Chaptex | Abstmact Vector Spares (1 Definitton of a Vector Spoce Frompe [1.3 let ne zt ond F=R or Fo, What con we do in “En Fort, ver ond cee ar vert od chert dosed wiles addition and scalar multipltaztion RIVE OTR addttion commutes ect D)= Ute J distributive ~tadit = cat av ~(gsvitd= B+ oF) assockattvity —btst i For ne Z>0 Cror-neyattie, legen). let Pn cf) be the set of degree ot west in puyromials with efficent from F Pal) = Fao Fax! + OaX* toy Gax™ sho, di) G2 an CS ~additon of polyromials Cag4 Wx oe HaNXYY + Coot bUX'H ov + bmx") = (oot bo) * Cart bix' +... + Contbn) x" — scolar mmulttphraxtton of palyromials CO ds OK + ee Fax") = caot cue! + v4. + Cana® ~ properties ~ pont Gia = qtxr+ pox) ~ ec pers t qa) = poo + V and off operation + : FrVV sattefytag > — clsure |. vector obldtton For all @, fev, eryev > sculair multiplication Fo all self, RV, s-PeV — veto space axom \ forall 8,9, 2eV, Cepltz= zed) 2, There exits a vector Fev sich that, fw all REV, D+R-RtF=z odirtve identity T 3, fordl REV, there exist a -PEV such tet Rr cR=CV+ Re =F oddtve verse - forall Byev, Rey spre +, Fora) REV and stER, st B= GDR 6. Fral REV and stem, sth RS sRete? 7. for oll BY eV onl sek, SCRAPS Rts BL Rae Vecton Space, 8 von-emply set objets , V ts a vector space over a field F , welor the operations of oddttion @ ond scolar multiplicatton © , provided ey the following set of ten awoms ove met Cl Closure Under Addtiion Fr all 2,yev, Ze yeu C2 Cosure Under Scolar Myltiplteatton For all BeV ond for all CER, codeV Vi Addition tS Commutative For oll 2, FeV, BOP=7OR V2 Addition ts Assoctative For all 2,7, 2€V, (ROP) @Z= Roe (PO?) -RO VO? Va Additive Identity There exist a vector TeV such thot for ol ZEW LOT=Go=z Va Additive Inverse For all BEV, there exist a vector -2 eV such tot 2 C2) =(-ROL=7 VE Vector Addttion Distributive Low For all 2, ye V ad fr all CER , cOCeP) =(c0 2) 8 (coy) Vb Salar Addtiton Distributive Low For all 2eV ond for all cde, cctd) OR =COR Odo V7 Scalar nfultiplicatton ts Assoctative: Tawa For all Bev ond for all code, (cd OX = COCA ®) V8 Multiplicative Identity For all BEV, LOR=ZRemork on Vector Space |. Wo will say things tke “Vv Is d real vert space” or “vis a vector space or t" ip distinguish tetueen F=R or F=6 2. We will usually write eW tnstead of c+ 3 Sometimes the sperationts ove welrd . In such mises, ue might write © o © to distquish fom usual!" operations 4 We will use short Wnd like D-@ rnstead of Br) Example hand Pr (fF) are vert Gpaces over TF alsiost by deFinttion 2 ve Minan OF Is on F vector space, wth Usual cperations cosures TRA,BEV, cel, Hen AtBEV and cAEV oxtoms 1, TRA, B,CEV, ten CATB)TC= At (BTC) 2. The 2010 vector 1s Oman of the correct size Forall AEV , At Oman = Oman TA=A 3, The oddive twerse s -A unth every entry regsted At CAD= ADT A= Oman, BAKD SB Let VCCI) pe the set of cts function wrth domain Co, 17 ork eodonata IR ALF) STE AE hore ‘te avtpat 1S, aniam the range This 1S & seal vector space with operations defined by = Ergon = Few + gO = bef) GD = cf) closuve® The sum of cts functims is a cts functton Sealy a ots function vesults In a Yew cts fwectton axiom > The zor Vectrr Is the omstant zeyo function 4, Example 2 wth replace of = [0,19 4 (a,b) or a,b) — ets to diff 6 Cts a real vectwe space with Cusval operations) = vector space over IR, 6 17) ome element set with f= or FIR wth > eveved ve Ocov=v “Us zero space 183 1.V= 0, 08) and F=R © a®b=ab © coa=ot Si gen. closures Ff abe, then a>9,b>0 , so ab>0 3 aeb=ob6V yy 15 chsel under both Teaev onl CER, 0° SC0, 00)axioms |. Let xyz eV (xy) O2= Cay) O2= (xy) 2 = KyZ = K(yz) =xOlyz) = XO (yz) ossacimtivity oF mmutiptiotion in Re 2. Zero vector 7 =| OO R= a(=a=la= POO 3 Addittue ywerse ~ a = B@(-a) =ak=(=Fa= COG rote 0,00)» SO fo restwiction on whith Vectors fave an “ijyerse” 4% g@b = ab=bha= bea a mutiphoation commutes 6 aeV, GdeR co(doa= co@') = hd = o¥ = gt = doa MEV, CAER cet oa=a%= of ot = a @ a 7a, bev, cer cla @b) = CO tab) = Gb) = abe = & Ob =(coa)® (cob) 8 (Oa=a=a 4 = oa) @ Choa) Expected Vertor Space Properties mt m™ the definition of a Vero space KD 4th Owes 2egee a -bUe-¥ 4 Weve, then c=0 ow v=o Proof of ( ORs OLE property of