STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING IN C

TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION TO C PROGRAMMING........................................................................................................................2
C programming language standards:...........................................................................................................................2
C11 and Embedded C language:..................................................................................................................................2
Features of C programming language:.........................................................................................................................3
Uses of C programming language:...............................................................................................................................3
Which level is C language belonging to?.....................................................................................................................3
The C language is a structured language......................................................................................................................4
Key points to remember in C language:.......................................................................................................................4
Basic commands in C programming to write basic C Program:....................................................................................5
1. C Basic Program:.....................................................................................................................................................6
Steps to write C programs............................................................................................................................................6
2.Steps to write C programs and get the output:...........................................................................................................6
3. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program:............................................................................................7
Basic structure of C program:......................................................................................................................................7
4. Basic structure of C program:..................................................................................................................................7
Example C program to compare all the sections:.........................................................................................................7
Description for each section of a C program:...............................................................................................................8
PRINTF AND SCANF......................................................................................................................................................9
C – DATA TYPES:.........................................................................................................................................................12
C CONSTANTS............................................................................................................................................................ 18
C VARIABLE................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Environment functions...............................................................................................................................................24
C – Decision Control statement.................................................................................................................................32
Loop control statements............................................................................................................................................35
C – Case control statements......................................................................................................................................40
C – Type Qualifiers.....................................................................................................................................................44
C – Storage Class Specifiers........................................................................................................................................45
C – Function............................................................................................................................................................... 49
C – Arithmetic functions.............................................................................................................................................58
C – Int, char validation functions...............................................................................................................................59
ARRAYS...................................................................................................................................................................... 63
REVISION QUESTIONS........................................................................................................................................68

1
INTRODUCTION TO C PROGRAMMING

 The C programming language is a structure oriented programming language, developed

at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie
 C programming language features were derived from an earlier language called “B”
(Basic Combined Programming Language – BCPL)
 C language was invented for implementing UNIX operating system
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published the first edition “The C
Programming Language” and commonly known as K&R C
 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to
provide a modern, comprehensive definition of C. The resulting definition, the ANSI
standard, or “ANSI C”, was completed late 1988.

C programming language standards:

 C89/C90 standard – First standardized specification for C language was developed by the
American National Standards Institute in 1989. C89 and C90 standards refer to the same
programming language.
 C99 standard – Next revision was published in 1999 that introduced new features like
advanced data types and other changes.

C11 and Embedded C language:

 C11 standard adds new features to C programming language and library like type generic
macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-
threading and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99
library optional and improves compatibility with C++.
 Embedded C includes features not available in C like fixed-point arithmetic, named
address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing.
 Operating systems, C compiler and all UNIX application programs are written in C
language
 It is also called as procedure oriented programming language. The C language is reliable,
simple and easy to use. C has been coded in assembly language.

2
Features of C programming language:

 Reliability
 Portability
 Flexibility
 Interactivity
 Modularity
 Efficiency and Effectiveness

Uses of C programming language:

The C programming language is used for developing system applications that forms a major
portion of operating systems such as Windows, UNIX and Linux. Below are some examples of C
being used.

 Database systems
 Graphics packages
 Word processors
 Spreadsheets
 Operating system development
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Network drivers
 Interpreters

Which level is C language belonging to?

S.no High Level Middle Level Low Level

1 High level Middle level Low level

languages provide languages don’t languages
almost everything provide all the built-in provides nothing
that the programmer functions found in other than access
might need to do as high level languages, to the machines
already built into but provides all basic instruction
the language building blocks that set
we need to produce
the result we want

2 Examples: C, C++ Assembler

3
 Java, Python

The C language is a structured language

S.no Structure oriented Object oriented Non structure

1 In this type of In this type of There is no specific

language, large language, programs structure for
programs are are divided into programming this
divided into small objects language
programs called
functions

2 Prime focus is on Prime focus is in N/A

functions and the data that is
procedures that being operated and
operate on the data not on the functions
or procedures

3 Data moves freely Data is hidden and N/A

around the systems cannot be accessed
from one function by external
to another functions

4 Program structure Program structure N/A

follows “Top Down follows “Bottom
Approach” UP Approach”

5 Examples: C++, JAVA and C# BASIC, COBOL,

(C sharp) FORTRAN
C, Pascal, ALGOL
and Modula-2

Key points to remember in C language:

1. The C language is structured, middle level programming language developed by Dennis

Ritchie
2. Operating system programs such as Windows, Unix, Linux are written in C language
3. C89/C90 and C99 are two standardized editions of C language
4. C has been written in assembly language

4
 We are going to learn a simple “Hello World” C program in this section. Also, all the below
topics are explained in this section which are the basics of a C program.

1. C basic program with output and explanation

2. Steps to write C programs and get the output
3. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program
1. How to install C compiler and IDE
4. Basic structure of a C program

Basic commands in C programming to write basic C Program:

Below are few commands and syntax used in C programming to write a simple C program. Let’s
see all the sections of a simple C program line by line.

S.no Command Explanation

1 #include <stdio.h> This is a preprocessor command that includes standard input output
header file(stdio.h) from the C library before compiling a C
program

2 int main() This is the main function from where execution of any C program
begins.

3 { This indicates the beginning of the main function.

4 /*_some_comments_*/ whatever is given inside the command “/* */” in any C program,
won’t be considered for compilation and execution.

5 printf(“Hello_World! printf command prints the output onto the screen.

“);

6 getch(); This command waits for any character input from keyboard.

7 return 0; This command terminates C program (main function) and returns 0.

8 } This indicates the end of the main function.

5
1. C Basic Program:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
/* Our first simple C basic program */
printf(“Hello World! “);
getch();
return 0;
}
.

Output:

Hello World!
.

Steps to write C programs

2.Steps to write C programs and get the output:

Below are the steps to be followed for any C program to create and get the output. This is
common to all C program and there is no exception whether its a very small C program or very
large C program.

6
3. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program:
Prerequisite:

 If you want to create, compile and execute C programs by your own, you have to install
C compiler in your machine. Then, you can start to execute your own C programs in your
machine.
 You can refer below link for how to install C compiler and compile and execute C
programs in your machine.
 Once C compiler is installed in your machine, you can create, compile and execute C
programs as shown in below link.

Basic structure of C program:

4. Basic structure of C program:

Structure of C program is defined by set of rules called protocol, to be followed by programmer

while writing C program. All C programs are having sections/parts which are mentioned below.

1. Documentation section
2. Link Section
3. Definition Section
4. Global declaration section
5. Function prototype declaration section
6. Main function
7. User defined function definition section

Example C program to compare all the sections:

You can compare all the sections of a C program with the below C program.

7
/* C basic structure program Documentation section
Author: fresh2refresh.com
Date : 01/01/2012
*/#include <stdio.h> /* Link section */
int total = 0; /* Global declaration and definition section */
int sum (int, int); /* Function declaration section */
int main () /* Main function */
{
printf (“This is a C basic program \n”);
total = sum (1, 1);
printf (“Sum of two numbers : %d \n”, total);
return 0;
}
int sum (int a, int b) /* User defined function */
{ /* definition section */
return a + b;
}
.

Output:

This is a C basic program

Sum of two numbers : 2
.

Description for each section of a C program:

 Let us see about each section of a C basic program in detail below.

 Please note that a C program mayn’t have all below mentioned sections except main
function and link sections.
 Also, a C program structure mayn’t be in below mentioned order.

S.No Sections Description

1 Documentation We can give comments about the program, creation or modified date,
section author name etc in this section. The characters or words or anything
which are given between “/*” and “*/”, won’t be considered by C
compiler for compilation process.These will be ignored by C compiler
during compilation.

