CHAPTER 4

Discussing the definition and importance of emotions.

Emotions are automatic mental states resulting from one’s circumstances or mood. Emotions
are states of feeling (as opposed to reasoning) typically directed at a specific object or person
and include feelings (fear, joy, anger), physiological changes (increased heart rate, dilated pupils),
and the intention to act. Emotions are short-lived reactions to an event, ranging from weak to
intense and significantly affecting thoughts and behaviors. Individuals differ in their capacity to
experience positive emotions (e.g., happiness, pride) and negative emotions (e.g., anger, fear,
guilt). Emotions can affect memory, attention, and reasoning.

Emotions are also seemingly stronger than our intentions and can often not be assuaged by
reason. We can logically tell ourselves not to be sad or jealous when we don’t get what we want
or not to be afraid of a little snake, but it seldom works because emotions often overpower
rational thought. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, emotions tend to be less controlled than
other psychological states, affecting virtually all aspects of cognition. Everything we experience
adds to our happiness when we are happy, but when we are frustrated, all that we experience
contributes to our frustration.

Emotional labor is the effort needed to manage one’s emotions to perform effectively. This
effort can require intellectual, physical, and emotional resources and time. Emotional labor is a
part of all human interactions and relationships.

The emotional labor involved in many jobs can be demanding. For instance, police are expected
to hide their anxiety in a dangerous situation; health professionals are expected to remain calm
in all cases; retail employees are expected to be pleasant and smile, no matter how frustrating
their customers.

Emotional dissonance refers to the contradiction between the emotions that are being
experienced and the feelings that are being expressed, and it is greater when the emotions
displayed are significantly different from what is felt. Individuals can use surface or deep acting
to help cope with emotional dissonance. In surface acting, the individual is trying to mask their
true feelings but has not changed their beliefs about the situation. As a result, they feel more
stressed and are more likely to appear insincere because their true feelings can leak out. In deep
acting, individuals deal with the situation by attempting to change their thoughts about the case
to better match their genuine emotions with the required emotions. As a result, they feel less
stress and are more effective in handling the situation.

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to one’s ability to recognize and label feelings and those of
others and use that information to guide behavior. EI encompasses four separate skills:

1) perceiving emotions;

2) using emotions;

3) understanding emotions, and

4) managing emotions.

Individuals who have high EI can also manage and adapt their emotions to their environments
to better achieve their goals.
Emotional intelligence, sometimes referred to as Emotional Quotient (EQ, as a play on
intelligence quotient, or IQ), has been shown to influence job performance above and beyond
general mental ability and personality factors, particularly in jobs requiring high emotional labor.

An attitude is a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors that are expressed when we evaluate a
person or an object with some degree of favor or disfavor. Attitudes can form directly due to
personal experience or observation and can be developed through social norms. They can be
explicit, meaning that one is consciously aware of them and that they clearly and deliberately
influence behaviors and beliefs, or they can be implicit, where their impact is unconscious. We
respond favorably or unfavorably toward many things: animals, coworkers, our own appearance,
and politics, to name a few.

The ABC Model

An individual does not have an attitude until they respond to a person, object, situation, or issue,
and this response can be affective, behavioral, or cognitive. These three components—Affect,
Behavioural intentions, and Cognition—make up the ABC model of an attitude.

Affect is the emotional component of an attitude. It refers to an individual’s feelings about

something or someone. Statements such as “I like this” or “I prefer that” reflect the affective
component of an attitude. Affect is measured by physiological indicators, such as blood pressure,
which show emotional changes by measuring physiological arousal.

The second component is the intention to behave a certain way toward an object or person. Our
attitudes toward management, for example, may be inferred from observing how we treat a
supervisor. Depending on our attitude, we may be supportive, passive, or hostile. The behavioral
component of an attitude is measured by observing behavior or by asking a person about
behavior or intentions.

The third component of an attitude, cognition, describes the process of understanding through
thought, experience, and the senses. Awareness reflects a person’s perceptions or beliefs.
Cognitive elements are evaluative beliefs measured by attitude scales or asking about thoughts.
The statement “I believe Pit Bulls can be lovely companion animals” reflects the mental
component of an attitude.

An attitude is a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours that are expressed when we evaluate a
person or an object with some degree of favour or disfavour. Attitudes can form directly as a
result of personal experience or observation and they can be developed through social norms.
They can be explicit, meaning that one is consciously aware of them, and that they clearly and
deliberately influence behaviours and beliefs, or they can be implicit, where their impact is
unconscious. We respond favourably or unfavourably toward many things: animals, coworkers,
our own appearance, and politics, to name a few.

An individual does not have an attitude until they respond to an person, object, situation, or
issue, and this response can be affective, behavioural, or cognitive. These three components—
Affect, Behavioural intentions, and Cognition—make up the ABC model of an attitude.

Affect is the emotional component of an attitude. It refers to an individual’s feeling about

something or someone. Statements such as “I like this” or “I prefer that” reflect the affective
component of an attitude. Affect is measured by physiological indicators, such as blood pressure,
which show emotional changes by measuring physiological arousal.
The second component is the intention to behave in a certain way toward an object or person.
Our attitudes toward management, for example, may be inferred from observing the way we
treat a supervisor. We may be supportive, passive, or hostile, depending on our attitude. The
behavioural component of an attitude is measured by observing behaviour or by asking a person
about behaviour or intentions.

The third component of an attitude, cognition describes the process of understanding through
thought, experience, and the senses. Cognition reflects a person’s perceptions or beliefs.
Cognitive elements are evaluative beliefs measured by attitude scales or by asking about
thoughts. The statement “I believe Pit Bulls can be lovely companion animals” reflects the
cognitive component of an attitude.

Unlike personality, attitudes are learned, and our responses to people and issues can change and
evolve. Two major influences on attitudes are direct experience and social learning.

Direct experience with something strongly influences attitudes towards it. How do you know
that you like biology or dislike math, but love Organizational Behaviour? You have probably
formed these attitudes from experience in studying the subjects. Research has shown that
attitudes derived from direct experience are stronger, held more confidently, and more resistant
to change than attitudes formed through indirect experience. These attitudes are powerful
because of their availability; they are easily accessed and active in our cognitive processes.

In social learning, the family, peer groups, and culture act to shape an individual’s attitudes
indirectly. Children adopt certain attitudes when their parents reinforce attitudes they approve
of, and peer pressure moulds attitudes through acceptance of individuals who express popular
attitudes and through sanctions, such as exclusion from the group, for individuals who espouse
unpopular attitudes. Culture plays an important role in attitude development.