fF =o-vtov property 6 fiom Def (1.8 OR + C-OV = OV tO¥) t(-OT) OR + COV TOV + COV Tt COP property 1 fiom Def (1.8 Pov property 3 fiom Def (1.8 TOV property 2 fiom Def (11.8 Proposttion) [41,3 Let _V be an F-vector spoce |, The zero vector ts unique FW, 2EV hove the property tat Drd=V ak 2+V= 0 fr all Vev, then W=2 2. The odditive Iwverse are unique FW, 2EV hove the property tat DrP= 7 ak 2+V= 0 tr all Vev, ten =z12 Subspace Definition 42,1 Subspace Suppose u is o siloset of an fF vector spoce V. We ay tint u is a subspore of V if Wis an F~vectoy space under tte some aperations os V subspace tb vector space | Exaniple 2,2 {81 and V are both subspace of V, ¢ trivial subspace) Theorem 1.2.4 Subspace Test Suppose Mis a Subset of on F~ vector spre V. u is @ subspace of V tt ark only ft ~ wis ron-empty check to verify non-emptyness ~ w 1s dosed under adblition Bmew 2 whey uw is chsed wer solar multipliaxtion cef#,@ek A cteu Example let a= frame Pa(Fls Puy=pc2y) SPP, Show ‘at u is a subspace under ususl poly romtal subset vector “spose operations using, Thesrem Lat of P3 (FD 1. non-empty let pexy=0 vdentrcaly “0 piyromtial pty sO= pray, SD peRen 2: addition let pes, que Ud , this means pCl) =pr2) and qt =q@l Gptqy d= pent Qld = plat + qi2t = (pq (2) DID OeU. 3 scolar multipltcation let poneuy cer Cop) CD = € pt) = C pla) = cep) (2) 2 CPOE Therefore , ty subspace test, UIs & subspace of Py CF) > US a vectorspaceCovallovy 1,26 He usv i a subspace of V , ten teu Example let V= {pw ePilf)s peo=)} Since FEV, Vis mot a suse & V Definition 1.24 Spanning Set Let V be on F- vector spoce and S={t, Bo. Gn} be a subset of V, The spanning set S is Span (SY= CCH + ART ee TENTH, Cry cz cn ey TF Spans) =V, we say tit “S sqone VY on “Sis a spanni set for V? % By convention Span(0) = (03 4 An expression of the fon Cit Qtht wi tenth Wi Bin wR Example. is alled o trex combination of S=C1, x, ext S PLO Span (S> = P2CR> OOF xt Cx? = carb) + Co“ 1t x) teLltxtx7) 9 PaRIES @odll i, 4x, [txX+VPSPUF) S SSPch? Proposttion |, 2.U1 let s=4@.. th} be a set A a vector space v , then Span(s) IS a subspace of V Proof Wwe will yse subspace test OF S=0 Then Span (S)={0S Which is always a subset ONS#O ‘Then Pe Span (S), Spon (S) is non empty let craven y dijda ui dg eF and ter Then AUP FOAt a Cath +d et debt as dave = Creda t Certda) th + st Con toa) Ta © Spon (S) © Spon (S) € Spon (s) btCaPtedt caw) = chen t dah t oi tb cn) TA € Spon (5) © Span (8)1.3 Bases or Dimension Definttion 1.3.3 Lyte Dependence A set of vectors s=4@.. thd in a vectorspace V is aalled lineavly independent i for all CyCrum CneF, UW +Gtt Cth =0 iff c= crs ..=tn=0 IMewly dependent of rt 18 not Ineavly Independent Exompie fiex, 1+X+x2, ox, rtx*} Is fot nearly Independent CHC tx) + C2 CE XEXA) + CaLI-x) + cH LEX?) =0 Cort ca) + COlt C2-C3)K + Cort C2testc4) = 0 © Cort 4) =0, Cert 2-3) =O, Crt CATES t C4I=0 iotyo ¢ [fice Hl homogeneous. | no solyctton oroilo nom Infmite solution) — non-tvivial solutton Definition 1.3.7 Basis A sibset B= $a, th) of @ vector space V is called o basis fr Vif ts |, linearly independent 2, span B =V Theorem 1.3.8 Every yector space has a basis Example 1.3.4 Some spaces have “stondavd bases” — fa Bi eh — Pack) Fr Kx aye) ~ Mma) FORT, CT. £887] © mn vectors mn this set ~ ay © Bampe None Standard Basis — Pack) Clipse y itx $973 ~ Pack) Th Ge, OPLemma 1.3.11 Suppose S=1V, 11, 0} spans a vector space V and L= $d) 11, tk) ts a linearly wdependert set wV. Then ken Proo® Assume k>N, Sine S ts a spanning set, thee are constant cu) Caw Cin, CatyCon vs, Cans Chl) cea... Cen So that: cid tent vs aud taht a. cot t Gath t Gnstdey X1) X20 XK CF such Hot Keith t ... xk =o Xi Cout + cath ti cin Pad t Xo Ca + BB ties c2a Pn) to tXKCCHHt Ca tT ckn Tn) 7 COUKLe Craxkatin CH xn) + OCaKIt C2 ¥e + CeaXk) Bt nt CoinKe + Canka tin CENXKE) TR =O Gnsider the system on cn Ch Jo since k>n and has one sdlution ¢ trivial |) cp Ca in Cee |o the system bos infinttely many sdutem : So non-trivial solution P46 exist, cin Gn = Ckn to fh, Bris eS IS linearly dependent Therefore ; comtvadiction Theorem |, 3,12 Suppose B=f... va} and € = $t1,,, Wk} ave faces for a vector space V. Then K=n Proof