8
 Example : /* comment line1 comment line2 comment 3 */

2 Link Section Header files that are required to execute a C program are included in
this section

3 Definition Section In this section, variables are defined and values are set to these
variables.

4 Global declaration Global variables are defined in this section. When a variable is to be
section used throughout the program, can be defined in this section.

5 Function prototype Function prototype gives many information about a function like
declaration section return type, parameter names used inside the function.

6 Main function Every C program is started from main function and this function
contains two major sections called declaration section and executable
section.

7 User defined User can define their own functions in this section which perform
function section particular task as per the user requirement.

PRINTF AND SCANF

 printf() and scanf() functions are inbuilt library functions in C which are available in C
library by default. These functions are declared and related macros are defined in
“stdio.h” which is a header file.
 We have to include “stdio.h” file as shown in below C program to make use of these
printf() and scanf() library functions.

1. C printf() function:

 printf() function is used to print the “character, string, float, integer, octal and
hexadecimal values” onto the output screen.
 We use printf() function with %d format specifier to display the value of an integer
variable.
 Similarly %c is used to display character, %f for float variable, %s for string
variable, %lf for double and %x for hexadecimal variable.
 To generate a newline,we use “\n” in C printf() statement.

Note:

 C language is case sensitive. For example, printf() and scanf() are different from Printf()
and Scanf(). All characters in printf() and scanf() functions must be in lower case.

9
Example program for C printf() function:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch = ‘A’;
char str[20] = “fresh2refresh.com”;
float flt = 10.234;
int no = 150;
double dbl = 20.123456;
printf(“Character is %c \n”, ch);
printf(“String is %s \n” , str);
printf(“Float value is %f \n”, flt);
printf(“Integer value is %d\n” , no);
printf(“Double value is %lf \n”, dbl);
printf(“Octal value is %o \n”, no);
printf(“Hexadecimal value is %x \n”, no);
return 0;
}
.

Output:

Character is A
String is fresh2refresh.com
Float value is 10.234000
Integer value is 150
Double value is 20.123456
Octal value is 226
Hexadecimal value is 96
.

You can see the output with the same data which are placed within the double quotes of printf
statement in the program except

 %d got replaced by value of an integer variable (no),

 %c got replaced by value of a character variable (ch),

 %f got replaced by value of a float variable (flt),

 %lf got replaced by value of a double variable (dbl),

 %s got replaced by value of a string variable (str),

 %o got replaced by a octal value corresponding to integer variable (no),

10
  %x got replaced by a hexadecimal value corresponding to integer variable

 \n got replaced by a newline.

2. C scanf() function:

 scanf() function is used to read character, string, numeric data from keyboard
 Consider below example program where user enters a character. This value is assigned to
the variable “ch” and then displayed.

 Then, user enters a string and this value is assigned to the variable ”str” and then
displayed.

Example program for printf() and scanf() functions in C:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch;
char str[100];
printf(“Enter any character \n”);
scanf(“%c”, &ch);
printf(“Entered character is %c \n”, ch);
printf(“Enter any string ( upto 100 character ) \n”);
scanf(“%s”, &str);
printf(“Entered string is %s \n”, str);
}
.
Output:
Enter any character
a
Entered character is a
Enter any string ( upto 100 character )
hai
Entered string is hai
.

 The format specifier %d is used in scanf() statement. So that, the value entered is
received as an integer and %s for string.
 Ampersand is used before variable name “ch” in scanf() statement as &ch.

 C data types are defined as the data storage format that a variable can store a data to
perform a specific operation.
 Data types are used to define a variable before to use in a program.
 Size of variable, constant and array are determined by data types.

11
C – DATA TYPES:

There are four data types in C language. They are,

S.no Types Data Types

1 Basic data types int, char, float, double
2 Enumeration data type Enum
3 Derived data type pointer, array, structure, union
4 Void data type Void

1. Basic data types in C:

1.1. Integer data type:

 Integer data type allows a variable to store numeric values.

 “int” keyword is used to refer integer data type.
 The storage size of int data type is 2 or 4 or 8 byte.
 It varies depend upon the processor in the CPU that we use. If we are using 16 bit
processor, 2 byte (16 bit) of memory will be allocated for int data type.
 Like wise, 4 byte (32 bit) of memory for 32 bit processor and 8 byte (64 bit) of memory
for 64 bit processor is allocated for int datatype.
 int (2 byte) can store values from -32,768 to +32,767
 int (4 byte) can store values from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647.
 If you want to use the integer value that crosses the above limit, you can go for “long int”
and “long long int” for which the limits are very high.

Note:

 We can’t store decimal values using int data type.

 If we use int data type to store decimal values, decimal values will be truncated and we
will get only whole number.
 In this case, float data type can be used to store decimal values in a variable.

1.2. Character data type:

 Character data type allows a variable to store only one character.

 Storage size of character data type is 1. We can store only one character using character
data type.
 “char” keyword is used to refer character data type.
 For example, ‘A’ can be stored using char datatype. You can’t store more than one
character using char data type.
 Please refer C – Strings topic to know how to store more than one characters in a
variable.

1.3. Floating point data type:

12
Floating point data type consists of 2 types. They are,

1. float
2. double

1. float:

 Float data type allows a variable to store decimal values.

 Storage size of float data type is 4. This also varies depend upon the processor in the CPU
as “int” data type.
 We can use up-to 6 digits after decimal using float data type.
 For example, 10.456789 can be stored in a variable using float data type.

2. double:

 Double data type is also same as float data type which allows up-to 10 digits after
decimal.
 The range for double datatype is from 1E–37 to 1E+37.

1.3.1. sizeof() function in C:

sizeof() function is used to find the memory space allocated for each C data types.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>
int main()
{
int a;
char b;
float c;
double d;
printf(“Storage size for int data type:%d \n”,sizeof(a));
printf(“Storage size for char data type:%d \n”,sizeof(b));
printf(“Storage size for float data type:%d \n”,sizeof(c));
printf(“Storage size for double data type:%d\n”,sizeof(d));
return 0;
}
.
Output:
Storage size for int data type:4
Storage size for char data type:1
Storage size for float data type:4
Storage size for double data type:8
.

1.3.2. Modifiers in C:

13
  The amount of memory space to be allocated for a variable is derived by modifiers.
 Modifiers are prefixed with basic data types to modify (either increase or decrease) the
amount of storage space allocated to a variable.
 For example, storage space for int data type is 4 byte for 32 bit processor. We can
increase the range by using long int which is 8 byte. We can decrease the range by using
short int which is 2 byte.

 There are 5 modifiers available in C language. They are,

1. short
2. long
3. signed
4. unsigned
5. long long

 Below table gives the detail about the storage size of each C basic data type in 16 bit
processor.
Please keep in mind that storage size and range for int and float datatype will vary depend
on the CPU processor (8,16, 32 and 64 bit)

S.No C Data types storage Range

Size
1 char 1 –127 to 127
2 int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
3 float 4 1E–37 to 1E+37 with six digits
of precision
4 double 8 1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits
of precision
5 long double 10 1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits
of precision
6 long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to
2,147,483,647
7 short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
8 unsigned short 2 0 to 65,535
int
9 signed short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
10 long long int 8 –(2power(63) –1) to
2(power)63 –1
11 signed long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to
2,147,483,647
12 unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295
13 unsigned long 8 2(power)64 –1
long int

14
2. Enumeration data type in C:

 Enumeration data type consists of named integer constants as a list.

 It start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential identifiers
in the list.

 Enum syntax in C:

enum identifier [optional{ enumerator-list }];

 Enum example in C:

enum month { Jan, Feb, Mar }; or

/* Jan, Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 0, 1 and 2 respectively by default */
enum month { Jan = 1, Feb, Mar };
/* Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 2 and 3 respectively by default */
enum month { Jan = 20, Feb, Mar };
/* Jan is assigned to 20. Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 21 and 22 respectively by
default */

 The above enum functionality can also be implemented by “#define” preprocessor

directive as given below. Above enum example is same as given below.