Attitudes and Behaviour

The relationship between attitude and behaviour has been investigated by organizational
behaviourists and social psychologists for quite some time. Researchers have found that ability
to predict behaviour based on attitude depends on five things:

1) attitude specificity,

2) attitude relevance,

3) timing of measurement,

4) personality factors, and

5) social constraints.

Attitude specificity

Individuals possess both general and specific attitudes: “It’s important to save the earth” is a
general attitude. “People shouldn’t use single-use plastics” is a specific attitude. While general
attitudes influence specific attitudes, they typically have less predictive ability on specific
behaviours. A person may be environmentally conscious (general attitude), yet they may still
consume bottled water (a specific behaviour). This action appears to weaken, or even contradict
the link between attitudes and behaviours. This action, however, is a specific events, and are
influenced by a variety of elements. An individual may drink bottled water because their
convenience is more important than the environmental consideration, or they may believe that
because they place the used bottle in a recycling bin that they are ‘breaking even’. General
attitudes are better able to predict general behaviours. The individual who has specific attitudes
about plastics would most likely choose not use bottled water. In this instance, their specific
attitude is able to predict their specific behaviour.

Relevance

Another factor that affects the attitude–behaviour link is relevance. Attitudes that address an
issue in which we have some self-interest (either we stand to gain or lose from them) are more
relevant for us, and our subsequent behaviour is consistent with our expressed attitude.
Consider a proposal to mandate vaccinations for all school-age children– someone with no
children will probably not find the issue of great personal relevance, and may not be motivated
to vote on that particular issue. Parents, however, will find it relevant, and their attitude toward
the issue would be strongly predictive of whether they would vote for mandatory vaccinations.

Timing

The timing of the measurement also affects attitude–behaviour correspondence. The shorter the
time between the attitude measurement and the observed behaviour, the stronger the
relationship. For example, voter preference polls taken close to an election are more accurate
than earlier polls.

Personality

Personality factors also influence the attitude–behaviour link. One personality disposition that
affects the consistency between attitudes and behaviour is self-monitoring. Low self-monitors
rely on their internal states when making decisions about behaviour, while high self-monitors
are more responsive to situational cues. Low self-monitors therefore display greater
correspondence between their attitudes and behaviours. High self-monitors may display less
correspondence between their attitudes and behaviour because they behave according to
signals from others and from the environment.

Social Constraints

Finally, social constraints affect the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The social
context provides information about acceptable attitudes and behaviours. “When in Rome”, we
tend to behave as Romans, irrespective of our personal attitudes.

Cognitive Dissonance

Individuals typically behave according to their attitudes. As rational beings, people prefer
consistency (consonance) between their attitudes and behaviour. Anything that disrupts this
consistency causes tension (dissonance), which motivates individuals to change either their
attitudes or their behaviour to maintain consistency. The tension produced by a conflict between
attitudes and behaviour is known as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance can arise when
individuals behave in a way that is contrary to their beliefs, when they attempt to hold two or
more contradictory beliefs or values at the same time, or when they receive new information
that is inconsistent with existing beliefs.

People respond to cognitive dissonance in one of four ways:

1) They change their behaviour,

2) they justify their behaviour,

3) they change their attitudes, or

4) they ignore or deny new information.

Returning to our previous example of an individual who believes that it is important to save the
earth, yet consumes single-use bottled water. The dissonance introduced by the
environmentally unsound practice of bottled water may have one of four results:

The individual may change their behaviour – They may realize the environmental impact of
bottled water is inconsistent with their beliefs about the importance of environmental
stewardship, and they may purchase a re-useable water bottle.

The individual may justify their behaviour – Any excuse to try and justify their behaviour. “Tap
water has pollutants in it” “Tap water tastes bad”, “reusable water bottles are inconvenient”, “I
always put my empties in the recycle bin, so I’m not contributing to the problem”.

They may decide that they don’t mean “saving the whole environment”, they mean “saving the
whales, and elephants”.

They simply shrug off any inconsistencies. “What does bottled water have to do with the
environment?”

Attitudes at work are important because, directly or indirectly, they affect work behaviour.
Employee work attitudes correlate with performance, absenteeism, turnover, unionization,
grievances, and even drug abuse. Attitudes are related to customer satisfaction, and are
predictive of financial performance measures such as market share. Chief among the things that
negatively affect employees’ work attitudes are demanding jobs over which they have little
control. A positive climate, on the other hand, can generate positive attitudes and good
performance.

Because of the power of attitudes, it is important to know how employees feel about their work,
and what influences lie behind those attitudes so action can be taken to guide attitudes in a
constructive way where possible.

Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s
job or job experiences. It has been treated both as a general attitude and as satisfaction with
specific dimensions of the job such as pay, the work itself, promotion opportunities, supervision,
and coworkers. An individual may hold different attitudes toward various aspects of a job. For
example, an employee may like their job responsibilities but be dissatisfied with the
opportunities for promotion.

The factors that affect job satisfaction will vary between individuals. For example, the higher the
income, the more likely a person is to emphasize the intrinsic job content (interesting work,
opportunity to use initiative, useful for society) while lower income earners are more likely to
endorse extrinsic factors such as pay, good hours, and generous holidays. Personality research
shows that those with high core self-evaluation will tend to be more satisfied with their work,
no matter what they are doing. Employees with negative affectivity (who tend towards being
distressed, pessimistic and generally dissatisfied) will tend to be less satisfied with any job they
have than those with positive affectivity.

Researchers have found a strong link between job satisfaction and organizational performance.
Companies with satisfied workers have better performance than companies with dissatisfied
workers. This may be due to the more intangible elements of performance, like organizational
citizenship behaviour, that contribute to organizational effectiveness but aren’t necessarily
captured by measuring individual job performance.

Job satisfaction also connects to other important outcomes: Dissatisfied workers are more likely
to skip work and quit their jobs, driving up the cost of turnover. Dissatisfied workers also report
more psychological and medical problems than do satisfied employees.

Organizational Citizenship versus Workplace Deviance

Job satisfaction encourages organizational citizenship behaviour—behaviour that is above and

beyond the call of duty. Satisfied employees are more likely to help their coworkers, make
positive comments about the company, and refrain from complaining when things at work go
poorly. Going beyond the call of duty is especially important to organizations using teams, where
extra help from each other can get things accomplished more effectively and efficiently.

