E.M (0680) Notes V#1

Enviromental managment
Content overview
1. Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
2. Energy and the environment
3. Agriculture and the environment
4. Water and its management
5. Oceans and fisheries
6. Managing natural hazards
7. The atmosphere and human activities
8. Human population
9. Natural ecosystems and human activities
Assessment overview
Paper 1 1 hour 45 minutes Paper 2 1 hour 45 minutes

Theory 50% 80 marks Management in context 50% 80 marks
Section A: short and structured questions – 20 Short, and extended response questions based on
marks source material
Section B: short-answer and extended response
questions based on source material – 60 mark
Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
CHAPTER 1
Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Formation of rocks
Types of rocks
Types of rocks
Metamorphic rock : rocks or igneous or sedimentary rocks
changed by heat and/ or pressure e.g. marble and slate
Igneous rock : rocks formed by cooling of (molten) lava or

magma e.g. granite and basalt
Sedimentary rock : rocks formed from sediments or small

particles of rocks/rocks deposited in layers/rocks that contain
fossils e.g. limestone, sandstone and shale
Formation of rocks
Metamorphic rocks These rocks are formed in the Earth's crust which
also change their shapes . The change in shape is due to heat and
pressure . Heat is provided by the magma flow and pressure is
provided at the plate boundaries.
E.g. Anthracite, quartzite
Igneous rocks : They are formed by lava through volcanic activity. •

Magma is released from the mantle • Magma rises towards the surface
• The magma cools down to form igneous rocks.
E.g. Granite, diorite
Formation of rocks
Sedimentary rocks : These are made up of sediments .

Sediments are small particles which are broken from different
rocks. After breaking, they reach the seabed
E.g. Sandstone, flint
Rock cycle
1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth
Are the methods used by scientist to find the presence of minerals in a particular location.
1. Prospecting :
a process of searching for
minerals by examining
the surface of the rocks.
2. Remote sensing
a process in which information is
gathered about the Earth's surface from
above. Photographs of the area are
taken from air. The images are
carefully analyzed for mineral
presence. Aerial photography can cover
more ground than a person on the
surface.
3. Satellite images:
Computers are used to process the data
from a region of interest to check for
mineral presence. Geologists confirm the
presence of the mineral by visiting the
location (recorded by the satellite's
positioning system). Geologists can
further check the availability of the
mineral in nearby areas.
Using satellites saves time and costs less
4. Geochemical analysis:
Analyzing the chemical properties
of rocks (by taking samples). The
samples can be taken from stream
sediments, soil or rocks
5. Geophysics:
Method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using

their physical properties.
A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent

through the Earth's surface.
Several sensors are placed at different distances from
the source of vibrations on the surface.
The vibrations create shock waves that travel down
into the rock layers.
They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface
The shock waves record different patterns depending
on the mineral present in the rock layers.
6. Radiation detection:
Mineral deposits are weathered

at the Earth's surface, forming
mineral oxides. They can be
detected by their unique
radiation pattern (recorded by a
satellite and downloaded to a
computer for analysis).
Surface mining:
method of extracting minerals near the surface of the Earth
Types:
open-cast
open pit
open cut
strip mining
Steps involve in opencast mining.
The vegetation is removed and the top soil is cleared

The rocks are broke and cut using explosives
The diggers are used to remove the loose rock
The rocks are carried in trucks/railway wagons
Sub-surface mining
Sub-surface mining is carried Steps involved in sub-surface mining

out when the rocks, minerals, or Step 1: Sinking the vertical shaft down
precious stones are located at a
to the rocks containing minerals.
distance far beneath the ground
to be extracted with surface Step 2: Horizontal tunnels are dug
mining. down to the mineral layers
Step 3: The loose rock is brought from
Types of sub-surface mining the mines and piled up on the surface
are:
Step 4: The minerals are then
Deep mining
Shaft mining transported away by railway wagons
Sub-surface mining
Uses of rocks
Gravel : used for making concrete
Granite : used in construction
Chalk : used in manufacturing of cement
Sand : used in making glass
Clay : used in making sand
The factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and
minerals
The cost of exploration or extraction:
Probable cost of extracting one ton is calculated.

The mining method is important because open pit (surface mining) is cheaper than
shaft mining (sub-surface) which is more expensive.
Geology
High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade ores.
Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining
Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mine
At a profit are left as reserves.
Accessibility
Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult
and expensive.
The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or to the
nearest port for export has to be considered.
carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.
Environmental impact assessment
For a licence application to be approved, the company must have a plan

to keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land
proceeding the completion of mining.
The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.
Supply and demand
Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.
The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
. If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before become worth
mining.
• If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the transport and
extraction expenses
1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction
Positive impact of rock and mineral extraction (mining)
Employment opportunities
Improvements in local / national economy
Improvements in facilities and Infrastructure
Means of foreign exchange.
Negative impact of rock and mineral extraction (mining)
Visual pollution or loss of scenic beauty or eyesore;

Loss of, vegetation / wildlife/ habitat destruction
Dust or fumes or atmospheric / air pollution
Noise, from operations / scares wildlife (noise pollution)
River or water pollution
Increase in traffic or road congestion
Land pollution
1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction
Safe disposal of mining waste land restoration
Soil improvement
Bioremediation: a process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms.
Tree planting
Making lakes and nature reserves
Using as landfill sites
How the pits are used after mining
waste disposal
lake
fill for farming
sport stadiums
solar power farms
tourist attraction
1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction
Sustainable resource:
is one that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment so that it does not
run out.
Sustainable development:
is development providing for the needs of an increasing human population without harming
the environment.
1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals
Increase efficiency of the extraction 2nd time proccesing

increase efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals
recycle rocks and minerals
legilization :the goverments requir es that the manufacture to become responsible for
recycle and reuse
2. Energy and the environment
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Fossil fuel formation
Describe the formation of the fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas
Fossil fuels: carbon-based fuels, formed over millions of years ago from the decay of
living matter.
Coal: formed from plants.
Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures.

