Britain and Ireland is the Ballintober type (Eogan's Class
Museum, Oxford were made in the same laboratory and 1). By hoard associations, for example the eponymous
published by Brown and Blin-Stoyle (1959) and re- Penard hoard (Savory 1980, No. 266; Burgess and
published by Eogan (1965, 190). Three further analyses Colquhoun, Nos. 19-24) it can be placed firmly in the
were made on swords from the Pitt-Rivers Museum using Penard period at the end of the Middle Bronze Age. In
both spectrographic and chemical analyses by Brown and continental terms this is contemporary with Bz D/Ha Al
Blin-Stoyle and by I.M. Allen and published by the Pitt- in central Europe and Bronze Final I in France. The
Rivers Museum (Allen et al. 1970). Finally there are programme of absolute dating of British Bronze Age
thirteen analyses from six swords by the Department of material (Needham 1996a) has so far found little suitable
Scientific Research of the British Museum published in material for dating but the dendro-chronology results
the catalogue of British and Irish Bronze Age metalwork from Flag Fen suggest that it had started by the end of the
in the Royal Ontario Museum (Pryor 1980). To the best of
fourteenth century BC. The four examples of this sword
the writers' knowledge there are no further analyses to
type, with its leaf-shaped blade and flat riveted tang, are
report save the analysis made by the writer of the sword
cast in a medium tin unleaded bronze with an impurity
fragment in the Co. Roscommon hoard (Eogan 1983, 47-
pattern typical of Penard metal throughout the British
49, 325, Fig. 109). The only subsequent large contribution
Isles and of comparable continental material. The two
to our knowledge of later Bronze Age metal compositions
most significant impurities are always arsenic and nickel,
from Ireland is a comprehensive programme of analysis generally with arsenic greater than nickel and below
of cauldrons (Gerloff 1 991). about 0.4%; the other impurities are generally at trace
With such a small population analysed there will
levels with even lead below 0.1% (Northover's 'P' type -
inevitably be gaps in the data. Overall there is a bias
1980). This pattern is exactly paralleled in British
towards the northern half of Ireland, while only two out Ballintober swords.
of the seven swords in the Pitt-Rivers collection are
It is possible that a fifth Ballintober blade has
provenanced. Also, while in Eogan's 1965 catalogue been analysed. The blade fragment numbered 37 in
Ewart Park swords (his Class 4) tform 71% of the total of Eogan's catalogue has a lozengic blade section which is
616 weapons listed, only 50% of the weapons analysed
characteristic of both Ballintober and the first flange-
come from that type. To understand the development of hilted swords and their derivatives in the British Isles
80
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Cv
(Eogan's Classes 2 and 3). The composition is a typical Eogan (1965) divides the bronze swords of the
Penard example and very similar to the other three Irish final stage of the Bronze Age, the Llyn Fawr period, into
Ballintober swords analysed. Reference to the analyses of two types - narrow-bladed and intrusive (Class 5) and
British swords shows that 'P' metal occurs in early broader bladed (Class 6), showing features of both Class
imported flange-hilted swords and their local derivatives 4 and 5, and possibly being a local hybrid of the two. The
up to and including some of Burgess and Colqhoun's period is contemporary with Ha C on the continent and
Type Limehouse. There is no way of placing this blade dating from the end of the ninth to the beginning of the
more precisely. seventh century BC. This difference is reflected in the
In contrast, a second lozengic blade fragment alloys and impurity patterns where the three Class 6
(Eogan's No. 30 from the Co. Roscommon hoard) has an swords analysed seem to continue the theme of the Ewart
significant concentrations of arsenic (0.66%), antimony Park metal, although with somewhat reduced tin and lead
(0.88%), nickel (0.26%) and silver (0.29%). This is contents. The impurity patterns are those of the Ewart
Northover's 'S' metal and is typical of the hoards of the Park period. The swords of Class 5 are essentially the
Wilburton period in Britain (Northover 1982). Wilburton Gfindlingen type (Burgess and Colqhoun 1988, 114-21).
alloys are usually leaded but the lead content measured in Compared with the Ewart Park period tin contents are
the Co. Roscommon blade is low at 0.3% and could point increased to 10-14% and lead contents sharply reduced to
to an immediately pre-Wilburton flange-hilted sword. impurity levels; there is also a change in impurity
However, the sample was taken from the cutting-edge and patterns. Work in progress at the time of writing on
it is now known that there can be very strong segregation English hoards of the Llyn Fawr period show metalwork
