Research method 2021/2022 paper

Qualitative and quantitative research are two distinct approaches to research that are used
to gather and analyze data. Here are the key differences between qualitative and
quantitative research:
**Qualitative Research:**

1. Nature of Data:
Qualitative research focuses on non-numerical data, such as text, images, or observations. It
aims to understand the underlying reasons, motivations, and opinions of individuals.
2. Methods:
Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, case studies, content analysis,
and ethnographic research. Researchers often use open-ended questions to gather detailed
responses.
3. Sample Size:
Qualitative research typically involves a smaller sample size, as the emphasis is on in-depth
exploration and understanding rather than statistical generalization.
4. Data Analysis:
Qualitative data is analyzed using techniques like thematic analysis, content analysis, or
narrative analysis. Researchers look for patterns, themes, and meanings within the data.
5. Research Questions:
Qualitative research often explores open-ended research questions that allow for a deeper
exploration of a particular topic.
6. Subjectivity:
Qualitative research acknowledges the subjectivity of the researcher and the interpretive
nature of the findings. Researchers often engage in reflexivity to acknowledge their own biases.

**Quantitative Research:**

1. Nature of Data:
Quantitative research focuses on numerical data and measurable variables. It seeks to establish
relationships, patterns, and statistical significance.
2. Methods:
Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, statistical analysis, and structured
observations. Researchers use closed-ended questions with predetermined response categories.
3. Sample Size:
Quantitative research typically involves a larger sample size to ensure statistical validity and
generalizability of findings.
4. Data Analysis:
Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical techniques, such as regression analysis,
hypothesis testing, and descriptive statistics. Researchers aim to draw objective and
generalizable conclusions.
5. Research Questions:
Quantitative research often poses specific research questions that can be answered with
numerical data and tested for statistical significance.
6. Objectivity:
Quantitative research aims to minimize the influence of the researcher's subjectivity. It relies on
standardized procedures and statistical tests to ensure objectivity.

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In summary, qualitative research is exploratory and seeks to understand the "why" and "how" of a
phenomenon through rich, descriptive data, while quantitative research is confirmatory and focuses on
answering research questions with numerical data and statistical analysis. Researchers often choose
between these approaches based on their research goals, the nature of the data, and the research
questions they aim to address.

Scientific research methods are characterized by several key features and principles that
distinguish them from other forms of inquiry. Here are some of the fundamental
characteristics of scientific research methods:
1. Empirical:
Scientific research is grounded in empirical evidence, which means that it relies on direct
observations, measurements, and experimentation to gather data. It emphasizes the use of the
senses and instruments to collect objective information.
2. Systematic:
Scientific research is conducted in a systematic and organized manner. It follows a structured
and well-defined process, including problem identification, hypothesis formulation, data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
3. Objective:
Scientific research strives for objectivity, meaning that researchers aim to minimize bias and
personal influence in their observations and analyses. It relies on standardized and consistent
procedures to enhance objectivity.
4. Testable Hypotheses:
Research in the scientific method is based on testable hypotheses or research questions. These
hypotheses are specific, clear, and formulated in a way that allows for empirical testing and
verification.
5. Replicable:
Scientific findings should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to
conduct the same study using the same methods and obtain similar results. Replicability
enhances the credibility of research.
6. Cumulative:
Scientific knowledge is cumulative, building upon existing research and theories. New findings
contribute to the broader body of scientific knowledge and can lead to revisions or extensions of
existing theories.
7. Falsifiable:
Scientific hypotheses must be formulated in a way that makes them falsifiable. This means that
it should be possible to design experiments or gather evidence that could potentially prove the
hypothesis wrong.
8. Rigorous Data Collection:
Scientific research emphasizes rigorous data collection methods, including the use of carefully
designed surveys, experiments, and observations. Data must be accurate, reliable, and valid.
9. Statistical Analysis:
Quantitative scientific research often involves statistical analysis to assess the significance of
results, identify patterns, and make inferences about populations. Statistical tests help
researchers draw objective conclusions.