#define Jan 20;

#define Feb 21;
#define Mar 22;

C – enum example program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
enum MONTH { Jan = 0, Feb, Mar };
enum MONTH month = Mar;
if(month == 0)
printf(“Value of Jan”);
else if(month == 1)
printf(“Month is Feb”);
if(month == 2)
printf(“Month is Mar”);
}
.
Output:
Month is March
.

15
3. Derived data type in C:

 Array, pointer, structure and union are called derived data type in C language.
 To know more about derived data types, please visit “C – Array“ , “C – Pointer” , “C –
Structure” and “C – Union” topics in this tutorial.

4. Void data type in C:

 Void is an empty data type that has no value.

 This can be used in functions and pointers.
 Please visit “C – Function” topic to know how to use void data type in function with
simple call by value and call by reference example programs.

C tokens, Identifiers and Keywords are the basics in a C program. All are explained in this page
with definition and simple example programs.

1. C tokens:

 C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed together to
write a C program.
 Each and every smallest individual units in a C program are known as C tokens.

 C tokens are of six types. They are,

1. Keywords (eg: int, while),

2. Identifiers (eg: main, total),
3. Constants (eg: 10, 20),
4. Strings (eg: “total”, “hello”),
5. Special symbols (eg: (), {}),
6. Operators (eg: +, /,-,*)

C tokens example program:

int main()
{
int x, y, total;
x = 10, y = 20;
total = x + y;
Printf (“Total = %d \n”, total);
}
.

where,

16
  main – identifier
 {,}, (,) – delimiter
 int – keyword
 x, y, total – identifier
 main, {, }, (, ), int, x, y, total – tokens

Do you know how to use C token in real time application programs? We have given simple
real time application programs where C token is used. You can refer the below C programs to
know how to use C token in real time program.

Real time application C programs for your reference:

1. C program example – Real time Calculator program

2. C program example – Real time Bank Application program

Identifiers in C language:

 Each program elements in a C program are given a name called identifiers.

 Names given to identify Variables, functions and arrays are examples for identifiers. eg. x
is a name given to integer variable in above program.

Rules for constructing identifier name in C:

1. First character should be an alphabet or underscore.

2. Succeeding characters might be digits or letter.
3. Punctuation and special characters aren’t allowed except underscore.
4. Identifiers should not be keywords.

3. Keywords in C language:

 Keywords are pre-defined words in a C compiler.

 Each keyword is meant to perform a specific function in a C program.
 Since keywords are referred names for compiler, they can’t be used as variable name.

Keywords in C Language

auto double int struct

break Else long switch

case Enum register typedef

char extern return union

continue For signed void

17
 do If static while

default Goto sizeof volatile

const Float short unsigned

 Besides these keywords, there are some additional keywords supported by Turbo
C.

Additional Keywords for Borland C

asm far interrupt pascal near huge cdecl

C CONSTANTS

 C Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is, their values can not be
modified by the program once they are defined.
 Constants refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals
 Constants may be belonging to any of the data type.

 Syntax:

const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;

Types of C constant:

1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Octal & Hexadecimal constants
4. Character constants
5. String constants
6. Backslash character constants

S.no Constant type data type Example

1 Integer constants int 53, 762, -478 etc
unsigned int 5000u, 1000U etc
long int 483,647
long long int 2,147,483,680
2 Real or Floating point constants float 10.456789
doule 600.123456789
3 Octal constant int 013 /* starts with 0 */
4 Hexadecimal constant int 0×90 /* starts with 0x */

18
5 character constants char ‘A’ , ‘B’, ‘C’
6 string constants char “ABCD” , “Hai”

Rules for constructing C constant:

1. Integer Constants in C:

 An integer constant must have at least one digit.

 It must not have a decimal point.
 It can either be positive or negative.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
 If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
 The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767.

2. Real constants in C:

 A real constant must have at least one digit

 It must have a decimal point
 It could be either positive or negative
 If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.

3. Character and string constants in C:

 A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol

enclosed within single quotes.
 The maximum length of a character constant is 1 character.
 String constants are enclosed within double quotes.

4. Backslash Character Constants in C:

 There are some characters which have special meaning in C language.

 They should be preceded by backslash symbol to make use of special function of them.
 Given below is the list of special characters and their purpose.

Backslash_character Meaning
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n New line
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\” Double quote
\’ Single quote
\\ Backslash
\v Vertical tab
19
 \a Alert or bell
\? Question mark
\N Octal constant (N is an octal constant)
\XN Hexadecimal constant (N – hex.dcml cnst)

How to use constants in a C program?

 We can define constants in a C program in the following ways.

1. By “const” keyword
2. By “#define” preprocessor directive

 Please note that when you try to change constant values after defining in C program, it
will through error.

1. Example program using const keyword in C:

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
const int height = 100; /*int constant*/
const float number = 3.14; /*Real constant*/
const char letter = ‘A’; /*char constant*/
const char letter_sequence[10] = “ABC”; /*string constant*/
const char backslash_char = ‘\?’; /*special char cnst*/
printf(“value of height :%d \n”, height );
printf(“value of number : %f \n”, number );
printf(“value of letter : %c \n”, letter );
printf(“value of letter_sequence : %s \n”, letter_sequence);
printf(“value of backslash_char : %c \n”, backslash_char);
}

Output:

value of height : 100

value of number : 3.140000
value of letter : A
value of letter_sequence : ABC
value of backslash_char : ?

2. Example program using #define preprocessor directive in C:

#include <stdio.h>
#define height 100
#define number 3.14
#define letter ‘A’
20
#define letter_sequence “ABC”
#define backslash_char ‘\?’
void main()
{
printf(“value of height : %d \n”, height );
printf(“value of number : %f \n”, number );
printf(“value of letter : %c \n”, letter );
printf(“value of letter_sequence : %s \n”,letter_sequence);
printf(“value of backslash_char : %c \n”,backslash_char);
}

Output:

value of height : 100

value of number : 3.140000
value of letter : A
value of letter_sequence : ABC
value of backslash_char : ?

C VARIABLE

 C variable is a named location in a memory where a program can manipulate the data.
This location is used to hold the value of the variable.
 The value of the C variable may get change in the program.
 C variable might be belonging to any of the data type like int, float, char etc.

Rules for naming C variable:

1. Variable name must begin with letter or underscore.

2. Variables are case sensitive
3. They can be constructed with digits, letters.
4. No special symbols are allowed other than underscore.
5. sum, height, _value are some examples for variable name

Declaring & initializing C variable:

 Variables should be declared in the C program before to use.

 Memory space is not allocated for a variable while declaration. It happens only on
variable definition.
 Variable initialization means assigning a value to the variable.

S.No Type Syntax Example

1 Variable data_type int x, y, z; char flat,
declaration variable_name; ch;
2 Variable data_type int x = 50, y = 30;

21
 initialization variable_name = char flag = ‘x’,
value; ch=’l’;

There are three types of variables in C program They are,

1. Local variable
2. Global variable
3. Environment variable

1. Example program for local variable in C:

 The scope of local variables will be within the function only.

 These variables are declared within the function and can’t be accessed outside the
function.
 In the below example, m and n variables are having scope within the main function
only. These are not visible to test function.
 Like wise, a and b variables are having scope within the test function only. These are not
visible to main function.