Individuals who identify strongly with the organization are more likely to perform Organizational
Citizenship Behaviours (OCBs). High self-monitors, who base their behaviour on cues from the
situation, are also more likely to perform these behaviours. OCB’s influence “bottom-line”
effectiveness in the organization, and have been shown to relate to productivity, efficiency,
reduced costs, customer satisfaction, and turnover. Given the value of OCBs, organizations have
a vested interest in inspiring and motivating employees to engage in these behaviours.

In contrast to Organizational citizenship behaviours, workplace deviance behaviour (WDB)

occurs when employees are dissatisfied with their jobs and have negative attitudes. Workplace
deviance behaviour consists of counterproductive behaviour that violates organizational norms
and harms others or the organization. Examples of such behavior include gossiping about
coworkers, sabotaging others’ projects, and theft from the company or colleagues. Negative
events such as downsizing and technological insecurities are generally considered responsible
for spikes in workplace deviance because they may inspire anger and hostility toward the
organization, causing employees to develop negative attitudes and to feel the desire to retaliate.

The strength of an individual’s identification with an organization is known as organizational

commitment. There are three kinds of organizational commitment: affective, continuance, and
normative. Affective commitment is an employee’s intention to remain in an organization
because of a strong desire to do so. Affective commitment encompasses loyalty and a deep
concern for the organization’s welfare. Affective commitment consists of three factors: A belief
in the goals and values of the organization; A willingness to put forth effort on behalf of the
organization, and; A desire to remain a member of the organization. Continuance commitment
is an employee’s tendency to remain in an organization because the person cannot afford to
leave. Sometimes, employees believe that if they leave, they will lose a great deal of their
investments in time, effort, and benefits. Normative commitment is a perceived obligation to
remain with the organization. Individuals who experience normative commitment stay with the
organization because they feel that they should.

In any organizational setting, leaders will find themselves in situations where they have to change
someone’s attitude. Successful leaders must understand, and be skilled in the art of persuasion.
Through persuasion, one individual (the source) tries to change the attitude of another person
(the target) in regard to a certain issue (the message).
Persuasion is little more than a sales pitch; where the source attempts to ‘sell’ a new attitude
(the message) to the target. Characteristics of the source, target, and message all combine to
affect how successful the attempt at persuasion will be.

Source Characteristics That Affect Persuasion

Three major characteristics of the source (the individual who is trying to change another’s
attitude) that affect persuasion are: Expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness.

Expertise - The perception of the source’s expertise is a judgment made by the target. The target
will see the source as an expert if they have appropriate credentials and experience. A source
that is perceived as an expert is more persuasive because expertise increases the credibility of
the message. This is why advertisements often use doctors or professionals to deliver their
message.

Trustworthiness, A trustworthy source is also more likely to be persuasive. The use of actors and
athletes to advertise products relies on people’s implicit assumptions that the people they
admire are trustworthy, and thus, that their message is more dependable.

Attractiveness. Attractive sources, particularly attractive female sources, induce significantly

greater levels of persuasion in targets.

Target Characteristics That Affect Persuasion

Individuals differ widely in their susceptibility to persuasion. Attention, intelligence, self-esteem,

mood, and age all affect how persuasive a message is likely to be. Attention is also a key
component of affecting persuasion because if the target is not paying attention to the message,
they are unlikely to be persuaded by it. This is yet another reason that marketing companies use
actors, musicians, athletes and other famous figures in their advertising. Individuals are more
willing to pay attention to famous people that they admire.

In general, targets that are less intelligent are more easily persuaded, and individuals with
moderate self-esteem are more likely to change their attitudes than individuals with lower or
higher self-esteem. Individuals who hold very extreme attitudes are more resistant to
persuasion, while people who are in a good mood are easier to persuade. Finally, young adults
ages 18 – 25 are more persuadable than older adults.

Message Characteristics That Affect Persuasion

The source and the target are understandably important in estimating how persuasive an
argument is likely to be, but the features of the message itself are paramount. Some messages
are simply more persuasive than others; for instance, “let’s do this and then go get a drink” is
likely to be more persuasive than any version of “I’m going to need you to come in on the
weekend”.

All things being equal, however, subtly presented messages have been shown to be more
persuasive than obvious ones. Undisguised deliberate attempts at changing attitudes may
actually entrench attitudes, decreasing the likelihood of adopting change. This is most likely to
occur when the target of the persuasive communication feels that their freedom of choice is
being threatened. Less threatening approaches are less likely to elicit negative reactions, and are
thus more likely to be successful.
A message with more reasons ‘why’ is more likely to influence attitude change , and, when the
target is not motivated to change, presenting both sides of an issue can increase the likelihood
of successful attitude change by refuting the ‘other’ side, which makes it harder for the targets
to hang on to their previous attitudes. Showing support for one side of the issue while
acknowledging that another side exists, can help decrease the directness of the message,
reducing the perceived threat to freedom of choice. Finally, the emotional tone of the message
is also important. Messages framed using an emotional appeal (such as jealousy, fear,
indignation, and humour) are also more persuasive again, consider their use in advertising
campaigns.

Ethics is the study of moral values and moral behaviour. Ethical behaviour is acting in ways
consistent with one’s personal values and the commonly held values of the organization and
society. Organizations with ethical reputations create goodwill in the communities in which they
operate, building customer loyalty and creating relationships with suppliers and even
competitors. Ethical behaviour can create more positive work environments, which help retain
and develop good employees, and attract more applicants, creating a larger hiring pool, which
allows respected firms to choose higher quality applicants. Doing the right thing can have a
positive effect on an organization’s performance.

If one considers ethical behaviour to be “values in action,” Canadian organizations demonstrate

those values through corporate social responsibility (CSR). Eighteen percent of Canadian
organizations encourage employees to do volunteer work during work hours, and pay for that
time. CSR initiatives like these can be instrumental in team building, in enhancing corporate pride
and identity, and in reinforcing an ethical climate within the organization.

Two sets of factors influence ethical behaviour— individual characteristics and organizational
factors. In this section, we will examine the individual influences on ethical behaviour.
Organizational influences on ethical behaviour will be discussed throughout the remainder of
the text.

Ethical decision making requires three qualities of individuals which are influenced by
personality factors such as value systems, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and cognitive moral
development.