Formation of coal:
Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of

the Earth.
The vegetation died and formed peat.
The peat was compressed between layers of sediments to
form lignite (low-grade coal).
Further compression formed coal.
Small animals and plants die and fall to the
bottom of the sea.
Their remains are covered by sediments.
Formation of oil and natural gas: As the sediments start forming layers, they start
to change into sandstone as the temperature
and pressure increase.
The heat and pressure turn the remains into
crude oil and natural gas.
They separate and rise through the sandstone,
filling in the pores.
The rock above the oil and gas is impervious
(non-porous).
So, they get trapped underneath it
.
2.2 Energy resources and the generation of electricity
The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:
Increasing population size.
Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.
Improvements in standards of living and expectations.

.
:
Types of energy sources:
Non-renewable Renewable
Limited Can be used over and over again
Take millions of years to get replenished Can be replenished in a short period of time
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) Geothermal power
Nuclear power (using uranium) Hydro-electric power
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Solar power
Biofuels e.g. bioethanol, biogas and wood

2.2 Energy resources and the generation of electricity
Types of energy sources:
Nuclear fuels last for centuries and are a good replacement for fossil fuels, but the
source material (uranium) is limited.
Biofuels may become limited, but it can be renewed by replacing the cut-down trees
with new ones to obtain bioethanol and wood.
Biogas can be obtained by recycling waste products.
How energy sources are used to generate electricity
Turbine: a machine, often containing

fins, that is made to revolve by gas, steam
or air (it is connected to a generator).
Generator: a machine that converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Fossil fuels and biofuels produce a massive amount of energy during combustion
that is used to heat water and convert it into steam, which thereby drives the turbines.
Nuclear power:
Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of

energy when nuclear fission (splitting of the atom) occurs.
This energy is used to heat the water, produce steam, and
rotate the turbines.
Geothermal power:
Cold water is pumped under

pressure into a layer of hot
rocks.
The rocks heat the water.
The hot water returns to the
surface under pressure and
heats the second supply of
water using a heat exchanger.
The steam produced in the
second supply moves the
turbine, generating electricity.
Wind power:
Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that

rotate due to wind.
Gearbox maximises the rotation of the
shaft.
Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in
very windy conditions, preventing
damage to the blade.
As the turbine rotates, the generator
produces electricity.
Solar power:
Uses photovoltaic cells that produce

a small electric charge when
exposed to light.
A bank of cells organised into solar
panels produce a significant
amount of electricity.
Tidal power:
Uses the natural rise and fall in the

level of water in an area.
When the levels drop, water is held
back by a tidal barrage (a small
dam that releases water back
through a turbine).
Wave power:
Also uses turbine and generator.
Uses the smaller differences in
water levels that are caused by
wind.
Hydro-electric power:
Uses a dam on a river to store

water in a reservoir.
Water is released from the
reservoir that flows through the
turbine, rotating it.
The turbine then activates a
generator that generates
electricity.
Fossil fuels:
Advantages Disadvantages
Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are

Plentiful supply; released when burnt contributes to
global warming;
Provides job opportunities (mining

Damages local area;
and processing);
The technology used is well-known

and the methods of extraction are Limited supply (non-renewable).
well-practised.
Biofuels:
Carbon dioxide and toxic gases

Renewable source;
are released when burnt;
Growing more plants uses Lot of land needed.Shortage of

carbon dioxide; land for agriculture ‫؞‬
Plentiful supply. Removal of natural ecosystems ‫؞‬

Energy demand
Example:
Domestic demand:
Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally
Created by affordability, availability and social available in the season locally, are
status. produced in glasshouse or in areas with a
favourable climate and are then
Most of the purchases that are considered as transported.
necessities now increase the demand for energy
supplies, notably electricity. In both the scenarios (glasshouse
operation and transport), the energy cost
is significant.
Industrial demand: Transport:
Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts Manufacturers supply customers across the globe.
of energy throughout the production e.g. iron and
steel production. This decreases production costs in countries that
import, but increases the transport costs as they
require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.
Advanced manufacturing techniques made the
products, that were once luxury items, cheaper.
So, more people want to buy them.
The demand for the product increases.
The demand for energy (needed for production)

also increases.
Personal and national wealth:
If economic conditions are good: Decline in the economy of one country

can have a global impact.
Higher employment;
More money to spend on luxury items; Reduction in the economy of China meant
Increase in demand for the product; a worldwide:
Increase in demand for energy (for production). Reduction in production of steel.
Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods (transported by ships).

If economic conditions are poor: Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).
Families have less money to spend on luxury items;
Need to make savings;
Reduce the use of fuel;
Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items;
Decrease in the demand for energy.

Climate:
The demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the country.
People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters, so the energy demand for
heating would be far higher.
They also experience fewer hours of daylight.
This increases the usage of electrical lighting.
Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy consumption (particularly in urban areas).
Need for additional heating.
Installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

Strategies for the efficient management of energy resources:
Conservation and management of energy sources

Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a building.
Insulation: constructing using material with good
insulation properties prevents loss of heat.
Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof
space.
Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on the
floor e.g. carpet.
Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and outside
walls is filled with an insulating material, causing the
heat to pass through more slowly.
Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the
middle to act as an insulator.
This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas e.g. argon.
Triple glazing can also be used, but it is too expensive.
Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.
Devices can be left in ‘standby’ mode and can be accessed rapidly.
More energy-efficient devices must be bought.
Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further development in engine technology.
‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines from use (electrical appliances or vehicles).
Energy from waste:
Reusing existing materials to extract energy from them before they are disposed.
Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter (waste food and vegetation) using bacteria.
This process takes place in a sealed container and releases methane (a flammable gas) that can be used
for heating purposes.
The composted waste can be used as organic matter to improve soil structure.
Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat, that can be used to generate electricity;
Advantages :Waste from burning (ash) is small in volume. Thus, it doesn’t take up much space.
Disadvantages :Produces poisonous gases during combustion.
Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed;
These oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels suitable for running vehicles;
It can be used exclusively or as an additive.
Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed;

These oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels
suitable for running vehicles;
It can be used exclusively or as an additive.
Education:
Benefits of the technology must be communicated to others;