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 10. Peer Review:
Scientific research undergoes peer review by experts in the field before publication in scientific
journals. Peer review helps ensure the quality and validity of research findings.
11. Generalizability:
Scientific research aims to draw generalizable conclusions, meaning that findings from a study
can be applied to a broader population or context. This requires careful sampling and research
design.

12. Ethical Conduct:

Ethical considerations are integral to scientific research. Researchers must adhere to ethical
guidelines regarding the treatment of human and animal subjects, the disclosure of conflicts of
interest, and the handling of research data.
13. Cumulative Progress:
Scientific research contributes to the advancement of knowledge over time. It allows for the
correction and refinement of existing theories and the development of new ones.
14. Openness and Transparency:
The scientific community promotes openness and transparency in research, including the
sharing of data and methods to facilitate replication and verification of findings.

These characteristics collectively define the scientific method and set it apart as a rigorous and reliable
approach to inquiry, leading to the generation of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social
world.

Generating research ideas is a crucial starting point for any research project. Research ideas
can come from various sources and avenues. Here are some common sources of research
ideas:
1. Personal Interests:
Your own interests, hobbies, and curiosities can be a great source of research ideas. Exploring
topics you are passionate about can make the research process more enjoyable.
2. Literature Review:
Reviewing existing literature in your field of interest can help you identify gaps, unanswered
questions, or areas in need of further investigation. Reading research articles, books, and
academic journals can spark new ideas.
3. Observations and Experiences:
Everyday observations and personal experiences can inspire research questions. You might
notice patterns, problems, or phenomena in your daily life that you want to explore
scientifically.
4. Current Events:
Current events and issues in the world, such as social, political, environmental, or technological
developments, can be a rich source of research topics. Investigating these issues can lead to
relevant and timely research.
5. Conversations and Collaborations:
Engaging in discussions with peers, mentors, and colleagues can lead to new research ideas.
Collaborative brainstorming often sparks creative thinking.
6. Consulting Experts:
Seeking advice and input from experts in your field can help you identify areas where further
research is needed. Experts may provide guidance on the latest trends and emerging questions.

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 7. Problem Solving:
Addressing real-world problems and challenges can lead to research ideas. Finding solutions or
improving existing processes often requires research.
8. Publications and Media:
News articles, documentaries, and other media sources may highlight issues that are worthy of
investigation. Paying attention to reports on scientific discoveries and emerging technologies
can also inspire research.
9. Research Funding Opportunities:
Government agencies, foundations, and organizations often release requests for research
proposals. Examining these calls for proposals can lead to research ideas that align with funding
priorities.
10. Educational Settings:
If you are a student or an educator, your coursework and classroom discussions can provide
insights into research questions. Academic settings often expose individuals to various subject
areas.
11. Surveys and Questionnaires:
Conducting surveys or questionnaires among specific populations can reveal research questions
related to their needs, opinions, and experiences.
12. Historical Data:
Analyzing historical data and records can lead to research ideas. Examining the past can provide
valuable insights into trends and patterns.
13. Emerging Technologies:
Innovations in technology and scientific advancements can inspire research questions. Exploring
the potential applications and implications of new technologies can be a fertile ground for
research.
14. Comparative Analysis:
Comparing different regions, populations, time periods, or groups can lead to research ideas.
Identifying similarities and differences can be a source of research questions.
15. Cross-Disciplinary Exploration:
Combining knowledge from multiple disciplines can result in unique research ideas.
Interdisciplinary research often opens up new avenues of inquiry.
16. Personal Challenges:
Challenges or obstacles you encounter in your personal or professional life can lead to research
ideas. Solving problems relevant to you can be a motivator for research.

It's important to keep a research journal or note-taking system to capture and organize your research
ideas as they arise. Additionally, discussing your ideas with peers and mentors can help refine and
validate your research topics. Finally, consider the feasibility and significance of each idea to determine
which ones are most worth pursuing.

