Significant Figure in Calculations × ×

1.
1 Introduction - units and calculations

Due: 11:59pm on Sunday, September 17, 2023
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy
Significant Figures in Calculations
Learning Goal:
To learn how to round an answer to the correct number of significant figures.
When we report a measurement in science, we are careful to report only digits known with certainty, plus a final digit that is recognized to be uncertain. We call this set of digits
significant figures. Often, these numbers are used in calculations. When we use a calculator, the calculator does not automatically account for significant figures, so we have to do
so ourselves. There are some basic rules for handling significant figures in calculations as shown in the table and outlined to the right.
Significant Figure in Calculations

MULTIPLICATION DIVISION
123.1 × 23 = 2.8 ×103 123.1 / 23 = 5.4

4 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f. 4 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f.
ADDITION SUBSTRACTION
123.1 - 23 = 1.00 × 101

123.1 + 23 = 146
(also 100.)
1 d.p. 0 d.p. 0 d.p. 1 d.p. 0 d.p. 0 d.p.

note: s.f. stands for "significant figures"
d.p. stands for "digits to the right of the decimal point"
Multiplication and division

When multiplying or dividing, the final answer is rounded to the same number of significant figures as the measured number with the fewest significant figures.
Addition and subtraction

When adding or subtracting, the final answer is rounded to the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the measured number with the fewest digits to the right of
the decimal point. This item does not cover measured values without a decimal point, which may involve interpreting values with an ambiguous number of significant figures.
Part A
Compute 3.5 × 4.48697. Round the answer appropriately.
Express your answer numerically using the proper number of significant figures.
Hint 1. How to approach the problem

For multiplication or division, the final answer should be rounded to the same number of significant figures as the given value with the fewest significant figures.
Hint 2. Determine the number of significant figures in the final answer

How many significant figures should be shown in the final answer after rounding?
Express the number of significant figures as an integer.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
3.5 × 4.48697 =
16
Correct
Because this calculation involved multiplication, the final answer must be rounded to the same number of significant figures as the measured value with the fewest
significant figures.
Part B
Compute 1240.64/12.5. Round the answer appropriately.

For multiplication or division, the final answer should be rounded to the same number of significant figures as the given value with the fewest significant figures.

How many significant figures should be shown in the final answer after rounding?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
1240.64
99.3 12.5
=
Correct
Because this calculation involved division, the final answer must be rounded to the same number of significant figures as the measured value with the fewest
significant figures.
Part C
Compute 9.3456 + 2140.56 . Round the answer appropriately.

The rules for addition and subtraction differ from those for multiplication and division. For addition and subtraction, the answer should be rounded to the same number of
decimal places as the number having the fewest decimal places.
Hint 2. Determine the number of digits

How many digits to the right of the decimal point should the final answer have after rounding?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
9.3456 + 2140.56 =
2149.91
Correct
Because this calculation involved addition, the final answer must be rounded to the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the measured value with
the fewest number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
Part D
Compute 4.659 × 104 − 2.14 × 104 . Round the answer appropriately.

Express your answer as an integer using the proper number of significant figures (e.g. 12300).

The rules for addition and subtraction differ from those for multiplication and division. For addition and subtraction, the answer should be rounded to the same number of
digits as the value with the last significant digit in the highest place value.
For example, the value 12345 has a 1 in the ten thousands place, a 2 in the thousands place, a 3 in the hundreds place, a 4 in the tens place, and a 5 in the ones place.
In this specific value, there are no trailing zeros. The last significant digit is the 5 in the ones place.
Hint 2. Determine the number of digits
Determine the position of the last significant digit in 4.659 × 104 and 2.14 × 104 .
Drag the appropriate numbers to their respective bins.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
4.659 × 104 2.14 × 104
4.659 × 104 has the final significant digit in the tens place and 2.14 × 104 . has the final significant digit in the hundreds place. To what place will the final answer be
rounded?
ANSWER:
ones
tens
hundreds
thousands
ten thousands
ANSWER:
2.52x10^4
4.659 × 104 − 2.14 × 104 =
Correct
Because this calculation involved subtraction and both values have no digits following the decimal point, the final answer must be rounded to the same number of
digits as the measured value with the fewest number of significant digits to the left of the decimal point.
Rounding
It will be helpful to remember two guidelines about significant figures.
1. After multiplication or division, the answer cannot have more significant figures than any of the original numbers.
2. After addition or subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than any of the original numbers.
After determining the appropriate number of significant figures, round off your final answer.
1. If the first digit you drop is greater than or equal to 5, add 1 to the last digit you keep. You are rounding up.
2. If the first digit you drop is less than 5, do nothing to the digits you keep. You are rounding down.
Part A
A bakery measured the mass of a whole cake as 0.840 kg . A customer bought one slice of the cake and measured the mass of the slice as 0.1171 kg . What is the mass of the
remaining cake, without the one slice?
Express your answer in kilograms using the appropriate number of significant figures.
Calculate the mass of the remaining cake, without the 0.1171-kg piece by subtracting the mass of the slice from the mass of the whole cake. Determine the number of
significant figures that should be expressed in the answer. Finally, round the answer so that it has the appropriate number of significant figures.
Hint 2. Calculate the unrounded mass of remaining cake
What is the mass of the remaining cake, if the cake originally had a mass of 0.840 kg and had a 0.1171-kg slice removed?
Express your answer in kilograms. Do not round.
ANSWER:
0.7229
Hint 3. Determine the number of digits after the decimal place in the known values
How many digits after the decimal place are present in the mass of the cake? How many are in the mass of the slice? Remember to give two answers and note that
these answers may not be the same.
Enter your answers as integers separated by a comma.
ANSWER:
3,4
Hint 4. Determine the number of digits after the decimal place in the answer
After rounding the answer, how many digits should you have after the decimal point?
Enter the number of significant figures in the answer (not the answer itself).
Express your answer numerically as an integer.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
0.723 kg
Correct
Part B
An unknown object is placed on a balance, which then reads 6.136 g . Its volume is measured to be 3.47 cm3 . Find the density of this object by dividing mass by volume.
Express your answer in grams per cubic centimeter to the appropriate number of significant figures.

Find density by dividing the mass by the volume. Determine the number of significant figures needed in the answer. Then round your answer so that it has the correct
number of significant figures.
Hint 2. Calculate the unrounded density
Calculate the density of an object with a mass of 6.136 g and a volume of 3.47 cm3 . Recall that density can be determined by dividing mass by volume.
Express your answer in grams per cubic centimeter. Do not round.
ANSWER:
g
1.7683
cm3
Hint 3. Determine the number of significant figures in the answer

To how many significant figures should you round the answer?
Express your answer as an integer.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
1.77 g/cm3
Correct
± Using Conversion Factors
Chemistry is an experimental science in which a consistent system of measurements is used. Scientists throughout the world use the International System of Units (Système
International or SI), which is based on the metric system. However, the metric system in not used on an everyday basis in the United States. It is often necessary to convert
between the English system, which is used in the United States, and the SI system. One problem with the SI system is the size of the units sometimes turns out to be
inconveniently large or small. Therefore it is often necessary to make conversions within the SI system. For this reason, SI units are modified through the use of prefixes when they
refer to either larger or smaller quantities.
Part A
In Europe, gasoline efficiency is measured in km/L. If your car's gas mileage is 24.0 mi/gal , how many liters of gasoline would you need to buy to complete a 142-km trip
in Europe? Use the following conversions: 1 km = 0.6214 mi and 1 gal = 3.78 L.
Express your answer numerically in liters.

Several conversions are necessary for this problem.
• First convert miles to kilometers using the conversion factor 1 km = 0.6214 mi . That way the efficiency of your car can be measured in km/gal.
• Next convert gallons to liters using the conversion factor 1 gal = 3.78 L.
• Finally, determine how many liters of gasoline are needed to complete a 142-km trip in your car.
Hint 2. Convert miles to kilometers
With an efficiency of 24.0 mi/gal , your car can travel 24.0 mi on 1 gal of gas. How far is that in kilometers given the equality 1 km = 0.6214 mi?
Express your answer numerically in kilometers.
ANSWER:
38.6 km
Hint 3. Convert kilometers per gallon to kilometers per liter
The efficiency of your car is 38.6 km/gal . Convert km/gal to km/L given th equality 1 gal = 3.78 L .
Express your answer numerically in kilometers per liter.
ANSWER:
10.2 km/L
ANSWER:
13.9 L
Correct
A 142-kilometer trip is approximately 90 miles so it would make sense that it would take about 8-16 liters (or 2-4 gallons) of gas to make that trip, depending on the
efficiency of your car.
Part B
While in Europe, if you drive 115 km per day, how much money would you spend on gas in one week if gas costs 1.10 euros per liter and your car's gas mileage is 27.0
mi/gal ? Assume that 1 euro = 1.26 dollars .
Express your answer numerically in dollars.

The first step is to convert the efficiency of your car from miles per gallon to kilometers per liter. You can use the hints of Part A to see a walkthrough converting from
mi/gal to km/gal, and then finally to km/L. Then determine how many kilometers you would drive in a week given the number of kilometers driven in a single day
and the fact that there are 7 days in a week. Next calculate how many liters of gasoline it would take to drive that distance in a week. Finallly, using the price of gasoline
per liter, calculate how much money you would spend in a week in euros and convert that amount to dollars.
Hint 2. Convert the efficiency of your car
You can use the hints of Part A to see a walkthrough converting from mi/gal to km/gal, and then finally to km/L.
Your car's efficiency is 27.0 mi/gal . What would the efficiency of the car be in km/L?
Express your answer in kilometers per liter using four significant figures.
ANSWER:
27.0 mi/gal = 11.49 km/L
Hint 3. Calculate the volume of gas needed in one week
The efficiency of your car is 11.49 km/L . How many liters of gas are needed in one week if you drive 115 km every day?
Express your answer in liters using four significant figures.

ANSWER:
70.03 L
Hint 4. Calculate the cost of gas in euros

A volume of 70.03 L of gasoline is needed per week. If 1.00 L of gasoline costs 1.10 euros , how many euros are needed in one week?
Express your answer in euros using four significant figures.
ANSWER:
70.03 L = 77.03 euros
ANSWER:
97.1 dollars
Correct
After a fairly heavy week of driving, this would be an appropriate amount of money to spend on gas.
Part C
A sprinter set a high school record in track and field, running 200.0 m in 21.8 s . What is the average speed of the sprinter in kilometers per hour?
Express your answer numerically in kilometers per hour.

The distance the sprinter ran is given in meters and the time is given in seconds. Convert meters to kilometers and seconds to hours and divide the distance by the time
to calculate the average speed.
Hint 2. Convert meters to kilometers

The prefix kilo means times 1000. There are 1000 meters in one kilometer. Use this information to complete the calculation.
The distance the sprinter ran was 200.0 meters. How many kilometers is this?
Express your answer numerically in kilometers.
ANSWER:
200.0 m = 0.2000 km
Hint 3. Convert seconds to hours

To convert seconds to hours, use the following conversions:
1. 60 s = 1 min and
2. 60 min = 1 h.
The sprinter completed the race in 21.8 s . Convert that value to hours.
Express your answer numerically in hours.
ANSWER:
21.8 s = 6.06×10−3 h
ANSWER:
33.0 km/h
Correct
Approximately 33-35 kilometers per hour is equal to 20-22 miles per hour. This is the top speed that humans can possibly move on foot. Even the best sprinters in
the world would not beat this speed by much. Answers that are much higher than this would not be possible by humans. Answers that are much lower than this
would be too slow for a top athlete.
Part D
A specific brand of gourmet chocolate candy contains 7.00 g of dietary fat in each 22.7-g piece. How many kilograms of dietary fat are in a box containing 3.00 lb of candy?
Express your answer numerically in kilograms.
Hint 1. How to appoach the problem
First , determine how many grams of candy are in the box containing 3.00 lb of candy. Second, determine how many pieces of candy are in the box. Then determine
the total mass of fat (in grams) in total number of pieces. Finally, convert the mass from grams to kilograms.
Hint 2. Determine the mass in grams of the box of candy

The equality for converting pounds to grams is
1.00 lb = 454 g
How many grams are in a 3.00-lb box of candy?
Express your answer in grams using four significant figures.
ANSWER:
1362 g
Hint 3. Determine the number of pieces of candy in the box

How many 22.7-g pieces of candy are in the box?
ANSWER:
60 pieces
Hint 4. Determine the total amount of dietary fat in grams

Calculate the total amount of dietary fat in the box of candy.
Express your answer numerically in grams.
ANSWER:
420 g
ANSWER:
0.420 kg
Correct
The recommended daily amount of dietary fat (based on a 2000 calories a day diet) is about 67 g (0.067 kg ).
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 100%.
You received 3 out of a possible total of 3 points.
1.2 Introduction - reactions and mole calculations
Chemical Properties and Physical Properties
Substances have both chemical properties and physical properties.
• Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances through a new arrangement of atoms
• Physical properties are characteristics that can be measured without changing the composition of the sample under study. The appearance, but not the composition,
will change.
Part A
Which of the following properties of copper are chemical properties?
Check all that apply.
Hint 1. How to identify chemical properties

Changes that result in a new arrangement of atoms and, thus, new compounds are associated with chemical properties. To identify whether a new substance was
formed, look for signs of a reaction such as two reagents coming together to form one or more different products. This may involve visual differences as well; however,
only chemical properties involve different substances too.
ANSWER:
In air it combines with carbon dioxide to form copper carbonate.
It reacts with chlorine to form copper chloride.
It is a shiny, orange-colored metal.
It has a mass of 65.55 g .
Correct
Part B
Which of the following properties of a piece of wood are physical properties?
Hint 1. How to identify physical properties

Observations that don't change the arrangement of atoms are physical properties. Observations you can make would include smell, color, phase, quantity, strength,
durability, and other properties that can be recorded without altering the connectivity of atoms within the molecule.
ANSWER:
In burns in air to produce carbon dioxide.
It is rough to touch.
It is hard.
It has a mass of 2.3 g .
Correct
Physical Change or Chemical Reaction
A chemical reaction (also known as a chemical change) produces substances that are chemically different from the starting materials. An example of a chemical reaction is the
formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gas.In a physical change, a substance changes its physical appearance but not its chemical identity. An example of physical change
is the formation of liquid water from solid water, a familiar process called melting. Physically, liquid water looks very different from solid water (ice) but the chemical identity, water, is
the same for both.
Part A
Which of following changes that affect the composition of our atmosphere involve physical changes and which involve chemical reactions?
Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.
A chemical change produces substances that are chemically different from the starting materials whereas in a physical change the end materials have the same
chemical identity as the starting materials. Examine each of the descriptions for the starting and end materials and compare their identities.
Hint 2. Define important processes

Match the definitions related to the processes described in the composition of the atmosphere to the word each describes.
Drag the appropriate definitions to their respective words.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
The process by which the liquid water The process by which the gaseous
The process of breaking down of
is converted to the solid form of water water vapor is converted to the liquid
complex substances to simple ones.
(ice). water.
Hint 3. Define important terms

Match the definitions related to the terms used in describing the changes in the composition of the atmosphere.
Drag the appropriate definitions to their respective words.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
It is the temperature below which the

It is a fuel that is burned to produce It is made up of tiny droplets of water
It is used as a disinfectant and bleach. water vapor from the atmosphere
the energy. suspended in air.
forms tiny droplets of liquid water.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
When coal, oil, and natural gas are

decomposed in landfills they produce
methane gas. Freezing rain develops when a warm
air mass overrides a cold air mass.
Oxygen gas changes to ozone during
thunderstorms. Fog forms from water vapor when the
temperature drops below the dew
Carbon dioxide is produced by the point.
combustion of gasoline in an
automobile engine.
Correct
The composition of the atmosphere is determined by a complex interaction of both physical changes and chemical reactions.
Part B
In a laboratory experiment, a fermenting aqueous solution of glucose and yeast produces carbon dioxide gas and ethanol. The solution was heated by burning natural gas in a
Bunsen burner to distill the ethanol that formed in the flask. During the distillation, the ethanol evaporated and then condensed in the receiving flask. The flame of the burner
was kept too close to the bottom of the flask and some of the glucose decomposed into a black carbon deposit on the inside of the flask. During this experiment the following
changes occurred.
Which of these changes involved a physical change and not a chemical change?
A chemical change produces substances that are chemically different from the starting materials whereas in a physical change the end materials have the same
chemical identity as the starting materials. Examine each of the changes described from the experiment for the starting and end materials and compare their identities.
It may also help to look at this diagram of the experimental apparatus.
Hint 2. Define important terms

Complete the following sentences related to the changes described in the experiment.
Match the words in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before submitting
your answer.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The process by which glucose, a sugar, is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide gas is called
fermentation .
2. The burning of wood in a fireplace converts the wood to ashes, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
3. evaporation of liquid water to water vapor causes the liquid in a glass to disappear on standing.
4. On a warm day, water vapor from the atmosphere forms liquid water on the outside of a glass by
condensation .
5. When a complex material is broken down into simpler substances it is called decomposition .
ANSWER:
formation of a carbon deposit inside the flask
formation of carbon dioxide gas from glucose
condensation of ethanol
formation of ethanol from glucose by yeast
burning of natural gas
evaporation of ethanol
Correct
Calculations Using the Mole
Learning Goal:
To learn how to convert grams to moles and to use the mole to find the number of atoms in a sample.
The mole (abbreviated mol) is a counting unit used to simplify calculations that would otherwise involve very large numbers. The mole is equivalent to the number of carbon atoms
in exactly 12 g of isotopically pure 12 C, or 6.02 × 1023 . This number is known as Avogadro's number in honor of Amedeo Avogadro.
Avogadro's number can be used as a conversion factor between moles and atoms as shown here:
6.02×1023 atoms
1 mole of atoms
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of a substance and is written in units of grams per mole. The molar mass of an atom is equivalent to its atomic mass
whereas the molar mass of a substance is equivalent to its formula weight.
Part A
How many moles of atoms are in 6.00 g of 13 C?

Express your answer numerically in moles.
Hint 1. Review isotope notation

A chemical isotope is written using the following notation:
AX
Z
where A is the mass number of the element with chemical symbol X , and Z is its atomic number.
Hint 2. Determine the molar mass of carbon-13
What is the molar mass of 13 C?

Express your answer numerically in grams per mole.
ANSWER:
13.0 g/mol
Hint 3. Identify the operation that allows units to cancel properly

Given x g of a substance that has a molar mass of y g/mol, which operation will give an answer with units of moles?
ANSWER:
x⋅y
x
y
y
x
ANSWER:
0.462 mol 13 C
Correct
While the value of a mole is the number of atoms of 12 C atoms in exactly 12.0 g of pure 12 C, the same is not true for other elements or other isotopes of carbon. To
six significant figures, the molar mass of 13 C is 13.0034 g/mol.
Part B
Based on your answer in Part A, calculate the number of atoms in this amount of 13 C?
Express your answer numerically in atoms of carbon.
Use Avogadro's number to convert moles of 13 C to atoms of carbon. Recall that Avogadro's number is 6.02 × 1023 . In other words, each mole of atoms contains
6.02 × 1023 atoms.
ANSWER:
2.78×1023 13 C atoms
Correct
Part C
Based on your answer in Part B, how many electrons are in this amount of 13 C?
Express your answer numerically in electrons.

In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. The number of protons in an atom can be determined by looking up the atomic number of
the element in the periodic table. Once you know the number of electrons per atom, multiply by the total number of atoms, 2.78×1023.
Hint 2. Determine the number of electrons in one atom of carbon-13
How many electrons are in one atom of 13 C?

ANSWER:
electrons
6
ANSWER:
1.67×1024 electrons
Correct
Part D
Based on your answer in Part B, how many neutrons are in this amount of 13 C?
Express your answer numerically in neutrons.

The mass number of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons. The number of protons in an atom can be determined by looking up the atomic number of the
element in the periodic table.Once you know the number of neutrons per atom, multiply by the total number of atoms, 2.78×1023.
Hint 2. Determine the number of neutrons in one atom of carbon-13

How many neutrons are in one atom of 13 C?
ANSWER:
neutrons
7
ANSWER:
1.94×1024 neutrons
Correct
Percent Composition and Formulas
One of the inherently satisfying features of chemistry is that chemical materials form and interact in a rational and predictable manner. For example, one can predict a great deal
about a particular kind of molecule by experimentally determining the percentage composition of the elements in that compound. This gives us the relative proportions of the
elements in the molecule. For a molecule made up of elements A , B , and C, the proportions might be A : B : C2 , meaning that there are two atoms of C for each atom of A and
each atom of B . This may not be the actual description of the molecule (which might actually be A2 B2 C4 ), but it is the "reduced" version of that formula, called the empirical
formula. The actual formula is some multiple of the empirical formula. To know the actual formula we need to know both the empirical formula and the molecular mass of the
compound. This provides us with the multiplier value in whole units that must be applied to the empirical formula to get the actual formula.
A compound is 40.0% C, 6.70% H , and 53.3% O by mass. Assume that we have a 100.-g sample of this compound.
Part A
What are the subscripts in the empirical formula of this compound?
Enter the subscripts for C, H , and O, respectively, separated by commas (e.g., 5,6,7).
Hint 1. Find how many moles of each element are involved
To obtain the mass of each component, multiply the percentage of each component by the mass of the sample. For a 100-g sample, there are 40.0 g of C, 6.70 g of H ,
and 53.3 g of O. Then, to convert grams to moles, divide the mass by the molar mass.
How many moles of each element are present in 100 g of this compound?
Enter the number of moles of C, H , and O, respectively, separated by commas (e.g. 5, 6, 7).
ANSWER:
number of moles of C,H , O = 3.33,6.65,3.33 mol
Hint 2. How to convert the mole ratio to integers
To convert the ratio of moles of C : H : O to the integers needed to determine the empirical formula, divide each number in the ratio by the smallest number in the ratio.
ANSWER:
1,2,1
Correct
The empirical formula of this compound is CH2 O.
Part B
The molecular formula mass of this compound is 240 amu . What are the subscripts in the actual molecular formula?
Enter the subscripts for C, H , and O, respectively, separated by commas (e.g., 5,6,7).

Based on the molecular mass of the compound, determine how many units of the empirical formula mass there are per actual mass of the molecule. The number of
units is a multiplication factor (n) that can be multiplied by each subscript in the empirical formula to give the molecular formula.
Hint 2. Calculate the empirical formula mass
What is the mass of the empirical formula, CH2 O?