of lead away from the cutting-edge and towards the centre in both these traditions but insufficient work has been
of the blade (Hughes et al. 1982). Given that the rest of done as yet to see an overall pattern.
the material in the Co. Roscommon hoard that survives is
definitely contemporary with Wilburton we should accept THE REPRODUCTION SWORDS
that this is probably the only analysed blade of a The experimentally cast and worked sword blades were
Wilburton period sword from Ireland. Whether the sword analysed on partially cleaned areas of the surface by X-
was made there is another matter; the material is too ray fluorescence analysis with energy dispersive
fragmentary to be easy to characterise but there are spectrometry. Three areas, tip centre and tang, were
certainly imports from both Britain and continental analysed on each sword and the concentrations, in weight
Europe in the assemblage which probably dates to the %, set out in Table 5. The measured concentrations will
eleventh century BC. tend slightly to exaggerate the tin contents and
All but one of the thirteen Ewart Park (Eogan underestimate the lead contents. This is by virtue of some
Class 4) blades analysed are of medium tin leaded bronze; degree of inverse segregation during casting and also the
the exception, from Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh, may effects of high temperature corrosion of the surface
genuinely be an occasional use of unleaded bronze. The during annealing. The measured composition will also
majority of the tin contents is below 10%, and the differ a little from the original crucible charge through
remaining lead contents vary from 2.7% to 9.1%. Given almost inevitable losses to oxidation and the vapour
what is known about lead distributions in swords these phase. The metallographic study of the samples provides
numbers should not be taken as more than broadly a check on the compositions and, combining this with the
indicative of alloy type. As with the Wilburton period compositional analysis, we can indicate an overall
principal impurities are arsenic, antimony, nickel and composition for the two swords of 9-10% tin, rising to
silver but the overall levels are lower, with a tendency to about 12% tin in some surface areas. The lead contents
decrease with time. Thus it is possible that the two Ewart are approximately 3-4 wt% overall.
park swords with the highest levels of impurities, Eogan Overall the swords had a rather rough surface
Nos. 465 and 467, are among the earlier examples in despite hammering and partial grinding and polishing.
Ireland. With the other swords there is a general tendency The cause of the roughness is almost certainly the result
for the arsenic concentration to be a little higher than that of interactions between the metal and the mould, partly
for antimony. This trend extends to other analysed Irish because of the actual surface finish of the mould, but also
LBA metalwork (e.g. Brown and Blin-Stoyle 1959; Allen because of residual moisture out-gassing from the mould.
et al. 1970) and is probably a function of two possible The presence of dissolved gas in the metal must also be
effects, the first being contemporary Irish copper considered although there were few signs of gas porosity
production and the second the much smaller influence of internally.
imported Carp's Tongue metalwork compared with Metallographic sections were cut from each
southern England (Northover 1988). This metal was also section of each sword so that all of the thermo-
imported to England where it appears, for example, in mechanical treatments included in the experimental
some Anglesey hoards and at the Breiddin (Northover design were represented. The samples were cut with a
1991). Taking these results as a whole we may say that the small razor saw and mounted and designated in order
typical Irish Ewart Park sword has 8% tin and about 5% from the hilt for each sword. The samples were wedges
lead, with 0.1-0.2% of arsenic, antimony, and nickel. with a length of 5-8mm and a maximum width of 3-4mm.
82
The samples were hot-mounted in a carbon-filled move and an increased stress is needed to make them
thermosetting resin, ground and polished to a I pm move past obstructions such as inclusions or other
diamond finish. The appearance of the samples was then dislocations. As more dislocations are produced and
checked under the optical microscope and the sections interact greater stress is needed to continue the
found to be generally sound. They were then etched using deformation, hence the phenomenon of work hardening.
an acidified aqueous solution of ferric chloride, further The motion of a series of dislocations on a crystal plane
diluted with ethanol. The samples are then described is equivalent to one part of the crystal moving past the
below in order from the hilt of each sword. other, a process called slip. Where this deformation is
XRF ANALYSES OF REPLICA SWORDS