Values are enduring beliefs that a specific behaviour or end state of existence is personally or
socially preferable, and different values generate different ethical behaviours. Though values
vary widely among individuals, we use them to evaluate our own behaviour and that of others.
Values represent a person’s judgments about what is good versus what is bad. As a general belief
about what is right and what is wrong, values are deeply held and quite stable, forming the basis
for ethical behaviour.

Although relatively fixed, values can and do change over time. Values also shift between
generations. Baby Boomers’ values contrast with both Genereation X and Millennial values to a
large extent:

Another individual influence on ethical behaviour is locus of control. (Recall from chapter 3 that
individuals with an internal locus of control believe that they control events in their lives and
that they are responsible for their own experiences. Those with an external locus of control
believe that outside forces such as fate, chance, or other people control what happens to them.)
Internals are more likely to take personal responsibility for the consequences of their ethical or
unethical behaviour, while externals are more apt to believe that external forces caused their
ethical or unethical behaviour. Research has shown that internals make more ethical decisions
than do externals, and are more resistant to social pressure and are less willing to hurt another
person, even if ordered to do so by an authority figure.

Machiavellianism also influences ethical behaviour. (Recall from chapter 3 that Machiavellianism
is a personality characteristic indicating your willingness to do whatever it takes to get your own
way.) An individual who ranks highly in Machiavellianism (known as a high-Mach) operates from
the notion that it is better to be feared than loved. High-Machs believe that the desired ends
justify any means; therefore, they are willing to manipulate others to achieve a goal. They are
emotionally detached from other people and focus on the objective aspects of situations. And
high-Machs are more likely to engage in ethically questionable behaviour.

An individual’s level of cognitive moral development also affects ethical behavior.

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that as individuals mature, they move through six
stages of moral development.

With each successive stage, they become less dependent on other people’s opinions of right and
wrong and focus less on their interests. At higher levels of moral development, individuals are
concerned with broad principles of justice and their self-chosen ethical principles. Kohlberg’s
model focuses on decision-making and how individuals justify ethical decisions. His cognitive
developmental theory explains how people decide right and wrong and how the decision-making
process changes through interaction with peers and the environment.

CHAPTER 5

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviour, and it refers to the
forces that influence the direction, intensity, and persistence of a person’s efforts.

Every organization, from community sports teams to multinational conglomerates, wants to get
the highest level of effort and the best possible performance from their members, and
motivation plays a significant role in that performance. From a productivity perspective, no
component of Organizational Behaviour has a more significant impact on the organization than
motivation. Motivated employees are more likely to have higher levels of organizational
engagement and commitment, and are more efficient and effective than unmotivated
employees which can increase productivity, and lower costs for the organization. Motivated
employees are also more likely to collaborate, and problem-solve leading to improved outcomes,
positive relationships, and improving organizational culture.

Motivation theories attempt to explain and predict behaviour, and then use that understanding
to implement organizational systems to enhance and encourage desired behaviours. Motivation
theories are broadly classified into two different categories: needs theories, and process
theories. Any single motivation theory explains only a small part of observed behavior, so
researchers have developed many alternative theories to account for unexplained behavior.

Because of its importance, there are few topics more thoroughly researched, or more hotly
debated, in the field than motivation.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was introduced in 1943 and became a dominant theory of
motivation in the late 1950s, as a tool for explaining human needs. Maslow created a visual
pyramid to represent the relative importance of five basic needs he believed to be true for all
humans. According to Maslow, our physiological needs are of prime importance and we will do
anything to ensure we have the means for survival (food, water, air). Safety and security needs
are a close second, followed by love or social needs, and esteem needs (the need to feel
important or recognized). Self-actualization at the tip of the pyramid represents the need to
discover oneself and realize one’s potential. Maslow claimed that an unsatisfied need is a
motivating need, and when more than one need is unsatisfied, the one closer to the base of the
pyramid takes precedence. Unsatisfied lower needs make it more difficult to fulfil higher needs.

The distinguishing feature of Maslow’s need hierarchy is the progression hypothesis, which
suggests that we are able to progress up the pyramid as the lower level needs are met. There is
a widely-held mistaken view that lower level needs must be fully satisfied before progressing. In
truth, Maslow stated that everyone has unsatisfied needs at every level (after all, hunger is
recurring, and everyone feels that their safety needs are unmet sometimes) but the more that
lower needs are met, the more attention and resources can be directed at achieving higher
needs. A single action can also meet more than one need; for example, a meal fulfills
physiological needs (hunger), but may also fill social needs (family gatherings often involve
meals), and esteem needs (the chef may take pride in having cooked a gourmet meal that
everyone enjoys).

Though Maslow’s hierarchy has been challenged by researchers, and is not able to accurately
predict individual needs, it laid the groundwork for the idea that everyone has different
categories of needs, and that even within an individual, needs are constantly progressing and
changing.

Theory X and Theory Y was created using Maslow’s need hierarchy to explain motivation from a
manager’s perspective. The theory groups the physiological and safety needs presented in
Maslow’s model as ‘lower-order needs’, and the social, esteem, and self-actualization needs as
‘upper-order needs’.

According to Theory X and Theory Y, managers categorize employees into one of two categories
depending on the factors that the manager believes motivates behavior. Theory X management
believes that employees are motivated by lower order needs; that they are inherently lazy, that
they will avoid responsibility where possible, that they dislike their work, and that they are
working only for a sustainable income. Theory X managers believe that workers need to be
closely supervised, and that control systems of rewards and punishments are required in order
to properly motivate behaviours. Theory X managers emphasize production and output.

Theory Y supervisors, on the other hand, believe that employees are self-directed and are
internally motivated by higher-order needs, which are fulfilled through work. Theory Y
supervisors prefer a participative style of management, and emphasize employee commitment
to the organization and its goals.

Theory X and Theory Y are not opposite ends of the same spectrum, but represent two different
sprectra. In order to achieve the highest level of employee output, a combination of both
theories should be used (see chapter 12 discussion of leadership contingency theory). Like
Maslow’s, this theory proposes that self-actualization is the highest level of achievement for
individuals, and Theory Y assumptions are the inspiration for employee participation programs
which encourage employee involvement to support high-performance achievements.

ERG Theory recognized Maslow’s contribution to understanding motivation, but believed that
the needs hierarchy failed to accurately identify and categorize human needs.
ERG theory condenses Maslow’s five needs into only three categories: Existence, Relatedness,
and Growth (or ERG). (Maslow’s physiological and physical safety needs comprise the existence
category; Maslow’s interpersonal safety, love, and interpersonal esteem needs comprise ERG’s
relatedness need category; and Maslow’s self-actualization and self-esteem needs represent
ERG’s growth category.)