Express your answer in atomic mass units using four significant figures.
ANSWER:
30.03 amu
Hint 3. Equation for the multiplication factor n
Let n be the number by which the empirical formula mass is a factor of the molecular formula mass. Find n using the following equation:
molecular formula mass

n= empirical formula mass
ANSWER:
n= 8
ANSWER:
8,16,8
Correct
Balancing Chemical Equations
Learning Goal:
To learn to balance chemical equations by inspection.
According to the law of conservation of mass, matter cannot be created or destroyed. Therefore, a chemical equation must show the same number of each kind of atom in the
reactants as it does in the products. As shown in the figure, the balanced equation 3H2 + N2 →2NH3 has 6 atoms of hydrogen and 2 atoms of nitrogen on each side of the arrow.
One is often presented with unbalanced chemical equations for which one must supply the coefficients.
The following equation is not balanced:
CaSO4 + AlCl3 →CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3
Part A
2−
Notice that "SO4 " appears in two different places in this chemical equation. SO4 is a polyatomic ion called "sulfate." What number should be placed in front of CaSO4 to
give the same total number of sulfate ions on each side of the equation?
?CaSO4 + AlCl3 →CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3

Hint 1. Confused by parentheses?
Parentheses surrounding a set of elements means that the subscript applies to all the atoms within the parentheses. For example: the compound Al2 (SO4 )3 contains
two aluminum atoms and three sulfate ions (12 oxygen atoms, 3 sulfur atoms).
ANSWER:
?=
3
Correct
Part B
Now that we have put a coefficient of 3 in front of CaSO4 , what coefficient should go in front of CaCl2 to balance calcium (Ca)?
3CaSO4 + AlCl3 →?CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3

Hint 1. Count the number of calcium atoms on the left

How many calcium atoms currently appear on the left side of this equation?
3CaSO4 + AlCl3 →CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3

ANSWER:
3
ANSWER:
?=
3
Correct
By placing a coefficient of 3 in front of calcium chloride, we have indicated three calcium atoms on the right to match the three calcium ions on the left:
3CaSO4 + AlCl3 →3CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3
Part C
Now that we have put coefficients of 3 in front of CaSO4 and CaCl2 , what coefficient should go in front of AlCl3 to balance both the Cl atoms and the Al atoms?
3CaSO4 +?AlCl3 →3CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3

ANSWER:
?=
2
Correct
There are now 6 chlorine atoms, and 2 aluminum atoms on each side of the equation. The final balanced equation looks like this:
3CaSO4 + 2AlCl3 →3CaCl2 + Al2 (SO4 )3

Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 99.4%.
You received 4.97 out of a possible total of 5 points.
2.1 Nomenclature
Ionic Compound Nomenclature and Formulas
Learning Goal:
To learn to write the systematic name of ionic compounds given the chemical formula and to write the chemical formula given the systematic name.
Ionic bonds form when one atom completely transfers one or more electrons to another atom, resulting in the formation of ions. Positively charged ions (cations) are strongly
attracted to negatively charged ions (anions) by electrical forces. All chemical compounds can be named systematically by following a series of rules. Binary ionic compounds are
named by identifying first the positive ion and then the negative ion. Naming compounds with polyatomic ions involves memorizing the names and formulas of the most common
ones.
Part A
Give the systematic name for the compound Al(NO3 )3 .
Spell out the full name of the compound.

When naming ionic compounds, the cation is identified first and the anion is identified second. Here, the anion is a polyatomic ion. It is generally necessary to memorize
2−
the names of polyatomic ions such as OH− (hydroxide), NH4 + (ammonium), or SO3 (sulfite). However, there are a few guidelines:
• The names of most polyatomic ions end in ite or ate.

• Oxoanions are ions in which a given element combines with different numbers of oxygen atoms. For example, sulfur can combine with three or four
2− 2−
oxygen atoms, forming SO3 or SO4 . When there are only two oxoanions, the ion with fewer oxygen atoms has the ending ite, and the ion with more
2−
oxygen atoms has the ending ate. The first part of the name is taken from the name of the element that combines with the oxygen atoms. Thus, SO3 is
2−
the sulfite ion and SO4 is the sulfate ion.
− −
Nitrogen forms two oxoanions, NO2 and NO3 .
Hint 2. Name the anion

−
What is the name of the polyatomic anion NO3 ?
ANSWER:
nitrate
ANSWER:
aluminum nitrate
Correct
Aluminum is a metal that has only one oxidation state. Therefore it is not necessary to write III in parentheses in the systematic name. Only those metals with more
than one oxidation state must have its state written in the name.
Part B
Give the systematic name for the compound Ni2 (SO4 )3 .

When naming ionic compounds, the cation is identified first and the anion is identified second. If the metal has more than one oxidation state, identify the oxidation state
using a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately after the metal name. The, when naming the anion for this part take into account that it is a polyatomic ion. It is
2−
generally necessary to memorize the names of polyatomic ions such as OH− (hydroxide), NH4 + (ammonium), or SO3 (sulfite). However, there are a few
guidelines:
• The names of most polyatomic ions end in ite or ate.

• Oxoanions are ions in which a given element combines with different numbers of oxygen atoms. For example, nitrogen can combine with two or three
− −
oxygen atoms, forming NO2 or NO3 . When there are only two oxoanions, the ion with fewer oxygen atoms has the ending ite, and the ion with more
−
oxygen atoms has the ending ate. The first part of the name is taken from the name of the element that combines with the oxygen atoms. Thus, NO2 is
−
the nitrite ion and NO3 is the nitrate ion.
2− 2−
Sulfur forms two oxoanions, SO3 and SO4 .
Hint 2. Name the anion

2−
What is the systematic name of the anion SO4 ?
ANSWER:
sulfate
Hint 3. Determine the oxidation number

What is the charge of the nickel cation in this ionic compound?
ANSWER:
−3
−2
+1
+2
+3
ANSWER:
nickel(III) sulfate
Correct
Although it seems like a small difference, nickel(II) and nickel(III) behave much differently chemically. They even form different-colored compounds because of the
number of electrons they have to bond. Therefore it is very important to specify which oxidation state is being used.
Part C
Enter the formula for the compound barium oxide.
Express your answer as a chemical formula.
Use the periodic table to determine the charge for each ion. Because this is a neutral ionic compound, the positive charges must equal the negative charges. Reduce
the subscript on each ion to its lowest whole-number ratio.
Hint 2. Determine the charge of the anion

Oxygen is in group 16 on the periodic table. This group is also known as group 6A using the U.S. system. Main group nonmetals usually form anions whose charge is
equal to the U.S. system group number minus eight.
What is the charge of the oxide ion?

ANSWER:
−4
−3
−2
−1
+1
+2
+3
Hint 3. Determine the charge of the cation

What is the charge of the barium ion?
ANSWER:
−2
−1
+1
+2
+3
+4
ANSWER:
BaO
Correct
All of the elements in group 2 form ions with a +2 charge. That is because all of these elements need to lose two electrons to gain stability. After losing the electrons,
there is an excess of two protons, which results in a +2 charge.
Part D
Enter the formula for the compound cobalt(II) phosphate.

The oxidation number of the cation is given. The anion is polyatomic, so you will have to look up its formula and charge. Because this is a neutral ionic compound, the
positive charges must equal the negative charges. Reduce the subscript on each ion to its lowest whole-number ratio.
Hint 2. Determine the formula for the phosphate ion

What is the formula for the phosphate anion?
ANSWER:
P3−
PO4 3−
PO3 3−
Hint 3. Balance the charges

Because this is a neutral ionic compound, the total number of positive charges [from the cobalt(II) ion] must equal the total number of negative charges (from the
phosphate ion). The cobalt(II) ion has a +2 charge and the phosphate ion has a −3 charge. Therefore, if there were only one cobalt(II) ion and one phosphate ion, the
overall charge would be −1, because +2 + (−3) = −1 . To have an overall charge of 0, this compound will have more than one of each ion.
Cobalt(II) has a charge of +2 and phosphate has a charge of −3. Therefore, the cobalt(II) phosphate formula must have _____ cobalt(II) ions and _____ phosphate
ions for the charges to balance.
ANSWER:
one / one
one / two
one / three
two / one
two / three
three / two
ANSWER:
Co3 (PO4 )2
Correct
Cobalt, like iron, has more than one oxidation state, so it is necessary to put the oxidation state of the metal in parentheses. Elements in group 1 and 2 only have one
oxidation state and so there is no need for Roman numerals in their systematic name.
Covalent Compound Formulas
The chemical formula of covalent compounds can be easily determined from the systematic name of the compound. Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of
each element present in the compound.
Number Prefix
1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
5 penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca
Part A
What is the formula for the compound nitrogen monoxide?
Hint 1. Specify the symbol for nitrogen

What is the elemental symbol for nitrogen?
Express your answer as a chemical symbol.
ANSWER:
Hint 2. Specify the symbol for oxygen

What is the elemental symbol for oxygen?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Determine the number of oxygen atoms

How many oxygen atoms should be shown in the formula for nitrogen monoxide?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
NO
Correct
Part B
What is the formula for the compound tetraphosphorus decoxide?
Hint 1. Specify the symbol for phosphorus

What is the elemental symbol for phosphorus?
ANSWER:
Hint 2. Determine the number of phosphorus atoms

How many phosphorus atoms should be shown in the formula for tetraphosphorus decoxide?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Specify the symbol for oxygen

What is the elemental symbol for oxygen?
ANSWER:
Hint 4. Determine the number of oxygen atoms

How many oxygen atoms should be shown in the formula for tetraphosphorus decoxide?
ANSWER:
10
ANSWER:
P4 O10
Correct
Part C
What is the formula for the compound methane?

Methane could also be called carbon tetrahydride or natural gas.
ANSWER:
CH4
Correct
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are usually composed solely of nonmetals. A binary molecular compound is one in which the compound contains only two elements (regardless of how
many atoms are present of each). When naming binary molecular compounds, prefixes are used to specify the number of atoms of each element. Take a moment to review some
of the prefixes shown here.
Prefix Number
mono one
di two
tri three
tetra four
penta five
hexa six
hepta seven
octa eight
nona nine
deca ten
For example, SF6 is named sulfur hexafluoride. Note that the prefix mono is not used in naming the first element. Also note that the second element in the name should end with
the suffix ide.
Part A
Using the rules for naming molecular compounds described in the introduction, what is the name for the compound NO2 ?
Hint 1. Identify the number of atoms
How many nitrogen atoms are in a molecule of NO2 ? How many oxygen atoms are there?
Enter the number of nitrogen atoms followed by the number of oxygen atoms separated by a comma.
ANSWER:
Number of nitrogen atoms, oxygen atoms

1,2
Hint 2. Identify the prefix for oxide

In naming this compound, what prefix would be used to specify the number of oxygen atoms per molecule?
Enter the prefix.
ANSWER:
di
ANSWER:
nitrogen dioxide
Correct
The prefix mono- is not included on the first element, however if there were two or more nitrogen atoms, then the appropriate prefix would be necessary.
Part B
Using the rules for naming molecular compounds described in the introduction, what is the name for the compound N2 H4 ?
Hint 1. Identify the number of atoms

How many nitrogen atoms are in a molecule of N2 H4 ? How many hydrogen atoms are there?
Enter the number of nitrogen atoms first followed by a comma and then the number of hydrogen atoms.
ANSWER:
2,4
Hint 2. Identify the prefix for nitrogen

In naming this compound, what prefix would be used to specify the number of nitrogen atoms per molecule?
Enter the prefix.
ANSWER:
di
Hint 3. Identify the prefix for H

In naming this compound, what prefix would be used to specify the number of hydrogen atoms per molecule?
Enter the prefix.
ANSWER:
tetra
ANSWER:
dinitrogen tetrahydride
Correct
Since there are 2 atoms of nitrogen in the molecule, the prefix di is necessary.
Acid Names
Acids are compounds that have at least one H+ ion that can dissociate from the compound in solution. Precise naming of acids is important because different acids have very
different properties. For example, acetic acid in dilute form is used in cooking (as vinegar), whereas hydrofluoric acid is so toxic that even splashing a small amount on the skin can
be fatal without proper treatment.
Naming binary acids
When naming acids, start by naming the anion. A monatomic anion, such as Cl− , is simple named by replacing the ending of the element name with ide. For example, Cl− is
named chloride and O2− is named oxide.
Once the anion is named, name the acid based on this anion. Start by adding the prefix hydro, and then change the ide suffix to ic. For example, HCl would require the anion
chloride to be changed to chloric. Adding the prefix hydro creates hydrochloric acid.
Part A
What is the name of the acid whose formula is HI?
Spell out the full name of the acid.

To solve this problem, look at the chemical formula and determine which anion the hydrogen ion is bound to. This will allow you to distinguish between the naming
convention for acids with the hydrogen ion bound to oxygen and that for other acids such as binary acids.
Hint 2. Identify the anion

What is the name of the anion to which the hydrogen ion is bound?
Enter the name of the anion (e.g., sulfide).
ANSWER:
iodide
Hint 3. Naming conventions

When a hydrogen ion in acid is bound to an anion whose name ends in ide, the acid is named with the prefix hydro, followed by the name of the anion, but with the
suffix ic instead of ide.
ANSWER:
hydroiodic acid
Correct
Naming oxoacids
Oxoacids contain an oxygen atom in the anion. To name them, again, start with the name of the anion when naming acids. Polyatomic anions are named according to the following
rules:
• If an element can only form two oxyanions then the one with the least amount of oxygens is given the ending ite. The one containing the most oxygens is given the
ending ate.
• Elements that can form four polyatomic oxyanions use prefixes in addition to the ite and ate endings.
• The oxyanion with the least amount of oxygens is given the prefix hypo and the ending ite (i.e., ClO− is hypochlorite).
• The oxyanion with the second least amount of oxygens is simply given the ite ending (i.e., ClO2 − is chlorite).
• The oxyanion with the second most amount of oxygens is simply given the ate ending (i.e., ClO3 − is chlorate).
• Finally, the oxyanion with the most amount of oxygens is given the prefix per and the ending ate (i.e., ClO4 − is perchlorate).
When naming the acid of an oxoanion the endings of the anion are modified as follows:
• ate changes to ic (retain prefixes) and

• ite changes to ous (retain prefixes).
The word acid is added following the new name of the anion to complete the name of the acid.
Part B
What is the formula for chlorous acid?

Since the prefix hydro is absent in this name, the anion must be a polyatomic ion. The suffix ous tells us that the anion by itself ends with the suffix ite.
Hint 2. Identify the anion name

What is the name of the anion to which the hydrogen ion is bound in chlorous acid?
Spell out the full name of the ion (e.g., nitrate).
ANSWER:
chlorite
Hint 3. Identify the anion formula

What is the formula for the chlorite ion?
ANSWER:
ClO−
ClO2 −
ClO3 −
ClO4 −
ANSWER:
HClO2
Correct
Part C
What is the name of the acid whose formula is H2 CO3 ?
Spell out the full name of the acid.
Hint 1. Determine the anion formula
What is the formula for the anion in H2 CO3 ?

Express your answer as an ion.
ANSWER:
CO3 2−
Hint 2. Determine the anion name
What is the name of the anion, CO3 2− , to which the hydrogen ions are bound?
ANSWER:
carbonate
ANSWER:
carbonic acid
Correct
When carbon dioxide dissolves in ocean water, soda, or blood it forms carbonic acid.
Part D
What is the formula for sulfurous acid?
Hint 1. Determine the anion name

What is the name of the anion to which the hydrogen ion is bound in sulfurous acid?
ANSWER:
sulfite
Hint 2. Determine the anion formula

What is the formula for the sulfite ion?
Express your answer as an ion.
ANSWER:
SO3 2−
ANSWER:
H2 SO3
Correct
Sulfurous acid forms from sulfur dioxide, contributing to acid rain.
Functional Groups
Learning Goal:
To recognize and identify specific functional groups within organic molecules.
Functional groups are groups of atoms that replace H atoms on hydrocarbons. Functional groups allow complex organic molecules to be built from simple hydrocarbon starting
molecules. Some of the more important functional groups are listed in the table here.
Class Functional group Formula
Alcohols −OH R−OH

Amines −NH2 R−NH2
O O
Aldehydes || ||
−C − H R−C−H
O O
Ketones || ||
−C− R−C−R
O O
Carboxylic acids || ||
−C − OH R − C − OH
Part A
Classify the organic compounds by the class of their functional group.
Identify the functional group in the organic compound and then find the corresponding class from the table provided in the introduction.
Hint 2. How to distinguish among oxygen-containing functional groups

Keep in mind that ketone functional groups must be bound to internal carbon atoms, not to a carbon atom at the end of a chain. Also, alcohol groups are usually written
with the oxygen next to the carbon to which it binds (COH or HOC), whereas aldehyde groups are written with the hydrogen atom next to the carbon (CHO).
Hint 3. Identify the functional group in CH3 COCH3
The functional group in CH3 COCH3 is

ANSWER:
−CHO
−COOH
−CO−
ANSWER:
Reset Help
HOCH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH C6 H 5 N H 2 CH3 COCH3 CH3 CH2 CHO
Correct
Organic Functional Groups
In chemistry there are several functional groups that are used to describe organic molecules. These functional groups often look similar or have similar names. For example,
amines and amides are both organic compounds that contain nitrogen. Amines are ammonia derivatives, in which at least one hydrogen atom is replaced by an organic substituent.
Amides contain the carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to a nitrogen atom. Below are some additional functional groups that are commonly seen in organic chemistry:
Class Functional group

|
Amine
−N−
Amide C = O attached to a −N−
Aldehyde C = O (carbonyl) and−H
Ketone C = O between carbon atoms
Ether −O− between two C atoms
Ester C = O attached to a −O−

Alcohol −OH (hydroxyl)
Carboxylic acid C = O attached to a −OH
Part A
Classify each molecule as an amine, amide, or neither.
Drag each item to the appropriate bin.
1. Look for molecules with N bonded to C = O. Place these molecules in the "Amide" bin.
2. Look for molecules with N bonded to alkyl groups. Place these molecules in the "Amine" bin.
3. Place the remaining molecules in the "Neither amine nor amide" bin.
Hint 2. Identify an amide

Which of the following is an amide?
ANSWER:
N(CH3 )3
CH3 −NH−CH3
O
||
CH3 C − NCH3
|
H
C6 H5 −NH2
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Correct
Amines are bases because the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom can act as a H+ acceptor. After accepting the H+ ion, the amine becomes an ammonium
salt that is more soluble in water than the original amine.
Amides are neutral; they do not act as acids or bases. The carbonyl group prevents the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom from bonding with a hydrogen ion.
Part B
Classify each molecule as an aldehyde, ketone, or neither.
Hint 1. Identify suffixes in aldehyde and ketone nomenclature

What are the suffixes for aldehydes and ketones?
Match the words in the left column to the appropriate blanks in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before submitting your
answer.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The suffix applied to the name of an aldehyde is al .
2. The suffix applied to the name of a ketone is one .

ol
oate
ane
ene
yne
oic acid
Hint 2. Identify the general structure of an aldehyde

Which choice shows the general structure of an aldehyde?
ANSWER:
O
∥
R−C−OH
O
∥
R−C−O−R′
O
∥
R−C−H
R−OH
O
∥
R−C−R′
Hint 3. Identify the general structure of a ketone

Which choice shows the general structure of a ketone?
ANSWER:
O
∥
R−C−OH
O
∥
R−C−O−R
R−OH
O
∥
R−C−H
O
∥
R−C−R′
ANSWER:
Reset Help
3-heptanone
hexanal
methyl propanoate propanoic acid

pentanal butanal butanone
methyl hexanoate
Correct
Part C
Ethers and esters are commonly confused. Ethers contain only single bonds and have one oxygen atom connected to two carbon atoms. Esters contain a carboxyl group and
have two oxygen atoms. Classify each molecule as an ether, ester, or neither.
Hint 1. Identify the suffix for an ester

ANSWER:
al
ane
The suffix for an ester is ol .
oate
oic acid
Hint 2. Identify the general structure of an ether

Which choice shows the general structure of an ether?
ANSWER:
O
∥
R−C−O−R′
R−OH
O
∥
R−C−R′
O
∥
R−C−OH
R−O−R
Hint 3. Identify the general structure of an ester

Which choice shows the general structure of an ester?
ANSWER:
O
∥
R−C−O−R
O
∥
R−C−R′
O
∥
R−C−H
R−OH
O
∥
R−C−OH
ANSWER:
Reset Help
ethyl hexanoate
diethyl ether
3-methyl-2-hexanol
methyl benzoate
cyclohexanone palmitic acid
Correct
Part D
Draw an ester with the formula C3 H6 O2 .
Draw the molecule on the canvas by choosing buttons from the Tools (for bonds), Atoms, and Advanced Template toolbars. The single bond is active by default.
Include all hydrogen atoms.
Hint 1. Identify the general structure of an ester

Which choice shows the general structure of an ester?
ANSWER:
O
∥
R−C−O−R
O
∥
R−C−OH
O
∥
R−C−R′
O
∥
R−C−H
R−OH
Hint 2. Identify the number of double bonds
How many double bonds can a structure with the formula C3 H6 O2 have?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
Simple Organic Compounds
Organic molecules generally consist of a chain of carbon atoms surrounded by hydrogen atoms or functional groups. The number of carbon atoms in the main chain is specified by
using a prefix, the most common of which are listed in the table.
Prefix Meaning
meth 1
eth 2
prop 3
but 4
pent 5
hex 6
hept 7
oct 8
non 9
A carbon atom will form four bonds with other atoms, while oxygen will form two bonds and hydrogen will form one bond.
For this problem, draw all hydrogen atoms explicitly.
Part A
Draw a heptane molecule.
Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Include all hydrogen atoms.
Hint 1. Determine the number of carbon atoms in heptane

How many carbon atoms are in a molecule of heptane?
ANSWER:
Hint 2. Determine the number of bonds for each carbon atom

How many bonds does a carbon atom form in organic molecules?
ANSWER:
4
Hint 3. Draw propane as an example

As an example, draw propane, an alkane with three carbon atoms.
H H H
| | |
H− C − C − C −H
| | |
H H H
ANSWER:
           





H H H
H C C C H
H H H



+ - C H O N S P F Br Cl I X More
ANSWER:
           





H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H



Correct
The formula for heptane is C7 H16 . Heptane is classified as an alkane.
Part B
Draw a molecule of 2-pentanol.
Hint 1. Determine the number of carbon atoms in pentanol

How many carbon atoms are in a molecule of pentanol?
ANSWER:
Hint 2. Determine the meaning of the ol ending

What does the ending ol indicate?
ANSWER:
the presence of a double bond
the presence of an −OH group
the presence of a ring structure
the presence of a triple bond
Hint 3. Determine the meaning of the number "2"

What does the number "2" indicate in 2-pentanol?
ANSWER:
There are two −O−H groups.
There is an −O−H group on the middle carbon atom.
There is an −O−H group on the second carbon atom.
There are two carbon atoms.
There are two pentanol molecules.
Hint 4. How to place an −O−H group

Hydrogen atoms only form one bond whereas oxygen atoms can form two bonds. Therefore, you must attach the oxygen atom to the carbon chain rather than the
hydrogen atom.
Correct : −C−O−H
Incorrect : −C−H−O
You must also explicitly show the bond between the oxygen atom and the hydrogen atom so that the system will be able to interpret your answer correctly.
Correct : −C−O−H
Incorrect : −C−OH
Hint 5. Classify butanol structures by the position of the −O−H group
To help you understand how the position of the −O−H group relates to the name of the compound, consider these structures of butanol. Match each structure to its
name.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
H H H H
| | | |
O H H H H H H O H O H H H H O H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H− C − C − C − C −H H− C − C − C − C −H H− C − C − C − C −H H− C − C − C − C −H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
ANSWER:
           



 H H H H H

H C C C C C H
H O H H H



Correct
The formula for pentanol is C5 H12 O or C5 H11 OH. Pentanol is classified as an alcohol.
Part C
What can be said about the relationship between the number of hydrogen atoms and the number of carbon atoms in an alkane or alcohol with only single bonds?