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Controlling the effects of extraneous variables in experimental research is essential to ensure
the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are five common ways to control extraneous
variables:
1. Randomization:
Randomization involves assigning participants or experimental units to different treatment
groups or conditions randomly. By doing so, you distribute extraneous variables equally among
the groups, reducing their potential impact on the results. Randomization helps ensure that the
effects of extraneous variables are balanced across conditions.

2. Matching:
Matching involves selecting participants in a way that ensures balance or similarity between
groups. Researchers can match participants based on extraneous variables that are likely to
influence the outcome. For example, if age is an extraneous variable, researchers can match
participants in different groups so that they have similar age distributions.

3. Holding Extraneous Variables Constant:

Some extraneous variables can be controlled by keeping them constant across all conditions. For
example, in a drug trial, if temperature is an extraneous variable that can affect the results,
researchers can conduct the experiment in a controlled environment with a constant
temperature.
4. Blocking:
In experimental design, researchers use blocking to control extraneous variables by creating
homogeneous subgroups within the study. For example, if you're studying the effects of a new
teaching method, you can first create homogeneous subgroups based on students' initial
performance levels, and then apply the treatment within each subgroup. This minimizes the
impact of extraneous variables related to initial performance.

5. Statistical Control:
If it is not possible to eliminate or control extraneous variables through the methods mentioned
above, statistical techniques can be used. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a common
statistical method that allows researchers to statistically control for the influence of extraneous
variables. It involves measuring and including the extraneous variable as a covariate in the
analysis to assess its effect and remove its influence on the dependent variable.

In addition to these methods, it's essential to carefully design and conduct experiments, use control
groups, and implement blinding or double-blind procedures to minimize the effects of extraneous
variables. Thorough planning and documentation of your research process are also crucial to ensure that
you have considered and addressed potential extraneous variables that could impact your study.

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SMART is an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-
bound. When setting research objectives, it's important to ensure that they meet these
criteria. Here are 10 points explaining how to make research objectives SMART:
1. Specific (S):
Your research objective should be clear, well-defined, and specific. It should answer the
question: What do you want to achieve with your research? Avoid vague or broad objectives.
For example:

- Poor: "Study customer satisfaction."

- SMART: "Determine the factors influencing customer satisfaction in our online store."

2. Measurable (M):
Research objectives should be quantifiable or have a way to measure success. This allows you to
track progress and determine whether you've achieved your goal. For example:

- Poor: "Improve employee performance."

- SMART: "Increase employee productivity by 15% within six months."

3. Achievable (A):

The objective should be realistic and attainable within the resources, time, and constraints available for
the research. Setting unattainable objectives can lead to frustration. For example:

- Poor: "Double our market share in one month."

- SMART: "Increase market share by 10% in one year."

4. Relevant (R):

The objective should be relevant to your research goals and align with the broader research context.
Ensure that it contributes to your research's overall purpose. For example:

- Poor: "Explore space exploration technologies for our bakery business."

- SMART: "Identify cost-effective technologies to improve the efficiency of our bakery operations."

6. Time-bound (T):
A time frame should be associated with your objective. It helps create a sense of urgency and
provides a deadline for achieving the objective. For example:

- Poor: "Reduce customer complaints."

- SMART: "Reduce customer complaints by 20% within three months."

6. Specific Industry (S):

The objective should relate to a specific industry or field. For example:

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 - Poor: "Study customer buying behavior."

- SMART: "Analyze customer buying behavior in the fashion retail industry."

7. Measurable Variables (M):

Identify the variables or metrics you'll use to measure the objective's success. For example:

- Poor: "Improve employee skills."

- SMART: "Enhance employee skills as measured by a 15% increase in the average score on skill
assessment tests."

8. Achievable Scope (A):

Ensure that the scope of the objective is achievable within your available resources and constraints. For
example:

- Poor: "Develop a cure for a rare disease."