ERG theory added a regression hypothesis to Maslow’s original progression hypothesis, which
suggests that when people are frustrated by their inability to meet needs at the next higher level
in the hierarchy, they regress to lower level needs and intensify their desire to gratify these
needs. This regression hypothesis proposes that an already satisfied need can continue to
motivate when a higher need cannot be achieved.

ERG theory also allows the order of needs to differ between individuals, (in other words, needs
do not have to progress from E to R to G,) which allows it to explain behaviours that Maslow’s
hierarchy struggles with, like the ‘starving artist’, whose physical needs are not well met, but
whose growth needs are fulfilled. The artist, failing to fulfill their higher order need of physical
comfort, may regress and continue to fulfill their lower order need of growth by continuing to
focus on their art.

McClelland’s need theory of motivation focuses on personality, and identifies three learned or
acquired needs. These are the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. McClelland stated
that all people have these three types of motivation in varying degrees, regardless of culture,
gender, age, or race, and that it is one’s life experiences that leads to different needs being
dominant in different people.

Need theory posits that each individual’s needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are
subconscious, and that an individual could not simply describe their needs if asked. A projective
test (called the Thematic Apperception Test) is used, wherein individuals are shown a standard
set of pictures, and are asked to create stories about them. Those stories are then analyzed for
their motivational themes. McClelland believed that people’s own needs were subconscious or
below their own awareness, but that those needs are manifest or easily perceived by others.

The need for achievement (often abbreviated as nAch) describes individuals who are motivated
by competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties. McClelland found
that people with a high need for achievement perform better than those with lower nAch levels.

The need for power (often abbreviated as nPow) includes the desire to influence others, the
urge to change people or events, and the wish to make a difference. The need for power is
interpersonal because it involves influence over other people. McClelland distinguishes between
socialized power, which is used for the benefit of many and is a constructive force, and
personalized power, which is used for individual gain, and may be a very disruptive and
destructive force.

The need for affiliation (often abbreviated nAff) describes an urge to establish and maintain
warm, close relationships with others. People with a high need for affiliation enjoy being part of
groups, and have a desire to feel loved and accepted. Individuals with high nAff prefer
collaboration over competition, and are motivated to express their emotions to others and
expect others to do the same in return. They find conflicts disturbing and are strongly motivated
to work through any such barriers to closeness.
McClelland’s need theory believes that the needs which drive motivation are fixed within the
individual and cannot be changed by external forces. Managers must use their knowledge of
employees’ needs to provide opportunities for them to meet their specific needs, but they
cannot change the needs themselves.

Equity theory proposes that motivation is a function of perceived fairness (equity) in the social
exchange and that inequity (unfairness) is an important motivator. The theory proposes that all
members of an organization perceive that they contribute inputs (such as time, experience,
creativity, etc.) and receive outcomes from the organization in return (in the form of pay, awards,
benefits, recognition, etc.).

Employees then create a subjective ratio measuring their outcomes against their perceived
contributions. Employees also create ratios for others within the organization, comparing
others’ perceived outcomes against their perceived inputs. Employees then weigh their
outcome/input ratio against that of a comparison other. The comparison is seen as fair if the
ratios are approximately the same.

Both parties do not have to contribute in equal amounts, or receive equal outcomes, so long as
the ratio of outcomes/inputs is similar. Therefor it is acceptable to receive greater outcomes if
one’s inputs were also greater; it is also acceptable to receive less if one’s input was
commensurately smaller. In equity theory, it is the ratio of outcome to input that matters. If the
ratios of outcomes to inputs are not matched, however, there is inequity. Inequity creates
tension, which motivates a person to take action to resolve the inequity.

A negative inequity (B) occurs when the individual perceives that they are receiving less for the
same level of input (or are putting in more effort for the same level of outcome), for instance,
non-smokers often resent their peers who smoke, because smokers take three or four 15-minute
breaks each workday but are paid the same amount as the non-smokers, who put in an extra
hour of effort each day. A positive inequity (C) occurs when the individual perceives that they
are receiving more than the comparison other for the same level of input (or are putting in less
inputs for the same level of outcome), for instance, a male colleague who is paid a higher salary
than a female in the same role.

The most important consideration in equity theory, is that it is the perceived outcomes and
inputs that are being measured and compared, and people’s perceptions can be vastly different.
Nontangible and invisible inputs, such as emotional investment, and nontangible outcomes, such
as job satisfaction, may well enter into a person’s equity equation, drastically changing the
resulting ratio.

Once a person establishes the existence of a perceived inequity, they might use a number of
strategies to restore equity. Equity theory highlights seven basic strategies for restoring equity:

(1) alter one’s outcomes,

(2) alter one’s inputs,

(3) alter the comparison other’s outcomes,

(4) alter the comparison other’s inputs,

(5) change who is used as a comparison other,

(6) rationalize the inequity, and

 (7) leave the organizational situation.

Expectancy theory of motivation focuses on personal perceptions of the performance process.

This cognitive process theory is founded on two notions: First, that people expect certain
outcomes of behaviour and performance, which may be thought of as rewards or consequences
of behaviour; and second, that people believe there is a relationship between the effort they put
forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes they receive. Expectancy theory
proposes that an individual will choose a certain behaviour because of their expectations about
what the results of that behaviour will be. The motivation for the behaviour is determined by
the desirability of the outcome.

The key elements of expectancy theory are expectancy, instrumentality, and the valence of an
outcome.

Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance (“If I try harder, I can do better”).
Expectancy is usually based on past experience, self-efficacy, and the perceived difficulty of the
goal.

Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to outcomes (“If I perform better, I will
get more pay”). Instrumentality depends on a person’s level of trust in the one measuring
performance and allocating rewards.

Valence is the value or importance an individual places on a particular outcome, and can be
affected by individual values, needs, goals and preferences. Valence can be positive or negative,
depending on whether the person wants the outcome or not.

Expectancy theory explains that it is important for employees to see a strong link between their
efforts and results, to see that differential results lead to different outcomes, and for those
outcomes to be relevant to employees. From a motivation perspective, it is the person’s belief
about the relationships between these constructs that is important, not the actual nature of the
relationship.