#include<stdio.h>
void test();
int main()
{
int m = 22, n = 44;
// m, n are local variables of main function
/*m and n variables are having scope
within this main function only.
These are not visible to test funtion.*/
/* If you try to access a and b in this function,
you will get ‘a’ undeclared and ‘b’ undeclared error */
printf(“\nvalues : m = %d and n = %d”, m, n);
test();
}
void test()
{
int a = 50, b = 80;
// a, b are local variables of test function
/*a and b variables are having scope
within this test function only.
These are not visible to main function.*/
/* If you try to access m and n in this function,
you will get ‘m’ undeclared and ‘n’ undeclared
error */printf(“\nvalues : a = %d and b = %d”, a, b);
}

Output:

22
values : m = 22 and n = 44
values : a = 50 and b = 80

2. Example program for global variable in C:

 The scope of global variables will be throughout the program. These variables can be
accessed from anywhere in the program.
 This variable is defined outside the main function. So that, this variable is visible to main
function and all other sub functions.

#include<stdio.h>
void test();int m = 22, n = 44;
int a = 50, b = 80;
int main()
{
printf(“All variables are accessed from main function”);
printf(“\nvalues: m=%d:n=%d:a=%d:b=%d”, m,n,a,b);
test();
}
void test()
{
printf(“\n\nAll variables are accessed from” \
” test function”);
printf(“\nvalues: m=%d:n=%d:a=%d:b=%d”, m,n,a,b);
}

Output:

All variables are accessed from main function

values : m = 22 : n = 44 : a = 50 : b = 80

All variables are accessed from test function

values : m = 22 : n = 44 : a = 50 : b = 80

3. Environment variables in C:

 Environment variable is a variable that will be available for all C applications and C
programs.
 We can access these variables from anywhere in a C program without declaring and
initializing in an application or C program.
 The inbuilt functions which are used to access, modify and set these environment
variables are called environment functions.

23
Environment functions.

 There are 3 functions which are used to access, modify and assign an environment
variable in C. They are,

1. setenv()
2. getenv()
3. putenv()

Example program for getenv() function in C:

This function gets the current value of the environment variable. Let us assume that
environment variable DIR is assigned to “/usr/bin/test/”.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
printf(“Directory = %s\n”,getenv(“DIR”));
return 0;
}

Output:

/usr/bin/test/

Example program for setenv() function in C:

This function sets the value for environment variable. Let us assume that environment
variable “FILE” is to be assigned “/usr/bin/example.c”

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
setenv(“FILE”, “/usr/bin/example.c”,50);
printf(“File = %s\n”, getenv(“FILE”));
return 0;
}

Output:

File = /usr/bin/example.c

Example program for putenv() function in C:

24
 This function modifies the value for environment variable. Below example program shows
that how to modify an existing environment variable value.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
setenv(“DIR”, “/usr/bin/example/”,50);
printf(“Directory name before modifying = ” \
“%s\n”, getenv(“DIR”));
putenv(“DIR=/usr/home/”);
printf(“Directory name after modifying = ” \
“%s\n”, getenv(“DIR”));
return 0;
}

Output:

Directory name before modifying = /usr/bin/example/

Directory name after modifying = /usr/home/

Difference between variable declaration & definition in C:

S.no Variable declaration Variable definition

1 Declaration tells the compiler about data type and Definition allocates memory for the
size of the variable. variable.
2 Variable can be declared many times in a It can happen only one time for a
program. variable in a program.
3 The assignment of properties and identification to Assignments of storage space to a
a variable. variable.

C OPERATOR
Operators are the symbol which operates on value or a variable. For example: + is a
operator to perform addition.
C programming language has wide range of operators to perform various operations. For
better understanding of operators, these operators can be classified as:

Operators in C programming

Arithmetic Operators

Increment and Decrement Operators

Assignment Operators

25
 Relational Operators

Logical Operators

Conditional Operators

Bitwise Operators

Special Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Operator Meaning of Operator

+ addition or unary plus

- subtraction or unary minus

* multiplication

/ division

remainder after
% division( modulo division)

Example of working of arithmetic operators

/* Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators in C. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=9,b=4,c;
c=a+b;
printf("a+b=%d\n",c);
c=a-b;
printf("a-b=%d\n",c);
c=a*b;
printf("a*b=%d\n",c);
c=a/b;
printf("a/b=%d\n",c);
c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b=%d\n",c);
return 0;

26
}
a+b=13
a-b=5
a*b=36
a/b=2
Remainder when a divided by b=1
Explanation
Here, the operators +, - and * performed normally as you expected. In normal
calculation, 9/4 equals to 2.25. But, the output is 2 in this program. It is because, a and b
are both integers. So, the output is also integer and the compiler neglects the term after
decimal point and shows answer 2 instead of 2.25. And, finally a%b is 1,i.e. ,when a=9 is
divided by b=4, remainder is 1.
Suppose a=5.0, b=2.0, c=5 and d=2
In C programming,
a/b=2.5
a/d=2.5
c/b=2.5
c/d=2
Note: % operator can only be used with integers.
Increment and decrement operators
In C, ++ and -- are called increment and decrement operators respectively. Both of these
operators are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++ adds 1 to operand
and -- subtracts 1 to operand respectively. For example:
Let a=5 and b=10
a++; //a becomes 6
a--; //a becomes 5
++a; //a becomes 6
--a; //a becomes 5
Difference between ++ and -- operator as postfix and prefix
When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value of var and then
return it but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++), operator will return the value of operand
first and then only increment it. This can be demonstrated by an example:

27
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int c=2,d=2;
printf("%d\n",c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1 to 3.
printf("%d",++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is displayed.
return 0;
}

Output
2
4
Assignment Operators
The most common assignment operator is =. This operator assigns the value in right side to
the left side. For example:
var=5 //5 is assigned to var
a=c; //value of c is assigned to a
5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant.

Operator Example Same as

= a=b a=b

+= a+=b a=a+b

-= a-=b a=a-b

*= a*=b a=a*b

/= a/=b a=a/b

%= a%=b a=a%b

Relational Operator
Relational operators checks relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it
returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it returns value 0. For example:
a>b
Here, > is a relational operator. If a is greater than b, a>b returns 1 if not then, it returns 0.

28
Relational operators are used in decision making and loops in C programming.

Meaning of
Operator Operator Example

5==3 returns
== Equal to false (0)

5>3 returns
> Greater than true (1)

5<3 returns
< Less than false (0)

5!=3 returns
!= Not equal to true(1)

Greater than 5>=3 returns

>= or equal to true (1)

Less than or 5<=3 return

<= equal to false (0)

Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine expressions containing relation operators. In C, there
are 3 logical operators:

Operato Meaning of
r Operator Example

If c=5 and d=2

then,((c==5) &&
& Logial (d>5)) returns
& AND false.

If c=5 and d=2

Logic then, ((c==5) || (d>
|| al OR 5)) returns true.

Logic If c=5 then, !

al (c==5) returns
! NOT false.

Explanation

29
For expression, ((c==5) && (d>5)) to be true, both c==5 and d>5 should be true but,
(d>5) is false in the given example. So, the expression is false. For
expression ((c==5) || (d>5)) to be true, either the expression should be true. Since, (c==5) is
true. So, the expression is true. Since, expression (c==5) is true, !(c==5) is false.
Conditional Operator
Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : . Conditional
operators are used for decision making in C. For example:
c=(c>0)?10:-10;
If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will be -10.
Bitwise Operators
A bitwise operator works on each bit of data. Bitwise operators are used in bit level
programming.