is Section Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Sb Sn A Bi
AM1462K.1 Sword 1, hilt 0.02 0.00 0.15 84.91 0.01 0.00 0.21 10.28 0.07 0.09 4.34
AM14621.1 Sword 1, centre 0.02 0.00 0.11 82.13 0.01 0.14 0.19 12.44 0.04 0.02 4.90
AM1462J.1 Sword 1, tip 0.01 0.00 0.28 82.25 0.01 0.00 0.21 14.75 0.17 0.03 2.30
AM 1463K.2 Sword 2, hilt, broken end 0.01 0.02 0.40 85.20 0.01 0.00 0.19 12.34 0.00 0.01 1.82
AM14631.2 Sword 2, centre 0.01 0.00 0.25 86.05 0.00 0.26 0.20 11.47 0.11 0.01 1.64
AM1463J.21+63J.2-18--rd_2 tR
Sword 2, tip 0.01 0.00 0.27 87.11 0.01 0.18 0.20 10.07 K-
0.13 0.01 2.00
Table 5. XRF analyses of replica swords.
Sword I: sample 1/1 - hilt section - as cast (plate 6) intersected by a cut, polished and etched surface it
The hilt section had been left untreated but if the heating appears as a line called a slip trace. Initially in a grain
of the lower blade during annealing had been sufficient only one set of planes is favourably oriented with respect
some homogenisation or movement of grain boundaries to the applied stress for slip to occur, but increased stress
might have taken place at the hilt but this was not will generate a second set, the effect being labelled
observed. All areas of the sample showed an unaltered, as duplex slip. The cold hammering of the blade was
cast, cored dendritic microstructure. The grains are sufficient to generate slip traces with duplex slip in some
equiaxed and mainly small although somewhat variable grains. The damage observed implies a compression in
in size. The dendrite arm-spacing of 20-25pm is quite the surface layers of the blade of about 15-20%.
small and suggests a rather more rapid cooling than
would have been expected with Bronze Age practice Sword i: sample S1/3 - mid-blade - cast, hammered and
where the mould would have been given a considerable annealed (plate 8)
amount of preheating and then slow cooling, maybe even As the process of work hardening is continued the metal
in a hearth. The implied coolness of the mould is loses ductility and can no longer be cold worked without
consistent with the effects of an imperfectly dried mould cracking. To continue cold forming of the piece the metal
seen in the cast surfaces. Besides the dendrites both small has to be softened by a heat treatment referred to as
particles of lead and some aS eutectoid were observed. annealing. If the cold worked structure is heated to a
The eutectoid is not uniformly distributed through the sufficient temperature for a sufficient time new, strain-
sample. free grains nucleate and grow. These grains are polygonal
This section could have been some of the last and equiaxed and are often crossed by parallel-sided
metal to freeze in the sword and the liquid would contain bands called annealing twins; these are growth defects
insoluble non-metallic inclusions (oxides and sulphides) where the stacking of planes of atoms in the grain
and fragments of dendrites from previously solidified becomes a mirror image of itself. For a tin bronze of this
grains all providing nuclei for solidification, hence the type the temperature at which this process of
small grain size. At the same time the liquid would be recrystallisation occurs is approaching 5000C. At a still
quite cold and convection and diffusion sluggish so some higher temperature, 650-7000C, the as-cast
segregation could occur. microsegregation of the tin is homogenised. In this
section of the sword the temperature has been sufficient
Sword 1: sample 1/2 - upper blade - cast and hammered to recrystallise the metal but not to homogenise it. Also,
(plate 7) for recrystallisation to occur a certain amount of cold
The same fine-grained as-cast structure was seen in this work is required. The structure in this section is
section. Cold hammering has to be rather severe, possibly recrystallised throughout for a short distance, say 2mm,
with a reduction in thickness of 20-30% or more , before back from the cutting-edge and then the recrystallised
any deformation of the dendrites can be easily seen. This zone rapidly decreases to a narrow layer at the surface.
is even more the case with the small grain size here. The recrystallised grain size is of the order of 30pm,
However, at higher magnifications the effects of which is quite typical for many ancient wrought bronzes.
mechanical work should be visible as slip traces. When a
metal is deformed cold linear defects called dislocations Sword I : sample SI/4 - tip section - cast, hammered,