Expectancy theory attributes motivational problems to three basic causes: Disbelief in a

relationship between effort and performance; Lack of trust in the relationship between
performance and rewards; and

Lack of desire for the rewards offered.

Goal setting is the process of establishing desired results that guide and direct behaviour and is
one of the most robust theories of motivation, with research strongly supporting its basic
principles. According to this theory, people with specific, challenging goals will outperform those
with general, “do your best goals” or no goals at all. The higher the goal, the better the
performance; that is, people work harder to reach difficult goals, as long as they are committed
to the goal and have the skills to achieve it. Goal setting theory states that five goal setting
principles can improve success: clarity, challenge, commitment, Communication (feedback),
and task complexity.

Commitment - Goal commitment is the key component of motivation in goal setting theory. An
individual who is not truly committed to a goal will lack the motivation to achieve it. Goals narrow
one’s attention by directing efforts towards goal-achievement-related activities and away from
non-goal-oriented activities; ambitious goals serve to increase effort, with high goals leading to
greater effort than easily achievable ones. Goals also affect persistence, making individuals more
willing to work through temporary setbacks, and willing to spend more time working towards
the goal. Finally, goals can create new habits and new cognitive processes, which can cause
someone to develop or change their behaviours over the long term.

Feedback (Communication) - Accurate and timely feedback allows one to gauge how well they
are progressing towards their goal. It allows them to assess whether their current strategies are
working effectively, or if they should re-evaluate their goals or behaviours. Feedback also allows
managers to clarify expectations. Feedback may come from supervisors, or external parties, or
may be a self-check.

Clarity - Goals can only be effective motivators when they are specific. The SMART acronym is
often used to create effective goals by ensuring that goals are:

Specific, goals must be clear and precise in order to focus one’s efforts.

Measurable, goals must be measurable in order to be able to track progress and know when
success has been achieved.

Achievable, goals should stretch one’s abilities, but must be realistic and attainable in order to
be motivational.

Relevant, goals must be worthwhile and valuable, or else they are not worth achieving.

Time-bound, goals must have a deadline or target date.

Challenge - People are motivated by challenging goals, but it is important not to set impossible
goals. Challenge can arise from the complexity of the task itself, from the balance between
pressure and performance, from timelines and deadlines for performance and even from
competition from peers who are also attempting to accomplish their own goals.

Complexity - Research shows that people work harder to reach difficult goals, as long as they are
committed to the goal and have the skills to achieve it. Task complexity refers to how difficult a
specific task is, as it pertains to the likelihood of successful achievement. In order to achieve
complex tasks, they should be broken down into smaller, more manageable parts, where each
part has its own specific goals.

The motivation theories described in this lecture were developed by North American
researchers, using North American employees as observations. When researchers examine the
universality of these theories, they find cultural differences in the way people are motivated,
especially in collectivistic cultures and those with low power distance, where the rule of equality
(all should be treated the same) or the rule of need (people should be treated according to their
needs) may prevail.

North European countries, for example, have a greater level of collectivism than North
Americans, and this is reflected in their organizational motivation strategies. In the Netherlands,
19 percent of the workforce uses pay-for-performance reward systems, and this drops to only 4
percent of the German workforce. Swedes, who have very low power distance, express a
preference for allocation of rewards that favour equality, followed by needs, and only then by
merit, whereas Americans favour the merit rule above all others and view allocation based on
needs negatively. In India, the order of preference is different still, where needs are considered
paramount, equality next, and then merit.
Attempts to implement individual-based incentive plans that use individual performance
appraisal as the criterion are often rejected in collectivistic, low power distance cultures.

CHAPTER 6

Defining stress, stressor, and distress.

Stress has many definitions, and while the thought of stress carries a negative connotation for
some people, stress can be a great asset in managing legitimate emergencies and achieving peak
performance. We define stress, or the stress response, as the unconscious preparation to fight
or flee that a person experiences when faced with a demand. A stressor, or demand, is the person
or event that triggers the stress response.

Distress or strain refers to the adverse psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational
consequences that may occur as a result of stressful events.

Stress is a common workplace phenomenon affecting all sectors of the workforce. Fifty-eight
percent of Canadians report feeling overworked, and stress-related illness and absences cost
Canadian employers billions of dollars each year.

the World Health Organization (WHO) has said that “Most of the causes of work stress concern
the way work is designed and the way in which organizations are managed.” Individual
interventions are not always sufficient in handling strain, and managing stress is something that
can handled at the organizational level.

Homeostatic/Medical: This is the basis of our current concept of the fight-or-flight response and
is an animal’s “emergency response” to a perceived threat. Stress results when an external,
environmental demand upsets a person’s natural steady-state balance of equilibrium, (also
known as homeostasis.)

Cognitive Appraisal: is concerned with the psychology of stress, emphasizing that the stress
response is the result of a person’s cognitive appraisal and assessment of people or events as
being stressful or not. People who are higher in neuroticism (as described in Chapter 3), have a
propensity to perceive situations as more psychologically threatening, and thus, more stressful.
Cognitive appraisals of stress also define the concepts of problem-focused and emotion-focused
coping. Problem-focused coping emphasizes managing the external stressor situation, while
emotion-focused coping emphasizes managing an individual’s internal psychological response.

Person-Environment Fit: This approach emphasizes how confusing and conflicting expectations
of a person in a social role, particularly an individuals fit within their environment, creates stress.
Stress occurs when a given role’s expectations are confusing and/or conflict with a person’s skills
and abilities. After a period of such stress, the person can expect to experience strain, for
example, depression.

Psychoanalytic Approach: This definition is based on stress based on Freudian psychoanalytic

theory: Two elements of the personality interact to cause stress. The first element is the ego-
ideal—the embodiment of a person’s perfect self. The second element is the self-image—how
the person really sees themselves, both positively and negatively. The ego-ideal includes desired
and/or imaginable qualities, and the excludes negative or distasteful qualities. Stress results from
the discrepancy between the idealized self (ego-ideal) and the real self-image; the greater the
discrepancy, the more stress a person experiences. Psychoanalytic theory helps us understand
how unconscious personality factors can create stress within a person.
It is important to note that the body’s stress response is essentially the same regardless of what
the stressor event is, so a body will react to an immediate physical stressor (meeting a bear in
the woods) the same way as it would respond to a psychological stressor (a tough deadline or
important presentation.) Whether activated by a physical threat, an ego-ideal/self-image
discrepancy, a poorly defined social role, or a cognitive appraisal, the resulting stress response is
characterized by a predictable sequence of mind and body events:

The stress response begins with the release of chemical messengers, primarily adrenaline, into
the bloodstream. These messengers activate the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine
(hormone) system. These two systems work together and trigger mind–body changes to prepare
the person for fight or flight.