- SMART: "Contribute to ongoing research to better understand the rare disease's underlying causes
and potential treatments."

9. Relevance to Stakeholders (R):

Consider the relevance of the objective to stakeholders, whether they are your organization, customers,
or the broader community. For example:

- Poor: "Conduct research on an obscure topic."

- SMART: "Conduct research on a topic that directly addresses the needs and concerns of our customer
base."

10. Time Frame for Data Collection (T):

In addition to setting an overall timeframe, specify when you will collect data. For example:

- Poor: "Investigate the impact of climate change."

- SMART: "Collect and analyze data on climate change's impact on crop yields over the next two
years."

By ensuring that your research objectives are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-
bound, you increase the likelihood of conducting focused and successful research that aligns with your
research goals and provides meaningful results.

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Research plays a significant role in Kenya, contributing to various aspects of the country's
development, progress, and well-being. Here are 10 points explaining the significance of
research in Kenya:
1. Agricultural Innovation:
Research in Kenya contributes to agricultural innovations, helping farmers improve crop yields,
reduce post-harvest losses, and adapt to changing climate conditions.
2. Food Security:
Research helps address food security challenges by developing new crop varieties, improving
farming techniques, and enhancing the distribution and storage of food.
3. Healthcare Advancements:
Medical and healthcare research in Kenya leads to improved diagnostics, treatment methods,
and public health programs, reducing the burden of diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria.
4. Education Improvement:
Research informs educational policies and practices, leading to better educational outcomes and
more equitable access to quality education for all Kenyan children.
5. Economic Growth:
Research contributes to economic growth by providing insights into market trends,
entrepreneurship, and investment opportunities. It guides economic policies and strategies.
6. Infrastructure Development:
Research is essential for planning and developing infrastructure, including roads, energy, and
telecommunications, to support Kenya's economic and social development.
7. Environmental Conservation:
Research helps protect Kenya's rich biodiversity and natural resources by informing
conservation efforts, sustainable land management, and wildlife protection strategies.
8. Water Resource Management:
Research is crucial for sustainable water resource management, addressing issues related to
water scarcity, pollution, and equitable distribution of water.
9. Policy Formulation:
Government and public policy in Kenya benefit from research-based evidence, ensuring that
policies are evidence-driven and responsive to the needs of the population.
10. Social and Cultural Preservation:
Research plays a role in preserving and promoting Kenya's diverse cultures, heritage, and
traditions, ensuring that they are valued and celebrated.
11. Empowerment and Inclusivity:
Research helps address social inequalities, gender disparities, and social justice issues,
promoting inclusivity and empowerment for marginalized communities.
12. Global Collaboration:
Research in Kenya fosters collaboration with international partners, enabling the country to
access resources, expertise, and funding from the global research community.
13. Innovation and Technology:
Research fuels innovation and technological advancements, leading to the development of
Kenyan-made solutions, products, and services in various sectors.
14. Climate Change Mitigation:

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 Kenya faces climate change challenges, and research contributes to understanding, adapting to,
and mitigating the impacts of climate change on agriculture, water resources, and livelihoods.
15. Rural Development:
Research helps address rural development challenges by providing insights into income
generation, sustainable agriculture, and infrastructure development in rural areas.
16. Public Health:
Research plays a critical role in public health, from disease surveillance and vaccination
programs to healthcare delivery systems and health behavior interventions.

In summary, research is essential in Kenya for addressing a wide range of issues, from agriculture and
healthcare to education, economic growth, and environmental conservation. It informs policies, drives
innovation, and empowers communities, contributing to the country's development and overall well-
being.

Probability sampling methods are techniques used in research to select a sample from a
larger population in such a way that each member of the population has a known and non-
zero chance of being included in the sample. Here are five common probability sampling
methods:
1. Simple Random Sampling:

- **Description:** In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an equal
and independent chance of being selected. It is like drawing names from a hat.