are generated and move; a stress is needed to make them annealed and hammered
83
The observation of the effects of working in this sample should be added that the tip area is the only section that
was hampered by a substantial casting defect close to the appears to have been subject to fire-cracking, i.e. where
cutting-edge, Again, the annealing of this area has been the strain of cold work is relieved by cracking rather than
insufficient to homogenise the metal and only the part recrystallisation during annealing.
next to the cutting-edge was recrystallised throughout the
cross-section. Slip traces were seen close to the surface Results
but the recrystallised zone at the edge showed These experiments show that considerable progress has
surprisingly few signs of cold work. It was reported that been made in the production of a realistic replica of a
the heat treatment of the tip area had been of sufficient Ewart Park sword. The section of the blade recrystallised
intensity to cause appreciable oxidation but this was not and homogenised is comparable with the results of Allen,
detected in the sample. Britton and Coghlan (1970) for Irish swords but is
probably rather less than in contemporary swords from
Sword 2: sample 2/1 - hilt section - as cast England. Improved results will result from better mould
This sample should have had the same unworked preparation and pre-heating, possibly a higher pouring
structure as S 1/1. This was certainly true of the core of the temperature, and better control of annealing. The work
sample but areas close to the sample surface showed has been most constructive in carrying out basic
some modification of the structure by the heat of processes such as flash removal, avoidance of fire
annealing the blade with the formation of some small cracking, and the selection of appropriate tools.
homogenised grains.
DISCUSSION (S.O.F.)
Sword 2: sample 2/2 - upper blade - cast and annealed Metallography
If simply cast and then heat treated this section should As can be seen from this metallographic analysis, the
have a structure rather similar to that observed in sample experiments undertaken in this study were significantly
S2/1. However, this was not the case with the tip and both successful in trying to replicate the microstructure of
the cutting-edge and the blade surfaces have a LBA swords achieved through post-cast working.
recrystallised structure. The grain size at the surface is Unfortunately, there are few comparable studies of Irish
much smaller than in the recrystallised areas of Sword 1. material. The only available metallographic report on
Recrystallised grain size with increasing time and Irish LBA swords is that carried out by Coghlan (Allen et
temperature and decreases as the prior cold work al. 1970, nos. 115 - 121), but the information here is
increases. In this sample the cold work probably came rather generalized. The microstructures generally consist
from the removal of casting flash and was locally rather of recrystallised twinned grains at the surface imposed on
intense. There appears to be some residual cold work a cored internal structure with pools of a6 eutectoid and
applied after the last anneal but some of what appeared to lead particles. Both the size of the grains and their density
be cold deformation was shown to be grinding damaged appear to vary somewhat, even within such a small
left from the preparation of the sample. sample. It therefore seems that there was a wide degree of
variation in the intensity of post-cast cold work on Irish
Sword 2: sample S2/3 - mid blade - cast, annealed and swords and possibly also in the nature of the cycles used.
hammered (plate 9) Nonetheless, these results compare well with the
In this sample a greater depth of metal back from the experimental results obtained in this study. In a similar
cutting-edge and surfaces had a recrystallised grain manner to the swords examined by Coghlan, considerable
structure and the annealing time and temperature do seem variation of recrystallisation, slip banding, twinning and
to have been sufficient here for homogenisation of at least the size of the grain also occurs among the eight
the edge and surfaces. The recrystallised grain size is very experimental samples discussed by Northover above. The
small, no more than half'that achieved in S1 and perhaps overall picture in both studies is that of a recrystallised
rather smaller than is typical. The small size probably zone overlying a cored dendritic sub-surface area.