In preparing to fight—or flee—the body (1) redirects blood to the brain and large-muscle groups;
(2) increases alertness through improved vision, hearing, and other sensory processes; (3)
releases glucose (blood sugar) and fatty acids into the bloodstream to sustain the body during
the stressful event; and (4) suppresses the immune system as well as restorative and emergent
processes (such as digestion).

As the body responds, the person shifts from a neutral posture to an offensive posture.

The stress response is neither inherently bad, nor necessarily destructive, and in fact can be very
useful for addressing legitimate emergencies by increasing short-term performance. Prolonged
stress, however, is dangerous: research shows that stress plays a role in triggering and worsening
depression and cardiovascular disease among many other long-term health risks.

The two major sources of work stress are work demands and nonwork demands.

Work stress is caused by factors within the immediate work environment (such as the pressures
inherent in client, peer, boss, and employee relationships). Work demands become stressful
when there is a mismatch or gap between the demands of a situation, and the skills and
resources available to address that situation. Work stress can arise due to task demands, role
demands, interpersonal demands, and physical demands.

Task Demands are stressors that are associated with the specific job a person performs. These
stressors can be psychological, or physical threats to a person’s health. Some occupations are by
nature more stressful than others, and some projects within a given occupation are more
stressful than others. Firefighters, surgeons, and CEOs have very high levels stress due to task
demands.

Role Demands are the expected behaviors associated with a particular position in a group or
organization. Role demands have formal (i.e., job-related and explicit) and informal (i.e., social
and implicit) requirements. Stress-inducing problems occur due to role ambiguity, and role
conflict.

Role Conflict occurs when the messages and cues from others about the role are clear but
contradictory or mutually exclusive.

• One common form is interrole conflict, which is conflict between the different roles that
a person assumes. For example, if a person’s boss says that to get ahead one must work
overtime and on weekends, and the same person’s spouse says that more time is needed
at home with the family, conflict may result.
 • Intrarole conflict may occur when the person gets conflicting demands from different
sources within the context of the same role. A manager’s boss may tell her that she
needs to put more pressure on subordinates to follow new work rules. At the same time,
her subordinates may indicate that they expect her to get the rules changed.

• Person-role conflict results from a discrepancy between the role requirements and the
individual’s personal values, attitudes, and needs. If a person is told to do something
unethical or illegal, or if the work is distasteful (for example, firing a close friend), person-
role conflict is likely.

Role ambiguity can stem from poor job descriptions, vague instructions from a supervisor, or
unclear cues from coworkers, and is a significant source of workplace stress.

Interpersonal Demands – are the demands that arise due to interactions with others. conflicting
personalities and behaviors may cause stress. Conflict can occur when two or more people must
work together even though their personalities, attitudes, and behaviors differ.

Physical Demands describe the physical requirements of the worker. Strenuous labor such as
loading heavy cargo or lifting packages can be very physically demanding, but so can working
outdoors in extreme weather. A poorly designed office can make it difficult for people to have
privacy or promote too much or too little social interaction. Likewise, poor lighting and
inadequate work surfaces can create physical stressors.

Nonwork stress is caused by factors outside of the immediate work environment, but that still
contribute to a person’s overall feelings of stress. Nonwork stressors are sometimes called life
stressors, and are often caused by conflicting demands on one’s time or resources, but can also
be caused by meaningful life changes.

There are two comprehensive models that theorize about how stress can lead to negative
consequences:

The Job Demand-Control-Support model (JDCS) asserts that high demands (work or nonwork),
low control, and low support all contribute to strain. The model further proposes that strain can
be modified or prevented by altering these factors.

Research shows that high demands combined with low control increases the risk of physical and
mental health conditions: Individuals who report high demand and low control in the workplace
were more likely to have had depression or anxiety disorders, and chronic job strain is a predictor
for initial and recurrent heart attacks. A high level of psychological demands have been
associated with a higher risk of neurotic disorders.

The Effort–Reward Imbalance (ERI) model argues if a person expends high effort and receives
little reward in return, strain is created and adverse health conditions may follow. Reducing or
preventing strain can be achieved at the organizational level by modifying required levels of
efforts and improving rewards.

The Effort-Reward Imbalance model of stress is related to the inequity model of motivation
discussed in Chapter 5. The ERI model proposes that people look for a balance between what
they put out and what they receive in return. Effort may arise from external sources (time
pressure, workload, interruptions, responsibilities) but may also be generated internally (by a
worker’s need to surpass themselves, need for approval, and satisfaction from tackling
challenging situations). Low rewards can describe low wages, being treated with a lack of respect
or esteem for the work, job insecurity, and lack of career opportunities.

The ERI model helps explain the high stress levels associated with service jobs because of the
high effort involved and the fact that many interactions are not rewarding. The emotional labour
required by many service jobs is often not matched by appreciation from customers. This
imbalance can be associated with emotional exhaustion and anxiety. Research into the ERI model
has demonstrated that a high effort–reward imbalance is associated with higher risk for
depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, neck and back injuries, and psychotropic drug
consumption.

The ERI and JDCS models are not mutually exclusive and, in fact, can complement each other.

Though stress is most commonly thought of in terms of its negative consequences and long term
health impacts, stress can also have positive consequences and contribute to successful
performance.

Eustress (short for “euphoria 1 stress”) captures the idea of positive stress. Positive stress can
bring performance and health benefits in those who are able to manage stressor situations
effectively by arousing a person to action. Eustress allows individuals to thrive under pressure by
using stress-induced energy in positive, healthy, and productive ways. Finding creative solutions
to challenging problems, meeting tight deadlines, running marathons, and even studying for
important exams are examples of productive outcomes from healthy stress.

The Yerkes-Dodson law, illustrates how stress leads to improved performance, but only up to a
point. Beyond that optimum point, additional stress has a detrimental effect on performance,
and long term excessive stress is associated with the negative effects that we mentioned
previously. It is in the mid-range of the curve that the greatest performance benefits from stress
are achieved.

Eustress is a characteristic of healthy people; distress is not.