- **Procedure:** Assign each element a unique identifier or number, and then use a random
process (e.g., random number generator) to select the required number of elements.

- **Advantages:** It is straightforward, unbiased, and provides a representative sample of the

population.

- **Limitations:** It may be impractical for large populations, and there is a potential for
underrepresentation or overrepresentation by chance.

2. Stratified Sampling:

- **Description:** In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups or strata

based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income). Samples are then randomly selected
from each stratum.

- **Procedure:** Identify the strata and determine the sample size for each stratum based on
its proportion in the population. Use simple random sampling within each stratum.

- **Advantages:** It ensures representation of all subgroups and can provide more precise
estimates for each stratum.

- **Limitations:** It requires prior knowledge of the population's characteristics and can be

more complex to implement.

3. Systematic Sampling:

- **Description:** Systematic sampling involves selecting every nth element from a list of the
population. The starting point is chosen randomly.

- **Procedure:** Determine the required sample size (n), select a random starting point, and
then select every nth element from the list.
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 - **Advantages:** It is easy to implement, suitable for large populations, and provides a fairly
representative sample.

- **Limitations:** If there is an underlying pattern or periodicity in the population, systematic

sampling can introduce bias.

4. Cluster Sampling:

- **Description:** Cluster sampling divides the population into clusters or groups, and then a
random sample of clusters is selected. All members within the selected clusters are included in
the sample.

- **Procedure:** Identify clusters (e.g., geographic areas), randomly select clusters, and
include all members within the selected clusters.

- **Advantages:** It is cost-effective, practical for large and geographically dispersed

populations, and provides easy access to the sample.

- **Limitations:** It may introduce clustering effects, and the cluster design can be less
precise than simple random sampling.

5. Multi-Stage Sampling:

- **Description:** Multi-stage sampling is a combination of various sampling methods. It

involves selecting clusters, subclusters, and finally, individual units within the population.

- **Procedure:** Start with cluster sampling, then subcluster within selected clusters, and
finally, randomly select individuals from the subclusters.

- **Advantages:** It is flexible and can be adapted to complex sampling situations. It is

suitable for large, heterogeneous populations.

- **Limitations:** It can be more complex to implement and may require more extensive
planning.

Each of these probability sampling methods has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of
method depends on the research objectives, available resources, and the characteristics of the
population being studied. Properly executed probability sampling methods can lead to representative
and generalizable research findings.

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A research proposal is a comprehensive document that outlines the plan for conducting a
research study. It serves as a blueprint for the research project, providing a clear and
structured description of what the research will involve. A well-structured research proposal
typically includes the following components:
1. Title:

- The title should succinctly and accurately convey the focus and scope of the research.

2. Introduction:

- The introduction provides background information about the research topic, including its
significance and relevance. It also states the research problem or research question that the
study aims to address.

3. Research Objectives or Hypotheses:

- This section defines the specific goals and objectives of the research or, in the case of
hypothesis-driven research, outlines the hypotheses that will be tested.

4. Literature Review:

- The literature review provides a summary of existing research and scholarship related to the
research topic. It helps establish the context for the study and demonstrates that the research is
building on prior work.

5. Theoretical Framework (optional):

- If applicable, this section outlines the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides
the research.

6. Research Methodology:

- This is a critical section that describes the research design, methods, and procedures that will be used
to collect and analyze data. It includes the following sub-components:

- **Sampling Plan:** Describes how the sample will be selected (e.g., random sampling,
stratified sampling).

- **Data Collection Methods:** Details the methods for gathering data (e.g., surveys,
interviews, experiments).

- **Data Analysis Plan:** Explains how the collected data will be analyzed, including any
statistical or qualitative techniques.

- **Data Collection Instruments:** Provides details about the tools or instruments that will be
used to collect data (e.g., questionnaires, interview guides).

7. Ethical Considerations:

- This section discusses how ethical issues, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and data
protection, will be addressed in the research.