Notice in the structures from Parts A and B that the carbon atoms at each end of the chain are bonded to three hydrogen atoms each. However, the inner carbon atoms
are either directly or indirectly bonded to two hydrogen atoms each.
Think about how you could predict the number of hydrogen atoms for a carbon chain of any length. Each carbon atom is bonded to at least two hydrogen atoms, and
each of the end carbon atoms has one extra hydrogen atom.
Hint 2. Count the hydrogen atoms in heptane
Look at the heptane molecule from Part A. There are seven C atoms. How many hydrogen atoms are there?
ANSWER:
H atoms
16
Hint 3. Count the hydrogen atoms in pentanol
Look at the pentanol molecule from Part B. There are five C atoms. How many hydrogen atoms are there?
ANSWER:
H atoms
12
ANSWER:
triple the number of carbon atoms, then subtract three.
there is no consistent formula.
triple the number of carbon atoms, then subtract five.

To arrive at the number of hydrogen atoms,
triple the number of carbon atoms.
double the number of carbon atoms.
double the number of carbon atoms, then add two.
Correct
For this reason, the general formula for alkanes is expressed as Cn H2n+2 . Similarly, the general formula for alcohols could be expressed as Cn H2n+2 O or
Cn H2n+1 OH .
Isomers
Isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula, but different structures.
Part A
Which choice is a constitutional isomer of this molecule?
Cl CH3
| |
CH3 − CH −CH−CH2 −CH3

If you were holding a molecular model of this compound in your hand, you would have to pull it apart and reform it in some other arrangement to produce a
constitutional isomer. Flipping the molecule over horizontally or vertically would not produce a consitutional isomer. Also, rotation around carbon-carbon single bonds
does not result in constitutional isomers.
ANSWER:
CH3 Cl
| |
CH3 −CH2 −CH− CH −CH3
Cl
|
CH3 − CH −CH−CH2 −CH3
|
CH3
CH3 Cl
| |
CH3 −CH− CH −CH2 −CH3
Correct
Part B
Which of the following molecules has a conformational isomer?

Conformational isomers have either an eclipsed or staggerred conformation. This requires a carbon-carbon single bond for rotation.
Hint 2. Determine the bonding of the compounds

The bonds between the carbon atoms are shown for the compounds in the problem. Select the compound in which the bonds are drawn incorrectly.
ANSWER:
HC ≡ CH
H2 C = CH2
H3 C−CH2 −CH2 −CH3
H2 C−C ≡ C−CH2
ANSWER:
CHCH
CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH2 CCCH2
Correct
Part C
Rank these conformational isomers in order of decreasing potential energy.
Rank from hightest to lowest potential energy. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
Hint 1. Relationship between potential energy and stability

The conformational isomer that has the most potential energy will be the least stable isomer. The isomer with the lowest potential energy will be the most stable isomer.
Hint 2. Factors that affect potential energy

Conformational isomers are the result of rotation about a carbon-carbon single bond. The substituents are shifted in space when this rotation occurs. There are two
extreme possibilities of conformations: eclipsed and staggered.
Isomers with an eclipsed arrangement have the greatest potential energy because the atoms are positioned to have the maximum overlap with each other when viewed
along the axis of the carbon-carbon bond.
Isomers with a staggered arrangement have the least potential energy as the atoms are positioned to have the least possible overlap with each other when viewed
along the axis of the carbon-carbon bond.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
The correct ranking cannot be determined.
Correct
Aromatic Nomenclature
Learning Goal:
To understand aromatic compound characteristics and nomenclature
Aromatic compounds are a class of organic compound characterized by planar carbon-ring structures with alternating single and double bonds. According to Huckel's rule aromatic
compounds contain 4n + 2 π electrons. The most common aromatic ring is benzene with six π electrons:
Aromatic compounds are characterized by increased stability owing to the charge delocalization and resonance.
Part A
Identify the aromatic compounds.

Aromatic compounds must contain alternating single and double bonds, be flat, and obey Huckel's rule. First look for rings containing alternating single and double
bonds, then verify that Huckel's rule is followed. Finally, if necessary, determine whether the molecule is flat.
Hint 2. Determine whether Huckel's rule is obeyed for a sample compound

Huckel's rule states that aromatic compounds contain 4n + 2 π electrons. For example, an aromatic compound may contain 4 × 1 + 2 = 6 π electrons or
4 × 2 + 2 = 10 π electrons.
Does cyclopentadiene, which contains two double bonds, obey Huckel's rule?
ANSWER:
Yes, cyclopentadiene contains six π electrons and, therefore, obeys Huckel's rule.
Yes, cyclopentadiene contains four π electrons and, therefore, obeys Huckel's rule.
No, cyclopentadiene contains six π electrons and, therefore, does not obey Huckel's rule.
No, cyclopentadiene contains four π electrons and, therefore, does not obey Huckel's rule.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Correct
Naming benzene rings

Benzene rings with substituents are identified using the name of the substituent and the root name benzene. If there are two substituents, a prefix is used to describe the placement
of the substituents. If they are on adjacent carbon atoms, it is termed a 1,2 relationship (they are on C1 and C2), and the prefix ortho- is used (for example, ortho-dichlorobenzene).
If the two substituents have a 1,3 relationship, the prefix meta- is used. The prefix para- signifies substituents in a 1,4 relationship.
Part B
Draw the structure of the aromatic compound methylbenzene (toluene).
Start by drawing benzene. Then replace one hydrogen atom with a methyl substituent.
Hint 2. Draw benzene

Draw the structure of benzene.
Draw the molecule on the canvas by choosing buttons from the Tools (for bonds), Atoms, and Advanced Template toolbars. The single bond is active by
default. Include all hydrogen atoms.
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Identify the substituent
What is the formula for a methyl group?
ANSWER:
CH3
ANSWER:
Correct
Part C
Draw the structure of the aromatic compound para-aminochlorobenzene (para-chloroaniline).

Start by drawing benzene. Then, replace one hydrogen atom with a chloro group. Next, identify the position para to the chloro group. Replace the hydrogen atom in the
para position with the amino group.
Hint 2. Determine the substituents

What are the formulas for the chloro and the amino group, respectively?
Express your answers as chemical formulas separated by a comma.
ANSWER:
Cl ,NH2
Hint 3. Identify the para position

In which of the following structures are the X atoms located in the para position?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
This compound has many common names, for example 4-chloro-1-aminobenzene or p-chloroaniline.
Part D
Name the following compound:

Start by identifying the position of the substituents relative to each other as either ortho, meta, or para. When writing the name, first write the position of the substituents,
then write each functional group alphabetically. Finally, the compound name will end in benzene.
Hint 2. Identify the position of the substituents

Sort each of the following based on the position of the X substituents.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Hint 3. Name the Br substituent

When writing the names of compounds, what is the group name for Br?
For example, the group name for a CN group on a benzene ring is cyano.
Spell out the full name of the group.
ANSWER:
bromo
Hint 4. Name the NO2 substituent
When writing the names of compounds, what is the group name for NO2 ?
For example, the group name for a CN group on a benzene ring is cyano.
Spell out the full name of the group.
Hint 1. The name of the NO2 ion
The NO2 − ion is called the nitrite ion. To create the group name, drop the suffix from the ion name and add the letter o.
ANSWER:
nitro
ANSWER:
meta-bromonitrobenzene
Correct
Score Summary:
3.1 Gases
Due: 11:59pm on Sunday, October 1, 2023
Boyle's Law
In the mid 1600s, the Irish chemist Robert Boyle carried out experiments that determined the quantitative relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. His data showed
that for gas at a constant temperature, pressure and volume are inversely proportional.
Part A
According to Boyle's law, for a fixed quantity of gas at a given temperature, what quantity relating pressure P and volume V is constant?
Hint 1. Inverse proportionality

Two quantities are inversely proportional if one quantity is equal to a constant divided by the other. Thus if one of the quantities is halved, the other will double. Boyle's
law states that volume V and pressure P are inversely proportional. Thus, for example, if V = 6 , P = 5 and the volume of a gas at constant temperature is halved,
so that V = 3 , the pressure would have to double, so that P = 10 .
ANSWER:
P
V
P ×V
P +V
V
P
Correct
Application of Boyle's law

A 12-liter tank contains helium gas pressurized to 160 atm.
Part B
What size tank would be needed to contain this same amount of helium at atmospheric pressure (1 atm)?
Express the size in liters to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Inverse proportionality

The pressure is being decreased by a factor of 160. Therefore the volume must increase by a factor of 160.
ANSWER:
1920 L
Correct
Part C
How many 3-liter balloons at atmospheric pressure (1 atm) could the 12-L helium tank pressurized to 160 atm fill? Keep in mind that an "exhausted" helium tank is not empty.
In other words, once the gas inside the tank reaches atmospheric pressure, it will no longer be able to fill balloons.
Express the number of balloons to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Determine the volume of "unused" helium

You are told you have a 12-L helium tank. What volume of unused helium will remain in the tank once it reaches atmospheric pressure?
Express the volume in liters to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
L
12
Hint 2. Determine the volume of "usable" helium

You have determined in Part B that you have a total of 1920 liters of uncompressed helium. Subtract the number of liters of unused helium to obtain the number of liters
of usable helium.
What is the total volume of uncompressed helium that can be used toward filling balloons?
Express the volume in liters to four significant figures.
ANSWER:
L
1908
Correct
It is best to keep extra digits and round only at the end of your calculation.
ANSWER:
balloons
636
Correct
Interactive Simulation—Avogadro's Law
Avogadro's law states that the volume of a gas at a given temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas.
Click on the image to explore this simulation, which demonstrates the principles of Avogadro's law.
In the simulation, you should see a container with a pressure cylinder. You can set the temperature from the dropdown list provided in the simulation. The graph displayed on the
right side of the container indicates the relationship between the volume in liters (L) and the number of moles. The text box provided in the lower right corner of the simulation gives
the value of pressure, p, volume, V , and number of moles, n.
Part A
In the simulation, set the temperature of the sample gas to 304 K. Click on the "Run" button and observe how the number of moles of the gas varies with an increase in the
gas’s volume. Then, click on the "Reset" button, set the temperature of the sample gas to 504 K, and click on the "Run" button again.Observe the graph produced in the
simulation and select the correct options listed below.
Hint 1. What Avogadro's law is

Avogadro's law states the relationship between the volume and the number of moles of a gas at constant temperature and pressure. It states that at constant
temperature and pressure, the volume of gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas:
V ∝ n
In other words, at constant temperature and pressure, if you increase the number of moles of a gas, its volume will also increase. Thus, the ratio between the volume
and the number of moles of gas is constant:
V /n = constant
Hint 2. Calculate the volume of the gas when the number of moles of the gas is doubled
In the simulation, set the temperature, T , to 304 K and run the simulation. Click on the "Stop" button to stop the simulation when the number of moles of the gas, n,
reaches 0.40 mol. Note the corresponding volume (V ) of the gas from the text box provided in the lower right corner of the simulation. If the number of moles of gas
exceeds 0.40 mol, observe the reading for the volume corresponding to 0.4 mol from the given graph. Then, click the "Run" button again and note the volume (V ) of
the gas when the number of moles of the gas, n, reaches 0.80 mol. If the number of moles of gas exceeds 0.80 mol, observe the reading for the volume
corresponding to 0.80 mol from the given graph.Select the answer that correctly states the volume at each of the given numbers of moles of the gas.
ANSWER:
20.0 L, 10.0 L
24.9 L, 24.9 L
10.0 L, 20.0 L
0.40 mol, 0.80 mol
ANSWER:
3.2 Gases 2
± Effusion and Molar Mass
The rate of effusion of a gas, r, is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass, M . The relative rate of two different gases is expressed as
−−
−
= √ M21
r1 M
r2
where r1 and r2 are the effusion rates of two gases and M1 and M2 are their respective molar masses.
Part A
In an effusion experiment, it was determined that nitrogen gas, N2 , effused at a rate 1.812 times faster than an unknown gas. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas?
Express your answer to four significant figures and include the appropriate units.

If we designate nitrogen as gas #1 and the unknown as gas #2, then Graham's law can be rewritten as
−−−−−−
=√ M
rN2 Munknown
runknown N 2
Even though we do not know the value of rN2 , we do know that it effuses 1.812 times faster than the unknown, allowing us to substitute the value 1.182 for the quantity
rN2 /runknown . Thus
−−−−−−
1.812 = √ M
Munknown
N 2
The final step is to plug in the molar mass of N2 and solve for Munknown .
Hint 2. Rearrange Graham's law

If x represents the ratio of effusion rates,
−−
−
x = √ M21
M
what is the equation for M2 ?
Express M2 in terms of x and M1 .
ANSWER:
M2 = x2 M1
Correct
Hint 3. Determine the molar mass of nitrogen gas

What is the value of MN2 , the molar mass of nitrogen gas?
ANSWER:
g
MN2 = 28.01
mol
Correct
ANSWER:
g
M = 91.98
mol
Correct
Effusion can be used to separate a mixture of gases provided that their molar masses differ by a significant amount. Multiple-step effusions can be used to separate
gases with similar molar masses.
Part B
Elemental analysis of the unknown gas from Part A revealed that it is 30.45% N and 69.55% O by mass. What is the molecular formula for this gas?
Hint 1. Determine the empirical formula

Based on the elemental analysis, what is the empirical formula for the unknown gas?
Hint 1. Determine the number of moles of nitrogen in the sample
At 30.45%N a 100-g sample of this gas would contain 30.45 g of N . Convert this value to moles.
Hint 1. Identify how to convert mass to moles
If x is the mass (in g ) and y is the molar mass (in g/mol) , what operation results in units of moles?
ANSWER:
x×y
x/y
y/x
ANSWER:
2.174 mol
Correct
Compare this number of moles to the number of moles of oxygen atoms in the sample to determine the empirical formula.
Hint 2. Determine the number of moles of oxygen in the sample
At 69.55%O a 100-g sample of this gas would contain 69.55 g of O. Convert this value to moles.
Hint 1. Identify how to convert mass to moles
If x is the mass (in g ) and y is the molar mass (in g/mol) , what operation results in units of moles?
ANSWER:
y/x
x/y
x×y
ANSWER:
4.347 mol
Correct
Compare this number of moles to the number of moles of nitrogen atoms in the sample to determine the empirical formula.
Hint 3. How to determine the mole ratio
Now that you know the relative numbers of moles of N and O you need to express them as a whole-number ratio. One strategy for doing so is to divide each
value by the lower of the two values:
2.174 mol N 4.327 mol O

2.174
=x 2.174
=y
The resulting integers should be used as the subscripts in the formula Nx Oy .
ANSWER:
NO2
Correct
Now consider the molar mass from Part A. Adjust the subscripts of the empirical formula as necessary to arrive at a molar mass of about 92 g/mol, while
keeping the 1:2 ratio of nitrogen atoms to oxygen atoms.
ANSWER:
N2 O4
Correct
± The van der Waals Equation
Learning Goal:
To be able to predict and calculate properties of real gases.
Kinetic molecular theory makes certain assumptions about gases that are, in fact, not true for real gases. Therefore, the measured properties of a gas are often slightly different
from the values predicted by the ideal gas law. The van der Waals equation is a more exact way of calculating properties of real gases. The formula includes two constants, a and
b , that are unique for each gas.
The van der Waals equation is (P ) (V − nb) = nRT , where P is the pressure, n the number of moles of gas, V the volume, T the temperature, and R the gas
an2
+
V2
constant.
an2
All real gases possess intermolecular forces that can slightly decrease the observed pressure. In the van der Waals equation, the variable P is adjusted to P + , where a is
V2
the attractive force between molecules.
The volume of a gas is defined as the space in which the gas molecules can move. When using the ideal gas law we make the assumption that this space is equal to the volume of
the container. However, the gas molecules themselves take up some space in the container. So in the van der Waals equation, the variable V is adjusted to be the volume of the
container minus the space taken up by the molecules, V − nb , where b is the volume of a mole of molecules.
Part A
In general, which of the following gases would you expect to behave the most ideally even under extreme conditions?

An ideal gas molecule takes up no space and has no attraction to other molecules. Therefore, choose the substance with the smallest molecules and the least amount
of intermolecular attraction.
Hint 2. Relative sizes
C, O, and N are close together in the periodic table. Therefore, CO and N2 are about the same size. Hydrogen is in the row above C, O, and N, and therefore H2 is
the smallest of the three molecules.
Hint 3. Relative intermolecular attraction
CO is a polar molecule and therefore carbon monoxide gas is held together by dipole attraction. In contrast, N2 and H2 are both nonpolar molecules, and therefore
nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are both held together by dispersion forces. In general, dispersion is the weakest intermolecular force.
ANSWER:
N2
CO
H2
Correct
Part B
In general, which of the following gases would you expect to behave the least ideally under extreme conditions?

An ideal gas molecule takes up no space and has no attraction to other molecules. Therefore, choose the substance with the largest molecules and the greatest amount
of intermolecular attraction.
Hint 2. Relative sizes
C, O, and N are close together in the periodic table. Therefore, CO and N2 are about the same size. Hydrogen is in the row above C, O, and N, and therefore H2 is
the smallest of the three molecules.
Hint 3. Relative intermolecular attraction
Carbon monoxide, CO , is a polar molecule, and therefore carbon monoxide gas is held together by dipole attraction. In contrast, N2 and H2 are both nonpolar
molecules, and therefore nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are both held together by dispersion forces. In general, dispersion is the weakest intermolecular force
ANSWER:
N2
CO
H2
Correct
Part C
13.0 moles of gas are in a 8.00 L tank at 20.5 ∘ C . Calculate the difference in pressure between methane and an ideal gas under these conditions. The van der Waals
constants for methane are a = 2.300 L2 ⋅ atm/mol2 and b = 0.0430 L/mol.
Express your answer with the appropriate units.

First, use the ideal gas law to solve for P . Then use the same values in the van der Waals equation and solve for P . Subtract the two P values to obtain the difference
in pressure.
Hint 2. Find the pressure of an ideal gas

Using the ideal gas equation, P V = nRT , calculate the pressure of the ideal gas.
ANSWER:
39.2 atm
Hint 3. Determine the pressure of methane

Using algebra, we can solve the van der Waals equation for P :
nRT an2
P= V −bn
−
V2
Using the rearranged van der Waals equation, calculate the pressure of methane.
ANSWER:
36.0 atm
ANSWER:
pressure difference = -3.13 atm
Correct
The answer to this question represents the error incurred by using the ideal gas law for real gases. This error is very tiny at low pressure and high temperature, but
becomes quite significant for compressed gases (high pressure).
± Ideal versus Real Gases
The ideal gas law describes the relationship among the volume of an ideal gas (V ), its pressure (P ), its absolute temperature (T ), and number of moles (n):
P V = nRT
Under standard conditions, the ideal gas law does a good job of approximating these properties for any gas. However, the ideal gas law does not account for all the properties of
real gases such as intermolecular attraction and molecular volume, which become more pronounced at low temperatures and high pressures. The van der Waals equation corrects
for these factors with the constants a and b , which are unique to each substance:
(P + an2
) (V − nb) = nRT
V2
The gas constant R is equal to 0.08206 L ⋅ atm/(K ⋅ mol).
Part A
A 3.00-L flask is filled with gaseous ammonia, NH3 . The gas pressure measured at 22.0 ∘ C is 1.25 atm . Assuming ideal gas behavior, how many grams of ammonia are in
the flask?
Express your answer to three significant figures and include the appropriate units.
Gas law calculations require the use of absolute temperature, so start by converting the temperature from the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale. Next, use the ideal gas
law to calculate the number of moles. Finally, convert moles to grams using the molar mass of ammonia.
Hint 2. Convert temperature to kelvins
Convert 22.0 ∘ C to the Kelvin scale.

ANSWER:
T = 295 K
Hint 3. Calculate the number of moles

You can rearrange the ideal gas law (P V = nRT ) given in the introduction to solve for moles, n. You will also need to convert the temperature to kelvins.
How many moles of ammonia are present in the flask?
ANSWER:
0.155 mol
Hint 4. Calculate the molar mass of ammonia

What is the molar mass of ammonia, NH3 ?
ANSWER:
g
molar mass of NH3 = 17.0
mol
ANSWER:
mass of NH3 = 2.63 g

Correct
An ideal gas concept assumes that the volume of gas particles is negligible compared to the total volume the gas occupies and there are no attractive forces between
individual gas particles. All real gases deviate slightly from the ideal behavior. Under most conditions the difference is very small and we can still use the ideal gas
law. But at higher pressures the deviation from the ideal behavior becomes greater, and we need to take both the size of individual gas particles and the attractive
forces between individual gas particles into account.
Ideal versus real behavior for gases

In the following part you can see how the behavior of real gases deviates from the ideal behavior. You will calculate the pressure values for a gas using the ideal gas law and also
the van der Waals equation. Take note of how they differ.
Part B
If 1.00 mol of argon is placed in a 0.500-L container at 26.0 ∘ C , what is the difference between the ideal pressure (as predicted by the ideal gas law) and the real pressure
(as predicted by the van der Waals equation)? For argon, a = 1.345 (L2 ⋅ atm)/mol2 and b = 0.03219 L/mol .
Express your answer to two significant figures and include the appropriate units.