Individual differences play a central role in the stress–strain relationship. It has been suggested
that a person breaks down at their weakest point, thus individual differences, such as negative
affectivity and Type A behaviour pattern, enhance vulnerability to strain under stressful
conditions.

Several personality characteristics (discussed in Chapter 3) are linked to stress vulnerability: Self-
esteem (feelings of personal worth), self-efficacy (belief in personal capability to meet demands),
and personality hardiness seem to buffer people from stress whereas negative affectivity seems
to make strain due to stress more likely. Those with high self-esteem react differently to stressors
and are ultimately less harmed than those with low self-esteem because they appraise the
situation differently and use more effective coping strategies.

People with negative affectivity (the tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of the world
around them) seem to be sensitized to experience threats within their environments and
respond more strongly to them. Physiological measures show that those with high negative
affectivity show greater muscle tension during stress and are slower to recover normal muscle
tension and skin temperature after the stress is over than those low on negative affectivity.
Negative affectivity also makes individuals more likely to react to stress with counterproductive
behaviours because they anger more easily and tend to be impulsive.
Type A Behaviour Pattern is a combination of personality and behavioural characteristics,
including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity aggression, hostility, and a quest
for achievements. Type A behaviour pattern is also labelled coronary-prone behaviour due to the
increased likelihood of heart attacks in Type A individuals.

Type B Behaviour Pattern describes the other end of the personality spectrum, and Type B
individuals are less competitive, less time urgent, less insecure in their social status, and less
aggressive and hostile in their response to conflict.

Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B. Type A individuals in Type B

organizations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations experience stress related to a misfit
between their personality type and the organization’s type.

Individual differences play a central role in the stress–strain relationship. It has been suggested
that a person breaks down at their weakest point, thus individual differences, such as negative
affectivity and Type A behaviour pattern, enhance vulnerability to strain under stressful
conditions.

Several personality characteristics (discussed in Chapter 3) are linked to stress vulnerability: Self-
esteem (feelings of personal worth), self-efficacy (belief in personal capability to meet demands),
and personality hardiness seem to buffer people from stress whereas negative affectivity seems
to make strain due to stress more likely. Those with high self-esteem react differently to stressors
and are ultimately less harmed than those with low self-esteem because they appraise the
situation differently and use more effective coping strategies.

People with negative affectivity (the tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of the world
around them) seem to be sensitized to experience threats within their environments and
respond more strongly to them. Physiological measures show that those with high negative
affectivity show greater muscle tension during stress and are slower to recover normal muscle
tension and skin temperature after the stress is over than those low on negative affectivity.
Negative affectivity also makes individuals more likely to react to stress with counterproductive
behaviours because they anger more easily and tend to be impulsive.

Type A Behaviour Pattern is a combination of personality and behavioural characteristics,

including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity aggression, hostility, and a quest
for achievements. Type A behaviour pattern is also labelled coronary-prone behaviour due to the
increased likelihood of heart attacks in Type A individuals.

Type B Behaviour Pattern describes the other end of the personality spectrum, and Type B
individuals are less competitive, less time urgent, less insecure in their social status, and less
aggressive and hostile in their response to conflict.

Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B. Type A individuals in Type B

organizations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations experience stress related to a misfit
between their personality type and the organization’s type.

Stress is an inevitable feature of work and personal life. Preventive stress management is an
organizational approach highlighting that people and organizations must take joint responsibility
for promoting health and preventing distress and strain. There are three stages of prevention:
primary, secondary, and tertiary.
The Primary stage of prevention prevention aims to reduce, modify, or eliminate the demand or
stressor causing strain. In other words, it aims to eliminate or alleviate the source of the problem.
Stress prevention at the organizational level is largely primary in nature because it shapes the
demands that the organization places on people in the first place.

The Secondary stage of prevention is intended to alter or modify the individual’s response to a
demand or stressor. Some amount of stress in inevitable, so people must learn to manage their
response to the inevitable, inalterable demands of life and work in order to avert distress and
strain while promoting achievement, health, and well-being.

The Tertiary stage of prevention is intended to heal individual symptoms of distress and strain.
The symptoms may range from early warning signs (such as headaches or absenteeism) to more
severe forms of distress (such as hypertension, turnover, and work stoppages).

Clinical research shows that individuals may use a number of self-directed interventions to help
prevent distress and enhance positive well-being.

The power of positive thinking is an optimistic, nonnegative thinking style used by people to
explain the good and bad events in their lives to themselves. A positive, optimistic explanatory
style is a habit of thinking learned over time, though some people are predisposed to positive
thinking. Optimistic people avoid distress by viewing the bad events and difficult times in their
lives as temporary, limited, and caused by an external event. Optimistic people face difficult
times and adversity with hope, and take more credit for the good events in their lives, which
they see as more pervasive and generalized.

Time Management - Time pressure is one of the major sources of stress for people both at work
and in school. The leading symptoms of poor time management include constant rushing, missed
deadlines, work overload and the sense of being overwhelmed, insufficient rest time, and
indecision. Setting concrete goals and prioritizing these goals are the most important first steps
in time management skills, ensuring that the most important activities receive enough time and
attention.

Leisure time activities provide people with an opportunity for rest and recovery. The key to the
effective use of leisure time is enjoyment. Leisure time can be used for spontaneity, joy, and
connection with others in our lives.

Different types of physical exercise are important stress prevention activities for individuals.
Aerobic exercise improves a person’s responsiveness to stressful activities. Research has found
that aerobically fit people (1) have lower levels of adrenaline in their blood at rest; (2) have a
slower, stronger heart functioning; and (3) recover from stressful events more quickly.

Diet may play an indirect role in stress and stress management. High sugar diets can stimulate
the stress response, and foods high in cholesterol can adversely affect blood chemistry. Good
dietary practices contribute to a person’s overall health, making the person less vulnerable to
distress.

Opening Up - Everyone experience a traumatic, stressful, or painful events at one time or

another. One of the most therapeutic, curative responses to such an event is to confide in
another person. Discussing difficult experiences with another person is not always easy, yet
health benefits, immune system improvement, and healing accrue through self-disclosure. The
process of opening up and confessing appears to counter the detrimental effects of stress.
Professional Help - Opening up may occur through professional helping relationships.
Psychological counseling, career counseling, physical therapy, medical and surgical interventions,
and other therapeutic techniques are available to those who seek them. The early detection of
distress and strain reactions, coupled with prompt, professional treatment, can be instrumental
in averting permanent physical and psychological damage.