Operators Meaning of operators

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

~ Bitwise complement

<< Shift left

>> Shift right

Bitwise operator is advance topic in programming . Learn more about bitwise operator in C
programming .
Other Operators
Comma Operator
Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:
int a,c=5,d;
The sizeof operator
It is a unary operator which is used in finding the size of data type, constant, arrays,
structure etc. For example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){

30
 int a;
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%d bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%d bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%d bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%d byte\n",sizeof(d));
return 0;
}
Output
Size of int=4 bytes
Size of float=4 bytes
Size of double=8 bytes
Size of char=1 byte
Conditional operators (?:)
Conditional operators are used in decision making in C programming, i.e, executes
different statements according to test condition whether it is either true or false.
Syntax of conditional operators
conditional_expression?expression1:expression2
If the test condition is true, expression1 is returned and if false expression2 is returned.
Example of conditional operator
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char feb;
int days;
printf("Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter 0: ");
scanf("%c",&feb);
days=(feb=='l')?29:28;
/*If test condition (feb=='l') is true, days will be equal to 29. */
/*If test condition (feb=='l') is false, days will be equal to 28. */
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter n: l
Number of days in February = 29

31
C – Decision Control statement

 In decision control statements (C if else and nested if), group of statements are executed
when condition is true. If condition is false, then else part statements are executed.
 There are 3 types of decision making control statements in C language. They are,

1. if statements
2. if else statements
3. nested if statements

“If”, “else” and “nested if” decision control statements in C:

 Syntax for each C decision control statements are given in below table with description.

Decision Syntax Description

control
statements

if if (condition) In these type of

{ Statements; }
statements, if
condition is true,
then respective
block of code is
executed.

if…else if (condition) In these type of

{ Statement1; statements, group of
Statement2; } statements are
else executed when
{ Statement3; Statement4; } condition is true. If
condition is false,
then else part
statements are
executed.

nested if if (condition1) If condition 1 is

{ Statement1; } false, then condition
else_if(condition2) 2 is checked and
{ Statement2; } statements are
else Statement 3; executed if it is

32
 true. If condition 2
also gets failure,
then else part is
executed.

Example program for if statement in C:

In “if” control statement, respective block of code is executed when condition is true.

int main()
{
int m=40,n=40;
if (m == n)
{
printf("m and n are equal");
}
}

Output:

m and n are equal

Example program for if else statement in C:

In C if else control statement, group of statements are executed when condition is true. If
condition is false, then else part statements are executed.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m == n)
{
printf("m and n are equal");
}
else
{
printf("m and n are not equal");
}

Output:

33
m and n are not equal

Example program for nested if statement in C:

 In “nested if” control statement, if condition 1 is false, then condition 2 is checked and
statements are executed if it is true.
 If condition 2 also gets failure, then else part is executed.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m>n) {
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else if(m<n) {
printf("m is less than n");
}
else {
printf("m is equal to n");
}
}

Output:

m is greater than n

Loop control statements

Loop control statements in C are used to perform looping operations until the given condition is
true. Control comes out of the loop statements once condition becomes false.

Types of loop control statements in C:

There are 3 types of loop control statements in C language. They are,

1. for
2. while
3. do-while

 Syntax for each C loop control statements are given in below table with description.

S.no Loop Syntax Description

34
 Name
1 for for (exp1; exp2; Where,
expr3) exp1 – variable
{ statements; } initialization
( Example: i=0, j=2,
k=3 )
exp2 – condition
checking
( Example: i>5, j<3,
k=3 )
exp3 –
increment/decrement
( Example: ++i, j–, +
+k )
2 while while (condition) where,
{ statements; } condition might be
a>5, i<10
3 do do { statements; } where,
while while (condition); condition might be
a>5, i<10

Example program (for loop) in C:

In for loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}

Output:

0123456789

Example program (while loop) in C:

In while loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

35
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i=3;

while(i<10)
{
printf("%d\n",i);
i++;
}

Output:

3456789

Example program (do while loop) in C:

In do..while loop control statement, while loop is executed irrespective of the condition for
first time. Then 2nd time onwards, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i=1;

do
{
printf("Value of i is %d\n",i);
i++;
}while(i<=4 && i>=2);

Output:

Value of i is 1
Value of i is 2
Value of i is 3
Value of i is 4

Difference between while & do while loops in C:

36
 S.no while do while
1 Loop is Loop is executed for
executed first time
only when irrespective of the
condition is condition. After
true. executing while loop
for first time, then
condition is checked.

Loop control statements in C are used to perform looping operations until the given condition is
true. Control comes out of the loop statements once condition becomes false.

Types of loop control statements in C:

There are 3 types of loop control statements in C language. They are,

1. for
2. while
3. do-while

 Syntax for each C loop control statements are given in below table with description.

S.no Loop Syntax Description

Name
1 for for (exp1; exp2; Where,
expr3) exp1 – variable
{ statements; } initialization
( Example: i=0, j=2,
k=3 )
exp2 – condition
checking
( Example: i>5, j<3,
k=3 )
exp3 –
increment/decrement
( Example: ++i, j–, +
+k )
2 while while (condition) where,
{ statements; } condition might be
a>5, i<10
3 do do { statements; } where,
while while (condition); condition might be
a>5, i<10

Example program (for loop) in C:

37
 In for loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}

Output:

0123456789

Example program (while loop) in C:

In while loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i=3;

while(i<10)
{
printf("%d\n",i);
i++;
}

Output:

3456789

Example program (do while loop) in C:

In do..while loop control statement, while loop is executed irrespective of the condition for
first time. Then 2nd time onwards, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

38
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i=1;

do
{
printf("Value of i is %d\n",i);
i++;
}while(i<=4 && i>=2);

Output:

Value of i is 1
Value of i is 2
Value of i is 3
Value of i is 4

Difference between while & do while loops in C:

S.no while do while

1 Loop is Loop is executed for
executed first time
only when irrespective of the
condition is condition. After
true. executing while loop
for first time, then
condition is checked.

C – Case control statements

The statements which are used to execute only specific block of statements in a series of
blocks are called case control statements.

There are 4 types of case control statements in C language. They are,

1. switch
2. break
3. continue
39
 4. goto

1. switch case statement in C:

 Switch case statements are used to execute only specific case statements based on the
switch expression.
 Below is the syntax for switch case statement.

switch (expression)
{
case label1: statements;
break;
case label2: statements;
break;
default: statements;
break;
}

Example program for switch..case statement in C:

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int value = 3;
switch(value)
{
case 1:
printf(“Value is 1 \n” );
break;
case 2:
printf(“Value is 2 \n” );
break;
case 3:
printf(“Value is 3 \n” );
break;
case 4:
printf(“Value is 4 \n” );
break;
default :
printf(“Value is other than 1,2,3,4 \n” );
}
return 0;
}

40
Output:

Value is 3

2. break statement in C:

 Break statement is used to terminate the while loops, switch case loops and for loops
from the subsequent execution.
 Syntax: break;

Example program for break statement in C:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
if(i==5)
{
printf(“\nComing out of for loop when i = 5″);
break;
}
printf(“%d “,i);
}
}

Output:

01234
Coming out of for loop when i = 5

3. Continue statement in C:

 Continue statement is used to continue the next iteration of for loop, while loop and do-
while loops. So, the remaining statements are skipped within the loop for that particular
iteration.
 Syntax : continue;

Example program for continue statement in C:

#include <stdio.h>

41
int main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
if(i==5 || i==6)
{
printf(“\nSkipping %d from display using ” \
“continue statement \n”,i);
continue;
}
printf(“%d “,i);
}
}

Output:

01234

Skipping 5 from display using continue statement

Skipping 6 from display using continue statement
789

4. goto statement in C:

 goto statements is used to transfer the normal flow of a program to the specified label in
the program.
 Below is the syntax for goto statement in C.