You will calculate the pressure twice. First, use the ideal gas law, and then use the van der Waals equation. Finally, subtract the smaller pressure from the larger
pressure to find the difference. Be sure to use the the Kelvin temperature scale for both pressure calculations.
Hint 2. Convert temperature to kelvins
Convert 26.0 ∘ C to the Kelvin scale.

ANSWER:
T = 299 K
Hint 3. Calculate the pressure using the ideal gas law
Calculate the pressure in atmospheres of 1.00 mol of argon in a 0.500-L container at 26.0 ∘ C .
ANSWER:
49.1 atm
Hint 4. Calculate the pressure using the van der Waals equation
Using the van der Waals equation, calculate the pressure in atmospheres of 1.00 mol of argon in a 0.500-L container at 26.0 ∘ C . For argon,
a = 1.345 (L2 ⋅ atm)/mol2 and b = 0.03219 L/mol .
Hint 1. How to rearrange the equation to solve for pressure

Use the van der Waals equation,
(P + an2
) (V − nb) = nRT
V2
and rearrange it to solve for P :
nRT an2
P= V −nb
−
V2
Hint 2. Calculate the first term of the rearranged equation

Determine the value of
nRT
V −nb
ANSWER:
52.4 atm
Hint 3. Calculate the second term of the rearranged equation

Determine the value of
an2
V2
ANSWER:
5.38 atm
ANSWER:
47.1 atm
ANSWER:
Pideal − Preal = 2.0 atm
Correct
At high pressures and low temperatures the assumptions of the ideal gas law, which postulate that gas particles are small particles that act independently of one
another, begin to break down.
Part C
In Part B the given conditions were 1.00 mol of argon in a 0.500-L container at 26.0 ∘ C . You identified that the ideal pressure (Pideal ) was 49.1 atm , and the real pressure
(Preal ) was 47.1 atm under these conditions. Complete the sentences to analyze this difference.
Match the words and compounds in the left column to the appropriate blanks in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before
submitting your answer.
Hint 1. How to calculate percent difference

Percent difference can be calculated by the following equation
value 1−value 2
percent difference = | (value 1+value 2)/2
| × 100
Since the value should be positive, it is the absolute value of the difference between two values divided by their average. The ratio is multiplied by 100 for the percent. A
percent difference is used to compare two values when an exact measurement is unknown. Percent error would be used if an exact value was known.
Hint 2. Identify how volume impacts pressure

When the volume of the container increases from 0.500 L to 2.00 L while the number of moles of gas and temperature remain constant, what happens to the pressure
within the container?
ANSWER:
The pressure in the container can be predicted to decrease.
The change in pressure in the container cannot be predicted.
The pressure in the container can be predicted to increase.
Correct
As volume increases, pressure decreases.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
kinetic energy of the The percent difference between the ideal and real gas is 4.2% .
4.1%
This difference is considered significant, and is best explained due to the
molecular volumes of intermolecular forces between argon atoms.
the
increase If the volume of the container were increased to 2.00 L, you would expect
the percent difference between the ideal and real gas to decrease .
4.3%
Correct
At high pressures and low temperatures, gas molecules are much closer together and so molecular volume and attractive forces between molecules are more
pronounced. The result is a decrease in the actual pressure of most real gases when compared with ideal gases.
Score Summary:
4.1 Thermochemistry 1
Interactive Activity—Applications of Hess’s Law
Open the activity depicting Hess's Law.
Part A
Click the button within the activity, and analyze the relationship between the two reactions that are displayed. The reaction that was on the
screen when you started and its derivative demonstrate that the change in enthalpy for a reaction, ΔH , is an extensive property. Using this property, calculate the change in
enthalpy for Reaction 2.
Reaction 1: C3 H8 (g) + 5O2 (g)→3CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g), ΔH1 = −2043 kJ

Reaction 2: 4C3 H8 (g) + 20O2 (g)→12CO2 (g) + 16H2 O(g), ΔH2 =?
Hint 1. What an extensive property is
The extensive properties are the ones that depend on the amount of substance present in the system. The enthalpy change of a reaction (ΔH ) is an extensive
property. If you add or remove some reactants in the reaction, the value of the enthalpy change of the reaction (ΔH ) changes accordingly.
For example, consider the formation of water. The reaction can be represented as
2H2 + O2 →2H2 O, ΔH = −285.83 kJ
Consider this reaction as Reaction 1 and the enthalpy change of the reaction as ΔH1 .
Reaction 1: 2H2 + O2 →2H2 O, ΔH1 = −285.83 kJ .

If you reduce the amount of hydrogen gas to half the number of moles, the balanced chemical reaction will be
H2 + 12 O2 →H2 O
Consider this reaction as Reaction 2. As the amount of reactants is reduced to half, the enthalpy change of the reaction will also be reduced to half. Thus, the enthalpy
for Reaction 2 will now be
ΔH1 −285.83 kJ
ΔH2 = 2
= 2
= −142.92 kJ
Reaction 2: H2 + 12 O2 →H2 O , ΔH2 = −142.92 kJ.

To determine the reaction enthalpy change for Reaction 2 using Reaction 1, you need to compare the coefficient of reactants in Reaction 1 and Reaction 2, as they
represent the number of moles undergoing the reaction. By comparing the two coefficients of the same reactants in Reaction 1 and Reaction 2, find the factor that
relates the two reactions. If the coefficient of a reactant in Reaction 2 is changed by factor x, then the value of the change in reaction enthalpy for Reaction 2 will also
change by factor x:
coefficient of a reactant in Reaction 2

factor = coefficient of the same reactant in Reaction 1
and ΔH2 = factor × ΔH1
For example, consider the two reactions
Reaction 1: 2H2 + O2 →2H2 O, ΔH1 = −285.83 kJ and
Reaction 2: H2 + 12 O2 →H2 O , ΔH2 =?

Then
coefficients of H2 in Reaction 2 1
factor = coefficients of H2 in Reaction 1
= 2
so
1
ΔH2 = factor × ΔH1 = 2
× −285.83 kJ = −142.92 kJ
Hint 3. Identify the factor that relates the two reactions

Consider the two reactions
Reaction 1: C3 H8 (g) + 5O2 (g)→3CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g) and
Reaction 2: 4C3 H8 (g) + 20O2 (g)→12CO2 (g) + 16H2 O(g).
Using the coefficients of the reactants, find the factor that relates the two reactions. Which of the following factors relates Reaction 2 to Reaction 1?
ANSWER:
1
4
ANSWER:
ΔH2 = -8172 kJ
Correct
The enthalpy change of a reaction is an extensive property. When the coefficient before the reactants increases from 1 to 4, the enthalpy change of the reaction also
increases 4 times. Thus, the enthalpy change for Reaction 2 would be 4 × (−2043) kJ = −8172 kJ.
Part B
Click on the button within the activity and analyze the relationship between the two reactions that are displayed. The reaction that was on the screen
when you started and its derivative demonstrate that the change in reaction enthalpy, ΔH , changes sign when a process is reversed.
Consider the reaction
B(s) + 32 O2 (g)→B2 O3 (s), ΔH = −1270kJ

What will ΔH be for the reaction if it is reversed?
Express your answer with appropriate units.

To determine the change in reaction enthalpy for the reverse of a given reaction, first identify the sign of the reaction enthalpy change for the given reaction. Recall that
when reactions are reversed, the sign of the reaction enthalpy is reversed, but its value remains the same. For example, consider the reaction
2H2 + O2 →2H2 O, ΔH = −285.83 kJ

If the reaction is reversed, the new reaction and its enthalpy will be
2H2 O→2H2 + O2 , ΔH = 285.83 kJ

You can see that the value of enthalpy (285.83 kJ) remains the same, and only its sign is changed from negative (−) to positive (+). However, we usually do not
indicate the positive sign.
Hint 2. Identify the sign of the change in reaction enthalpy for a given reaction
What is the sign of the change in reaction enthalpy for the given reaction, B(s) + 32 O2 (g)→B2 O3 (s)?
ANSWER:
negative
positive
Correct
The sign of the change in reaction enthalpy will be reversed when the reaction is reversed.
Hint 3. Identify the sign of the change in reaction enthalpy for a reverse reaction
What would be the sign of the change in reaction enthalpy for the reverse of the reaction B(s) + 32 O2 (g)→B2 O3 (s)?
ANSWER:
positive sign.
The reverse of the reaction has a
negative sign.
Correct
The reverse reaction is B2 O3 (s)→B(s) + 32 O2 (g).
ANSWER:
1270 kJ
Correct
If the reaction
B(s) + 32 O2 (g)→B2 O3 (s), ΔH = -1270 kJ

is reversed you get
B2 O3 (s)→B(s) + 32 O2 (g)
and thus the sign of the change in reaction enthalpy will also be reversed. The reaction enthalpy change for the reverse reaction is 1270kJ .
Hess’s law of constant heat summation
Hess’s law states that if a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, ΔH for the overall reaction will equal the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps. By using
Hess’s law, you can calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction. For example, you can calculate the reaction enthalpy change for the combustion of solid sulfur, S(s), to form
SO3 gas:
S(s) + 32 O2 (g)→SO3 (g)

The combustion of solid sulfur to form SO3 gas occurs in the two steps.
Step 1: S(s) + O2 (g)→SO2 (g) , ΔH = −297 kJ.
Step 2: SO2 (g) + 12 O2 (g)→SO3 (g), ΔH = −99 kJ.

The overall reaction will be obtained by adding these two steps. When you add the two steps, the reaction enthalpy change values for the individual steps should also be added.
Remember that when you add the two steps, the molecule that appears on both sides of a reaction arrow is cancelled from both sides of the equation.
Thus, by adding step 1 and step 2, you can obtain the reaction enthalpy change for the overall reaction:
[Math Processing Error]

Hence, the reaction enthalpy change for the overall reaction is −297 kJ + (−99 kJ) = −396 kJ.
Part C
Click on the button within the activity and use the example shown to calculate the reaction enthalpy, ΔH , for the following reaction:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)

Use the series of reactions that follow:
1. C(s) + 2H2 (g)→CH4 (g), ΔH = −74.8 kJ.

2. C(s) + O2 (g)→CO2 (g), ΔH = −393.5 kJ.
3. 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2 O(g), ΔH = −484.0 kJ.
4. H2 O(l)→H2 O(g), ΔH = 44.0 kJ.
Express your answer with appropriate units.

Rearrange the given series of reactions such that when you add them you will get
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)

Then, perform similar operations on the respective reaction enthalpy change values.
For example, if you have multiplied one of the reactant coefficients by 4 then the ΔH value for that reaction should also be multiplied by 4. Finally, add up the
rearranged reactions and the modified changes in enthalpies to get the enthalpy change of the given reaction.
Hint 2. The change in enthalpy associated with the operation performed on a reaction
When the reaction parameters are altered by performing certain operations, the associated reaction enthalpy changes accordingly. This is because enthalpy change is
an extensive property.
1. When you reverse the reactions the value of ΔH changes in sign. For example, take the reaction A→B with ΔH = x kJ . When the reaction is
reversed, B→A, ΔH will be −x kJ.
2. When you multiply the reactions by any common factor, the reaction enthalpy change is multiplied by the same factor. For example, take the reaction
A→B with ΔH = x kJ. If the reactants are a times the given reaction, then, aA→aB and ΔH will be a × x kJ
3. When you add the two reactions, you must add the corresponding enthalpy change values. If a common molecule is present on the reactant side of one
reaction and on the product side of the other, it is cancelled from both sides. For example, consider the two reactions A + B→C, ΔH = x kJ, and
A + C→D, ΔH = y kJ. Adding the two reactions, you get
Hint 3. Identify the operations performed to obtain the given reaction
Which operations should you perform on the given four reactions to obtain the following reaction: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)?
Series of reactions:
1. C(s) + 2H2 (g)→CH4 (g)

2. C(s) + O2 (g)→CO2 (g)
3. 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2 O(g)
4. H2 O(l)→H2 O(g)

ANSWER:
Reverse Reaction 4: H2 O(g)→H2 O(l)
Multiply Reaction 3 by 1/2: H2 (g) + 12 O2 (g)→H2 O(g)

Multiply Reaction 1 by 2: 2C(s) + 4H2 (g)→2CH4 (g)
Reverse Reaction 1: CH4 (g)→C(s) + 2H2 (g)
Reverse Reaction 2: CO2 (g)→C(s) + O2 (g)
Multiply Reaction 4 by 2: 2H2 O(l)→2H2 O(g)
ANSWER:
-890.7 kJ
Correct
You need to first reverse Reaction 1, which will reverse the sign of the enthalpy change value. On reversing Reaction 1 you will get
CH4 (g)→C(s) + 2H2 (g), ΔH = 74.8 kJ

You will keep the second reaction as it is, which will allow you to add one of the two oxygen molecules on the reactant side and cancel out the solid carbon from the
product side of the reversed Reaction 1 and the reactant side of Reaction 2. By adding Reaction 3, you will have your second oxygen molecule and cancel out the
two moles of hydrogen from the product side of the first reaction:
Now you need two moles of liquid water on the product side. So, you will now reverse Reaction 4 and multiply it by 2:
2H2 O(g)→2H2 O(l), ΔH = 2 × (−44.0) kJ

Adding this equation to the one derived above you get
Heat Capacity
Learning Goal:
To understand the concepts of heat capacity, specific heat, and molar heat capacity.
Heat capacity, C , is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by exactly 1 degree Celsius. The energy needed to warm an object increases as the
mass of that object increases. We see this in our everyday life. For example, we know that it takes much more energy to heat a large tank of water than a small cup. Because of
this dependence on mass, experimentally determined heat capacities are always reported in terms of the amount of the substance that is heated. One method is to report how
much energy it takes to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by exactly 1 degree Celsius. This value is the molar heat capacity, which has the symbol Cp .The molar
heat capacity is given in the units J/(mol ⋅ ∘ C) . A second method is to report how much energy it takes to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by exactly 1 degree
Celsius. This value is the specific heat, which has been given the symbol Cs . The units for specific heat are J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) . The heat capacity of a substance is therefore related to the
energy q needed to raise its temperature by an amount ΔT . That is, q = nCp ΔT , where n denotes the number of moles of the substance, or q = mCs ΔT , where m denotes
the number of grams of the substance.
Parts A and B
The next two questions pertain to silver.
Part A
The molar heat capacity of silver is 25.35 J/mol ⋅ ∘ C. How much energy would it take to raise the temperature of 8.80 g of silver by 11.8 ∘ C?

Be sure to choose the appropriate formula to answer the question. Since you are given the molar heat capacity of silver, you will need to calculate how many moles of
silver are being heated. Next, plug in the known variables and solve for the unknown value, in this case the energy needed, q .
Hint 2. Choosing the correct formula

You have been given the molar heat capacity of silver, but the amount of silver has been given in grams, not moles. You could convert the molar heat capacity to a
specific heat, but it is easier to convert the mass of silver to moles. Since it is easiest to use the given molar heat capacity, what is the best formula to use in this
problem?
ANSWER:
q = nCp ΔT
q = mCs ΔT
Hint 3. Calculate the number of moles of silver
To use the formula for molar heat capacity, you need to know the number of moles of silver (atomic mass = 108 g/mol) being heated. How many moles of silver are
being heated in this problem?
ANSWER:
8.15×10−2 mol
ANSWER:
q = 24.4 J
Correct
Part B
What is the specific heat of silver?

You have been given the molar heat capacity of silver in Part B. The only difference between the units of specific heat and the units of molar heat capacity is that one is
in terms of grams and the other is in terms of moles. Therefore, use a conversion factor between grams and moles for silver.
Hint 2. What is the molar mass of silver?

What is the molar mass of silver?
ANSWER:
g
108
mol
Hint 3. Find the correct unit factor setup

Which unit factor setup is correct?
ANSWER:
25.35 J 1 mol
1 mol⋅∘ C
× 108 g
25.35 J 108 g
1 mol⋅∘ C
× 1 mol
ANSWER:
−1
0.235 J⋅(g⋅∘ C)
Correct
Parts C and D
The next two questions pertain to an unknown metal.
Part C
It takes 46.2 J to raise the temperature of an 8.80 g piece of unknown metal from 13.0∘ C to 24.7 ∘ C. What is the specific heat for the metal?
You are given the values of q and m. You can calculate ΔT by subtracting the two temperatures. Then you can plug all of these values into the formula to solve for Cs .
Hint 2. Identify the correct formula
In this problem, you have been given the mass, temperature change, and energy added to the system. Which formula correctly rearranges q = mCs ΔT to solve for
the specific heat?
ANSWER:
q
mΔT
qmΔT
Cs =
1
qmΔT
mΔT
q
Hint 3. Calculate the change in temperature
The change in temperature, ΔT , is given by Tfinal − Tinitial . What is the value of ΔT for the piece of metal described in this part?
ANSWER:
ΔT = 11.7 ∘ C
ANSWER:
Cs = 0.449 J⋅(g⋅∘ C)−1
Correct
Part D
You know that the unknown metal corresponds to a set list of metals. Given the specific heat (Cs ) calculated in Part C, which of the following could be the metal?
ANSWER:
iron: Cs = 0.449 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
aluminum: Cs = 0.903 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
titanium: Cs = 0.523 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
gold: Cs = 0.128 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
copper: Cs = 0.385 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
tin: Cs = 0.213 J/(g ⋅∘ C)
Correct
Given the list, the specific heat for iron is the closest to that calculated in Part C. However, many substances have similar specific heat values. For example, lead also
has a specific heat value around 0.128 J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) . Thus, to differentiate gold and lead other tests would be needed.
Specific Heat
The heat capacity of an object indicates how much energy that object can absorb for a given increase in that object's temperature. In a system in which two objects of different
temperatures come into contact with one another, the warmer object will cool and the cooler object will warm up until the system is at a single equilibrium temperature.
Note the difference between the terms molar heat capacity, which has units of J/(mol ⋅ ∘ C) , and specific heat, which has units of J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) .
In this problem answers are requested to three significant digits for grading purposes. The true number of significant digits may be more or less.
Part A
A volume of 85.0 mL of H2 O is initially at room temperature (22.00 ∘ C). A chilled steel rod at 2.00 ∘ C is placed in the water. If the final temperature of the system is 21.50
∘
C , what is the mass of the steel bar?
Use the following values:
specific heat of water = 4.18 J/(g ⋅ ∘ C)
specific heat of steel = 0.452 J/(g ⋅ ∘ C)

According to the law of conservation of energy, the heat lost by the water is equal to the amount of heat gained by the steel, that is, −q1 = q2 :
−mass1 × specific heat1 × ΔT1 = mass2 × specific heat2 × ΔT2
where mass1 and mass2 are the masses of water and steel, respectively, specific heat1 and specific heat2 are the specific heats of water and steel respectively,
and ΔT1 and ΔT2 are the temperature changes for water and steel, respectively. Also recall that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
Hint 2. Find the temperature change for the water
What is the change in temperature, ΔT1 , of the water? Recall that ΔT is given by Tfinal − Tinitial .
Express your answer to two significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
ΔT1 = -0.50 ∘ C
Hint 3. Find the temperature change for the steel
What is the temperature change ΔT2 of the steel? Recall that the change in temperature is given by Tfinal − Tinitial .
ANSWER:
ΔT2 = 19.5 ∘ C
Hint 4. Determine the mass of the water
What is the mass of 85.0 mL of water if the density of water is 1.00 g/mL?
ANSWER:
mass of the water (mass1 ) = 85.0 g
Hint 5. Rearrange the equation to solve for the mass of steel

Rearrange the equation
−mass1 × specific heat1 × ΔT1 = mass2 × specific heat2 × ΔT2

to solve for the mass of steel (mass2 ).
ANSWER:
−mass1 ×specific heat1 ×ΔT1

mass2 = specific heat2 ×ΔT2
−specific heat2 ×ΔT2

mass2 = mass1 ×specific heat1 ×ΔT1
−mass1 ×specific heat2 ×ΔT1

mass2 = specific heat1 ×ΔT2
−mass1 ×specific heat1

mass2 = specific heat2
ANSWER:
mass of the steel = 20.2 g
Correct
Part B
The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) . Calculate the molar heat capacity of water.
The only difference between the units of specific heat and the units of molar heat capacity is that one has joules per gram degrees Celsius (J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) ) and the other
has joules per mole degrees Celsius (J/(mol ⋅ ∘ C) ). Therefore, use a conversion factor between grams and moles for water.
Hint 2. Find the molar mass of water
What is the molar mass (MM) of water, H2 O ?

Express your answer as an integer and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
g
MM = 18
mol
Hint 3. Identify the unit factor setup

Which unit factor setup is correct for determining the molar heat capacity of water?
ANSWER:
4.18 J 1 mol
1 g⋅∘ C
× 18 g
4.18 J 18 g
1 g⋅∘ C
× 1 mol
ANSWER:
J
molar heat capacity for water = 75.2
mol⋅∘ C
Correct
± Calorimetry
A calorimeter is an insulated device in which a chemical reaction is contained. By measuring the temperature change, ΔT , we can calculate the heat released or absorbed during
the reaction using the following equation:
q = specific heat × mass × ΔT

Or, if the calorimeter has a predetermined heat capacity, C , the equation becomes
q = C × ΔT
At constant pressure, the enthalpy change for the reaction, ΔH , is equal to the heat, qp ; that is,
ΔH = qp
but it is usually expressed per mole of reactant and with a sign opposite to that of q for the surroundings. The total internal energy change, ΔE (sometimes referred to as ΔU ), is
the sum of heat, q , and work done, w:
ΔE = q + w
However, at constant volume (as with a bomb calorimeter) w = 0 and so ΔE = qv .
Part A
A calorimeter contains 31.0 mL of water at 11.0 ∘ C . When 2.20 g of X (a substance with a molar mass of 79.0 g/mol ) is added, it dissolves via the reaction
X(s) + H2 O(l)→X(aq)
and the temperature of the solution increases to 30.0 ∘ C .
Calculate the enthalpy change, ΔH , for this reaction per mole of X .
Assume that the specific heat of the resulting solution is equal to that of water [4.18 J/(g ⋅ ∘ C) ], that density of water is 1.00 g/mL, and that no heat is lost to the calorimeter
itself, nor to the surroundings.
Express the change in enthalpy in kilojoules per mole to three significant figures.