Promote new ways of thinking;
The message must be that significant savings in energy bills can be made over the longer term,
reducing energy use;
Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new products to compare with the old ones.
Laws passed by the government to make changes rapidly:
Stricter building regulations: new constructions must be more energy efficient.
Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical devices.
Incentives to encourage the purchase of more efficient technologies:
Insulating older houses that are energy efficient;
Replacing older, inefficient electrical devices;
Scrapping older, inefficient cars, that emit more pollutants.
Exploiting existing energy resources:
The type of energy source used depends on

social, environmental and economic factors.
The current solution is to use a renewable

resource as a primary energy source when
possible and have a fossil-fuel (or biofuel)
powered station available as a backup when
weather conditions are not suitable.
This is a reliable source for industry and
households and reduces the amount of fossil
fuels used.
Transport policies:
Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles;

Check on the fuel efficiency;
Restrictions on where vehicles may go;
Taxation on fuels;
Surcharges for travelling to certain places at peak times;
Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars;
Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians;
Encouraging car-sharing;
Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in Delhi;
Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for vehicles using cleaner
technology.
Development of new resources:
Fracking: obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting

them open using water, sand and chemicals.
A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-rich
rocks (shale rocks).
Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the shale
rock layer.
This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural
gas, which are forced back to the surface and collected.
Purpose of the three components:
Water: easy to handle (in high pressure).
Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes.
Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open.
Access to more oil and gas; Risk of toxins entering the water table;
Chemicals are toxic and may affect local

Less pollution than burning coal;
residents;
The need to import reduces; Uses a lot of water; may cause water scarcity;
Noise pollution;Natural areas damaged;May cause

Provide many jobs locally.
additional Earth tremors.
Impact of oil pollution
Organism or
Impact of oil
habitat
Main causes of marine oil spills:
Oil floats on the surface of the water
Offshore oil extraction: leakage from the rigs. and blocks the sunlight from entering.
Phytoplankton
The phytoplankton can’t
Oil pipelines: leaks in the oil pipework. photosynthesise, so they die.
Shipping: risk of collision or damage to oil tankers. Shortage of food; reduction in
Fish
phytoplankton.
Oil floating on the surface prevents gas

exchange. Fish become short of oxygen
and die; Direct contact of the fish with
oil affects their gills.
Organism or habitat Impact of oil
Birds Shortage of food as fish and other creatures die;
May consume oil when eating fish (toxic);
When hunting for food, feathers get covered with oil, affecting their ability to fly.
Mammals Food sources are depleted;
Mammals may also swallow oil while feeding (toxic);
Coating of oil will affect their skin.
Reefs Complete devastation of the reef due to lack of oxygen (species die);
Areas may be covered in oil.
Beaches Oil (washed by tides) coats rocks;
Organisms in shallow water and rock pools may die due to toxic effects of the oil;
Animal food sources and tourism are affected.

Management of oil pollution
Reducing oil spills in marine environments:
MARPOL (Marine Pollution): International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution

from Ships. (FFF)
Regulations of the MARPOL:

Supervise the transport of oil at sea;
All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate systems in use;
Else, it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not be permitted to leave port.
Management of oil pollution
Tanker design:
Oil spill can be caused by damage to
the hull (a hole in the hull of the
boat causes its contents to leak).
Increase in the number of
compartments within the hull of the
ship: if one of the compartment’s
damaged, the contents of the whole
ship aren’t lost. Though double-hulled tankers cost
Double-hulled tankers: if the outer more than single-hulled, the risks of
layer’s damaged, the contents are oil spill are far less.
still secure by the inner plate.
Minimising the impact of oil spills:
Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround the oil slick,

preventing it from spreading.
This process works well when the spill covers a relatively small area and
the sea is calm.
Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil slick into smaller
droplets, that eventually degrade, and disperse it.
They are effective on smaller spills, but cause damage to the coral reefs
themselves as they’re not tolerant to detergents.
Skimmers :
clean the water using a material that oil easily attaches to.
The skimmer drags oil off the seawater

surface, that is then scrapped off into a
container.
This system is used when oil slick is

contained within a boom and the sea is
calm.
When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be

removed by hand (difficult and time-
consuming).
3. Agriculture and the environment
Soil composition
• Mineral particles: rock fragments + other inorganic substance formed by

weathering
• Organic content: mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms and their
dead remains
• Air: held within the pore spaces
• Water: held within the pore spaces
The proportion of these components depends on:

• Type of soil;
• Way it has been managed;
• Local climatic conditions;
• Size of the mineral particles.
Soil can be classified into three
groups:
Type Size Texture
Sand 2.0-0.02 mm Gritty
0.02-0.002
Silt Silky or soapy
mm
Sticky when wet

clay <0.002 mm and Hard when
dried
3.2 Soils for plant growth
• Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which water, mineral nutrients,
anchorage and oxygen can be supplied to a plant. Plants require a supply of
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a range of other elements to construct
proteins and carry out life processes.
Element Supplied as:

Nitrogen -Nitrate ions (NO3-)
Phosphorus -Phosphate ions (PO43-)
Potassium -Potassium ions (K+)
Organic matter
Organic content: decomposers that produce humus High levels of organic matter:
(rich in nutrients):
• Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; • Allows the soil to hold more water (like a sponge);
aerate the soil; spread organic matter through the • Increase air spaces in the soil;
soil. • Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the soil,
• Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard • providing additional drainage and less compaction;
woody items; aid plants to take up nutrients • Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on to min
through their roots. nutrients
• Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste
products to simple chemicals; some convert
nitrogen to nitrates ‫؞‬important in nitrogen cycle.
Soil pH
• Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots; Sand Clay

decreases with increasing pH
• Affects the availability of nutrients; Larger air spaces Poor air spaces
• Increase pH- add ground limestone
• Decrease pH-add fertilizers Drains well Poor drainage
• Drainage: capacity of the soil to drain water
must be medium (no water loss; no surplus
Poor retention of humus Retains humus
amount of water).
• Ease of cultivation: how easily the soil can be
Easier to cultivate Hard to cultivate
ploughed
3.3 Agriculture types
Subsistence: for personal usethe extra is sold (rice)