Boses are both span and lmeavly indeperdent > ken ond nek > k=Nn Definition 1, 3.18 We say that a vector space IS finite dimensional HM has a finite basis, In this case, rts dimension , denoted as dimcy) , is equal to the number of vectors in any basts fr Vv HK This defnartion is based on theorem 1,3, 12 Example dim (CPIY=O CO Ts a basis) —T3 > 04% dim CRM) = A dim (Pn CA) = n+l dirn (Man CF) = mn,Exomple Compute dim CV) where v= { Pode Pacays PCy = 03 POLY =0 & Cx-1) TS a factor of PCx) & Fawic es PEA=(x-1) Catbx + ex) POA = CaN) COFDX FC) = OKT) SOK CKD ECAC) = OCK-1) + W(X? XK) + CCX — x2) quess B=4x-l, x*-x 1. x8-¥7 J IS 0 basis 8 is spanning by onstruction Few Itneovly independence , Suppose ci(x-1) + Cala? x) + Cxtx3 -x2) = 0 Then Ci=C2=Ca=0 1S the only lution So B Is a basis, dim (B)=3 Theovem 1.3.5 let V be a wmdimensional vecton space ca) A set & wove thon n vectors in V is rot nearly independent (by) A set & fewer thon n vectors tn V aannot span V (c\ A set of exactly n vectors 1S sponning ifF tb is lineawly independent Theorem 1.3.17 let V be a finite dimensional vecton space and assume W is a subspace of V, dim (W) However, V+ Max2 CRY so dim (ND < dim (Mi 2x2 (RD) = 4 So dim (J) =3, Bs Imeorly twhependent and thus spanning , = B ts a bass [523,04 01}. Assume vis a subspace of Maxz (IR)lemma 1.3.20 Let V be a vector spare and S={ Gi, ... KI be a subset of V, let U=Span(s) S 1s linearly mdependent & cvery vector We an he represented uniquely as a lineny combination of the vectors in S Theorem [.3,2) Unique Repvesentartton let B= {T, Ta... Th be a bosis & a vector spate V. Then elery vector DEV can be expvessed in exactly one way as a linear combmotin of the vectors in B Definition 1.3. 2 Suppose B=SH, Ho hI BS an ordered basis of a vector space v and tat PeV an he expressed as V=Ctit 1. + Cath fov some Cin, cai . We say that the cordmate vector & O with respect 6 BS C¥Ie=7% BEV & abstvact vectov space @ : CFintte for most > on (Ute €" << canmon vectoys Note |. CPIee FP 2. This only make sense with fred orden of 8 according to Theorem 1.3, 2) (Unique Representation ) Exomple LURPACE) , BRE, x) 75 Ta tbe + cx*Ia= [*] 2, V=PACRY | C= fixe x>, 2K, x +x?) Vea x4 ACE x+ XD + CI-2K) + OCRER) = Ao Xt? (ay) + (a-2bte) xt Caec)e? = 4x4 > Lo le ro 0}3 so UW]e=f3 va ifs] > [ee H hauls oo |2 2 Notice that with B= 1, %)x*h | © ([Citxte de [i-2x]g cxt®le | 0 4-x+x2I8 ] Looe tot In genernal: Tf B Is a basts, fs in fom of B, and want the coordinates of y with respect to other basis C= {Ui , 1, Td, then reduce, Cols (le .. Cie | Ce] fo BREF, you get [In| ru} 1. When B ts stondavd loasis , this tends to be easyTheorem 1.3.27 let V be a finite dimensional vector space and 6 be a basis for V. For all V, ¥EV ond alcer — CV+ WIe= [VJs + L218 —[efJos eftle ‘ole place in Vote place In PM ard B is a basis of V —A set Le, vv, Gel ts Imearly Mtependent im V HE FCGe, .1, C083 1S Imearly Independent in F A set LESH, v1, He) ts a spans V iff ( (We, — A set Lefty a, ed ry C83 pans F" is a basis of V i (Cis, ..,, (Uk83 is a basis of F”Chapter 2 Linear Transformation 21 Linear Tronsformation Between Abstract Vectors Definition 21,1 let Vand W he vector space over F. A function Li! V-4W ts called a lincav transformation (or a tinea map) if for oll ¥, Ww eV ond ce h Lope ®) = La) + LOW) ALE T= cl sin pens In W Example |.Coordintzation with respect to a fired basis B fr V is @ linear trvsformation C Jesv—FF dimwvy=n 2, The tdentity function tds V3.V ghen by AMV=P is a linear tmweformatton #82 — ge Proof : Let V be 0 vector pare od vi) WEV ond CER Wet w= Vt @ = MCP) + de) Mee Vs c TF Cid) So the tentity function tds V>V is linear 3, let V=(FTRIRI Fis dfferenttade3 ond w=FFR3RI prow this Is a vectwr epace, both Teal vector space, Let Le VW bbe given by LéAI= £2, Then LS linear Proofs strst year calculus , same for taking integral (tgy'=f'tq) cof = ccf) 4 PIRI IR given by fin =axtb for ame a,béEIR is only a Imear tronsformation Hf b=0 feex) = acx+b # C (ax +b) =c FCx) cont tap to 0 5. Ls Mann (2 F ghen by L(A) =det (A) ts rot Iinear (22) LGkAY = det CLAD = EY det (A) + kdet (AY unless K=I Cmaybe &=-(> Definition 2.2.1 Kernel amd Range