reflects more intense cold work. Coghlan's results argue for a good deal of diversity in
smithing practice as concerns post-cast working. The
Sword 2: sample 2/4 - tip section - cast, annealed, experimental results suggest that the amount of flashing
hammered, annealed and hammered and other excess metal which must be removed will atffect
This section has received two cycles of annealing and the final microstructure ofa sword, particularly as regards
cold work. The core of the sample is still effectively as- the grain size (e.g. Sample S2/2 above).
cast bu the cutting-edge and surface are recrystallised. Similar conclusions can be reached with regard
The grain size is a little larger than in the adjacent section to LBA swords from Scotland and East Anglia, as
and the grains are deformed by cold work. The maximum suggested by recent metallographic analyses (Bridgford,
deformation is close to the surface and represents a in progress). The grain size on these specimens is
maximum local reduction in thickness of 25-30%. The generally smaller than that on the experimental samples
ease with which the structure will deform appears to and she suggests this is because these British swords were
increase with each cycle of cold work and annealing. It both more heavily worked and annealed at a slightly
84
lower temperature than the experimental swords. leap forward in bronze-working technology. It was found
to be far more effective, as well as easier to use. Although
Equipment the surfaces of the two swords were of poor quality, the
The most problematic area of these sword experiments bronze hammer had produced a greatly improved surface
was controlling the application of heat to the blade finish after two use cycles, a result not achieved with the
surfaces. As mentioned abov e, the gas-hearth used in heat stone hammer. Bridgeford had similar results, with a
treatment was the one non-authentic LBA element used in copper hammer proving better even than those of steel in
the experiment. The inability to control this heat source producing a good finish (pers. comm.).
suggests that the unintended recrystallisation of the hilt A final point of interest arising out of the
area of sxword 2 (sample S2/2) noted above must result experiment is that the operations of the LBA bronze-
from the heating of the area during the attempted rivet- smith were essentially a job requiring two workers. This
hole perforation. has been widely held to be the case, but never previously
More seriously, it xwas noted in the experiment demonstrated through reconstruction of the bronze-smiths
that on several occasions parts of the swords broke off operations. Two people were needed for many of the
while another part was being hammered (e.g. Sword 2, 1 cold-working jobs and where impatience led to jobs being
above). At the time there xwas no obvious connection attempted when no help was available the results were
between heat treatment and this breakage. However, a poor. In the casting operation at least three people may be
similar problem \was noted by Bridgford in her recent envisaged, as timing and speed were critical here.
experiments. Using a thenno-couple, she noted that the
cracking occurred on a section which had been heated to CONCLUSIONS
above 6000C, xwhile no such problems arose with sections The aim of this article has been to outline the main stages
annealed to 5500C (pers. comm.). As no scientific method of LBA sword production and explore in detail the
of measuring temperature was used in this author's various techniques involved. In doing so we can also get
experiments, it is likely that 6000C xwas exceeded, causing some idea of the raw materials and facilities needed and
severe weaknesses in some areas of the metal structure. It the overall logistics of the operation. From the above
would seem that a more severe hammering would have discussion the myriad nature of the skills required is
been possible if this excessive annealing had not taken obvious, as is the labour investment. This emphasizes the
place, and that more considerable flattening of the grain high value attached to such swords, a point previously
could have been achieved. Hoxvever, Northover suggests suggested by their use as ritual offerings and the evidence
in another section (S2/3) that a longer period of annealing of their manufacture on 'high-status' sites.
at a higher temperature would probably be desirable, so From the sourcing of suitable clays for casting to