{
…….
go to label;
…….
…….
LABEL:
statements;
}

Example program for goto statement in C:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

42
int i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
if(i==5)
{
printf(“\nWe are using goto statement when i = 5″);
goto HAI;
}
printf(“%d “,i);
}
HAI : printf(“\nNow, we are inside label name \”hai\” \n”);
}

Output:

01234
We are using goto statement when i = 5
Now, we are inside label name “hai”

C – Type Qualifiers

 C – type qualifiers : The keywords which are used to modify the properties of a variable
are called type qualifiers.

Types of C type qualifiers:

There are two types of qualifiers available in C language. They are,

1. const
2. volatile

1. const keyword:

 Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is, their values can’t be
modified by the program once they are defined.
 They refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals.
 They may be belonging to any of the data type.

 Syntax:

const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;

43
  Please refer C – Constants topic in this tutorial for more details on const keyword.

2. volatile keyword:

 When a variable is defined as volatile, the program may not change the value of the
variable explicitly.
 But, these variable values might keep on changing without any explicit assignment by the
program. These types of qualifiers are called volatile.
 For example, if global variable’s address is passed to clock routine of the operating
system to store the system time, the value in this address keep on changing without any
assignment by the program. These variables are named as volatile variable.

 Syntax:

volatile data_type variable_name; (or) volatile data_type *variable_name;

C – Storage Class Specifiers

Storage class specifiers in C language tells the compiler where to store a variable, how to
store the variable, what is the initial value of the variable and life time of the variable.

Syntax:
storage_specifier data_type variable _name

Types of Storage Class Specifiers in C:

There are 4 storage class specifiers available in C language. They are,

1. auto
2. extern
3. static
4. register

S. Storage Storage Initial / Scope Life

No. Specifier place default
value

1 auto CPU Garbage local Within the

Memory value function only.

2 extern CPU Zero Global Till the end of the

44
 memory main program.
Variable definition
might be anywhere
in the C program

3 static CPU Zero local Retains the value

memory of the variable
between different
function calls.

4 register Register Garbage local Within the

memory value function

Note:

 For faster access of a variable, it is better to go for register specifiers rather than auto
specifiers.
 Because, register variables are stored in register memory whereas auto variables are
stored in main CPU memory.
 Only few variables can be stored in register memory. So, we can use variables as register
that are used very often in a C program.

Example program for auto variable in C:

The scope of this auto variable is within the function only. It is equivalent to local variable. All
local variables are auto variables by default.

#include<stdio.h>
void increment(void);
int main()
{
increment();
increment();
increment();
increment();
return 0;
}
void increment(void)
{
auto int i = 0 ;
printf ( “%d “, i ) ;

45
i++;
}

Output:

0000

Example program for static variable in C:

Static variables retain the value of the variable between different function calls.

//C static example

#include<stdio.h>
void increment(void);
int main()
{
increment();
increment();
increment();
increment();
return 0;
}
void increment(void)
{
static int i = 0 ;
printf ( “%d “, i ) ;
i++;
}

Output:

0123

Example program for extern variable in C:

The scope of this extern variable is throughout the main program. It is equivalent to global
variable. Definition for extern variable might be anywhere in the C program.

#include<stdio.h>
int x = 10 ;
int main( )

46
{
extern int y;
printf(“The value of x is %d \n”,x);
printf(“The value of y is %d”,y);
return 0;
}
int y=50;

Output:

The value of x is 10
The value of y is 50

Example program for register variable in C:

 Register variables are also local variables, but stored in register memory. Whereas, auto
variables are stored in main CPU memory.
 Register variables will be accessed very faster than the normal variables since they are
stored in register memory rather than main memory.
 But, only limited variables can be used as register since register size is very low. (16 bits,
32 bits or 64 bits)

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
register int i;
int arr[5];// declaring array
arr[0] = 10;// Initializing array
arr[1] = 20;
arr[2] = 30;
arr[3] = 40;
arr[4] = 50;
for (i=0;i<5;i++)
{
// Accessing each variable
printf(“value of arr[%d] is %d \n”, i, arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}

Output:

47
value of arr[0] is 10
value of arr[1] is 20
value of arr[2] is 30
value of arr[3] is 40
value of arr[4] is 50

C – Function

C functions are basic building blocks in a program. All C programs are written using
functions to improve re-usability, understandability and to keep track on them. You can learn
below concepts of C functions in this section in detail.

1. What is C function?
2. Uses of C functions
3. C function declaration, function call and definition with example program
4. How to call C functions in a program?
1. Call by value
2. Call by reference
5. C function arguments and return values
1. C function with arguments and with return value
2. C function with arguments and without return value
3. C function without arguments and without return value
4. C function without arguments and with return value
6. Types of C functions
1. Library functions in C
2. User defined functions in C
1. Creating/Adding user defined function in C library
7. Command line arguments in C
8. Variable length arguments in C

1. What is C function?

A large C program is divided into basic building blocks called C function. C function contains
set of instructions enclosed by “{ }” which performs specific operation in a C program.
Actually, Collection of these functions creates a C program.

2. Uses of C functions:

 C functions are used to avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
 There is no limit in calling C functions to make use of same functionality wherever
required.
 We can call functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a
program.
48
  A large C program can easily be tracked when it is divided into functions.
 The core concept of C functions are, re-usability, dividing a big task into small pieces to
achieve the functionality and to improve understandability of very large C programs.

3. C function declaration, function call and function definition:

There are 3 aspects in each C function. They are,

 Function declaration or prototype - This informs compiler about the function name,
function parameters and return value’s data type.
 Function call – This calls the actual function
 Function definition – This contains all the statements to be executed.

S.no C function aspects syntax

1 function definition return_type function_name ( arguments list )

{ Body of function; }

2 function call function_name ( arguments list );

3 function declaration return_type function_name ( argument list );

Simple example program for C function:

 As you know, functions should be declared and defined before calling in a C program.
 In the below program, function “square” is called from main function.
 The value of “m” is passed as argument to the function “square”. This value is multiplied
by itself in this function and multiplied value “p” is returned to main function from
function “square”.

#include<stdio.h>
// function prototype, also called function declaration
float square ( float x );

// main function, program starts from here

int main( )
{

float m, n ;
printf ( "\nEnter some number for finding square \n");
scanf ( "%f", &m ) ;
// function call
n = square ( m ) ;
printf ( "\nSquare of the given number %f is %f",m,n );

49
}

float square ( float x ) // function definition

{
float p ;
p=x*x;
return ( p ) ;
}

Output:

Enter some number for finding square

Square of the given number 2.000000 is 4.000000

4. How to call C functions in a program?

There are two ways that a C function can be called from a program. They are,

1. Call by value
2. Call by reference

1. Call by value:

 In call by value method, the value of the variable is passed to the function as parameter.
 The value of the actual parameter can not be modified by formal parameter.
 Different Memory is allocated for both actual and formal parameters. Because, value of
actual parameter is copied to formal parameter.

Note:

 Actual parameter – This is the argument which is used in function call.

 Formal parameter – This is the argument which is used in function definition

Example program for C function (using call by value):

 In this program, the values of the variables “m” and “n” are passed to the function
“swap”.
 These values are copied to formal parameters “a” and “b” in swap function and used.

#include<stdio.h>
// function prototype, also called function declaration
void swap(int a, int b);

50
int main()
{
int m = 22, n = 44;
// calling swap function by value
printf(" values before swap m = %d \nand n = %d", m, n);
swap(m, n);
}

void swap(int a, int b)

{
int tmp;
tmp = a;
a = b;
b = tmp;
printf(" \nvalues after swap m = %d\n and n = %d", a, b);
}

Output:

values before swap m = 22

and n = 44
values after swap m = 44
and n = 22

2. Call by reference:

 In call by reference method, the address of the variable is passed to the function as
parameter.
 The value of the actual parameter can be modified by formal parameter.
 Same memory is used for both actual and formal parameters since only address is used by
both parameters.