Let L°V Wi be a [inca trans formation 1. The kernel of Lis defied tp be kor (y= 4VEVSLO =F) domain 2. The vonge of Lis defined tp be Rongect)={ Lis EV) Seedomatn Example Let Ls PsCiR) 9 PaCIR> be gion by LéPIm) = Ploy © derivatives Rev (W=(crceiR 3} > omstant function, different from number Range (L) = PRR) X= abe tom Eh) 437s ont kde So, LIPI=R 7 Re Rage (1)2,2 Rank and Nullity Theavem 2.2.2 Let L'V3W be o linea transformation | L@=T 2 kerlL) 1S a swbspace of V Cdbmain) 3, Range LL) tS @ silospace of W Ccodomain) Proof * LOM=LUT+P) =LGA) + UG } run -enpty T= UPI ~ LO) = LHD LED) ~LEF) = LOD TPG, WE ker(L) , then LP=LEMI=G 3 LePE MI =LM+ UBS I+ =F | Prweker(L) ) oddition Defmition 2.2.5 let LS V3 W be a Iinenr transformation , —The ronk of L deroted monk iL) is te dimension of Range CL) — rankcLi = dim’ Range ¢L)) — The fulty of L denoted nullty(L) is te dimension of ker CL) nullity (L) = dim ¢ kear(L)) Theovern 2.2.6 (The Rank—Nullity Theorem > let LSVW be a linear transformatin with V fmrte dimensional , then Fane cL) + nullity CO) = dimcv) > domain 45 Ths theorem highlights the difference im " Importance" between domain and codomnain Proof let _n=dim cv) and m=aullity (L) Sie kerCLy SV, dimckerCLy < dimcvy=en > men let B=C0,1, 0. Fm) be a basis for kel L) , uhich ts a lmearly independent subset of v This meats we con extend B to a bosis of V let r=n-m and C=f0,1, .. Pms th, tay.) We] be a basis of V Need a bests of vectors for Range (L) Bs th... Wr EV wk W, [ets apply L to thom for getting a basis Wont D=F LG), LEW) 4, LEe)S is basts of Range CL) ©, Dis Iineary independent © Span (y= Range (L) LCI + ca CW) tt CrLCT= 7 ew Real +t calCB) tiie Cel) ED Lecith + tht it Crh) =F Chy linearity > = Lect + GTR 1 it Cra) Chy lrnearrty > So CIT + GTR tit cra © Kor (L) Fe Range (L) , Span CO) = Range (L) Thore exist du da ...dmeiR such that FeRange W), so FEV LEW= Vt CHD TR Cre = dv te Fe + dln Tn Yr L(CI+ CTR tere + dT +e Te «tnd CIV TR et Ce = dT, do Tes. — dm Tn =8 EV UI #2 UG) vs FOrLC) + AT at Sire C=E HH .. Pm, Hh, Days, Wr (8 basis S FE Span cor, Ronge (L) S Span (D) asc. So Span (0)= Ronge CL)Example 1, Gmslen Ls PF gven by ‘([5])° [i] ¢. were L/[]\ = i] t (8) le) Sora tatu rb 2, Consider L! Pa CR) 3 Max2(F) given by T(ax* thx te) = [om ~ | aaybic bie: let B= Six, 3 ond C=FLSGL 1831 [151 (2913 > soda tosts Ten for Yeatortex?, TCWI= [ «| > fe3e= 13) a a aatbic bc a bre So if ete iS a Matrix A which | performs the mean mop for us, Ht must be such ay = be _ plz AD" [Bee] [LE] el | *b¥e ait Tus, c(Lle=A ©8 GC2.3 Linear Maps os Natrices Theoram 2,33 8 Corollary 2.34 Suppose Vand W ove finite dimenstonal vector spares over F , B=1,.,,, In) Is ondered basis for V, C=f wt, ..., wm) Is ordered basis for W, If Ls VW iS a linea transformation, then cChJs=CCuMI]e .... CLIC] TS the unique matrix of the linear map L with respect to Band C with property that CUP Je=el LI8 [Vs Noreover , every matrix avies in this Way for some L:V>W Proof t Pech tt ota, mee (4), cChJe=C (LM Ie G (LW) Ie] Remark. \ Tf v=W ond B=C, we wite CLJe mstead of eBfLJs 2, Every linear transformation 1s uniquely determined by what it does to ony basis of domain Suppose B fs a hasts of V ond there exist a fiction L: B+ W, Then there Ts a unique transformation Le VW such tot LOgt)= LG for each teB L extends L Example, V=P3CIR) with basis B= (t,x, x7, x3) and WE PaCIR) with basis C= Et, 4, x73, D=F1, Hx, H2xte} LOPGO)= P'xd, Compute cle and pC LIe CLO Je = CL Cod ts. tontn) Je = GCL Tet... ten ELO@nTe = eLL Is ir CLIs (VJs om ellie =[C0Ie Cie Lae [3x7] = [i : ‘| pCLIe = [t0I0 (1p L2K]o (3x0) = I: a 4] go03 00 Let Pix)= 8 t2x—-40 + 2x? , PHOT. : apeteo Uronesecuae cringe 7; ff ‘| oo 03 i Ee] TPooTo= fle CPHNIE ‘Be ? s|EE] 0003 Theorem 2.3.7 let U,V, od W be finite dimensional vector spares with bases B,C ond D respectively let S*U9V and TEV W be linear transformations Then Tess UF WBS 8 Inca ivansformation and oC TSJe= pl TIccLSI5 matrix multipliation Example: let Le Pacik) 7 PaciR) ard Ts PaCiR) > PiCiR) be gen ky LP)=P" and T’P) =P? Thon TL shovld be send derivative Let 6c) 0 be stondord bases Lyot oo ol 007. > otTIe= Jot > ofteie= Jot 2 ollie [fez8]’ cra. [: ‘] ocr te [: [fess] [coz" oo 03 oo2 oo2slooo3 For PISatbxt crt de®) p'en=2et+bdx = [oor I) 2 ooob \laRecall For on man mottrix A, the null space of A is a Subspare of F" and te column space of A is a ‘subspace of F™ Proposition 2,3. 