First determine the change in temperature and determine the total mass of the contents in the calorimeter after substance X was added to the it. Next, calculate the
total heat produced during the reaction for 2.20 g of X . Finally, calculate the enthalpy change ΔH per mole of the reactant.
Hint 2. Calculate the temperature change

What is the temperature change (ΔT ) in this reaction?
Express the temperature change in degrees Celsius to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
ΔT = 19.0 ∘ C
Hint 3. Calculate the total mass of the contents
The mass of X is given. Since the density of water is 1.00 g/L , the volume of the water in milliliters is equal to its mass in grams. For example, if water has density
1.00 g/ml then, the mass of 10 mL water will be 10 g . Hence,
total mass of the contents = mass of X + mass of water.

What is the total mass m of the contents of the calorimeter (X and water)?
Express the total mass in grams to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
m = 33.2 g
Hint 4. Calculate the total heat evolved from the reaction

Calculate the heat gained by the solution, qsoln , in kilojoules.
Express the heat in kilojoules to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
qsoln = 2.64 kJ
Hint 5. Calculate the number of moles of reactant
How many moles of X (molar mass = 79.0 g/mol ) reacted?
Express the number of moles to three significant figures.

ANSWER:
2.78×10−2 mol
ANSWER:
ΔH = -94.7 kJ/mol
Correct
A negative sign indicates an exothermic reaction in which heat is released and a positive sign indicates an endothermic reaction in which heat is absorbed. Since
heat is released in this reaction, the sign of the enthalpy change must be negative.
Part B
C12 H22 O11 (s) + 12O2 (g)→12CO2 (g) + 11H2 O(l)

∘
in which 10.0 g of sucrose, C12 H22 O11 , was burned in a bomb calorimeter with a heat capacity of 7.50 kJ/ C. The temperature increase inside the calorimeter was found to
be 22.0 ∘ C. Calculate the change in internal energy, ΔE , for this reaction per mole of sucrose.
Express the change in internal energy in kilojoules per mole to three significant figures.
First find the heat released during the reaction using the formula q = C ⋅ ΔT . Next, calculate the molar mass of the C12 H22 O11 and then determine the number of
moles reacted. Finally, divide the amount of heat released by the number of moles of sucrose to calculate the change in internal energy, ΔE , per mole of sucrose.
Hint 2. What the change in internal energy means
Recall that the total internal energy change, ΔE , of a system is the sum of heat and work done:
ΔE = q + w
At constant volume, such as in a bomb calorimeter, work is equal to zero. Therefore, at constant volume the internal energy change is dependent only upon the heat of
the system, and ΔE is equal to q for the process, with the sign depending on whether the process is endothermic or exothermic.
Hint 3. Calculate the amount of heat released
The calorimeter has predetermined heat capacity (C ), and thus the amount of heat released can be calculated using the calorimetric equation q = C ⋅ ΔT .
How much heat was released during this reaction?
Express the heat released in kilojoules to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
q = 165 kJ
Hint 4. Calculate the molar mass of sucrose
Carbon has a molar mass of 12.01g/mol, oxygen has a molar mass of 16.00 g/mol, and hydrogen has a molar mass of 1.008 g/mol. What is the molar mass of
sucrose, C12 H22 O11 ?
Express the molar mass in g/mol to four significant figures.
ANSWER:
342.3 g/mol
Hint 5. Calculate the number of moles of sucrose

How many moles of sucrose reacted?
Express the number of moles to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
2.92×10−2 mol
ANSWER:
ΔE = -5650 kJ/mol
Correct
Because the surroundings gained energy, we know that the system released energy and the sign of the change in internal energy must be negative.
± Work and Energy
An object can possess kinetic energy, the energy of motion, and/or potential energy, the energy of position. Energy can be transferred in many ways, one of which is in the form of
work. Work, w, is the energy transferred when an object is caused to move a distance, d, against a force, F . Mathematically, we would write this as
w = Fd
Force is the product of mass, m, and acceleration, a:
F = ma
When the acceleration is due to gravity, the symbol g is used instead of a, and its value is g = 9.81 m ⋅ s−2 .
Part A
How much work is done when a 105 g tomato is lifted 11.7 m ?
Hint 1. Determine the relevant work equation
Given that w = F d and F = mg , determine the formula for work, w, in terms of mass, m, distance, d, and the acceleration of gravity, g ?
Express work in terms of the variables m, d, and g .
ANSWER:
w = mgd
ANSWER:
w = 12.1 J
Correct
The energy transferred to the tomato by doing work on it increases its potential energy because the tomato is now at a greater height or position relative to the
ground.
Kinetic energy
1
Kinetic energy, Ek , is given by the formula Ek = 2
mv2 where m is mass is the mass in kilograms and v is velocity in meters per second.
Part B
The tomato is dropped. What is the velocity, v , of the tomato when it hits the ground? Assume 81.3 % of the work done in Part A is transferred to kinetic energy, E , by the
time the tomato hits the ground.
Hint 1. Calculate the kinetic energy
A total of 81.3 % of the work done in Part A (12.1 J ) is transferred to kinetic energy. Calculate the kinetic energy.
ANSWER:
E = 9.80 J
Hint 2. Rearrange the formula for kinetic energy

1
Using the symbol E to represent kinetic energy, rearrange the formulaE = 2
mv2 to isolate v .
Express the velocity in terms of the variables E and m.
ANSWER:
−−
−
v= √ 2E
m
ANSWER:
m
v = 13.7 s
Correct
Once the tomato hits the ground, it stops moving and its kinetic energy goes to zero. Some of the kinetic energy is transferred into the work involved in smashing the
tomato, while the rest is dissipated to the surroundings as heat.
Score Summary:
4.2 Thermochemistry 2
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is released or absorbed from reactions in various forms. The most easily measurable form of energy comes in the form of heat, or enthalpy. The enthalpy of a
reaction can be calculated from the heats of formation of the substances involved in the reaction:
∘ = Σ n ΔH ∘ (products) − Σ n ΔH ∘ (reactants)
ΔHrxn p f r f
where n represents the stoichiometric coefficients.
Part A
Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the reaction
2A + B ⇌ 2C + 2D
Use the following data:
ΔHf∘
Substance
(kJ/mol)
A -271
B -385
C 211
D -513

The enthalpy of a reaction can be calculated from the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the products minus those of the reactants, keeping in mind the
stoichiometric coefficient of each reactant or product involved in the reaction. Thus
∘ = Σ n ΔH ∘ (products) − Σ n ΔH ∘ (reactants)
ΔHrxn p f r f
Hint 2. Calculate the total heat of formation for the reactants

Taking the reaction coefficients into account, what is the sum of the ΔHf∘ values of the reactants, 2A + B ?
ANSWER:
ΔHf∘ (reactants) = -927 kJ
Hint 3. Calculate the total heat of formation for the products
Taking the reaction coefficients into account, what is the sum of the ΔHf∘ values of the products?
ANSWER:
ΔHf∘ (products) = -604 kJ
ANSWER:
∘ = 323 kJ
ΔHrxn
Correct
Part B
For the reaction given in Part A, how much heat is absorbed when 3.00 mol of A reacts?
∘ was 323 kJ for the reaction as written. This means that 323 kJ of heat is absorbed when exactly 2 mol of A and 1
In the previous part, you determined that ΔHrxn
mol of B react to produce 2 mol of C and 2 mol of D according to the balanced chemical equation
2A + B→2C + 2D
∘ just as you would a conversion factor; that is, use the factor
When less A reacts, less heat is absorbed. When more A reacts, more heat is absorbed. So use ΔHrxn
323kJ
2 mol A
Hint 2. Determine the amount of heat absorbed per mole of A

Given the enthalpy of the reaction as written
2A + B→2C + 2D, ∘
ΔHrxn
how much heat is absorbed for each mole of A that reacts?
ANSWER:
161.5 kJ
ANSWER:
485 kJ
Correct
Energy, Heat, and Work
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred between a reaction and its surroundings. The change in energy, ΔE , is positive if the reaction absorbs energy,
and it is negative if the reaction releases energy. You may also see this expressed in terms of change in internal energy, ΔU . For the purposes of this question, ΔU and ΔE are
equal.
One way a reaction can transfer energy to or from the surroundings is by releasing or absorbing heat. A reaction can also transfer energy, in the form of work, through a change in
volume. The total change in energy is the sum of the heat and work:
ΔE = q + w
At constant pressure, q = ΔH and w = −P ΔV and so
ΔE = ΔH − P ΔV
Part A
Assuming constant pressure, rank these reactions from most energy released by the system to most energy absorbed by the system, based on the following descriptions:
A. Surroundings get colder and the system decreases in volume.

B. Surroundings get hotter and the system expands in volume.
C. Surroundings get hotter and the system decreases in volume.
D. Surroundings get hotter and the system does not change in volume.
Also assume that the magnitude of the volume and temperature changes are similar among the reactions.
Rank from most energy released to most energy absorbed. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.

There are two changes to be considered: change in temperature and change in volume. Change in temperature of the system relates to the heat transfer. Change in
volume relates to work. Since energy is the sum of heat and work, ΔE = ΔU = q + w you will be able to compare the reactions after you determine the signs of
heat and work for each case. Keep in mind that the reaction that releases the most energy will have the most negative ΔE value.
Hint 2. Determine the sign of q
At constant pressure, q = ΔH . When the surroundings get hotter, what is the sign of q?
ANSWER:
positive
negative
Hint 3. Determine the sign of w
At constant pressure, w = −P ΔV . When the system expands, what is the sign of w?

ANSWER:
positive
negative
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Reaction B Reaction D Reaction C Reaction A
Correct
Part B
A mole of X reacts at a constant pressure of 43.0 atm via the reaction
X(g) + 4Y(g)→2Z(g), ΔH ∘ = −75.0 kJ
Before the reaction, the volume of the gaseous mixture was 5.00 L. After the reaction, the volume was 2.00 L. Calculate the value of the total energy change, ΔE , in
kilojoules.
ΔE is the sum of heat and work:ΔE = ΔU = ΔH − P ΔV Calculate the change in volume, then apply the other given values. Keep in mind that product of
pressure and volume will have units of liter-atmospheres, which will need to be converted to kilojoules (0.101 kJ = 1 L ⋅ atm).
Hint 2. Find the change in volume
Before the reaction, the volume of the gaseous mixture was 5.00 L. After the reaction, the volume was 2.00 L. Find ΔV .
ANSWER:
ΔV = -3.00 L
Hint 3. Calculate the work in liter-atmospheres

You can use the second hint for this part to calculate the change in volume, and pressure is given in the problem statement. Calculate the amount of work in liter
atmospheres. The units are already entered for you.
Express your answer numerically in liter-atmospheres.
ANSWER:
w = 129 L ⋅ atm
Hint 4. Convert the amount of work to kilojoules
Convert w to kilojoules using 0.101 kJ = 1 L ⋅ atm.

ANSWER:
w = 13.0 kJ
ANSWER:
ΔE = -62.0 kJ
Correct
Although the system absorbed some energy in the form of work, the significant release of heat caused the total change to be negative.
Formation Reactions
The standard heat of formation, ΔHf∘ , is defined as the enthalpy change for the formation of one mole of substance from its constituent elements in their standard states. Thus,
elements in their standard states have ΔHf∘ = 0 . Heat of formation values can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of any reaction.
Consider, for example, the reaction
2NO(g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g)

with heat of formation values given by the following table:
ΔHf∘
Substance
(kJ/mol )
NO(g) 90.2
O2 (g) 0
NO2 (g) 33.2
Then the standard heat of reaction for the overall reaction is
∘ =
ΔHrxn ΔHf∘ (products)− ΔHf∘ (reactants)
= 2(33.2) − [2(90.2) + 0]
= −114 kJ
Part A
∘ equal to ΔH ∘ of the product(s)? You do not need to look up any values to answer this question.
For which of the following reactions is ΔHrxn f

An element in its standard state has a ΔHf∘ value of zero. Therefore the reaction that defines the heat of formation of any compound is the reaction that produces one
mole of that compound from its constituent elements in their standard states.
Hint 2. Select the reaction for the formation of sodium chloride
Choose the reaction that defines the standard heat of formation for NaCl(s) .
ANSWER:
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g)→2NaCl(s)
Na(s) + 12 Cl2 (l)→NaCl(s)
Na(s) + 12 Cl2 (g)→NaCl(s)
Hint 3. Select the reaction for the formation of water
Choose the reaction that defines the standard heat of formation for H2 O(g) .
ANSWER:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2 O(g)
H2 (g) + 12 O2 (g)→H2 O(g)
H2 O2 (g)→ 12 O2 (g) + H2 O(g)
ANSWER:
H2 (g) + 12 O2 (g)→H2 O(g)
Na(s) + 12 Cl2 (g)→NaCl(s)
Na(s) + 12 Cl2 (l)→NaCl(s)
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2 O(g)
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g)→2NaCl(s)
H2 O2 (g)→ 12 O2 (g) + H2 O(g)
Correct
∘ would look something like
For both of these reactions, the calculation of ΔHrxn
∘ = [1 × ΔH ∘ (product)] − [0 + 0]
ΔHrxn f
If the coefficient for the product were not 1, or if the reactants were not standard-state elements, then the enthalpy change of the reaction would not be equal to
ΔHf∘ for the product.
Part B
The combustion of heptane, C7 H16 , occurs via the reaction
C7 H16 (g) + 11O2 (g)→7CO2 (g) + 8H2 O(g)

with heat of formation values given by the following table:
ΔHf∘
Substance
(kJ/mol )
C7 H16 (g) -187.9
CO2 (g) −393.5

H2 O(g) −241.8
Calculate the enthalpy for the combustion of 1 mole of heptane.

The standard enthalpy of a reaction is calculated by finding the standard enthalpies of formation for the substances involved in the reaction, tabulating them, and then
using the formula
∘ = ΔH ∘ (products) − ΔH ∘ (reactants)
ΔHrxn f f
Note that O2 (g) is a pure element in its standard state. Thus, the standard heat of formation for oxygen gas is equal to zero.
Hint 2. Select the correct formula for calculating enthalpy of the reaction
Choose the correct formula for calculating the enthalpy of the reaction.
ANSWER:
∘ = [ΔH ∘ (CO ) + ΔH ∘ (H O)] − [ΔH ∘ (C H ) + ΔH∘ (O )]

ΔHrxn f 2 f 2 f 7 16 f 2
∘ = [7ΔH ∘ (CO ) + 8ΔH ∘ (H O)] − [ΔH ∘ (C H ) + 11ΔH ∘ (O )]

ΔHrxn f 2 f 2 f 7 16 f 2
∘ = [ΔH ∘ (C H ) + 11ΔH ∘ (O )] − [7ΔH ∘ (CO ) + 8ΔH ∘ (H O)]

ΔHrxn f 7 16 f 2 f 2 f 2
∘ = [(ΔH ∘ (C H ) + ΔH∘ (O )] − [ΔH∘ (CO ) + ΔH∘ (H O)]

ΔHrxn f 7 16 f 2 f 2 f 2
Hint 3. Calculate the sum of the products
Taking coefficients into account, what is the sum of the ΔHf∘ values of the products, 7CO2 (g) + 8H2 O(g)?
Express your answer to five significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
ΔHf∘ (products) = -4688.9 kJ
ANSWER:
∘ = -4501 kJ
ΔHrxn
Correct
PV Work
The joule (J) is a unit of energy. Recall that energy may be converted between many different forms such as mechanical energy, thermal energy (heat), chemical energy, electrical
energy, and light.
The mechanical energy produced by a system is called work. When work is accomplished through the changing volume of a gas, it is called PV work and is given by the formula
w = −P ΔV , where w is the work, P is the external pressure, and ΔV is the change in volume. If the volume change and pressure are in liters and atmospheres respectively,
then the work will have units of liter-atmospheres, which can be converted to joules using the conversion factor 1 L ⋅ atm = 101.3 J.
Work can also be expressed as force multiplied by distance: w = F × d, where w is the work in joules, F is the force in newtons, and d is the distance in meters. Note that
1 N ⋅ m = 1 J.
Part A
A piston has an external pressure of 9.00 atm. How much work has been done in joules if the cylinder goes from a volume of 0.150 liters to 0.480 liters?
Hint 1. Calculate the change in volume
What is the value of the change in volume ΔV ?

ANSWER:
ΔV = 0.330 L
Hint 2. Calculate the work done

Calculate the amount of work done in units of L ⋅ atm. Notice that the units are already entered for you.
Express your answer numerically in liter-atmospheres.
ANSWER:
-2.97 L ⋅ atm
Hint 3. Conversion factor

Use the relation 101.3 J = 1 L ⋅ atm.
One way to remember this is to divide the two common values of the gas constant R :
8.314 J/(mol⋅K) 101.3 J

0.0821 L⋅atm/(mol⋅K)
= 1 L⋅atm
ANSWER:
w = -301 J
Correct
± Energy Released in Combustion of a Natural Gas Mixture
The table shown here gives the enthalpy of combustion for three different hydrocarbon fuels to produce liquid water and gaseous carbon dioxide.
∘
ΔHcombustion
Hydrocarbon fuel
(kJ/mol )
CH4 −890.3
C2 H6 −1559.7
C3 H8 −2219.1
A particular natural gas consists, in mole percents, of 83.0% CH4 (methane), 11.2% C2 H6 (ethane), and 5.80% C3 H8 (propane). A 385-L sample of this gas, measured at 25
∘
C and 709 mmHg , is burned in an excess of oxygen gas.
Part A
How much heat, in kilojoules, is evolved in this combustion reaction?

First, determine the total number of moles of gas using the ideal gas law,
P V = nRT
where P is the pressure in atmospheres, V is the volume in liters, n is the number of moles of gas, and R = 0.08206 L ⋅ atm/(mol ⋅ K) . Next, use the mole
percentages of each gas to calculate the number of moles of each gas present. Then use the heats of combustion (in kilojoules per mole) to determine the heat (in
kilojoules) evolved by each gas. Finally, sum the heat evolved by each gas to determine the total heat evolved.
Hint 2. Determine the total number of moles of gas present
How many total moles of gas are present in a 385-L sample of gas at 25 ∘ C and 709 mmHg ?
Hint 1. Rearrange the ideal gas equation

Rearrange the ideal gas equation
P V = nRT
to isolate the number of moles, n.
Express your answer in terms of P , V , R , and T .
ANSWER:
n = PV
RT
Hint 2. Convert the temperature to kelvins
Convert 25 ∘ C to kelvins.
Hint 1. Conversion formula

Recall that
TK = TC + 273
ANSWER:
T = 298 K
Hint 3. Convert pressure to atmospheres

Convert 709 mmHg to atmospheres. Recall that 1 atm = 760 mmHg.
ANSWER:
P = 0.933 atm
ANSWER:
n = 14.7 mol
Hint 3. Determine the heat released by methane
How many kilojoules of heat are released when the methane, CH4 , in the sample is burned?
Hint 1. Determine the number of moles of methane in the sample
This gas is 83.0% methane by moles. How many moles of methane, CH4 , are present in 14.687423 mol of this gas?
ANSWER:
12.2 mol
Hint 2. Determine how to calculate the heat released

If x is the enthalpy of combustion for a substance in kilojoules per mole, and y is the number of moles of this substance, which operation will give units of
kilojoules?
ANSWER:
xy
y/x
x/y
ANSWER:
1.09×104 kJ
Hint 4. Determine the heat released by ethane
How many kilojoules are released when the ethane, C2 H6 , in the sample is burned?
Hint 1. Determine the number of moles of ethane in the sample
This gas is 11.2% ethane. How many moles of ethane, C2 H6 , are present in 14.687423 mol of this gas?
ANSWER:
1.64 mol

kilojoules?
ANSWER:
xy
x/y
y/x
ANSWER:
2570 kJ
Hint 5. Determine the heat released by propane

How many kilojoules are released when the propane, C3 H8 , in the sample is burned?
Hint 1. Determine the number of moles of propane in the sample
This gas is 5.8% propane. How many moles of propane, C3 H8 , are present in 14.687423 mol of this gas?
ANSWER:
0.852 mol

kilojoules?
ANSWER:
xy
x/y
y/x
ANSWER:
1890 kJ
ANSWER:
−1.53×104 kJ
Correct
The change in enthalpy, ΔH , has a negative sign if the reaction is exothermic. However, the amount of heat released is technically a positive value.
Notice that each component of natural gas produces a different amount of heat per mole. Thus, the heating value of natural gas is dependent on composition.
Standard Enthalpy of Formation Reaction
The standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf∘ ) is the enthalpy change that occurs when exactly 1 mol of a compound is formed from its constituent elements under standard
conditions. The standard conditions are 1 atm pressure, a temperature of 25 ∘ C , and all the species present at a concentration of 1 M . A "standard enthalpies of formation
table" containing ΔHf∘ values might look something like this:
Substance ΔHf∘
H(g) 218 kJ/mol
H2 (g) 0 kJ/mol
Ca(s) 0 kJ/mol
Ca2+ (aq) −543 kJ/mol

C(g) 71 kJ/mol
C(s) 0 kJ/mol
N(g) 473 kJ/mol
O2 (g) 0 kJ/mol
O(g) 249 kJ/mol
S2 (g) 129 kJ/mol
Part A
What is the balanced chemical equation for the reaction used to calculate ΔHf∘ of CaCO3 (s) ?
If fractional coefficients are required, enter them as a fraction (i.e. 1/3). Indicate the physical states using the abbreviation (s ), (l), or (g ) for solid, liquid, or gas, respectively
without indicating allotropes. Use (aq ) for aqueous solution.
Express your answer as a chemical equation.
To build the reaction used to define the standard enthalpy of formation for a compound, we must start with the standard states of each element. By definition, ΔHf∘ for
any element in its most standard form is zero. Thus, the first step is to look in a table of standard enthalpies of formation and find the standard state for each element.
Next, generate a chemical equation that shows the formation of the product from these elements. Finally, balance the chemical equation so that the numbers of moles of
each element are identical on both sides of the equation.
To enter the answer in one mole you can make use of fractional coefficients. For example, you require only 1/2 mol of oxygen for the formation of one mole of water.
Thus, you can write the coefficient for oxygen as 2 O2 in the equation H2 + 2 O2 →H2 O .
1 1
Hint 2. Identify the elements