Example program for C function (using call by reference):

 In this program, the address of the variables “m” and “n” are passed to the function
“swap”.
 These values are not copied to formal parameters “a” and “b” in swap function.
 Because, they are just holding the address of those variables.
 This address is used to access and change the values of the variables.

#include<stdio.h>
// function prototype, also called function declaration
void swap(int *a, int *b);

51
int main()
{

int m = 22, n = 44;

// calling swap function by reference
printf("values before swap m = %d \n and n = %d",m,n);
swap(&m, &n);

void swap(int *a, int *b)

{
int tmp;
tmp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = tmp;
printf("\n values after swap a = %d \nand b = %d", *a, *b);
}

Output:

values before swap m = 22

and n = 44
values after swap a = 44
and b = 22

All C functions can be called either with arguments or without arguments in a C program. These
functions may or may not return values to the calling function. Now, we will see simple example
C programs for each one of the below.

1. C function with arguments (parameters) and with return value

2. C function with arguments (parameters) and without return value
3. C function without arguments (parameters) and without return value
4. C function without arguments (parameters) and with return value

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S.no C function syntax
1 with arguments and with int function ( int ); // function declaration
return values function ( a ); // function call
int function( int a ) // function definition
{statements; return a;}
2 with arguments and without void function ( int ); // function declaration
return values function( a ); // function call
void function( int a ) // function definition
{statements;}
3 without arguments and without void function(); // function declaration
return values function(); // function call
void function() // function definition
{statements;}
4 without arguments and with int function ( ); // function declaration
return values function ( ); // function call
int function( ) // function definition
{statements; return a;}

Note:

 If the return data type of a function is “void”, then, it can’t return any values to the calling
function.
 If the return data type of the function is other than void such as “int, float, double etc”,
then, it can return values to the calling function.

1. Example program for with arguments & with return value:

In this program, integer, array and string are passed as arguments to the function. The return
type of this function is “int” and value of the variable “a” is returned from the function. The
values for array and string are modified inside the function itself.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

int function(int, int[], char[]);

int main()
{
int i, a = 20;
int arr[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
char str[30] = "\"fresh2refresh\"";

printf(" ***values before modification***\n");

printf("value of a is %d\n",a);

for (i=0;i<5;i++)

53
 {
// Accessing each variable
printf("value of arr[%d] is %d\n",i,arr[i]);
}
printf("value of str is %s\n",str);

printf("\n ***values after modification***\n");

a= function(a, &arr[0], &str[0]);

printf("value of a is %d\n",a);

for (i=0;i<5;i++)
{
// Accessing each variable
printf("value of arr[%d] is %d\n",i,arr[i]);
}
printf("value of str is %s\n",str);

return 0;
}

int function(int a, int *arr, char *str)

{
int i;

a = a+20;
arr[0] = arr[0]+50;
arr[1] = arr[1]+50;
arr[2] = arr[2]+50;
arr[3] = arr[3]+50;
arr[4] = arr[4]+50;
strcpy(str,"\"modified string\"");

return a;

Output:

***values before modification***

value of a is 20
value of arr[0] is 10
value of arr[1] is 20
value of arr[2] is 30
value of arr[3] is 40

54
value of arr[4] is 50
value of str is “fresh2refresh”***values after modification***
value of a is 40
value of arr[0] is 60
value of arr[1] is 70
value of arr[2] is 80
value of arr[3] is 90
value of arr[4] is 100
value of str is “modified string”

2. Example program for with arguments & without return value:

In this program, integer, array and string are passed as arguments to the function. The return
type of this function is “void” and no values can be returned from the function. All the values of
integer, array and string are manipulated and displayed inside the function itself.

#include<stdio.h>

void function(int, int[], char[]);

int main()
{
int a = 20;
int arr[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
char str[30] = "\"fresh2refresh\"";

function(a, &arr[0], &str[0]);

return 0;
}

void function(int a, int *arr, char *str)

{
int i;

printf("value of a is %d\n\n",a);

for (i=0;i<5;i++)
{
// Accessing each variable
printf("value of arr[%d] is %d\n",i,arr[i]);
}
printf("\nvalue of str is %s\n",str);
}

Output:

55
value of a is 20

value of arr[0] is 10
value of arr[1] is 20
value of arr[2] is 30
value of arr[3] is 40
value of arr[4] is 50

value of str is “fresh2refresh”

3. Example program for without arguments & without return value:

In this program, no values are passed to the function “test” and no values are returned from
this function to main function.

#include<stdio.h>

void test();

int main()
{
test();
return 0;
}

void test()
{
int a = 50, b = 80;
printf("\nvalues : a = %d and b = %d", a, b);
}

Output:

values : a = 50 and b = 80

4. Example program for without arguments & with return value:

In this program, no arguments are passed to the function “sum”. But, values are returned
from this function to main function. Values of the variable a and b are summed up in the function
“sum” and the sum of these value is returned to the main function.

#include<stdio.h>

int sum();

int main()

56
{
int addition;
addition = sum();
printf("\nSum of two given values = %d", addition);
return 0;
}

int sum()
{
int a = 50, b = 80, sum;

sum = a + b;
return sum;
}

Output:

Sum of two given values = 130

Do you know how many values can be return from C functions?

 Always, Only one value can be returned from a function.

 If you try to return more than one values from a function, only one value will be returned
that appears at the right most place of the return statement.
 For example, if you use “return a,b,c” in your function, value for c only will be returned
and values a, b won’t be returned to the program.
 In case, if you want to return more than one values, pointers can be used to directly
change the values in address instead of returning those values to the function.

C – Arithmetic functions

 C functions which are used to perform mathematical operations in a program are called
Arithmetic functions.
 Example program for abs(), floor(), round(), ceil(), sqrt(), exp(), log(), sin(), cos(), tan(),
pow() and trunc() functions are given below.

List of inbuilt arithmetic functions in C language:

 “math.h” and “stdlib.h” header files support all the arithmetic functions in C language.
All the arithmetic functions used in C language are given below.

S.no Function Description

1 abs ( ) This function returns the absolute value of an integer. The absolute value of a

57
 number is always positive. Only integer values are supported in C.

2 floor ( ) This function returns the nearest integer which is less than or equal to the
argument passed to this function.

3 round.(.) This function returns the nearest integer value of the float/double/long
double argument passed to this function. If decimal value is from ”.1 to .5″, it
returns integer value less than the argument. If decimal value is from “.6 to .9″, it
returns the integer value greater than the argument.

4 ceil ( ) This function returns nearest integer value which is greater than or equal to the
argument passed to this function.

5 sin ( ) This function is used to calculate sine value.

6 cos ( ) This function is used to calculate cosine.

7 cosh ( ) This function is used to calculate hyperbolic cosine.

8 exp ( ) This function is used to calculate the exponential “e” to the xth power.

9 tan ( ) This function is used to calculate tangent.

10 tanh ( ) This function is used to calculate hyperbolic tangent.

11 sinh ( ) This function is used to calculate hyperbolic sine.

12 log ( ) This function is used to calculates natural logarithm.

13 log10 ( ) This function is used to calculates base 10 logarithm.

14 sqrt ( ) This function is used to find square root of the argument passed to this function.

15 pow ( ) This is used to find the power of the given number.

16 trunc.(.) This function truncates the decimal value from floating point value and returns
integer value.

C – Int, char validation functions

58
 There are many inbuilt functions in C language which are used to validate the data type of
given variable and to convert upper to lower case and lower to upper case are given below with
description and simple example programs.

List of inbuilt int, char validation functions in C language:

 “ctype.h” header file support all the below functions in C language.