10 let v, W be finrte dimensional vector spaces with bases B and C respectively and Ls vw be @ Neon tyansfovmatton, Set A=clL Is 1 VE kor (LI HE CPTe © Null(Ad 2, WE Ronge lL) HF CWJe © Gol cA) Example Find bases for ker (L) and Rovye (L) whore L* Pa CF) Maxa (FF) gen by LCPEAYY= PF PCD | dim>l & dims dim= 6 —— dim= 4 pc) PCY Suction Expect ker ll) = £Cotia x Cx -10Ca-29 2 CORI let 6, C be stordorded boses of Pact), Max (iF) ves BRE piso o oe cClle = EcitnIe.., teted = 07 ‘| & [; 168 7] iit eerod ' geo 3 3 = hb 24 8 maceriae> = (78) > 80 basis for ker (L) = f ax-x? - 2x3 xt ceo LEB EDET] * = © (0 SHESDG SHCA Vt re Plas2/4 Chonge of Coordinates DePinttion 24.3 = COMIC... CCT eI (We Che] 15 the change of bose matrix fm B={0,..., th} to C (Both base ot the same space) Proposttton 2.44 let V be a finite dimenstonal vecton space with bases Bond ©. Then cle = (gic)! Proposttion 2.4 6 let Lev be & Itnenr between tuo fmrte-dimensional vector space V anol W, Suppose that 8 and B! ore onc bases for V and Cand ©? gre ordered bases for Wi, e(lis cfc c(lie ale’2.5 Tsomorphisms of Vector Spaces Example Tf Vis finite dimensonal vectr space and B is a basis » then linear tvonsforymattton by U2 VF" ghen by LCZ)=CVIs has the property that there 7S exactly one input for each possible oxtput — Range (L) = —Ditforent vector nV has different coordinate vector ae Sumilowly, Ls PCE) > Mzxa CF) gwen by Léatbxt oxr+ dxty= [6 4] Definttion 28:3 Let Ls VW be o Iinewv tvansformation , we use that — Lis Iniecttve Cone - to-one) Ras G2 Lm aL) © Ff LOD =LM), then B= Cher y= $33) — Lis suriective ¢ onto) If for oll Wew , there exist Vev such thot Liv) =~ (Ronge (11 = W) — Lis biiecttve If it is both Injecttve and surjective Lemma 2.544 Let LivW be a linen transformation , Lis indective fF ken (L)=1 9) Proof FO} S ker (LY Is always true © Lis wNecttve > ker (L)=1 0} Assume ® = kon (L) PURE T ELD ART Dk (LVF) © kee (LYF48] 9 Lis iniective Assume Ti, WreV such that LOG) = LCT) 2 LD -LIWD=T FLOW -WI= FF W- Be kere) SB-eT as MP Lis iniective Proposition 2.5.5 let LsvAW be a Itnewy tvansformation . Lo Lis wlective ff nullity c11 2 Lis surjective ff nk (41 dim (Ww) din ( Range CL) = di CW — Range CL) = WProposition 2.5.4 let LivaW be a linea transformation (1 dim Cv) < dimew), then Lis not suriective, domain < codomata , con't expand by L 2. 1 dim Cv) > dimcw), then Lis not inJective domain > codomain » must have some claps 3, dim Cv) = dimew), then Lis injective iff suriective Proofs By rank-oullity and theorem 1.3.15 Example 1 LeIRY= Pacik) gen by LC[E]) = catby + (ote) x + Corde inlectives no, dim(V)=4 > 3 = dm (PACIRD? suniective > ef LIe = [a : °| vonk=3 = dim ¢ PoCIR)) co 11d Suniective v 2, Lt Mara (IR) PaCiRY guen by LIPS ADE a4 Core) x + Casi? + bP dir ¢ Mave (1R)) = dim CPaCiRY) azo 2 foro > injective 2B suriective bee=o eo asd=0 deo bro bro DeFrmttion 2.8.7 Let Ls VaAW be o Inexv tvansformation » we use that \, We say that L ts an Wsomorphism HL is a bilectton 2 We soy that Vand W are tsomorphic i there exists an tsomorphism? Notation When Vand W are tsomorphic , we write VS w Definition Inverse Function let f:A 2B be a function, A and B ore sets, not necessarily vector spaces There exist a function 9: BA satisfying feq (b)=b for all beb and ge Pca) =a fir oll ac A iff fs biiection In the ase g exist, g & wique and is called the Inverse of f , clenoted as t Proposittan 2.514 Let L:VAW be a Iineuv tvansformation, Lis an isomorphism iff there exist a function L's WV such tot = ts linear — Les @ for all WEwW ~UML@D=T for all Dev Point’ A lineww tvunsforatton is tsomonphism iff it Is Invertille as a functon Lis Imear avd bilective =? L has unique Function mucrse = L775 linearProposittan 2.6, (2 let L:v-4W be a Isomonphism, B,C be bases for V and W vespectively . Then eC h TR =allTe > squares Facts let L°v-4W be a liner tvonsformation, B,C be bases for V and W respectively, Lys a Isomonphism Mf cCLIe 1s wertible (4 cftIe ts square) Exomple Let V be a fintte dimensional vector space with bases Bard C, id: VV ghen by W(D)=0 is an isomorphism cCidis COIs = Cid(G) Te =CU]e So cle charges coordinates from B toc Thus, clidds =e Lid Te Propositton 2.6, 2 etidd’s = elie If B rs ‘standord’ basis , then BEd le ts exsier +0 compute Theorem 2.5. [5 Vv and Ware tsomonphic fF dim cw) = dim (uv) Proo® > Since Vand W ove isomorphic, then there exist a tsomophism Ls v4 W nullity (L) =O, monk) =dimcw) , > dome) = nultty (L) + MankiL) =dim ww) = Assume dyn cw = dim (V) B={Ui,... Tad be pase of V, C = Sth, 1. Wn} be pase of W Legit ne + Gn GAD = CLIT ry tenL@ , show that L Is [i ‘transformation indecttve —) vene-nulity theorem surective Example Ls PsIR) > Mana (1R Ts PsC1R) Mana (> M > PBCIR) > Marz RD ae ot po i) Lia tbxtcxrtdx3)= Le a J Tha + bx + Cx tx3) = Che pd M Cat bx + Cx? td.x8) = Cer end dm cvy= dim CW) , kon (L92 42S dom cud dim (WN kon (L)= 23 xe kor , fot injective 1somorpnism fsomanphisin rot _teomonphism Covollory 25,16 let v be a vector space over F, then VER" HE dim cy) =nChapter 3 Diagonalizability 3.| Eigenvectors and Dexganalizattion Bomple Conside LR IR given by LCG) is the reflection of V in the Ine equation y=2x ye et 2 £21, 20 (% vs on He line, LGD = 07 S| cht porpendeular 4o the tine , (08D) = [2] we 82601, 00 stdte= [i 7) , clmas=4[4 7] Tide = eCate (ee $03 TE] - C8 so LTA = uaataiay= (2) +38) = 05) What bout CLs, where B is the stvdord basis Clie CW]e = (uve = eLude CUMIe = BC WIeCLIe CWe= BL UIeCLTe clue LVI5 So (lle = efuIe Le efuJs A=(L]e, D=CL]c, P=BLidJe + A=PoPt Example above arrort=Ch PIL SICLS t= aL t DeFmition 3.1.1 TE V4 W js @ liven transformation with V=W, ten Lis called a imear operator Definition 3.1.2, 31.3 let LsV4V_ be a [eae opeverton , \* cLye=[s4] |. A fon-2eW vector FEV Is called a elgenvecton of LF LIYI=Ad fr some NEF. The seular 0 is called tte eigenvalue of L corresponding to 7 2, FASE 8 an eyenalue of L, then ve defme En={Vevs Lom=avd to be the elyenspace of L corresponding to A ¢ The elgenspace of Rema k eyenvector Ont be 0 exgerivalues can be 0 eigenspace ts eyenvector +Proposition 3.1.4 HELV >V 5 a lineow operator ard Nts on etgenvalue, then En is a subspace Bomple L= Pa) PscRd Leatbx +o) = (atte) + (b+2c) x tex = PP What FP Lear bx + cx") = lat bx + cx)? atb= no Na+ =0 FA 1 07 ha ton j= x 3 [nesses = | o A 2 | truth 3 det (Ana) = Ci-ar*=0 fF A =I c=Re cencso 0 0 NI nullspoce Theorem let Li VV be a mea operator and B be a ordered basis of V CV sould be frite dimenstonal ) |) 01s an ebenvector of LHF CUIe Is an ebenvector of CLI 2. A ts an ebonvaluc of LHF oN Is on ebpnvae of CLI6 3, If Dis on epnvector of L with ebenvalue A, then [VI8 1s an egenvector of CLIe with ebenvalue A Things we steal Fem matrtx |. The characteristic polynomral of L and CiJe Is same 2.The maltiplicity Calgeoratc and geometvic) of A of L and CLIs is same 3, det (L1 = det (CLI8) innportont > CLIe=CLIe ore simllay3,2, Dragonalrzation Detinition 3,211 let L°VAV be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V. We say that L ss diagonalizoble thers exist @ basis B of V such that CLI8 ts dtagmal Observe / Recalls Suppose L ts a linear oparater , B ard C oe bases eCTdI9 Clie slide (Ie = eCIdIoCLIe CVs = cfIdIeCleGIs =Clev)Je = Cle Fe Te And Cle ts the only mabrrx with this property > CLle= GC idIe}'TLJa el ide D=P"AP , Dard A Bre statin BR OR OB Deftnrtion Matrices A,B& Manxn(F) are called simtlow if there exists Pe Mmen(F) Such tt 8 =P'AP Important points + The matrices of L with respact to vavtous bases are all similar B-LAS TEM mAh Proposttton 3.2.5 Simtlay matvices have same |. choractertstic poly nom tal 2 eigenvalues (algebvate / gaometvic > 3, determinant 4“, trace 5 rake 6. null This alloys the definition of things like det iL) as det cL):=det (cLIe) — 4A Defmrtion 3.2.7 A wairtx Ae Mnanch) ts diagonatizable Cover F) if there exsts an mnuertible matrix Pe Maan Cf) such that PTAP=D whee D Ts @ diagonal matrtx. We eay that the matvix P dingenalizes A Theorem 32,8 A matrix AE Mnanck) ts diagonalizalole iff there exist a basis D=¢i, «1. ,t3 fv #* such that each Te on eigenvector for A IP such Dewsts, and