What are the elements that make up the compound?
Express your answers as element symbols separated by commas.
ANSWER:
Ca,C,O
Hint 3. Identify the most stable states of the elements

By looking at the table in the problem introduction, choose the most stable forms of the elements.
ANSWER:
Ca(s), O(g), C(g)
Ca2+ (aq), O2 (g), C(s)
Ca(s), O(g), C(s)
Ca(s), O2 (g), C(s)
Hint 4. Write the unbalanced chemical reaction

Use the standard states of the elements to write an unbalanced chemical equation that shows the formation of the compound.
Indicate the physical states using the abbreviation (s ), (l), or (g ) for solid, liquid, or gas, respectively. Use (aq ) for aqueous solution.
Express your answer as a chemical equation.
ANSWER:
Ca (s) + O2 (g) + C (s) →CaCO3 (s)
Hint 5. Inspect for balance

To finish writing the chemical equation, it is important that the numbers of moles of each element be identical on both sides of the equation. After the unbalanced
chemical equation has been written, which element is not balanced?
ANSWER:
Ca
O
C
Hint 6. Balance the equation

In the unbalanced equation
Ca(s) + O2 (g) + C(s)→CaCO3 (s)

there are two oxygen atoms on the left and three oxygen atoms on the right. What coefficient, whole number or fraction, needs to be placed in front of the O2 on the left
side to make the equation balance without adding any coefficients to the other species?
Express your answer numerically.
ANSWER:
1.5
ANSWER:
Ca (s) + C (s) + 32 O2 (g) →CaCO3 (s)

Correct
You may also see this chemical equation written with the allotrope of carbon, which is graphite, specified:
Ca(s) + 32 O2 (g) + C(s, graphite)→CaCO3 (s)
± Enthalpy
Enthalpy H is a measure of the energy content of a system at constant pressure. Chemical reactions involve changes in enthalpy, ΔH , which can be measured and calculated:
ΔHrxn ∘ = ∑products mΔHf ∘ − ∑reactants nΔHf ∘
where the subscript "rxn" is for "enthalpy of reaction" and "f" is for "enthalpy of formation" and m and n represent the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients for each substance.
The following table lists some enthalpy of formation values for selected substances.
Substance ΔHf ∘ (kJ/mol)
CO2 (g) −393.5
NaOH(s) −426.7
H2 O(l) −285.8
Na2 CO3 (s) −1131.0
H2 O(g) −241.8
Part A
Determine the enthalpy for this reaction:
2NaOH(s) + CO2 (g)→Na2 CO3 (s) + H2 O(l)

Express your answer in kilojoules per mole to one decimal place.
Hint 1. A formula for change in enthalpy

The change in enthalpy can be calculated with the formula
where m and n represent the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients for each substance.
Hint 2. Find the sum of the enthalpies of the products

What is the sum of the enthalpies of the products for this reaction?
ANSWER:
-1416.8 kJ/mol
Hint 3. Find the sum of the enthalpies of the reactants

What is the sum of the enthalpies of the reactants for this reaction?
ANSWER:
-1246.9 kJ/mol
ANSWER:
ΔHrxn ∘ = -169.9 kJ/mol
Correct
Therefore
[1(−1131.0kJ/mol) + 1(−285.8kJ/mol)] − [1(−393.5kJ/mol) + 2(−426.7kJ/mol)] = − 169.9kJ/mol

The values 1, 1, 1, and 2 are the coefficients of the products and the reactants involved in the reaction.
Part B
Na2 CO3 (s)→Na2 O(s) + CO2 (g)

with enthalpy of reaction
ΔHrxn ∘ = 321.5kJ/mol
What is the enthalpy of formation of Na2 O(s)?

Previously, you have calculated reaction enthalpy from the individual enthalpy of formation values. This time, you know the reaction enthalpy and all but one of the
enthalpy of formation values.
Hint 2. A formula for change in enthalpy

The change in enthalpy can be calculated with the formula
where m and n represent the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients for each substance.
ANSWER:
ΔHf ∘ = -416.0 kJ/mol
Correct
You thus have the equation
[1(−393.5 kJ/mol) + (X kJ/mol)] − 1(−1131.0kJ/mol) = 321.5kJ/mol

Solving for X gives
X = − 416.0kJ/mol
The values 1 and 1 are the coefficients of the product and the reactant involved in the reaction.
Score Summary:
5.1 Atoms 1
± Properties of Waves
Learning Goal:
To understand electromagnetic radiation and be able to perform calculations involving wavelength, frequency, and energy.
Several properties are used to define waves. Every wave has a wavelength, which is the distance from peak to peak or trough to trough. Wavelength, typically given the symbol λ
(lowercase Greek "lambda"), is usually measured in meters. Every wave also has a frequency, which is the number of wavelengths that pass a certain point during a given period of
time. Frequency, given the symbol ν (lowercase Greek "nu"), is usually measured in inverse seconds (s−1 ). Hertz (Hz), another unit of frequency, is equivalent to inverse seconds.
The product of wavelength and frequency is the speed in meters per second (m/s). For light waves, the speed is constant. The speed of light is symbolized by the letter c and is
always equal to 2.998 × 108 m/s in a vacuum; that is,
c = λν = 2.998 × 108 m/s

Another term for "light" is electromagnetic radiation, which encompasses not only visible light but also gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays, infrared rays, microwaves, and radio waves.
As you could probably guess, these different kinds of radiation are associated with different energy regimes. Gamma rays have the greatest energy, whereas radio waves have the
least energy. The energy (measured in joules) of a photon for a particular kind of light wave is equal to its frequency times a constant called Planck's constant, symbolized h :
Ephoton = hν
where
h = 6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
These two equations can be combined to give an equation that relates energy to wavelength:
hc
E= λ
Part A
A radio station's channel, such as 100.7 FM or 92.3 FM, is actually its frequency in megahertz (MHz), where 1 MHz = 106 Hz and 1 Hz = 1 s−1 .
Calculate the broadcast wavelength of the radio station 104.9 FM.

Find a formula that contains both frequency and wavelength and plug in the correct values. Make sure to use the appropriate units.
Hint 2. Convert frequency to hertz

What is the frequency of this radio station in hertz?
ANSWER:
ν = 1.049×108 Hz
Hint 3. Choose a formula for frequency
Which of these is an expression for wavelength (λ) in terms of the speed of light (c ) and frequency (ν )?
ANSWER:
ν
λ= c
c
λ= ν
λ=c×ν
c2
λ= ν
ANSWER:
λ = 2.858 m
Correct
Part B
Green light has a frequency of about 6.00 × 1014 s−1 . What is the energy of a photon of green light?
Find a formula that contains both frequency and energy for a photon and plug in the correct values. Make sure to use the appropriate units.
Hint 2. Choose a formula for energy
Which of these is an expression for energy (E ) of a photon in terms of frequency (ν ) and Plank's constant (h)?
ANSWER:
h
Ephoton = ν
ν
Ephoton = h
h2
Ephoton = ν
Ephoton = hν
ANSWER:
Ephoton = 3.98×10−19 J
Correct
You have calculated the energy of one photon (packet of light) of green light. If you had a light pulse with 1015 photons at this energy, you would have 0.398 mJ.
Part C
Hospital X-ray generators emit X-rays with wavelength of about 15.0 nanometers (nm ), where 1 nm = 10−9 m . What is the energy of a photon of the X-rays?

Find a formula that contains both wavelength and energy and plug in the correct values. Make sure to use the appropriate units.
Hint 2. Convert nanometers to meters

5.2 Atoms 2
Due: 11:59pm on Sunday, November 5, 2023
Quantum Number Rules
Learning Goal:
To learn the restrictions on each quantum number.
Quantum numbers can be thought of as labels for an electron. Every electron in an atom has a unique set of four quantum numbers.
The principal quantum number n corresponds to the shell in which the electron is located. Thus n can therefore be any integer. For example, an electron in the 2p subshell has a
principal quantum number of n = 2 because 2p is in the second shell.
The azimuthal or angular momentum quantum number ℓ corresponds to the subshell in which the electron is located. s subshells are coded as 0, p subshells as 1, d as 2, and f as
3. For example, an electron in the 2p subshell has ℓ = 1. As a rule, ℓ can have integer values ranging from 0 to n − 1 .
The magnetic quantum number mℓ corresponds to the orbital in which the electron is located. Instead of 2px , 2py , and 2pz , the three 2p orbitals can be labeled −1, 0, and 1, but
not necessarily respectively. As a rule, mℓ can have integer values ranging from −ℓ to +ℓ.
The spin quantum number ms corresponds to the spin of the electron in the orbital. A value of 1/2 means an "up" spin, whereas −1/2 means a "down" spin.
Part A
What is the only possible value of mℓ for an electron in an s orbital?
The restriction on mℓ is that it can only be an integer ranging from −ℓ to +ℓ. Therefore, you should determine the value of ℓ for an s orbital to find the possible mℓ
values.
Hint 2. Determine the value of ℓ
What is the value of ℓ for an electron in an s orbital?

ANSWER:
0
ANSWER:
Correct
Since the allowed values for mℓ range from −ℓ to +ℓ, once you know the value for ℓ you know the values for mℓ .
Part B
What are the possible values of mℓ for an electron in a d orbital?
Express your answer numerically with sequential values separated by commas.
The restriction on mℓ is that it can only be an integer ranging from −ℓ to +ℓ. Therefore, you should determine the value of ℓ for a d orbital to find the possible mℓ
values.
Hint 2. Determine the value of ℓ
What is the value of ℓ for an electron in a d orbital?

ANSWER:
ANSWER:
-2,-1,0,1,2
6.1 Molecules 1: Lewis Structures and VSEPR
Drawing and Predicting Lewis Structures
Learning Goal:
To learn to draw Lewis structures, assign formal charges, and predict likely structures based on formal charges.
Use the following steps to draw Lewis structures from molecular formulas:
1. Sum the valence electrons from all of the atoms.

2. Connect the appropriate atoms using a single bond (a line, which represents two electrons). The central atom is usually the least electronegative atom, but never hydrogen.
3. Add lone pairs to complete the octets of the outer atoms. Keep in mind that hydrogen fills its "octet" with only two electrons.
4. Place any leftover electrons on the central atom. Keep in mind that elements in row 3 of the periodic table and beyond can exceed the general octet.
5. If any atom lacks an octet, try using double or triple bonds. You may have to use one or more lone pairs to make the double or triple bonds so that the total number of valence electrons
remains the same.
Part A
Draw the Lewis structure of PH3 .
To add lone pairs, click the button before clicking on the molecule. To add bonds connect atoms with a line .
Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Include lone pairs of electrons and hydrogen atoms.
Hint 1. Determine the total number of valence electrons

What is the total number of valence electrons in PH3 ?
Hint 1. Determine the number of valence electrons in a phosphorus atom

Phosphorus, P , is in group 5A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are in an atom of phosphorus?
ANSWER:
valence electron(s)
5
Hint 2. Determine the number of valence electrons in a hydrogen atom
Hydrogen, H , is in group 1A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are in an atom of hydrogen?
ANSWER:
valence electron(s)
1
ANSWER:
valence electron(s)
8
Hint 2. Determine the number of electrons from bonds

Phosphorus will be the central atom since hydrogen can never be a central atom. So we begin by connecting three H atoms to one P atom, each with a single bond:
How many electrons are currently shown in this structure if each single bond counts as two electrons.
ANSWER:
electrons
6
ANSWER:
          





H
H
H



Correct
Lewis structures of ions

A charge on a formula affects the total number of valence electrons that should appear in the structure. For anions, add the magnitude of the charge to the total. For cations, subtract the magnitude of
the charge from the total.
Part B
−
Draw the Lewis structure of NO2 .
To add lone pairs, click the button before clicking on the molecule. To add bonds connect atoms with a line .
Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Include all lone pairs of electrons. Use square brackets to denote the overall charge.
Hint 1. Determine the number of total valence electrons

−
What is the total number of valence electrons in NO2 ?
−
The total number of valence electrons in the NO2 ion is the sum of the valence electrons of the individual atoms and the charge on the ion.
Hint 1. Determine the number of valence electrons in a nitrogen atom

Nitrogen, N , is in group 5A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are in an atom of nitrogen?
ANSWER:
valence electron(s)
5
Hint 2. Determine the number of valence electrons in an oxygen atom
Oxygen, O, is in group 6A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are in an atom of oxygen?
ANSWER:
valence electron(s)
6
Hint 3. Identify the effect of the charge on the total valence

What does a −1 charge indicate about the number of valence electrons in the ion?
ANSWER:
There is one fewer electron than what the atoms contribute.
The charge has no relation to the total number of valence electrons.
There is one extra electron beyond what the atoms contribute.
ANSWER:
electrons
18
Hint 2. Determine the number of lone pairs needed on each oxygen atom
The central atom in this case is nitrogen, just as we would have predicted based on electronegativities. So we begin by connecting two O atoms to one N atom, each with a single bond:
How many lone pairs should be added to each O atom to complete their octets?
ANSWER:
one lone pair (two electrons)
two lone pairs (four electrons)

Add to each O atom.
three lone pairs (six electrons)
four lone pairs (eight electrons)
Hint 3. Identify how to achieve the correct total valence electrons

At this point, our structure looks like this:
How many more electrons need to be added to the nitrogen atom to achieve a total of 18 electrons?
ANSWER:
two electrons (one lone pair)
four electrons (two lone pairs)
zero electrons (i.e., the structure currently shows the correct number)
ANSWER:
          




 O
-



Correct
Assigning formal charges

To determine the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule, we must assign each electron to a particular atom. Then, we compare the number of electrons assigned to each atom to the expected
valence of that element.
All lone pairs of electrons should be assigned to the atom on which they are found; bonding pairs of electrons should be divided equally between the atoms in the bond. The formal charge is
calculated by subtracting the number of electrons assigned to the atom from the number of valence electrons in the free atom.
valence e− in nonbonding e− bonding e−

FC = ( ) − [( ) + 12 ( )]
free atom shown shown
For example, in ∙∙ C≡O∙∙ , each atom is assigned five electrons (two nonbonding from the atom's lone pair and three bonding from half of the triple bond). Since the expected valence of carbon is four,
its formal charge is (4 valence) − (5 assigned) = −1 . Since the expected valence of oxygen is six, its formal charge is (6 valence) − (5 assigned) = +1 .
For a neutral molecule such as CO , the sum of the formal charges is zero. For a polyatomic ion, the sum of the formal charges is equal to the overall charge on the ion.
Part C
Assign formal charges to each atom in the O3 molecule shown here. Be sure to click the or button before clicking on the molecule.
Click the or button to select it, then click on an atom, and then type the desired charge.
Hint 1. Count the electrons assigned to the left-most atom

How many electrons are assigned to this oxygen atom?

ANSWER:
assigned electrons
7
Hint 2. Count the electrons assigned to the middle atom


ANSWER:
assigned electrons
5
Hint 3. Count the electrons assigned to the right-most atom


ANSWER:
assigned electrons
6
Hint 4. Determine the expected number of valence electrons for oxygen
Oxygen, O, is in group 6A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are expected to be in an atom of oxygen?
ANSWER:
valence electrons
6
ANSWER:
          


 - +
 O O O



Correct
Using formal charges to predict Lewis structures
Sometimes, there will be more than one valid Lewis structure for a molecule. For example, consider these options for the SO2 molecule:
Both structures are valid because they each contain 18 electrons, all oxygen atoms have an octet, and both sulfur atoms have at least an octet. Formal charges however, are minimized in the second
structure. Thus, based on formal charges alone, we would predict that the second structure is the preferred Lewis structure for SO2 .
Part D
−
Draw the Lewis structure for the chlorate ion, ClO3 , that minimizes formal charges. This may require expanded octets.
To add lone pairs, click the button before clicking on the molecule. To add bonds connect atoms with a line . To add formal charges, click the or button before clicking on the
molecule or brackets.
Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Include lone pairs of electrons. Overall charge may be specified with square brackets or formal
charges.

− −
To draw the most preferred Lewis structure for ClO3 , the first step would be to identify all the possible Lewis structures for ClO3 . The central atom in this case is chlorine, just as we
would have predicted based on electronegativities.
−
Then add the lone pairs of electrons to each atom in the structures. Each of these ClO3 structures would have the same number of total valence electrons. The second step would be to
assign the formal charges to each atom of the structures. Now the most preferred structure would be the structure with the most minimized formal charges. If there is more than one
structure with the most minimized formal charges, then choose the structure in which the central atom has a formal charge closest to zero.
Hint 2. Complete some possible structures
−
Some possible Lewis structures for ClO3 are shown here. Add lone pairs to each of the possible structures. Be sure to click the button before clicking on the molecule to add the
lone pairs.
Add nonbonding electrons as necessary.
Hint 1. Determine the total number of valence electrons

−
What is the total number of valence electrons in ClO3 ?
−
The total number of valence electrons in the ClO3 ion is the sum of the valence electrons of the individual atoms and the charge on the ion.
ANSWER:
valence electrons
26
ANSWER:
          

 O Cl O O Cl O

 O O

O Cl O O Cl O
O O



Hint 3. Assign formal charges to the possible structures
Assign a formal charge to each atom of the structures shown here. Be sure to clickthe or button before clicking on the molecule.
Click the or button, then click on an atom, and then type the desired charge.
Hint 1. How to assign formal charges
To assign the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule, determine the number of electrons assigned to each atom in the given structures. Then compare the number of assigned
electrons to the expected valence electrons of that element.
If an atom has been assigned more electrons than its expected valence, it will have a negative formal charge. If an atom has been assigned fewer electrons than its expected
valence, it will have a positive formal charge.
All lone pairs of electrons should be assigned to the atom on which they are found; bonding pairs of electrons should be divided equally between the atoms in the bond. The formal
charge is calculated by subtracting the number of electrons assigned to the atom from the number of valence electrons in the isolated atom.
Hint 2. Determine the expected number of valence electrons for chlorine
Chlorine, Cl , is in group 7A of the periodic table. How many valence electrons are expected to be in an atom of chlorine?
ANSWER:
valence electrons
7
ANSWER:
          

 O
-
Cl
2+
O
-
O
-
Cl
+
O
 - -
 O O

- -
O Cl O O Cl O
O O



ANSWER:
          





O
Cl
O
-
O



Correct
Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds

Learning Goal:
To draw Lewis symbols for atoms and ions and to balance Lewis structures for ionic compounds.
The Lewis symbol for an atom or ion shows the valence electrons as dots around the symbol for the element. Consider the following examples:
Dots may be placed on the four sides of a symbol (top, bottom, left, and right) in any order, but the maximum number of dots per side is two. Notice that in the correct configuration the number of
unpaired dots is maximized.
The Lewis symbol for an ionic compound shows the Lewis symbols for the component ions side by side, with coefficients to indicate the relative numbers of ions. The Lewis structure of Mg3 N2 is
If you compare the Lewis symbols for neutral Mg and N to that of their ions, you'll notice that all the valence electrons from magnesium were transferred to nitrogen.
Part A
Add single electron dots and/or pairs of dots as appropriate to show the Lewis symbols of the following neutral atoms.
Place electron dots as needed on each atom. Click either the single electron or lone pair buttons to add electrons.
Hint 1. Determine the number of valence electrons in the neutral nonmetals
How many valence electrons are in a neutral atom of As, Se , and Br, respectively?
Express your answer as three integers separated by commas.
ANSWER:
5,6,7
Hint 2. Determine the number of valence electrons in the neutral metals
How many valence electrons are in a neutral atom of K, Ca, and Ga , respectively?
Express your answer as three integers separated by commas.
ANSWER:
1,2,3
ANSWER:
          

 As Se Br


 K Ca Ga



Correct
Part B
Add charges, single electron dots, and/or pairs of dots as appropriate to show the Lewis symbols for the most stable ion of each element. Treat n = 4 as the valence shell in all cases.
To add formal charges, click the or button before clicking on the molecule.
Place charges and electron dots as needed on each ion. To add a charge, click the or button, then click on an atom and type the desired charge.
Hint 1. Determine the number of valence electrons in the nonmetal ions

Nonmetals gain electrons to achieve noble-gas configuration.
How many valence electrons are in a stable nonmetal ion?
ANSWER:
Hint 2. Determine the number of electrons gained by the nonmetal atoms
How many electrons must an atom of As, Se , and Br gain, respectively, to have a total of eight valence electrons?
Express your answer as three integers separated by commas (e.g., 3,1,4).
ANSWER:
3,2,1
Hint 3. Determine the number of valence electrons in the metal ions

Metals lose electrons to achieve noble-gas configuration.
If the valence shell is considered to be n = 4, how many valence electrons are in a stable ion of a period 4 metal?
ANSWER:
Hint 4. Determine the number of electrons lost by the metal atoms
How many electrons must an atom of K, Ca, and Ga lose, respectively, to have zero valence electrons in the n = 4 shell?
Express your answer as three integers separated by commas (e.g., 3,1,4).
ANSWER:
1,2,3
ANSWER:
          

 As
3-
Se
2-
Br
-


 K
+
Ca
2+
Ga
3+



Correct
Once all the valence electrons have been removed from an atom to form a positive ion, one could reasonably consider the previous shell to be the valence shell. However, for the
purposes of ionic Lewis structures, the original valence shell designation is maintained because it allows for better tracking of electrons.
Part C
Balance the following ionic Lewis structures by placing the appropriate coefficients. Leave a target blank to indicate the absence of a coefficient.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.
Hint 1. Balance the charges in an example compound
How many Y2− anions are needed to balance the charge on one X+6 cation?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Reset Help
3 3 2
2
2 2 3
3
2 3
Correct
In general, when writing a Lewis structure for an ionic compound given a nonmetal and a metal, start by determining how many electrons the nonmetal must gain and how many
electrons the metal must lose to form complete octets. Use this information to determine the charge on each ion. Finally, balance the charges of the positive and negative ions.
Introduction to Resonance
Learning Goal:
To understand what resonance means and when it occurs.
−
Three resonance structures can be drawn for NO3 (see the figure) because it is possible to have the double bond on any of the three oxygen atoms.
−
Here the total number of valence electrons in NO3 is 24 (5 valence electrons from nitrogen, 18 electrons from 3 oxygen atoms, and 1 electron
from the single negative charge present in the molecule). All these resonance structures have 24 valence electrons.
Which one is correct? Experiments show that all three bonds in nitrate have the same length. This indicates that the electrons of the double bond
have become delocalized, or spread out over all three oxygen atoms. Therefore, each oxygen atom forms one and one-third bonds. The actual
structure is an average of all three resonance structures, as shown in the second figure.
Part A
Which choice represents a pair of resonance structures?
Hint 1. Definition of resonance

For resonance structures, the atoms and the positions of those atoms are the same, but the positions of the electrons are different.
ANSWER:
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
H−H and : I − I :
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
: N = N = O : and : N ≡ N− O :
⋅⋅
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⋅
N≡ C− Cl : and C ≡ N − Cl :
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
N≡ C− S −H and N ≡ C− S : −
⋅⋅ ⋅⋅
Correct
Part B
How many resonance structures can be drawn for ozone, O3 ?
Express your answer numerically as an integer
Hint 1. Count the total valence electrons

How many valence electrons does one molecule of ozone have?
ANSWER:
18
Hint 2. Identify the resonance forms of ozone
Which of the following Lewis dot structures is a possible resonance structure for ozone, O3 ?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
The two possible resonance structures for ozone are
The two structures are equivalent and the actual structure is an average of both the resonance structures:
Part C
Which statement best describes an O3 molecule?
Hint 1. What delocalization means

When multiple structures are possible, the molecule actually exists as an average of all its resonance structures. Electrons become delocalized, so that they are spread out throughout the
molecule.
For example, the two resonance structures for the formate ion, HCO2 − , are
But the actual structure is an average of both resonance structures, and the bond between the C and O is neither a single bond nor a double bond but is midway between a single bond
and a double bond. The actual structure is written as follows:
ANSWER:
Each atom in ozone is connected to another atom by a bond having a bond order of 1.5.
The double bond in ozone switches back and forth between the two outer oxygen atoms.
An ozone molecule contains one single bond and one double bond.
Correct
Scientists previously believed that a molecule such as ozone switched rapidly back and forth between its different resonance forms. More recent experiments have shown that the
molecule actually assumes the average of all the resonance forms, with the electrons delocalized over all three oxygen atoms as shown in the following diagram.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Hydrogen, beryllium, and boron are examples of elements that can have less than an octet of electrons in a covalent compound. Even without an octet, hydrogen achieves the helium configuration,
and therefore noble-gas stability, by forming one covalent bond. Beryllium and boron simply do not have enough electrons to form the number of bonds needed to achieve an octet. Instead, Be uses
its two valence electrons to form two bonds, and B uses its three valence electrons to form three bonds. None of these elements will have any lone pairs.
Elements in the third row of the periodic table and beyond can have more than an octet of electrons in a covalent compound. This can be explained by the existence of an empty d subshell available to
these elements, which allows them to expand their valence to a number greater than eight.
Part A
How many lone pairs are on the central atom in BCl3 ?
Hint 1. What is the valence of boron?