the situation as regards heat treatment is difficult to final finishing, the production process must have taken
assess. Perhaps the heating in a gas-hearth and the several weeks or possibly months. A problem not obvious
subsequent cooling were too swift. However, it is worth in the archaeological record but made clear by
noting that the section heated to over 600'C by Bridgford experimental work in mould production is the difficulty
and which caused similar cracking problems was heated in drying such moulds, probably requiring an indoor
in a charcoal brazier. environment. In this light of the problems noted above we
Apart from heat treatment, the other tools used may wonder just what percentage of moulds ever made it
in these finishing experiments all performed to the firing kiln. A further puzzle is the absence of
satisfactorily. Problems arose in some cases, such as the evidence for firing kilns from the archaeological record, a
removal of the casting jet, but these are mainly due to the problem relevant to the broader area of prehistoric pottery
inexperience of the user rather than the unsuitability of production in Ireland. Given the careful control of
the tool. The different effects of the two hammers is of temperature required, it is unlikely that sword moulds
interest. Northover notes that the recrystallised zone at the were ever fired in open bonfires.
edge of Sword 1 shows little signs of hammering, despite The absence of large crucibles probably implies
two cycles (see S1/4 above). This is probably due to the that only one sword could be poured at a time, unlike
large convex shape of the head of the stone hammer, smaller tools. If large furnaces were utilized then more
which makes it difficult to get at the very edge of the than one crucible could have been heated at the one time,
sword during hammering, regardless of the angle at which but the lack of Irish evidence for furnaces makes this
the sword is held on the anvil. The hammer will almost uncertain. The furnace pit at Llyn Bryn-dinas, Powys
always strike the thicker mid-section of the sword first, (Musson 1991) seems too small for heating more than one
imparting its force in that area. Also, the fact that the crucible at a time and it is possible that similar structures
hammer-stone was held in the hand, unhafted made it less were used in Ireland.
powerful than the socketed bronze hammer. It cannot be The experiments undertaken in this study reveal
proven that stone hammers of this type had no haft, but that both the casting and post-cast treatment of a bronze
those examples from later Bronze Age contexts I have sword will greatly influence its final microstructure. The
personally examined showed no sign of haft major variables would appear to be:
modification. The bronze hammer was definitely a vast
85
1. Temperature of mould during pouring. overemphasis on attempts in to source metal types to
2. Temperature of metal during pouring. specific ore bodies (e.g. Pittioni 1957; Junghans et al.
3. Effects of initial flash removal (hammering and 1960, 1968, 1974: Hartmann 1970, 1982: Coghlan and
possibly heating). Case 1957). It has become increasingly apparent that
4. The order of hardening treatments (hammering or these attempts are ill-conceived and the extent and
annealing first?). variability of the problems involved greatly
5. The intensity of hardening treatments (duration and underestimated. Nonetheless, some identification of
temperature range of annealing; duration and severity of specific metal groups, as wvell as some limited
hammering). improvement in our understanding of metal circulation,
6. Number of hardening treatment cycles. have resulted (e.g. Northover 1980a; 1980b).
It seems likely that metallography, previously
Along with alloy composition, these factors decide the relatively under-utilized in favour of compositional
hardness, flexibility and general durability of the sword analyses, would be a more useful tool in understanding
and thus its performance level and useful lifespan. As methods of fabrication and the technology involved.
such, the finishing process is not simply a quick tidying Programmes ofmetallographic analysis have the potential
up exercise, but plays a role of almost equal importance to identify technical traits and habits of metal use, w\hich
to casting in determining the effectiveness of a sword. may be of equal if not greater value in identifying
A number of areas will prove crucial to our regional metalworking centres than compositional