Commercial :made to be sold extra is used by the farmer
(tea)
Arable : for human consumption
Pastrol: for animal consumption(grass)
Mixed : for the farmers and theor animals
3.4 Increasing agricultural yields
• Crop rotation: the principle of growing different types of plants in different plots each year.(improves soil
,optimizes nutrients)Legumes: have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.
• Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their leaves (require a lot of nitrogen left by legumes).
• Root crops: have deep root systems.
• Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period to restore soil fertility and to avoid surplus production
Advantages of crop rotation:

• Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind;
• Pests need to find a new site ‫؞‬their population is reduced;
• The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential nutrients;
• Crops ready to harvest at different times ‫؞‬less potential waste, less labour and machinery
needed.
3.5Impact of agriculture
1. Overuse of herbicides and insecticides

2. Overuse of fertilizers:
3. Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging:
4. Overproduction and waste:
5. Exhaustion of mineral ion content:
6. Soil erosion:
7. Cash crops replacing food crops:
3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion
Causes of oil erosion
• Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind the soil together or slow down the torrents of water, so flash
flooding and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.
• Overcultivation: ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles. These are more easily carried away by
wind.
• Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level, sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil.
• Wind erosion: deforestation (due to need for space, excessive grazing, increase in development of arable crops)
increases the chance of soil getting eroded by wind.
• Water erosion: heavy rainfall carries the particles away.
⚬ Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil transports the soil from that area;
⚬ Soil compaction reduces infiltration;
⚬ Gully erosion (volume of water erodes local soil further) forms deeper and deeper crevices.
3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion
Impacts of soil erosion:
Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent (subsoil lacks in nutrients ad air spaces).
Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat: impact on the entire ecosystem.
Silting up of water courses: flooding occurs as water bodies can’t hold excess water (space taken up by silt).
Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Silt affects the quality and availability of water for drinking.
Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer: preventing light from reaching the underwater plants
(low oxygen levels in ecosystem no photosynthesis).
Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes desert.
Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole community.
Risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser food source.
3.7. Managing soil erosion
Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour in a

Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep slopes
parallel way.
in a terraced slope: water is held in the flat terraced areas, causing
less risk of run-off and more chance of infiltration.
.
3.7. Managing soil erosion
Wind breaks:the soil is eroded away. Solid structures, like walls,
force the wind into smaller spaces, increasing wind speed and Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to hold back
causing eddy currents. Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow water.
some wind to pass through, decreasing its speed and thus, the
amount of wind erosion.
.
4.Water and its managment
4.1 Global water distribution
• Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface.

• Oceans and seas contain 97% of all the Earth’s water.
• Only 3% of water on Earth is fresh-water.
• Nearly two thirds (65%) of this 3% fresh-water is in the ‘deep
freeze’ in the ice sheets
4.2 The water cycle
Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
Rain is the most common type.
Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground surface, eventually finding its way into
streams and rivers.
Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s surface due to being obstructed by trees and
plants.
Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and pore
spaces.
Through-flow: downslope movement of water through the soil, roughly parallel to the ground surface.
Ground water flow: slow horizontal movement of water through rock.
Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other water bodies is changed from water droplets to water
vapour (invisible gas) in the atmosphere due to heat.
Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water from plant leaves.
Condensation: water vapour converted back into liquid (water droplets) or solid (particles of ice) due to
a decrease in temperature with increasing height by air currents, e.g. clouds.
4.3 Water supply
1. Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps.
2. Ground water: water in the soil, and in rocks under the surface of the ground.
3. Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the ground.

• Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rock;
• Folded layers of rock so water accumulates the most in the down fold;
• Permeable rocks outcropping on the surface receive new supplies of rainwater;
• Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone (porous) rocks below the water table;
• Mechanical pumps, or human labour are used to raise water to the surface
4. Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which the water is under pressure.

• Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer will rise to the surface without the need for a pump.
5. Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of water supply, usually created behind a dam or by the side of a
river (bank-side reservoir).
6. Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water is stored e.g. Water tower and Cistern.
7. Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water stored in them.
8. Rivers: a large, natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river.
• They provide surface transfers of water to low-land areas where farms, villages, towns and cities are
concentrated.
9 .Desalination: removal of salt from seawater by:
10. Distillation: water is boiled and released as vapor, leaving salt behind.
•The vapour is then condensed as liquid water and can be used.
•10-30% efficient and uses a lot of energy.
•Provision of energy and salt water (brine) is a source of pollution
11. Reverse osmosis: pumping water at high pressure through a fine membrane.
• 30-50% efficient and requires lesser energy than distillation
4.4 Water usage
Domestic Industrial
•At home for drinking and cooking (3% of domestic In factories for:
water) •Cooling;
•MEDCs •Mixing and making products such as dyes
• Washing and flushing the toilet (50%) and paints;
• Washing clothes (20%) •Bottling and canning in food and drink
• Gardening industries;
• Washing cars •Power generation.
• Lost in leaks. •In factories for:
•Cooling;
Agricultural •Mixing and making products such as dyes
• Mainly for irrigation (plants need water for and paints;
transporting minerals, for photosynthesis, and for •Bottling and canning in food and drink
the prevention of wilting); industries;
• For domestic animals •Power generation.
4.5 Water quality and availability
Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh water

supplies e.g . Russia, Canada,
•Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh water
supplies:e.g. Argentina, Sudan
•Water conflict: conflict between countries, states, or groups
over an access to water resources.
•Physical water scarcity: not enough water to meet both
human demands and those of ecosystems to function
effectively.
Rural areas Vs Urban areas
Urban areas have better water access due to :
1. Cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices;

2. On average, people’s incomes are higher;
3. Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to make improvements;
4. Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;
5. Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close
together.
4.6 Multipurpose dam projects
Choice of site: Pros and cons
1. High precipitation to provide sufficient water;