How many valence electrons are in an atom of boron?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
In neutral covalent compounds, boron typically has three bonds and no lone pairs. Therefore it has only six electrons around it (not eight), which is why it is an exception to the octet rule.
Part B
How many lone pairs are on the central atom of BrF3 ?
Hint 1. Determine the valence of bromine

How many valence electrons are in an atom of bromine, Br?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
In this compound, Br has a total of ten electrons around it (not eight), which is why it is an exception to the octet rule.
Part C
The hydrogen atom is not actually electronegative enough to form bonds to xenon. Were the xenon-hydrogen bond to exist, what would be the structure of XeH4 ?
Double-click any atom and type Xe to change the label.

Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Show all lone pairs of electrons.
Hint 1. Determine total valence

How many total valence electrons should be shown in this structure?
ANSWER:
12
ANSWER:
          




 H
H
Xe
H
H



Correct
In this compound, Xe has a total of twelve electrons around it (not eight), which is why it is an exception to the octet rule. Hydrogen is also an exception because is it stable with only two
electrons rather than eight.
VSEPR
According to valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, electron pairs around a central atom repel each other. This accounts for the geometries, or shapes, of molecules. For example,
CH4 is tetrahedral, with all four outer hydrogen atoms spaced 109.5∘ from each other, as shown here. This geometry results from the fact that the bonding electron pairs
repel each other equally and therefore remain as far apart as possible.
NH3 , with three outer atoms and one lone pair, also has a tetrahedral electronic geometry. However, the bond angles in NH3 are only 107∘ . This indicates that the
magnitude of repulsion between a lone pair and a bonded pair of electrons must be different from the magnitude of repulsion between two
bonded pairs of electrons.
H2 O , with two outer atoms and two lone pairs, also has a tetrahedral electronic geometry. However, the bond angles in H2 O are only
105∘ . This indicates that the magnitude of repulsion between two lone pairs must be be different from the
magnitude of repulsion between a lone pair and a bonded pair of electrons.
If BP stands for a bonded pair of electrons and LP stands for a lone pair of electrons, then BP-BP represents the repulsion between two bonded pairs, LP-LP represents the repulsion between two lone
pairs, and BP-LP represents the repulsion between a bonded pair and a lone pair of electrons.
Part A
Based on the bond angles in CH4 , NH3 , and H2 O , rank the magnitude of these repulsions.
Rank from strongest to weakest repulsion. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
Hint 1. Identify the trend in bond angle

ANSWER:
have no effect on bond angle.
As we move from methane to ammonia to water, the addition of each lone pair appears to pull the bonds apart.
push the bonds together.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
LP-LP BP-LP BP-BP
Correct
Bond Angles
Electron Electron Bond

groups geometry angles
2 linear 180∘
3 trigonal planar 120∘
4 tetrahedral 109.5∘
5 trigonal bipyramidal
90∘ , 120∘ , and
180∘
6 octahedral 90∘ and 180∘
Part A
What is the value of the bond angles in CCl4 ?
Enter the bond angle of the molecule.

To determine the bond angles you must first determine the number of electron groups around the central atom in the molecule. The number of electron groups or steric number represents
the electrons around an atom and this includes the bonding pairs as well as the nonbonding pairs of electrons. Each nonbonding pair of electrons, single bond, or multiple bond counts as
one electron group.
For example, the central nitrogen atom in NH3 (with 8 valence electrons = 3 × 1 + 5) has four electron groups (one nonbonding electron pair and three single bonds):
Based on the number of electron groups around the central atom you can identify the electron geometry. The electron geometry can then be used to determine the bond angles.
Hint 2. Determine the number of lone pairs on carbon
How many lone pairs should appear on the central C atom in the Lewis structure of CCl4 ?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Determine the electron groups around the central atom in CCl4
How many electron groups are there around the central atom in CCl4 ?
ANSWER:
Hint 4. Determine the electron geometry

What is the electron geometry of this molecule?
ANSWER:
square planar
linear
trigonal planar
trigonal pyramidal
octahedral
trigonal bipyramidal
tetrahedral
ANSWER:
degrees
109.5
Correct
For the molecules in which there are no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom the electron geometry is the same as the molecular geometry. The molecular geometry of a molecule
describes the three-dimensional shape of just the atoms.
Part B
What is the value of the smallest bond angle in XeCl4 ?
Enter the smallest bond angle of the molecule.

one electron group.
−
For example, the central nitrogen atom in NO3 (with 24 valence electrons = 3 × 6 + 5 + 1) has three electron groups (zero nonbonding electron pairs and three bonding pairs):
Hint 2. Determine the number of lone pairs on xenon
How many lone pairs should appear on the central Xe atom in the Lewis structure of XeCl4 ?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Determine the electron groups around the central atom in XeCl4
How many electron groups are there around the central atom in XeCl4 ?
ANSWER:

ANSWER:
square planar
linear
seesaw
tetrahedral
trigonal planar
octahedral
bent
ANSWER:
degrees
90
Correct
For the molecules in which there are two lone pairs of electrons on the central atom the electron geometry is different than the molecular geometry. The molecular geometry of a
molecule describes the three-dimensional shape of just the atoms.
Part C
What is the value of the bond angles in BF3 ?

one electron group.
For example, the central carbon atom in CO2 (with 16 valence electrons = 6 × 2 + 4) has two electron groups (zero nonbonding electron pairs and two double bonds):
Hint 2. Determine the number of lone pairs on boron

How many lone pairs should appear on the central B atom in the Lewis structure of BF3 ?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Determine the electron groups around the central atom in BF3
How many electron groups are there around the central atom in BF3 ?
ANSWER:

ANSWER:
trigonal planar
octahedral
tetrahedral
trigonal pyramidal
linear
bent
ANSWER:
degrees
120
Correct
For the molecules in which there are no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom the electron geometry is the same as the molecular geometry. The molecular geometry of a molecule
describes the three-dimensional shape of just the atoms.
Part D
What is the value of the bond angle in XeCl2 ?

one electron group.
−
For example, the central nitrogen atom in NO3 (with 24 valence electrons = 3 × 6 + 5 + 1) has three electron groups (zero nonbonding electron pairs and three bonding pairs):
Hint 2. Determine the number of lone pairs on xenon
How many lone pairs should appear on the central Xe atom in the Lewis structure of XeCl2 ?
ANSWER:
Hint 3. Determine the electron groups around the central atom in XeCl2
How many electron groups are there around the central atom in XeCl2 ?
ANSWER:

ANSWER:
linear
bent
trigonal planar
trigonal pyramidal
tetrahedral
octahedral
Hint 5. Determine the molecular geometry

What is the molecular geometry of this molecule?
ANSWER:
octahedral
t-shaped
tetrahedral
trigonal planar
linear
trigonal pyramidal
seesaw
bent
ANSWER:
degrees
180
Correct
For the molecules in which there are three lone pairs of electrons on the central atom the electron geometry is different than the molecular geometry. The molecular geometry of a
molecule describes the three-dimensional shape of just the atoms.
Interactive Activity—Formal Charge and Molecular Stability
Analyzing the diagram

Click on the image to explore this activity showing formal charge calculation examples.
For certain molecules such as CS2 , there is more than one isomer possible. For each isomer, a Lewis structure can be drawn and the formal charge on each atom can be calculated. You can use the
formal charges to determine the most stable structure for a molecule. As a rule, the Lewis structure with the lowest formal charge on each atom and which places the negative charge on the most
electronegative atom is generally the most stable structure.
The formal charge on an atom is calculated using the following formula:
formal charge = (number of valence electrons in a free atom) − [(number of non-bonding electrons on the atom) + ( 12 × number of bonding electrons)]
CS2 as shown in the interactive activity has two isomers. In one structure carbon is the central atom, and in the other sulfur is the central atom. In the first structure, the formal charges on the S, C,
and S atoms are 0, 0, and 0, respectively. In the second structure, the formal charges on the C, S, and S atoms are −2, +2, and 0 respectively. In the second structure, it is not possible to create a
resonance structure that has formal charges of zero on each atom. It is unlikely that sulfur is the central atom in this molecule.
Part A
The Lewis structure for the chlorate ion is
Calculate the formal charge on the chlorine (Cl ) atom.


To calculate the formal charge of a given atom you need to know the following:
1. The number of valence electrons in a free chlorine atom. This can be determined from group number in the periodic table to which it belongs.
2. The number of lone-pair electrons on the chlorine atom (nonbonding electrons). The lone pair is indicated on the symbol of the element in the Lewis structure. Each dot
represents a single electron and a lone pair counts as two electrons.
3. The number of electrons involved in the bonds to the chlorine atom (bonding electrons). Each bond counts as two bonding electrons.
The formal charge on an atom in a molecule can be calculated as
Hint 2. Identify the number of valence electrons for the free chlorine (Cl ) atom
Identify the number of valence electrons for the free chlorine (Cl ) atom. You can make use of the periodic table to determine the valence electrons for the element chlorine.
Hint 1. How to determine the number of valence electrons

The number of valence electrons for main-group elements can be determined from their group number in the periodic table. For the s-block elements, the number of valence
electrons is equal to the group number and for the p-block elements, the number of valence electrons is equal to the group number minus 10. For example, lithium (Li), an s-block
element, placed in group 1 of the periodic table, has one valence electron. Similarly, boron (B ), a p-block element, placed in group 13 of the periodic table, has 13 − 10 = 3
valence electrons.
ANSWER:
valence electrons = 7
Hint 3. Identify the number of lone-pair electrons on the chlorine (Cl ) atom
In a Lewis structure, an electron is represented as a dot around the symbol of the element. Consider that one lone pair is indicated by two electrons.
Identify the number of lone-pair electrons (nonbonding electrons) on the chlorine (Cl ) atom in the chlorate ion:

ANSWER:
lone-pair electrons (nonbonding electrons) = 2
Hint 4. Calculate the number of bonding electrons on the chlorine (Cl ) atom
In a Lewis structure, each bond counts as two bonding electrons. For example, if Cl and O are bonded by a single bond, the number of bonding electrons that Cl will have is two. Count
the total number of bonds that Cl forms in the chlorate ion and determine the number of bonding electrons on the chlorine atom.
ANSWER:
bonding electrons = 10
ANSWER:
formal charge on Cl =
0
Correct
The formal charge is
(number of valence electrons in a free atom) − [(number of non-bonding electrons on the atom) + ( 12 × number of bonding electrons)]
Since
number of valence electrons = 7

and
number of lone-pair electrons = 2

and
number of bonding electrons = 10

then
1
formal charge = 7 − [2 + 2
× 10] = 0
Part B
Calculate the formal charge on each of the oxygen (O) atoms labeled a , b, and c in the following Lewis structure.
Express your answers as integers separated by commas.
Hint 1. How to calculate the formal charge

To calculate the formal charge of a given oxygen atom you need to know the following:
1. The number of valence electrons in a free oxygen atom. This can be determined from the group number in the periodic table to which it belongs.
2. The number of lone-pair electrons on the oxygen atom (nonbonding electrons). The lone pair is indicated on the symbol of the element in the Lewis structure. Each dot
represents a single electron and one lone pair counts as two electrons.
3. The number of electrons involved in the bonds to the oxygen atom (bonding electrons). Each bond counts as two bonding electrons.
The formal charge on the oxygen atom in the molecule can be calculated as
Hint 2. Calculate the formal charge on Oa
What will be the formal charge on the oxygen, Oa ?

To calculate the formal charge on the Oa atom in the given molecule, first determine the number of valence electrons in the free oxygen atom. You can make use of the periodic
table to determine the valence for the element oxygen. Then determine the number of lone-pair electrons and the number of bonding electrons on the Oa atom in the given
molecule.
The lone-pair electrons and the bonding electrons of the Oa atom can be determined from the Lewis structure of the given molecule.
For example, consider the oxygen atom in the water, H2 O , molecule:
Each dot in the Lewis structure represents an electron and each bond counts as two electrons. Therefore, the oxygen atom has four lone-pair electrons and four bonding electrons in
water.
Hint 2. Determine the number of valence electrons on the oxygen (O) atom
You can use the periodic table to determine the valence electrons for the element oxygen.
How many valence electrons are on the free oxygen (O) atom?
Hint 1. How to determine the number of valence electrons

The number of valence electrons for main-group elements can be determined from their group number in the periodic table. For the s-block elements, the number of valence
electrons is equal to the group number, and for the p-block elements, the number of valence electrons is equal to the group number minus 10. For example, lithium (Li), an
s-block element, placed in group 1 of the periodic table, has one valence electron. Similarly, boron (B ), a p-block element, placed in group 13 of the periodic table, has
13 − 10 = 3 valence electrons.
ANSWER:
valence electrons = 6
Hint 3. Determine the number of lone-pair electrons on the oxygen atom

In a Lewis structure, an electron is represented as a dot around the symbol of the element. Consider that one lone pair is indicated by two electrons.
What is the number of lone-pair electrons (nonbonding electrons) on the oxygen atom labeled Oa in the following Lewis structure?

ANSWER:
lone-pair electrons (nonbonding electrons) = 4
Hint 4. Determine the number of bonding electrons on the oxygen atom
In a Lewis structure, each bond counts as two bonding electrons. For example, if Cl and O are bonded by a single bond, the number of bonding electrons that O will have is 2.
Count the total number of bonds that Oa forms in the chlorate ion and determine the number of bonding electrons on the oxygen (Oa ) atom.

ANSWER:
bonding electrons = 4
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
formal charge on Oa , Ob , Oc =
0,0,-1
Correct
The formal charge on Oa and Ob is 0 since Oa and Ob both form double bonds with the chlorine atom. Their formal charge is calculated as
= [6 − 4 − ( 12 × 4)] = 0
Oc , however, forms one single bond with the chlorine atom. Its formal charge is calculated as follows:
= [6 − 6 − ( 12 × 2)] = −1
Formal charges to predict the most stable structure

The interactive activity shows how to calculate the formal charge of atoms in a structure. These formal charges can be used to predict the resonance structure that contributes most to the stability of a
molecule or ion. The structure with the lowest formal charge on each atom and which places the negative charge on the most electronegative atom is generally the most stable.
Part C
What are the formal charges on the sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms, respectively, in the resonance structure that contributes most to the stability of the thiocyanate ion, SCN− ?
The possible resonance structures for the thiocyanate ion, SCN− , are
Structure A Structure B Structure C
You can use the following steps to determine the formal charge on the most stable structure for the thiocyanate ion, SCN− .
1. Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in each structure.
2. The structure with the lowest formal charge on each atom and the most electronegative atom carrying a negative formal charge is the most stable structure.
Hint 2. Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure A
Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure A.
Structure A

ANSWER:
formal charges on the sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure A =
0,0,-1
Hint 3. Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure B
Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure B.
Structure B

ANSWER:
formal charges on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure B =
-1,0,0
Hint 4. Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure C
Calculate the formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure C.
Structure C

ANSWER:
formal charges on sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N ) atoms in structure C =
1,0,-2
Hint 5. Identify the atom that is most electronegative

Electronegativity increases as we move across a row in the periodic table and decreases as we move down the column. Based on these periodic trends in electronegativity, identify the
most electronegative atom in the thiocyanate ion, SCN− .
ANSWER:
C
N
S
Hint 6. Identify the most stable resonance structure

The resonance structure with the smallest formal charge distribution is the structure in which most of the atoms bear formal charges closest to zero. This structure is considered to be the
most stable resonance structure. However, if there is more than one structure that has the smallest formal charge distribution, the most stable structure is the one in which the most
electronegative atom carries a negative charge. Which resonance structure is most stable?
ANSWER:
Structure A,
Structure B,
Structure C,
ANSWER:
formal charge on sulfur (S), carbon (C) and nitrogen (N ) atoms =

0,0,-1
Correct
Score Summary:
6.2 Molecules 2: VSEPR - Orbitals - Bands
Bond Polarity
In a covalent bond between two atoms, the more electronegative atom will attract more electron density toward itself, causing a polar bond. The more electronegative element is
the negative pole, whereas the less electronegative element is the positive pole. The direction of the dipole is always toward the more electronegative element. This is often
indicated by an arrow, as shown in the figure. The magnitude of the bond polarity is the difference in electronegativity
values of the atoms. For example, in the molecule Cl2 , the Cl−Cl bond is nonpolar because there is no difference in
electronegativity between two atoms of the same element. In the ClBr molecule, however, the Cl−Br bond is polar
because Cl and Br have different electronegativity values. A Cl−I bond would be more polar than a Cl−Br bond
because there is a greater electronegativity difference between Cl and I than between Cl and Br.
Part A
In the molecule HCl , which atom is the negative pole?

The negative pole of a polar bond is always the more electronegative element. Based on their positions in the periodic table, you can determine the relative polarities of
Cl and H without knowing the exact values.
ANSWER:
Cl
H
Correct
Part B
Of the molecules HF and HCl , which has bonds that are more polar?

The magnitude of bond polarity depends on the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved in the bond. Based on their positions in the periodic table,
you can determine relative electronegativities of H , F, and Cl without actually knowing the exact values.
Hint 2. Determine the electronegativity differences

Based on their locations in the periodic table, which two atoms have the greatest difference in electronegativity?
ANSWER:
Electronegativity tends decrease from top to bottom of a column in the periodic table. Thus H and F have the greatest difference in electronegativity.
Electronegativity tends decrease from top to bottom of a column in the periodic table. Thus H and Cl have the greatest difference in electronegativity.
Electronegativity tends increase from top to bottom of a column in the periodic table. Thus H and F have the greatest difference in electronegativity.
Electronegativity tends increase from top to bottom of a column in the periodic table. Thus H and Cl have the greatest difference in electronegativity.
ANSWER:
7.1 Intermolecular Forces 1
Due: 11:59pm on Tuesday, November 28, 2023
Covalent, Polar Covalent, and Ionic Bonds
Learning Goal:
To use electronegativity or metal versus nonmetal classifications to distinguish covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonds.
When two bonded atoms attract electrons with equal strength, the result is a nonpolar covalent bond. A polar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are unequally shared between
the atoms. An ionic bond results when the sharing is so unequal that fully charged ions form. Electronegativity difference can be used to predict bond type. If electronegativities differ by
more than 2 units, the bond is substantially ionic; if they differ by less than 2 units, the bond is polar covalent; and if the values are equal, the bond is nonpolar covalent.
If you are not given electronegativity values, you can still predict the bond type using the periodic table. Metals have low electronegativity compared to nonmetals. So in general, we can
predict that any metal–nonmetal combination will be ionic and any nonmetal–nonmetal combination will be covalent. If electronegativity values aren't given, you should assume that a
covalent bond is polar unless it is between two atoms of the same element.
Part A
Consider the following element combinations. Classify the bonds formed between each pair as ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent qualitatively based solely on each element's
position on the periodic table. Do not conduct calculations.