future understanding of prehistoric bronzeworking and its analyses. Metallography may also play an important role
social significance. Perhaps the most problematic area in in quantifying the results of experimental studies, as
examining LBA metalworking is the lack of good demonstrated by the preliminary research undertaken
contextual information. This is particularly true, as would here.
be expected, in the case of stray finds. In the future it is The pursuit of tifurther experimental work is
desirable that the find-spot of every artilact discovery be desirable. Thus far, individual experimental studies into
identified as closely as possible and a full archaeological various elements of Bronze Age metallurgy have yielded
examination, including limited excavation, undertaken. results which are interesting and constructive in a limited
Also, the use of scientific techniques such as geophysical fashion (e.g. Pollard et al. 1990; Timberlake 1994;
examination of the immediate area and the analysis of Bareham 1994; McNally 1996). What is required is
pollen and other paleo-botanical indicators at the find- focused research in the form of a programme with
spot may add considerably to our understanding of specific aims, concentrating on a particular chronological
depositional circumstances. period with defined research problems. Such a
Although the lack of contextual information is programme should ultimately employ both archaeologists
most pronounced with regard to stray finds, the standard and specialist metalworking craftsmen, as well as
of evidence from excavation, particularly in relation to scientific archaeo-metallurgists, if the potential of this
metalworking practices, can be improved. In general, we approach is to be achieved. As constraints upon the
need 'more sensitive excavation of locations where metal traditional, finite archaeological databases continue to
and metal artefacts were made and used' (Budd and grow, our use of experimentation as a valid method of
Taylor 1995, 141). The benefits which can accrue from non-invasive research must intensify. Ultimately, it is the
such careful excavation are becoming more widely successful integration of these archaeological, scientific
recognized and result in a more complete interpretation of and experimental approaches that offers the best hope of
the relevant metallurgical material (e.g. Needham 1996b). furthering our knowledge of LBA sword production and
Again, as with stray finds, the use of geophysical insular bronzeworking in general.
surveying techniques may be of aid here. Magnetic
susceptibility, in particular, can result in the discovery of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
metalworking areas peripheral to the focus of settlement The author is grateful for the help and collaboration of Mr
activity, areas which would be likely to remain Liam McNally of the McNally Clan Trust Ltd., which
undiscovered in the absence of such non-intrusive made these bronze-working experiments possible. This
surveying techniques research was carried out towards a M.A. degree in the
The increased use of metal analysis in artefact Department of Archaeology, National University of
studies can lend a new dimension to the typo- Ireland, Galway. Thanks are due to my supervisor, Dr.
chronological approach, the utility of which is limited as William O'Brien, who also conmmented on an earlier draft
regards investigation of production processes. Within the of this paper, and to Sue Bridgfobrd who made available
tformer field of scientific research there has been an unpublished information regarding her current research.
86
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88

Simon 6 Faolain: The Technology of Late Bronze Age Sword Production in Ireland

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Simon 6 Faolain: The Technology of Late Bronze Age Sword Production in Ireland

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The Journal of Irish Archaeology, IX 1998

THE TECHNOLOGY OF LATE BRONZE AGE SWORD

and J.P. NORTHOVER

I Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim. X

When sufficiently dry the clay was first thoroughly

An interesting question is whether these rods

adjoining surface of the blade (ibid., 4). There is no clagt mould

Sl/1 Unworked S2/1 Unworked

S1/3 Hammered & Annealed

S1/4 Hammered, Annealed

OA8lQ1d ma~<3egd5 C/I~49clovdet

XRF ANALYSES OF REPLICA SWORDS

Miinchen. Junghans, S., Sangmeister, E. and Schroder, M. 1968

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