2. Low temperature to prevent evaporation; Generate electricity relocates people
Renewable source of Affects marine life disrupts
3. Built high up in order to have good potential energy ecosystem
Doesn’t produce green Expensive to built
for hydro-electric power; house effects (sus)
4. Narrow, steep sided valley for economic Reduce fossil fuel Requires maintenance
consumption (sus)
reasons; Provides Jobs Floods land (If collapsed)
5. Easily accessible;
Unsustainable : Because it might get filled with
sediments with time (silting )
Might collapse due to the constant pressure
4.7 Water pollution and its sources
Sources of pollution:
1. Domestic waste: sewage from rural and urban settlements carry many pathogenic micro-
organisms, increasing the content of nitrates and phosphates in rivers.
2. Detergents, metals and other manufactured products contain traces of toxic chemicals.
3. Industrial processes: use of chemicals, the processing of metal ores, and the leaching of
metals from waste heaps and dumps cause the presence of metals in rivers (e.g. manganese,
mercury, copper).
4. Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form
acid rain.
5. Agricultural practices: surpluses of phosphorous and nitrogen not absorbed by the plants are washed from the land
or percolate into the ground water.
6. On farms, animal manure, synthetic fertilizer, and chemical pesticides are main sources.
7. Agrochemicals: pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer
4.8 Impact of water pollution
1. Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment: developing countries have difficulty treating water and
sewage compared to developed countries as people aren’t educated and can’t put pressure on the
government
2. Risk of infectious bacterial diseases
3. Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes
4. Bioaccumulation: accumulation
5. Biomagnification of toxic substances
6. Formation of acid rain & its effects
7. SO2 dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, and NOx dissolves to form nitric acid that fall in the form of
rain.
8. pH: measured by acidity or alkalinity.
•;
9. Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication:
10. Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a water body causes algae bloom (rapid growth
of algae).
11. Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that acts as food for bacteria as they decompose the
dead algae.
12. Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen content in the water and causing the death of organisms.
4.9 Managing pollution of fresh water
Improved sanitation
•Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage, that collects human feces, urine and waste water.
•Connection to a septic system, which consists of an underground, sealed settling tank.
•Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that prevents smells.
•Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human feces in a hole in the ground that is sometimes ventilated
to take away smells.
Treatment of sewage
Primary treatment: first settling tank: solid organic matter, mainly human waste, settles at the bottom
of the tank (sludge), which is treated in a sludge-digester.
Secondary treatment: oxidation: water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it
Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or its chlorination which produces even cleaner
effluent that protects the habitat in which it is released.
4.9 Managing pollution of fresh water
•; Pollution control and legislation
1. Industries are required to monitor the pollution they cause and keep it within set level.
2. Fines for exceeding set limits.
3. Companies may be prosecuted and in extreme cases, forced to shut down.
4.10 Managing water-related disease
•; Malaria
Water-bred disease : the carrier breeds in water and spreads the disease by biting its victims.
Causes : being bit by an Anopheles mosquito (female)
Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhea, dehydration and feeling weak.
How to control it:
1. using antimalarial;
2. eliminate breeding grounds
3. Put kerosene over the tops of pools to choke the larvae;
4. Spray antimalarial drugs on stagnant areas of water to kill the larvae;
5. Use vaccinations;
6. Educate people on the risks of malaria by setting up campaigns and programmes
•;Life cycle of malaria
4.10 Managing water-related disease
•; Cholera
Water-bred disease : spread by consuming contaminated water due to poor sanitation and
untreated sewage, or by washing food, pots and pans, or hands and face in dirty water.
Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhea, dehydration and feeling weak.
How to control it:
• Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept separate;
• Sewage removed directly into a treatment works;
• Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes;
• Do not use contaminated water to wash food;
• Hands should be washed after contact with any fecal material;
• Boiling water and chlorination
5. Ocean & fisheries
5.1 Oceans as a resource
What does the ocean provide for us

1. Food
2. Chemicals and building materials.
3. Diamonds
4. Sand, gravel and crushed rocks
5. Oil
6. Wave energy
7. Tidal energy
8. Tourism
9. Transport
5.2 World fisheries
A) The distribution of major ocean currents
1. Surface currents: movement of the surface

water of the sea in a constant direction.
2. Trading wind: the direction from which the

wind nearly always blows in a particular
area
3. Cold currents: come from the poles.
4. Warm currents: come from the tropics or

either side of the equator.
5.2 World fisheries
B) Distribution of major marine fish
populations
1. Main fisheries are located on continental
shelves where water is shallow where
the phytoplankton is present (<150m
below sea level), allowing light to penetrate
with plentiful oxygen than further below
2. Phytoplankton = photosynthesis
3. Phytoplankton also depends on soil

nutrients not only light and CO2
5.2 World fisheries
C) El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO):
•the change in the Trading winds that leads to

change in the pattern of currents in the oceans
of the South Pacific.
•Warm nutrient-poor water comes into the
region from the equator.
•Results in no upwelling of the cold, nutrient
rich water that supports the anchovy fishery.
•No nutrients mean the phytoplankton do not
grow well, so there’s less food for the fish.
•Much of the production of the anchovy fishery
was used for fishmeal which is used to feed
farmed fish, thus countries where this is
important, are affected by a crash in the
anchovy fishery.
5.3 Impact of exploitation of the oceans
A) Causes of overfishing of marine fish species:
• Demand for fish as food due to increasing world

population;
• Much bigger boats, which can work a long way

from a port for many weeks;
• Finding fish easily by using SONAR
• Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in

an area, often half of which is discarded as
bycatch (animals caught by fishers that are not
the intended target of their fishing effort).
B) Impact of overfishing of marine fish

species
• Lack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s,
leading to loss of job and reduction in food supply;
• Size of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing
demand for food;
• Harvest of untargeted/protected/endangered
marine species that are discarded at the sea or
shore;
• Reduction in marine biodiversity, causing a
disruption in food chain.
C) Farming marine species (Mariculture) reduces the exploitation of
fisheries
Due to the increasing population the ocean can't feed us

forever and the fishermen are overexploiting the fish:
Solution: Fish farms
• It reduces the pressure on wild population, allowing their

population to increase;
• Production is constant;
• No bycatch, as non-interest species are unlikely to be
present in the farm;
• No erosion of seabed, that is usually caused by trawl
nets.
5.4 Management of the harvesting of marine species
1. Net types and mesh size:
a) If mesh size is too small, small not

fully grown fish will be caught they
will not be able to reproduce.
b) A diamond-shaped mesh catches
fish more easily, thus a square
mesh panel is often included in an
otherwise diamond net
2. Other species-specific methods: pole and
line
• Includes the usage of a log suspended below

the surface of the sea from a buoy.
• This attracts the tuna together with other
species, including tuna predators.
• Once a good aggregation of fish is collected,
they are gathered in a giant net.
• This will take all other species and younger
tuna fish with it, leading to a large bycatch.
Solution
Use pole and line method for catching the tuna. Done right,
this method is highly selective with very little or no bycatch.
3. Quotas 4.Closed seasons:
•Legislators e.g., government set Governments and other

limits on how many and what type of legislation bodies can pass
fish can be caught; laws that can close fisheries
•These limits ensure enough fish are down for part of the year, most
left to reproduce commonly in the breeding
season
5.Monitoring
•Larger vessels in its waters have onboard observers
and air patrols detect and deter unlicensed vessels;
•All landings are monitored at the country’s two fishing
ports;
•In addition, all vessels in the exclusion zone must
keep daily logs of their catches
6. Managing natural hazards
6.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
• The structure of the earth
Layer Temp Material