if we kt P=CH.,, th] be the matvix whose alumns ove veciovs In D, then Pare 8) 3s whore Ai is the eigenvalue corresponding to the elgenvecton vtProposition 3,2, 11 Suppose Div AK are distinct eigenvalues of a square Matrx A with covresponding eigenvectors di... Ve Then (i, ...,0e3 1 Ineavly independent Proposition 3,212 Tha nen matvix A has 0 distine egenualues, then A 1S diagoralizable the converse s false Definition 3.2, Hr let A € Mnanck) ad let N be an egenualue of A The algebrate multtplterty of X is the muttiplictty of A as a ret of the chowncteristic polyromial of A The geometric multtplicrty of a ts defined to be the dimension of the eyjenspace Enca) = Null (A-AL) Proposition 3,215 Suppose My i, Ak are distiné eigenvalues of a matvix AEMaxnCF), and let Fir, wa,» Tym3 be @ basis for He eYjenspace correspond) to Ni ( dwn(EN) =m) , Then es en is @ linearly independent subset of F" Proposition 3.2, 1 let A be on elgenvalue of a matvix AE MaxnC » thon legn cans Theorem 3,2, 17 A matrix AE Mnancf) is diagonaitzaile iF every elyonvalue of A We its geometric multiplicity eal ite algebras multtpiterty gr=an for all » Chowoctertstic Polynomtall Caray = cn Nt cat A te, CN +O where cn=(-19, Cats (-1)""' tv/A) , Co = det ca)Tportont Theorem let LsvV be a linea orator, te fulomrgs ave equivalent fs L ts diagonatizaiole 2 (Le te diagonal for same basis 8 3, [Le is diagenotizable for all ases C Bomple Ve Mart) and LSVV ke given by 106)= 83 0], Find eyonstatt and test dtagonalizsbiity Solve» consider 8= {Lo $),L6 01,[5 0], [6 115 TLis= [Cues Cue Te CuJe CUD I [3335] A “A100 eone Caen det [3234] = tanta |= ODE Eq= null (A> Le) Theo 4190 oo Tt seat ey prsee f(s 3 °. 0 0 é . Se dagonalizable c= fo 0),0 31,05 0, [7 415 Example (Is differrentiatton of a polynomials dragoniizabde ? L#PnciRY > PrCiRY 5 LEPC) = PEK) © BFK, x" =a |e CANE NY" 0 tS the only eigenvalue of L with ae=ntl Ee = Null (A~OT) = full/A) , A has rank n, sO. nulity (AY=| , go=l Sree qo an , rot ckagcnallzoble © chin, # # [L3e= [# ] Jodo Canonteal Form2) Suppose, Qo=-2, Q=-3, Ann= San-ban-i for nal Go M Q2 Os OF as Ab on=3a"—3+2" > how +o find thts formula 233 3 33 4) 837 petine th= [an] for each n>t, vet a=Li ol Aah = Lie Mam] = Ess = (720) = aaa So ATT) = The = [an let's diagmnalize A [T* J 4 tem cm 469 Aq2ond A=3 Etgemectors for A=2 1 [7], Egemectors for A=2 ts [7] soset P=TiTI], pt=(4 9 na = pote? at TPTI CE ICS FI GI=LE ae] So an=3"-3:2" for all n 3. B=(cosx, stax}, V=Spang(B) things like #1) e600 +3)sInoD LivoV, icon = fm, te Comex + bsinx> = -asinx + boosx oven a, bee (Les CC ucoser de CUsirIe] The Tals Rais not etyenualues ore i ond -> etgenvects are Lt] ond [i] ond [1] ove coordinate vectors for eigenvectors of L 0 sx t}sinx Is eigenvectors for elgenualues T of L, GoSx-TsInx Is elgenvectors for elyenualues 7 of L Normally, we define 2% =cosxtisinx for xeik > &el=ie*Chapter 4 Tener Product Space metal JELerEaN oe eT WeVASO, BBO, WB=O CC is orthogonal bases) want a,b,ceR such tut W=at tb t ct WW thie t Cis) T= a TE the dot product output @ scolar HT geo tt prod pet a oe wes | simly, b= “St = ae and c= Be = 38 Find [ble alo] +bU%] The dot product gies on implied scolar equatton from a vector equation, This works jn R” with dot product Defmnition 41.1 let V be ao vector space. A function : Vxv2 F is called an inner product on V if for all BV, FEV and cer 68, W> = BV? conjugate symmetvy 2 SOT, B= CR, WPF CT, WD 3. 6c, W> = 06d, W> ACT, VIER and C7, V> 20) 60, V>=0 HE V=8 positive definiteness We call Va inner product space. Remark ~ FRR o FRG — Tf F=IR , condugate symmetvy con be replaced as symmetvy <0, w> = — The usual dot product on IR” 1s an innew product called the “standard innep product on iR™ — The usual dot product on ©" does not give a innen product on ¢* SFoRx oh Example Standard inner product on ¢” Wade, ("] [jeer ve * anbn an} Le ts foils since [1] [i] = i-1=0, out [J #8 Instead (i . fp = abit t+ anbn Is a Inner product an} Lon] ” for this course coniugate the second j linearity in the finst avgument (component) Prove by 12,3,Proposition 4.1, 1 Let V be an mer product space, for all 7,0, eV and ce F A <0, V> =<7, F>=0 2 60, CW = FLT W 3d, VW = ca VOTE? Proof \ OV> MPF, P= CO, 07+ LG, MD FCT, V> HG, Tt La, FCT V>=0 <9, 9> =P, V> =0 2.69) oW> = Cow, V? St nite RARE 3.