S.no Function Description

1 isalpha() checks whether character is

alphabetic

2 isdigit() checks whether character is

digit

3 isalnum() checks whether character is

alphanumeric

4 isspace() checks whether character is

space

5 islower() checks whether character is

lower case

6 isupper() checks whether character is

upper case

7 isxdigit() checks whether character is

hexadecimal

8 iscntrl() checks whether character is a

control character

9 isprint() checks whether character is a

printable character

10 ispunct() checks whether character is a

punctuation

11 isgraph() checks whether character is a

graphical character

12 tolower() checks whether character is

59
 alphabetic & converts to
lower case

13 toupper() checks whether character is

alphabetic & converts to
upper case

POINTERS

 C Pointer is a variable that stores/points the address of another variable. C Pointer is used
to allocate memory dynamically i.e. at run time. The pointer variable might be belonging
to any of the data type such as int, float, char, double, short etc.

Syntax : data_type *var_name; Example : int *p; char *p;

 Where, * is used to denote that “p” is pointer variable and not a normal variable.
 Pointer variable or simply pointer are the special types of variables that holds
memory address rather than data, that is, a variable that holds address value is called
a pointer variable or simply a pointer.

Key points to remember about pointers in C:

 Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the
variable.
 The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.
 Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.
 The value of null pointer is 0.

 & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.

 * symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.
 If pointer is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.
 Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these
two pointers.

 But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.

 The size of any pointer is 2 byte (for 16 bit compiler).

Example program for pointer in C:

60
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, q;
q = 50;
/* address of q is assigned to ptr */
ptr = &q;
/* display q’s value using ptr variable */
printf(“%d”, *ptr);
return 0;
}
Reference operator(&)
If var is a variable then, &var is the address in memory.

/* Example to demonstrate use of reference operator in C programming. */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int var=5;
printf("Value: %d\n",var);
printf("Address: %d",&var); //Notice, the ampersand(&) before var.
return 0;
}

Example To Demonstrate Working of Pointers

/* Source code to demonstrate, handling of pointers in C program */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int* pc;
int c;
c=22;
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
pc=&c;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
c=11;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%d\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
*pc=2;
printf("Address of c:%d\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
return 0;
}

61
ARRAYS
Arrays are closely related to pointers in C programming but the important difference
between them is that, a pointer variable can take different addresses as value whereas, in
case of array it is fixed. This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char c[4];
int i;
for(i=0;i<4;++i){
printf("Address of c[%d]=%x\n",i,&c[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Address of c[0]=28ff44
Address of c[1]=28ff45
Address of c[2]=28ff46
Address of c[3]=28ff47
Notice, that there is equal difference (difference of 1 byte) between any two consecutive
elements of array.
Note: You may get different address of an array.

C Array is a collection of variables belongings to the same data type. You can store group of data
of same data type in an array.

 Array might be belonging to any of the data types

 Array size must be a constant value.
 Always, Contiguous (adjacent) memory locations are used to store array elements in
memory.
 It is a best practice to initialize an array to zero or null while declaring, if we don’t assign
any values to array.

Example for C Arrays:

 int a[10]; // integer array

62
  char b[10]; // character array i.e. string

Types of C arrays:

There are 2 types of C arrays. They are,

1. One dimensional array

2. Multi dimensional array
1. Two dimensional array
2. Three dimensional array, four dimensional array etc…

1. One dimensional array in C:

 Syntax : data-type arr_name[array_size];

Array Array initialization Accessing array

declaration
Syntax: data_ data_type arr_name arr_name[index];
type [arr_size]=(value1,
arr_name value2, value3,….);
[arr_size];
int age [5]; int age[5]={0, 1, 2, 3, 4}; age[0];_/*0_is_accessed*/age[1];_/*1_is_accessed*/
age[2];_/*2_is_accessed*/
char str[10]; char str[10]={‘H’,‘a’,‘i’} str[0];_/*H is accessed*/str[1]; /*a is accessed*/str[2]; /*
; (or)char str[0] = i is accessed*/
‘H’;char str[1] = ‘a’;

char str[2] = ‘i;

Example program for one dimensional array in C:

#include<stdio.h>int main(){

int i;

int arr[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};

// declaring and Initializing array in C

//To initialize all array elements to 0, use int arr[5]={0};

/* Above array can be initialized as below also

arr[0] = 10;

arr[1] = 20;
63
arr[2] = 30;

arr[3] = 40;

arr[4] = 50; */

for (i=0;i<5;i++)

// Accessing each variable

printf(“value of arr[%d] is %d \n”, i, arr[i]);

Output:

value of arr[0] is 10
value of arr[1] is 20
value of arr[2] is 30
value of arr[3] is 40
value of arr[4] is 50

2. Two dimensional array in C:

 Two dimensional array is nothing but array of array.

 syntax : data_type array_name[num_of_rows][num_of_column]

S.no Array declaration Array initialization Accessing array

1 Syntax: data_type arr_name
[num_of_rows][num_of_column];
2 Example:int arr[2][2];
data_type arr_name[2][2] =
{{0,0},{0,1},{1,0},{1,1}};
int arr[2][2] = {1,2, 3, 4};
arr_name[index];
arr [0] [0] = 1; arr [0]
]1] = 2;arr [1][0] =
3;

arr [1] [1] = 4;

Example program for two dimensional array in C:

#include<stdio.h>int main(){

int i,j;

64
// declaring and Initializing array

int arr[2][2] = {10,20,30,40};

/* Above array can be initialized as below also

arr[0][0] = 10; // Initializing array

arr[0][1] = 20;

arr[1][0] = 30;

arr[1][1] = 40; */

for (i=0;i<2;i++)

for (j=0;j<2;j++)

// Accessing variables

printf(“value of arr[%d] [%d] : %d\n”,i,j,arr[i][j]);

Output:

value of arr[0] [0] is 10

value of arr[0] [1] is 20
value of arr[1] [0] is 30
value of arr[1] [1] is 40

Relation between Arrays and Pointers

Consider and array:
int arr[4];

65
In arrays of C programming, name of the array always points to the first element of an
array. Here, address of first element of an array is &arr[0]. Also, arr represents the address
of the pointer where it is pointing. Hence, &arr[0] is equivalent to arr.
Also, value inside the address &arr[0] and address arr are equal. Value in
address &arr[0] isarr[0] and value in address arr is *arr. Hence, arr[0] is equivalent to *arr.
Similarly,
&a[1] is equivalent to (a+1) AND, a[1] is equivalent to *(a+1).
&a[2] is equivalent to (a+2) AND, a[2] is equivalent to *(a+2).
&a[3] is equivalent to (a+1) AND, a[3] is equivalent to *(a+3).
.
.
&a[i] is equivalent to (a+i) AND, a[i] is equivalent to *(a+i).
In C, you can declare an array and can use pointer to alter the data of an array.
//Program to find the sum of six numbers with arrays and pointers.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int i,class[6],sum=0;
printf("Enter 6 numbers:\n");
for(i=0;i<6;++i){
scanf("%d",(class+i)); // (class+i) is equivalent to &class[i]
sum += *(class+i); // *(class+i) is equivalent to class[i]
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}

66
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Difference between procedures and functions
• When the parameter is passed into the procedure; it does not return any value whereas a function always returns a
value.
• One of the major differences in both of them is that procedures are not used in databases whereas functions play an
important role in returning values from a database.
• Procedures are capable of returning multiple values and the functions are able to return limited values.
• DML operations can be used in stored procedures; however, they are not possible in functions.
• Functions can return only one value and it is mandatory whereas procedures can return n or zero values.
• In functions, error handling cannot be done whereas it can be performed in stored procedures.
• Input and output parameters can be passed in procedures whereas in case of functions; only input parameters can be
passed.
• Functions can be called from procedures whereas it is not possible to call a procedure from a function.
• Transaction management can be considered in procedures and it cannot be considered in case of functions.

67