Inner core 5430 C Iron& nickel
Outer core 4400 Iron &nickel
mantle 3500 Silicate
Distribution and causes of earthquakes and volcanoes
Types of plate boundary movement
1. Constructive(divergent (koko))
a) Plates move away from each other

b) The magma rises to the surface
c) Cools down by the cool oceanic water
d) Small earth quake and rift valleys
2. Destructive (converging )
First case ( continental & oceanic )

a) The denser(oceanic plate gets below the lighter plate)
b) The denser plate heats up and turn into magma
(rises and erupts as volcano)
c) Fold mountains are formed

2. Destructive (converging )
2nd case (continental & continental)

a) The sediments between the plates pushed upwards
(Fold mountains)
b) Earth quake occur but no volcanic eruptions

3. Conservative plate boundary
a) Two plates slide past each other
b) Move in different speeds in the same direction
c) The plates are stuck and are released the energy
is released in form of an earthquake

Distribution and causes of volcanoes:
1. Volcanoes 2. Earthquakes
Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries and Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate
hotspots boundaries (and sometimes on the constructive plate
boundaries).
Factors that affect the impact of an Earthquake:

Location of the epicentre;
Time of the Earthquake;
Geology of the area;
Relief of the area;
Severity of aftershocks;
Level of development of human settlement;
Population density;
Building density and strength.
6.2 Tropical cyclones
What causes tropical cyclones ?
1. Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C.

2. Warm water provides the energy to evaporate more
water, That rises, condenses, releasing huge amounts of
energy.
3. Coriolis effect, making the air spin.
4. Very little wind shear (change in wind speed or
direction). Allows the vertical development of the storm.
6.3 Flooding
Causes
1. Natural causes – flooding of low coastal areas due to tsunami storm surges
2. Heavy rainfall – the soil is filled up and cannot be infiltrated any further, leading to flooding
3. Prolonged rainfall – the soil becomes oversaturated, leading to surface runoff and flooding
4. Snowmelt – a large amount of snow melting causes water to flood
5. Saturated soil – when the soil is already filled with water, it cannot absorb any more, leading
to surface runoff and flooding
6. Land relief – steep gradients or slopes may not allow water to infiltrate, leading to surface
runoff and flooding
7. Deforestation &overgrazing -reducing interception and infiltiration
8. Climate change-global warming causes the rise in sea level
6.4 Droughts
Causes
1. Lack of rain – high pressure prevents the
formation of the clouds
2. Effects of el nino – causes droughts in
Australia
3. Effects of la nina – causes droughts in south
America
4. Climate change- the increase in the temp
worldwide decrease the rainfall increasing
the drought
6.5 The impact of natural hazards
Tectonic events (earthquakes)
1. Damage to building and infrastructure

2. Loss of life
3. Trauma (mental health)
4. Financial losses to reparse
5. Fire caused due to the pipelines being ruptured
6. Loss of wildlife
Tropical cyclones
1. Loss of life
2. flooding
3. damaging infrastructure
4. Damage to crops
5. Damage to habitats of flooded environments
Flooding impact
1. Loss of life
2. damage to buildings and infrastructure
3. Loss of crops and livestock
4. Economical losses while repaired
Droughts
1. Loss of crops
2. Soil erosion
3. Desertification
4. Unemployment
5. Migrating
6.6. Managing the impacts of natural hazards
Volcanoes
Prediction : Preparation and protection :

1. Using seismometers monitor tremors 1. Volcano hazard map(study past eruptions)
caused by the rising magma 2. Lava diversion and lava bariers
2. Satellites can using heat seeking 3. Spraying it with water
cameras
3. Tilt meters measure any change in
the surface temperature
4. Emissions of steam and gas can be
monitored
Flooding

1. Using drainage basin as an indicator 1. Build dams flood barriers
2. Monitor the amount of rainfall and 2. Afforestation and storage basin
river discharge 3. Adapt houses (1.5 meters above sea level )
Earthquakes
1. Using seismometers monitor tremors 1. Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings
caused by the rising magma 2. smart system switches of the gas pipes in
2. Measurement of magnetic fields case of an earthquake
3. Unusual animal behaviour 3. important buldings built in low risk areas
Tropical cyclones
Prediction :
1. Tracked using satellites
Preparation and protection :

1. Shelters
2. Mangrove swamps to absorb the energy
Droughts
Prediction :
1. Monitor temp and precipitation
Preparation and protection :

1. Increase water supplies
2. Water conservation
3. increase vegetation (help in infiltration
decrease wind and evaporation)
6.7 Opportunities presented by natural hazards
1. After volcanic eruption fertle soils are

created
2. Geothermal energy easily obtained
3. Possibility for mining of sulfer
diamond and gold
7. The atmosphere and human activities
7.1 The atmosphere
Composition
Component % Uses
Nitrogen 78 Growth of plants
Oxygen 21 Used in respiration
Produced by
photosynthesis
CO2 0.03 Used in
photosynthesis
(green house gas
H2O 0.2 Causes precipitation

Rest 0.93 Inert materials
7.1 The atmosphere
Composition
Layer Distance/km Facts

Troposphere 0 -12 All
Stratosphere 12-50 Ozone
Mesosphere 50-80 Rockets
Thermosphere 80-700 Space craft
Exosphere 700-10000 Satellites
7.2 Atmospheric pollution and its causes
Acid:(Rain precipitation with low pH (<7)
1. Burning of fossil fuel in power stations(SO2&NO2)