<0, PW? = CHT, GED = LP, VG, WD J AdSeut aL AAA Bample let V=CCa,17 be the set such that continuous functions with domain 0,13 and codomain IR © = So fon goo dx = Sy gon Foo de = Og ,£> © = So exit goo) hay dx = So foo hor dx + So goo hon dx = <#,h> + ©. similar wrth @ @ =S) foo fordx = Sy CRonTdx 20 ond =0 ME f=0 Exomple 4.1, Ib Let VEMmxn (IR), =C87A) ts on Innew product on V for F =IR ©. =4eC ATA) = te ( [OTTER A... HIV = (peas Fat FH) [=] Brora] [*" Beat Beth a a Har G-Ati.t Cn th 20 SAB At..t Cacho 9 F=T Hy all reCi,.4,03 9 a=e Deffnttion 4.1.18 let V be a Inner product space with linear product < » >1 The rorm induced hy < , > isa fanctton I eV IR gnen ky lvls Sew4.2 Orthogonality and Norn Orthogonal For [RP and >, re con ke shown that # % and are fenzero vectors, Hen os 6 = Tarn Where 056180" between @ and 0 Band ¥ are perpendicular FF v=o Definttton 4.2.1 let @ and 7 be vectors m an inner product space V, We soy thet g and % ave onthogonalrty Fd, 9 =0 We write ULV tp mndterte R and P are orthogonaltty #0 is orthogonal +o every thing Example let V=Ps CIR) have Inner product = oy pixr qoxd dx Wipelt= Ly ane dx = xr dere = So Well = AE Stet ad = LE cent dx= Bixte xt de = + 14 =0 So 4 LX? Theorem 42.3 (Pythagarean Theorern) Tf Vis an inner product space and w,VEV ove orthogmal (= 0) then d+ OI? = llall? + UOTE oy ]e Proof * ae al” = C047, atv? =U UtT +47, RTD BDH 6B VHD HP, TUN CR PIT, VT? + IVI BEA AEM orthogonal B HHP, DT MES = lll to +0 + IF = han? + gir HEA iE) let 007 = Nal? + UIP 4 Ca, V+ GrVd <0 9 2Re (Ce, 9) =0 Lemma 4.2.4 TFT ond @ ave vectors In an wer product space with Wa, then a wi 7- SB wd e prodection Proof <0- GR ot, a> =<7, > - RR a, a>=c7, a> - GR awr=0Theorem 4,25 CCauchy~ Schwarz Inequality ) Tf V ts an Innew product space then forall @,WEV » I1=0 ond WII Gl = NTI 0 80 (<0, WI $ III ll Otherwise gvit= d= SEA of + SERS GP =~ SAB ot RS IP by lemma 4.24 arttegonal | go iit > ISEB GIP once Id- SAR wie >o SAB P air = AGRE yar 50 1CP, Wal? ¢ VIP? > (<7, W>1 STII sivce all postive Definition 4.2.6 For two non-zero vectors VW in a infer product space, we can defme the angle between 7 and @ by 0= cos" (i9iHaT) € C0, comes from <¥, 8>= [lll ill cos®. This 1S between | and -I by the cosine Mequality Proposition 4,2. If Vis an mnen product space with mner product given by < , > for all ?, WEV and cer ) Newil = tel Av 2 Wet IS GH + nal 3, IV2O with WI=0 RF v=o & real Proof he tegl® 2 ve wir =<, c> = 6Utd, Vw =ecy, cv? 6G TD +6, Wd HDD + WD FOTW, YD = IR + + oad + nal cath) Cab) = a+b? = Larbt|* = HDI + DECAF, wd) FAI = le aie << MOIP + LaRe(4g, W>d| + AOI Strice all quantities bemg squared are nonnegative = HIP + 2162, WI + I Negi tel tl z=otbl, l2l= No= tb = At = lal = Reve) SOP + 2yTU LH Aa by cauchy -schwore equality = CIN + Waly? Siice all quantities being squared are ronnegatve Wve abil s a+ nailDefmition 4.2.8 let V be an inner product space and EV, The distwce between PB and Vis distew, ¥) = IIe vl Properttes of Distance let V bean Innew product spice ond w, UW eV hy dist @ V120 and dist Vi=0 RE F=V 2 dist @ 7) = dist C?, B) 3, dist RV) < dit at) + dist GV) Example VEM2x2 (IR), <4, 8>=t (BTA) ts on Inne product on V for FF SIR a (C)22, Ad) = 003 FU [603 9,0 > WeS ED =e4.3 Orthonormal Base Definition 4.3.2/ 4.37 let V be an inner product spoce and VEV, 0 is non-zena, We say thet PIs a unit vector If IIVII= 1 or 6¥, U>=1 The normalization of 7 Is the vector = THT Proposition The normalization of a non-zero vector Is a unit vector Proof wv = Lag) vk = a 2 since [IV >0 Definrtnon 4.3,1/ 43,374.34 let V be an inter product space and S={%),.., Va] be a subset of V 1 S18 an orthogonal set # = tC BTA) 4, The stundovd basis of Msn (C) with respect i tHe Frobenius inner product = tr BAY TRB Ta) 1S aN orthonormal. set I Proposition 4.3/8 Suppose FT, .) Vel ts orthogonal ard G# 7 for all i, Then {7}, Proof Assume (Ti, ., Vel ts orthogonal ard T# a for all i Suppae AA tHe =) for thy tee F Tren Sti t thik , WHS, P & Hd, W=0 S tTITIP=0 © ti-o since TFG Vid is lineavly Independent