8. Significance of the Study:

- Explains the potential contributions of the research to the field, practical applications, or
policy implications.
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9. Limitations:

- Identifies potential limitations of the study, such as sample size constraints, data collection
challenges, or external factors that may affect the research.

10. Timeline:

- A timeline or schedule outlines the expected milestones and deadlines for each phase of the
research project, including data collection, analysis, and report writing.

11. Budget (optional):

- If applicable, the budget section outlines the estimated costs associated with the research,
including expenses for equipment, participant compensation, and data analysis software.

12. References:

- Provides a list of all the sources cited in the proposal, following a specific citation style (e.g.,
APA, MLA).

13. Appendices (optional):

- Any supplementary materials that are essential for the proposal, such as research
instruments (e.g., questionnaires, surveys), informed consent forms, or additional data, can be
included in the appendices.

A well-structured research proposal is crucial for securing funding, gaining approval from research ethics
boards, and guiding the research process. It should be clear, concise, and well-organized, demonstrating
that the research is well-conceived and feasible. Additionally, the quality of the research proposal can
impact the success of the research project itself.

Reviewing the existing literature is a fundamental and critical component of the research
process. It serves several important purposes and offers the following key benefits:
1. Contextualization of Research:
Literature review provides a context for the research study by offering insights into the existing
knowledge, theories, and research findings related to the topic. It helps researchers understand
where their work fits within the broader field.
2. Identification of Research Gaps:
By reviewing the literature, researchers can identify gaps, unanswered questions, or areas
where further research is needed. This helps in formulating clear research objectives and
questions.
3. Theoretical Framework:
Literature review aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the study. It allows
researchers to build on established theories and concepts, providing a foundation for their
research.
4. Methodological Guidance:
Researchers can learn from the methodologies and research methods used in prior studies. This
helps in selecting appropriate data collection and analysis methods for their own research.
5. Avoiding Redundancy:
A thorough literature review helps prevent duplication of existing research. It ensures that the
research is original and contributes to the field.
6. Validation of Research Questions:

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 Reviewing the literature helps refine research questions and hypotheses. It ensures that the
research questions are relevant and address gaps in the current knowledge.
7. Credibility and Validity:
Incorporating existing research findings and theoretical frameworks enhances the credibility and
validity of the study. It demonstrates that the research is built on a solid foundation.
8. Research Design and Sampling:
Researchers can learn from previous studies about effective research designs, sampling
techniques, and data collection instruments. This can lead to more efficient and rigorous
research.
9. Ethical Considerations:
Literature review can help researchers identify potential ethical issues related to the research
topic, as well as provide guidance on how to address these concerns.
10. Policy and Practice Implications:
Research findings from existing studies can inform policy decisions and practical applications.
Policymakers and practitioners can use the results of research to make informed decisions.
11. Publication and Dissemination:
An understanding of the existing literature helps researchers prepare for the publication of their
findings. They can position their work in relation to previous research, contributing to the
academic discourse.
12. Interdisciplinary Insights:
Literature reviews often span across multiple disciplines, providing an opportunity for
interdisciplinary insights and perspectives. This can enrich the research and lead to innovative
ideas.
13. Evaluation and Interpretation:
Researchers can use the literature to help interpret their own findings and compare them to
similar studies. It facilitates data analysis and the drawing of meaningful conclusions.
14. Time and Resource Efficiency:
An effective literature review can save time and resources by guiding researchers to relevant
sources and preventing unnecessary data collection or analysis.
15. Enhancing Critical Thinking:
Engaging with existing literature encourages critical thinking and analytical skills. Researchers
evaluate the quality and credibility of sources, improving their ability to assess the reliability of
information.

In summary, reviewing the literature is essential for shaping the direction of research, ensuring that it is
informed by previous work, and positioning it within the broader academic and research context. It
helps researchers make informed decisions, enhances the quality and rigor of their work, and
contributes to the overall advancement of knowledge in their field.

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