2. Vehicles emission (NO2)
3. These gases mix with water vapour in the air
4. Form nitric sulphuric acid
5. carried by winds and fall to the surface as acid rain
Impacts
1. Acidification of ground water, making water

undrinkable
2. Melting statue
3. Destroying buildings
4. Damaging trees (vegetation
5. Killing animals
6. Destroying soil
1. Smog :Burning of fossil fuel in power stations & homes

create particles like smoke and dust in the air
2. Photochemical smog: smog mixed with chemicals with
help of sunlight
3. VOCs: Harmful chemicals enter the atmosphere by
evaporation
Impacts
1. Irritation of the eye 3. Breathing difficulties
2. Respiratory diseases (lung cancer) 4.lung cancer, strokes heart attacks
Due to fine particles breathed in
What are the green house gases?
Green house gas - Human cause

1. CO2 – burning fossil fuels & deforestation
2. Methane- rice planting ,cattle decomposition of waste
3. CFCs- air conditioning refrigeration aerosol sprays
4. NO2 –vehicle exhausts chemical fertilizers
Impact
1. Melting ice sheets (loss of habitat disturbing the ecosystem,
polar bears death , migration , loss of biodiversity
2. Floods &increase droughts
What is the greenhouse effect
• The greenhouse gases from a blanket

like layer that prevent the sunlight from
escaping back into the atmosphere
• Trapping those gases leads to the
increase in the temperature of the
earth(global warming ) and many other
impacts
1. Increase erosion due to floods
Ozone layer depletion
• The ozone layer is meant to protect the

earth from harmful radiation
• The ozone breaks due to the reactrion
of the CFCs with the ultraviolet rays
• The hole formed causes the harmful
radiation to pass through
• Causing skin cancer (due to uv rays),
Sun burn & Eye damage(retina )
7.4 Managing the impact of Atmospheric pollution
Reduced use of fossil fuels: use low sulfur coal and increase use of renewable
energy.
Energy efficiency: use energy efficient appliances.
Transport policies: create cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams;
encourage electric or hybrid cars; use biofuels; pedestrianise certain parts of the city;
make public transport and residential parking free.
.
CFC replacement: reduce the use of CFCs.
Taxation: impose higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
Catalytic converters: install catalytic converters in vehicles to reduce sulfur dioxide
emissions;
Individuals can also take steps to reduce their carbon footprint by adopting
sustainable practices such as reducing consumption, reusing items, and recycling.
8. Human population
8.1 Human population distribution and density
Population density : population

per area
Population distribution; how are
people are spread over the
area
8.2 Change in population size
1. Lag phase : slow growth rate
because the organism is adapting
to the new environment
2. Log/exponential phase: when the
growth increases steadily or
exponentially because all the
resources are provided
3. Stationary phase: Growth rate of
the population is zero since the
carrying capacity reached its limit
Important definitions
1. Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time
2. Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that an environment can support in terms of food,
water and other resources.
3. Birth rate: the number of live births per thousand of population per year.
4. Death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of population per year.
5. Natural increase: the difference between birth rate and death rate
Factors affecting birth Rate
1. Healthcare (infants are not dying as they used to in the past)
2. In farming economics people tend to give birth more to have more working hands
3. Migration from MEDCs to LEDCs
4. In MEDCs birth control is widely used and the birth cost is very expensive
Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)

Push and Pull factors
1. Push factors :factors encouraging people to leave the country or region
2. Pull Factor : Factors encouraging people to come over to the region(country)
Push factors Pull factors

Desertification Good food supply
Poor healthcare Good healthcare
Poor communication service Good communication service
Seasonal weather events Good weather
Poor services Good services (Healthcare, Education
Poverty Well paid jobs
Water poor Water rich
8.3 Population Structure
Population pyramid : shows the number of males and females in an ascending divided groups
(usually five years apart) it is usually an indication of the countries
Types of pyramids
Expanding (increasing) Stationary Contracting (Decreasing)

8.3 Population Structure
1. Dependent: people who have no positive impact on the economics of the society ( +65 & <16)
and therefore rely on the independent people
2. Independent : economically active(16<x<65) provide income for themselves and independent
people
3. Taxes are paid from the independent : to pay for young kids education and healthcare for eldery
8.4 managing human population size
Family planning : where couples decide the number of
children they give birth to
Contraception : methods used to prevent pregnancy
Improved health and education: people become more aware
of the impact of high number of children on the society and
on the family thus causing the couples to think about later
marriages and thus later child bearing
National population policies : policies that set a limit on the
number of children for each family (china)

9. Natural ecosystems and human activities
9.1 Ecosystems
1. Ecosystem : a community where both living and non living organisms live
dependent on each other to form a bubble of life
2. Population : all organisms of the SAME species living together at the same time
3. Community :Different species living together interacting with one another
4. Habitat: The place within an ecosystem where an organism lives
5. Niche: the role of the species in the Ecosystem
9.1 Ecosystems
Food chain :a diagram showing the relation between a SINGLE producer with its
primary secondary and tertiary consumer
Food web : showing the relation between ALL the producers and ALL their primary
secondary and tertiary consumers
Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.
Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the number of organisms at each
trophic level in an ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is
9.1 Ecosystems
Food Chain Food Web
9.1 Ecosystems
Rule of 10 : Only 10% of energy passes to up the trophic level(90% lost)
Energy lost in the form of :

1. Respiration
2. Growth
3. Heat
4. Max # of trophic levels = 4 or 5
9.1 Ecosystems
Biotic factors Abiotic factors :
1. Producers: organisms that can carry out 1. Temperature
photosynthesis 2. Humidity
2. Primary consumer: feed on producers 3. Water
3. Secondary consumer :feed on primary 4. Oxygen
consumers 5. Salinity
4. Tertiary consumer: feed on secondary 6. pH
consumer 7. Light
5. Decomposers : feed on dead bodies

9.1 Ecosystems
Photosynthesis
1. The green pigment called chlorophyll captures light and splits the hydrogen and oxygen
2. Oxygen given to the atmosphere
3. Nitrogen needed to form protein & chemical energy
9.1 Ecosystems
Respiration
1. Using oxygen and glucose and oxygen to release energy done by all living organisms
9.1 Ecosystems
Biotic interactions
Competition: over food ,over areas
Predation: animals feeding on lower
trophic level
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma to fuse
with the ovule (carried by wind or
insects)
9.1 Ecosystems
The carbon cycle

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere via carbon dioxide
2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and used as energy.
3. Carbon compounds enter the food chain.
4. Carbon renters the atmosphere via decomposition
5. The carbon cycle repeats.
Main two processes

1. Photosynthesis
2. Cellular respiration
9.2 Ecosystems under threat
Importance of wetlands
1. Provide habitat
2. Biological productivity
3. Source of a lot of resources(fish
oil fibres
Causes of habitat loss
1. Deforestation (eutrophication)
2. Pollution by oil spills
3. Pollution from factories and industries
4. Global warming (Green house gasses)
5. Loss of biodiversity
6. Loss of producer
7. Acid rain (SO2)
8. Overfishing
9.3 Deforestation
Causes of deforestation Impact of deforestation

1. Timber is needed for furniture and 1. Habitat loss
paper 2. Soil erosion
2. Farming 3. Eutrophication
3. Roads and settlements ( due to 4. Desertification
over population people need larger 5. Climate change
spaces for people to live in) 6. Greenhouse gas increase
7. Greenhouse effect
8. Increase in global temp

9.4 Managing forests
1. Carbon sinks: area usually vegetated where the intake of CO2 of the plants is more than the production by
respiration so the CO2 flows in one direction (ATMOSPHERE-PLANTS)
2. Carbon store: the intake is equal to the rate of production of CO2
Role of forests
1. Transpires - adding water vapour to the atmosphere in the
2. Deforestation =no transpiration + soil erosion =desertification
3. Trees prevent soil erosion by: holding the soil by their roots , Decreasing wind erosion
4. Dead leaves reduces the surface run-off

9.4 Managing forests
Ecotourism
1. Visitors travel to appreciate beauty
of the natural scenery
2. Has a economical aim = measured
by income
3. Has a sustainable aim = measured
by limiting the number of visitors
9.5 measuring and managing biodiversity
i. Measuring biodiversity
Types of sampling:
Random sampling :Sampling device is

placed randomly (used when 2 areas are
being compared)
Systematic sampling: sampling device

placed along a line or a predetermined
pattern
Types of sampling:
Quadrating : a frame placed on an Transect: sampling devices placed along

equally divided site a line already placed across an area
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhMOCxXcDrQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITr6rf5Z9ao
Types of sampling:
Pitfall trap : usually to sample insects

Jar sunk under ground and then checked for
activity of insects
Pooter used for non sedentary organisms (insects)

How it works
Insects living in short vegetation usually trapped
in a net
Used to transport the insects from nets to
laboratory
Types of sampling:
ii. Managing biodiversity
1. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and 2. Sustainable forestry:

animal species discussed in 5.4 I. Selective logging: removing only mature tees
because other trees still act as a habitat for a lot of
animals
ii. Agroforestry: growing crops between trees. tree
leaves act as a nutrient source ,tree roots also fix
nitrogen
3. National parks: area of land

protected to preserve an entire
eco system
4. Wildlife ecological reserves:

protect specific animals that are
important to the ecosystem
5. Extractive reserves : state

owned area where use of natural
resources or extraction is allowed
only to a particular group of
people
7. World biosphere reserves : an

6. Wildlife corridor: a corridor like
ecosystem with plants and animals of
structure that joins two or more larger
unusual scientific and natural interest
area of similar wildlife
Usually used for scientific research
Adv: attracts funds
8. Seed banks : store seeds to preserve

genetic biodiversity
Roles of zoos and captive breeding
1. Provide education
2. Involve scientific research
3. Captive breeding increase number
endangered species
4. Maintain genetic biodiversity
Ways to reduce inbreeding

1. Organisms aren’t allowed to breed with
same partner repeatedly
2. Inter zoo swapping allows different
partners
3. Record breeding history
Sustainable tourism and ecotourism

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Enviromental managment

Paper 1 1 hour 45 minutes Paper 2 1 hour 45 minutes

Igneous rock : rocks formed by cooling of (molten) lava or

Sedimentary rock : rocks formed from sediments or small

Igneous rocks : They are formed by lava through volcanic activity. •

Sedimentary rocks : These are made up of sediments .

Method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using

A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent

Mineral deposits are weathered

Steps involve in opencast mining.

The vegetation is removed and the top soil is cleared

Sub-surface mining is carried Steps involved in sub-surface mining

Probable cost of extracting one ton is calculated.

Environmental impact assessment

For a licence application to be approved, the company must have a plan

Negative impact of rock and mineral extraction (mining)

Visual pollution or loss of scenic beauty or eyesore;

Increase efficiency of the extraction 2nd time proccesing

Coal: formed from plants.

Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures.

Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of

The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:

Increasing population size.

Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.

Improvements in standards of living and expectations.

Limited Can be used over and over again

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) Geothermal power

Nuclear power (using uranium) Hydro-electric power

Biofuels e.g. bioethanol, biogas and wood

Types of energy sources:

Turbine: a machine, often containing

Generator: a machine that converts

Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of

Cold water is pumped under

Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce

Uses the natural rise and fall in the

Uses a dam on a river to store

Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are

Provides job opportunities (mining

The technology used is well-known

Carbon dioxide and toxic gases

Growing more plants uses Lot of land needed.Shortage of

Plentiful supply. Removal of natural ecosystems ‫؞‬

So, more people want to buy them.

The demand for the product increases.

The demand for energy (needed for production)

If economic conditions are good: Decline in the economy of one country

Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods (transported by ships).

Families have less money to spend on luxury items;

Need to make savings;

Reduce the use of fuel;

Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items;

Decrease in the demand for energy.

They also experience fewer hours of daylight.

This increases the usage of electrical lighting.

Need for additional heating.

Installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

Conservation and management of energy sources

Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed;

Benefits of the technology must be communicated to others;

The type of energy source used depends on