Bond type depends on the atoms' relative attraction for electrons. Therefore
• a metal–nonmetal bond tends to be ionic,

• a nonmetal–nonmetal bond tends to be covalent, and
• a covalent bond between atoms of the same element is nonpolar.
Use the periodic table to classify each element in the bonds given. Recall that nonmetals are mostly in the upper right corner of the periodic table.
Hint 2. Classify elements as metal or nonmetals
Classify each of the following elements as metal or nonmetal.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
N I S F O Cl
Na Fe Cu
P Br
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Cu and Cl
S and F O and F Br and Br
Fe and O
P and I O and O
Na and N
Correct
Using the elements' positions on the periodic table is only a general tool to predict probable bond type. A more exact prediction of bond type can be made using
electronegativity values.
Part B
Classify the bonds formed between each pair of elements based on electronegativity values in the following table:
Element Sc Be H P S I Br Cl O F
Electronegativity 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.1 2.5 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.5 4.0
Hint 1. Electronegativity and bond type

The difference in electronegativity between the two elements in a bond can be used to predict bond type. As a general rule,
• if the difference is 0 to 0.4, the bond is nonpolar covalent,
• if the difference is greater than 2.0, the bond is substantially ionic, and
• if the difference is greater than 0.4 but less than 2.0, the bond is polar covalent.
Hint 2. Solve an example problem

Two hypothetical elements X and Z form a bond. If the electronegativity of X is 0.5 and that of Z is 3.0, what type of bond will form between X and Z?
ANSWER:
ionic
polar covalent
nonpolar covalent
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Be and F Be and Cl
H and P S and I
Sc and O H and Br S and O
Correct
Beryllium, Be, is an element that can form covalent compounds even though it is a metal. BeCl2 is a common example of a metal-nonmetal combination that is covalent
rather than ionic. Using electronegativity values rather than just position on the periodic table is a more exact method of predicting bond type.
Part C
Ionic compounds are formed from ionic bonds, whereby an electron is transferred from the metal cation to the nonmetal anion. Ions form solid lattices of ions. Covalent compounds
form solids through the attraction of two covalent molecules. Since the attraction between two covalent molecules is weak compared to the ionic bonds holding an ionic compound
together, ionic compounds tend to have higher melting points.
Which of the following compounds has the highest boiling point?

Classify the bond in each compound as ionic or covalent. You can use either method (metal versus nonmetal classifications or electronegativity differences) to do this. The
electronegativity values are listed here:
Element Electronegativity
Na 0.9
H 2.1
Cl 3.0
F 4.0
Once you know the type of bond (and therefore the type of compound), you can relate this to the boiling point. Recall that more charge separation leads to greater attraction
within a substance as a whole. The greater the attraction, the harder it is for atoms or molecules to be released into the gas phase.
ANSWER:
F2
NaF
HF
ClF
Correct
Bond Dissociation Energies
In chemical reactions, heat is converted into chemical energy (the potential energy stored in chemical bonds) or vice versa. Thus, enthalpy change for a reaction can be approximated
from
ΔH ∘ = D(reactants) − D(products)
where D represents bond dissociation energies of the reactants and products, respectively.
The table below contains the bond dissociation energies for common bonds. The information can be used to calculate the energy needed to break all the bonds in a given molecule.
Dissociation energy
Bond
(kJ/mol )
C−C 350
C=C 611
C−H 410
C−O 350
C=O 732
O−O 180
O=O 498
H−O 460
Due to the variation in literature values of thermodynamic quantities:
1. Assume that these values sufficiently represent the bonds in the compounds involved in the following questions
2. Be sure that you use the values given in the table in the introduction for your calculations in this item.
Part A
Calculate the bond dissociation energy for the breaking of all the bonds in a mole of methane, CH4 .
Hint 1. Draw the Lewis structure of methane
Draw the Lewis structure of methane, CH4 .

Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds.
ANSWER:
          


 H
 H C H

H



ANSWER:
DCH4 = 1652 kJ
mol
Correct
Part B
What is the bond dissociation energy for breaking all the bonds in a mole of O2 molecules?
Hint 1. Draw the Lewis structure of O2
Draw the Lewis structure of O2 .

Draw the molecule by placing atoms on the grid and connecting them with bonds. Include all lone pairs of electrons.
ANSWER:
          



 O O




ANSWER:
DO2 = 495 kJ
mol
Correct
Part C
Calculate the bond dissociation energy required for breaking all the bonds in a mole of water molecules, H2 O .
Hint 1. Draw the Lewis structure of water
Draw the lewis structure of water, H2 O .

ANSWER:
          




 H O H



ANSWER:
DH2 O = 920 kJ
mol
Correct
The bond dissociation energy to break all the bonds is positive, therefore the enthalpy change associated with forming a mole of water is −920 kJ. This is why
D(products) is negative in the equation.
Part D
Calculate the bond dissociation energy needed to break all the bonds in a mole of carbon dioxide, CO2 .
Hint 1. Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide

Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide.
ANSWER:
          



 O C O




ANSWER:
DCO2 = 1464 kJ
mol
Correct
The bond dissociation energy to break all the bonds is positive, therefore the enthalpy change associated with forming a mole of carbon dioxide is a negative value. This is
why D(products) is negative in the equation.
Part E
Calculate the approximate enthalpy change , ΔH ∘ , for the combustion of methane:
CH4 + 2O2 ⇌ 2H2 O + CO2

Use the values you calculated in Parts A to D, keeping in mind the stoichiometric coefficients.

The enthalpy of a reaction is calculated by subtracting the total bond dissociation energy of the products from that of the reactants:
ΔH ∘ = D(reactants) − D(products)
ANSWER:
ΔH ∘ = -668 kJ
Correct
The ΔH of any reaction can be approximated by using the dissociation energies of the bonds broken and formed. The calculated enthalpy value is not always exact, but it
is usually pretty close to the exact value, which can be obtained through calorimetry.
Intermolecular Forces
In the liquid and solid states, molecules are held together by attractions called intermolecular forces. There are several types of intermolecular forces.
• London dispersion forces, found in all substances, result from the motion of electrons. These work to attract both polar and nonpolar molecules to one another via
instantaneous dipole moments.
• Dipole-dipole forces arise from molecular dipole moments.
• Ion-dipole forces result from the interaction of an ion and a molecular dipole.
• Hydrogen-bond forces result from the attraction of a hydrogen atom bonded to a small highly electronegative atom (N , O, and F) and the unshared electron pairs of another
electronegative atom
Physical properties such as boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure, viscosity, and surface tension are all affected by the strength of the intermolecular forces within a substance.
Part A
What happens to these physical properties as the strength of intermolecular forces increases?
Hint 1. Definitions of the properties
• The melting point is the temperature at which the solid becomes a liquid.
• The boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid becomes a gas.
• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the gas phase in equilibrium with the liquid. It is often convenient to think of vapor pressure as a measure of how
quickly a liquid evaporates.
• Surface tension is a liquid's resistance to spread out and increase its surface area.
• Viscosity is a liquid's resistance to flow. For example, honey is more viscous than water.
Hint 2. How do intermolecular forces affect vapor pressure?

ANSWER:
more
Strong intermolecular forces lead to evaporation.
less
Hint 3. How do intermolecular forces affect surface tension and viscosity?

ANSWER:
higher
Strong intermolecular forces lead to surface tension and viscosity.
lower
Hint 4. How do intermolecular forces affect the melting and boiling points?
ANSWER:
easier
Strong intermolecular forces make a substance to melt or boil.
more difficult
ANSWER:
Reset Help
melting point boiling point viscosity surface tension vapor pressure
Correct
Part B
Rank the following types of intermolecular forces in general order of decreasing strength (strongest to weakest).
Rank from strongest to weakest. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
Hint 1. Nature of intermolecular forces

All intermolecular forces are electrostatic, which means that they depend on electrical charges.
• London dispersion forces involve temporary partial charge.

• Dipoles have a permanent partial charge.
• Hydrogen (H ) bonding is an especially strong dipole force.
• Ions have a permanent full charge.
Consider that greater charges lead to stronger attraction between molecules or ions.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
ion-dipole hydrogen bonding dipole-dipole London dispersion
Correct
Part C
Identify the predominant type of intermolecular force in each of the following compounds.

The type of intermolecular force depends on polarity, which in turn depends on molecular shape.
Clouds Outer atoms Lone pairs Shape
2 2 0 linear
3 3 0 trigonal planar
3 2 1 bent
4 4 0 tetrahedral
4 3 1 trigonal pyramidal
4 2 2 bent
5 5 0 trigonal bipyramidal
5 4 1 seesaw
5 3 2 T-shaped
6 6 0 octahedral
6 5 1 square pyramidal
6 4 2 square planar
Polar bonds in symmetrical molecules cancel out to give no net dipole. A molecule is polar if the polar bonds do not cancel.
Hint 2. Describe HF
Describe the H−F bond and the HF molecule.
ANSWER:
polar bond, nonpolar molecule
polar bond, polar molecule
nonpolar bond, nonpolar molecule
nonpolar bond, polar molecule
Hint 3. Draw OF2
Construct the electron-dot formula for OF2 .

ANSWER:
          




 F O F



Hint 4. Draw CF4
Construct the electron-dot formula for CF4 .

ANSWER:
          



 F
 F C F



Hint 5. Compare CF4 and CHF3
What happens when one of the F atoms in CF4 is replaced with an H atom, resulting in CHF3 ?
ANSWER:
The polar bonds no longer cancel.
Nothing changes. The polar bonds still cancel.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
CF4 CHF3 OF2 HF
Correct
Part D
Place these hydrocarbons in order of decreasing boiling point.
Compound Structure
propane CH3 CH2 CH3
heptane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH3
| |
2,2,3-trimethylbutane CH3 − C − CH − CH3
|
CH3
heptadecane CH3 (CH2 )15 CH3
paraffin CH3 (CH2 )23 CH3
Rank from highest to lowest boiling point. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.

London dispersion forces work over small distances and are additive, meaning that more interactions between the two molecules increase the strength of the attraction
between the molecules. In other words, bigger molecules tend to have more surface area for interactions. To solve this problem, consider which molecules are likely both to
have the possibility of numerous interactions and to come into close proximity with one another.
Hint 2. Identify the compound with the lowest boiling point

The nonpolar compound with the least number of possible London dispersion force interactions will have the least internal cohesion and will thus be the most volatile.
According to this logic, which compound of the ones listed must have the lowest boiling point?
ANSWER:
2,2,3-trimethylbutane
heptane
paraffin
heptadecane
propane
Hint 3. Compare the isomers

When predicting the effect of London forces on compounds with identical chemical formulas, keep in mind that molecules that are shaped to make close interactions more
likely will have more internal cohesion from London forces. This is because London forces are highly sensitive to distance. Thus, compounds consisting of long and linearly
shaped molecules are more cohesive than compounds consisting of short, oddly shaped ones.
Which isomer, heptane or 2,2,3-trimethylbutane, is predicted to have a lower boiling point as a result of London dispersion forces?
ANSWER:
2,2,3-trimethylbutane (branched chain)
heptane (straight chain)
Hint 4. Identify the compound with the highest boiling point

Which of the compounds listed has the highest boiling point, as predicted by London dispersion forces?
ANSWER:
propane
2,2,3-trimethylbutane
heptane
paraffin
heptadecane
ANSWER:
Reset Help
paraffin, C25 H52 heptadecane, C17 H36 heptane, C7 H16 2,2,3-trimethylbutane, C7 H16 propane, C3 H8
Correct
Part E
Rank the following compounds in order of decreasing vapor pressure.
Rank from highest to lowest vapor pressure. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
Hint 1. How to analyze the structures

Weak intermolecular forces lead to high vapor pressure. Begin by determining the type of intermolecular forces found in each of the compounds. To do this, you will need to
analyze the structures.
One aspect in which these compounds differ is the length of the carbon chain. Condensed structural formulas, as given in the problem, indicate the bonding arrangement of
the atoms. All atoms following a carbon are bonded to that carbon. When an OH is present, the hydrogen atom is bonded to the oxygen atom. For example, in CH3 CH2 OH ,
three H atoms are bonded to the first carbon, and two H atoms and one O atom are bonded to the second carbon. The last H atom is bonded to the O atom. The structural
formula for this compound would be
H H
| |
H− C − C −O−H
| |
H H
In formulas containing hydrocarbon chains such as the CH3 CH2 , the geometry and electronegativities make these chains nonpolar with only dispersion forces. The OH end
contains H bonded to O, which is very polar with hydrogen-bond forces. Use the condensed structural formulas in this way to look for the type of forces present.
Hint 2. Identify the type of intermolecular forces present in each compound

Categorize the compounds, based on types of intermolecular forces.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 C H 3
CH4 |
CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH
CH 3 CH 2 C H 2 CH 2 CH 3
Hint 3. Examine the compounds for strength of dispersion forces

Dispersion forces get stronger as the number of electrons in a species increases and as the ability of the species to interact with its neighbor increases. The number of atoms
shown in a formula or the molar mass indicates the number of electrons. More atoms or a higher molar mass identifies a substance with stronger dispersion forces. The
branching of the carbon chain indicates the relative ability of neighboring molecules to interact. The less branching, the more atoms on each chain that can come in contact
with each other.
Arrange the following compounds in order of decreasing strength of London dispersion forces.
Rank the compounds from strongest to weakest dispersion forces. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
CH3 CHCH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 | CH4
CH3
ANSWER:
Reset Help
CH3 CHCH2 CH3

CH4 | CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH
CH3
Correct
Intermolecular Forces in Liquids
Learning Goal:
To recognize what intermolecular forces are present in a given compound and which of those forces is predominant.
Chemists use the term intermolecular forces to describe the attractions between two or more molecules.
Dipole-dipole forces result from the attraction of the positive end of one polar molecule to the negative end of another polar molecule. Compounds consisting of atoms with different
electronegativities may have a dipole moment, or partial charge, caused by an asymmetry of electrons.
Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole force that occurs when hydrogen is attached to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. Water is an example of a substance in which
hydrogen bonding occurs. Because of oxygen's high electronegativity and the electron deficiency of the hydrogen atom, the hydrogen atoms are attracted to the lone pairs of electrons on
the oxygen of another water molecule.
All substances have dispersion forces, also known as London forces. These forces are very weak and are only important in the absence of any other intermolecular force. Nonpolar
covalent molecules and single-atom molecules are examples of substances that lack all other intermolecular forces except for dispersion. Dispersion forces result from shifting electron
clouds, which can cause a weak, temporary dipole.
Part A
What is the predominant intermolecular force in the liquid state of each of these compounds: water (H2 O ), carbon tetrafluoride (CF4 ), and methyl chloride (CH3 Cl )?
Hint 1. Identify intermolecular forces present in water
Which intermolecular forces are present in water, H2 O ?

ANSWER:
dipole-dipole forces
hydrogen bonding
dispersion forces
Hint 2. Identify intermolecular forces present in carbon tetrafluoride
Which intermolecular forces are present in carbon tetrafluoride, CF4 ?

ANSWER:
hydrogen bonding
dispersion forces
Hint 3. Identify intermolecular forces present in methyl chloride
Which intermolecular forces are present in methyl chloride, CH3 Cl ?

ANSWER:
hydrogen bonding
dispersion forces
Hint 4. Determine the relative strength of intermolecular forces

In general, arrange the intermolecular forces in decreasing order of strength.
Rank the intermolecular forces from strongest to weakest. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
hydrogen bonding dipole-dipole forces dispersion forces

ANSWER:
Reset Help
CH3 Cl H2 O CF4
Correct
Applying intermolecular forces to properties

A dipole moment tends to stabilize the liquid state of the compound as molecules align to form attractive molecular interactions. A liquid state that is more stable, that is one that is held
together by stronger dipole forces, will have a higher boiling point since it takes more energy to break these intermolecular forces.
Part B
Rank the following compounds in order of decreasing boiling point: potassium bromide (KBr ), acetylene (C2 H2 ), and chloroform (CHCl3 )
Rank from highest to lowest boiling point. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.

Consider the dipole-dipole interactions of the atoms that make up each compound. If the compound consists of atoms with different electronegativities, it will tend to have a
dipole moment. For example, ionic compounds, because they consist of ion pairs of opposite charges, have very strong dipole moments. Keep in mind that the dipole
moments created by pairs within a compound may cancel if the compound is symmetric. Compounds with stronger dipole moments tend to have higher boiling points.
Hint 2. Identify ionic compounds

Which compound is ionic?
ANSWER:
C2 H2
CHCl3
KBr
Hint 3. Identify asymmetric compounds

Which molecular compound has an asymmetric structure?
ANSWER:
CHCl3
C2 H2
Hint 4. Rank the dipole moments

The boiling point of a compound is directly related to the strength of the compound's dipole moment. Rank the following types of compounds in order of decreasing dipole
moment.
Rank from largest to smallest dipole moment. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
ionic asymmetric symmetric
ANSWER:
Reset Help
potassium bromide ( KBr ) chloroform ( CHCl3 ) acetylene ( C2 H2 )
Correct
The ionic compound KBr has the highest boiling point of the group, at 1435 ∘ C. Chloroform, CHCl3 , is asymmetric and polar, with a boiling point of 61 ∘ C. The symmetric
molecule C2 H2 has no net dipole moment. It is thus nonpolar and has a boiling point of -84 ∘ C.
Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure of a substance describes how readily molecules at the surface of the substance enter the gaseous phase. At the boiling point of a liquid, the liquid's vapor pressure is
equal to or greater than the atmospheric pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid. Since the atmospheric pressure at higher elevations is lower than at sea level, the boiling point of
water decreases as the elevation increases. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760 mm Hg. This pressure decreases by 19.8 mm Hg for every 1000-ft increase in elevation.
Elevation Pressure
0 ft 760 mmHg
1000 ft 740.2 mmHg
2000 ft 720.4 mmHg
The boiling point of water decreases 0.05∘ C for every 1 mmHg drop in atmospheric pressure.
Part A
What is the boiling point of water at an elevation of 1.50×104 ft ?

Express your answer with the appropriate units using three significant figures.
Recall that "sea level" refers to an elevation of zero. So based on the change in elevation (from 0 to 1.50×104 ft ), you can determine the decrease in atmospheric pressure.
Next, determine how much the boiling point of water is decreased at this elevation. Alternatively, you may use dimensional analysis (unit factor method) to solve this problem.
Hint 2. Unit factor method (dimensional analysis)

If you choose to solve this problem using dimensional analysis, start with the given elevation in feet, and use the following unit factors. Make sure that your units cancel:
19.8 mmHg
1000 ft
0.05∘ C
1 mmHg
Hint 3. Determine the decrease in atmospheric pressure
What is the decrease in atmospheric pressure from that at sea level at 1.50×104 ft feet?
ANSWER:
297 mmHg
Hint 4. Find the decrease in the boiling point of water.

By how much does the boiling point of water decrease?
Express your answer with the appropriate units using three significant figures.
ANSWER:
ΔT = 14.9 ∘ C
ANSWER:
T = 85.2 ∘ C
Correct
For grading purposes the answer was recorded to three significant figures, however since the boiling point of water is said to decrease by 0.05∘ C for every 1 mmHg drop
in atmospheric pressure the answer should be reported to one significant figure in literature or a paper: 90 ∘ C or 9×101 ∘ C.
± Vapor Pressure and Phase Changes
All liquids evaporate to a certain extent. The pressure exerted by the gas phase in equilibrium with the liquid is called vapor pressure, Pvap . The vapor pressure of a particular substance
is determined by the strength of the intermolecular forces. But for any given substance, the vapor pressure only changes with temperature. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation expresses
the relationship between vapor pressure and temperature:
ln P2 = ln P1 + ( )( T11 − )
ΔHvap 1
R T2
where P2 and P1 are the vapor pressures that correspond to temperatures T2 and T1 , respectively, ΔHvap is the molar heat of vaporization, and R = 8.3145 J/(mol ⋅ K) is the gas
constant.
Part A
Consider the following two substances and their vapor pressures at 298 K.
Vapor pressure
Substance
(mmHg )
A 275
B 459
Based on this information, compare the characteristics of the two substances.

Hint 1. Describe the relationship between vapor pressure and boiling point
ANSWER:
high
A high boiling point corresponds to a vapor pressure.
low
Hint 2. Describe the relationship between vapor pressure and enthalpy of vaporization
ANSWER:
high
A high ΔH value corresponds to a vapor pressure.
low
Hint 3. Describe the relationship between vapor pressure and intermolecular forces
ANSWER:
high
Weak intermolecular forces lead to a vapor pressure.
low
Hint 4. Describe the relationship between vapor pressure and phase.

ANSWER:
vapor pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure.

A substance boils when
atmospheric pressure exceeds vapor pressure.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Has a higher boiling point Is a gas at 300 mmHg
Has a higher heat of vaporization Has weaker intermolecular forces
Correct
Part B
The vapor pressure of dichloromethane, CH2 Cl2 , at 0 ∘ C is 134 mmHg . The normal boiling point of dichloromethane is 40. ∘ C. Calculate its molar heat of vaporization.
Hint 1. Determine the value of P2

For any substance, what pressure is associated with the normal boiling point?
Hint 1. How to find the pressure at the normal boiling point

The "normal" boiling point is defined at the boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure of 1 atm. Consider the corresponding pressure in millimeters of mercury
(also known as torr).
ANSWER:
P2 = 760 mmHg
Hint 2. Convert T1 to kelvins
Convert 0 ∘ C to kelvins.
ANSWER:
T1 = 273 K
Hint 3. Convert T2 to kelvins
Convert 40. ∘ C to kelvins.

ANSWER:
T2 = 313 K
Hint 4. Calculate the heat of vaporization
The Clausius-Clapeyron equation can be rearranged as follows to solve for ΔHvap :
R(ln P2 −ln P1 )
ΔHvap = 1
T1
− T1
2
Given that
• P1 = 134 mmHg,
• P2 = 760 mmHg,
• T1 = 273 K,
• T2 = 313 K, and
• R = 8.3145 J/(mol ⋅ K),
calculate the value of ΔHvap .
Hint 1. Calculate the pressure term in the numerator
Given that P2 = 760 mmHg and P1 = 134 mmHg, calculate ln P2 − ln P1 .

Express your answer numerically using four significant figures.
ANSWER:
1.735
Hint 2. Calculate the value of the denominator
Given that T1 = 273 K and T2 = 313 K, calculate T1 − 1

T2
.
1
ANSWER:
4.681×10−4 K−1
ANSWER:
ΔHvap = 3.09×104 J
mol
ANSWER:
ΔHvap = 30.9 kJ
mol
Correct
Phase Diagrams and Phase Changes

A phase diagram is a convenient means of representing the temperature and pressure dependence of a pure substance in a closed system. The typical phase diagram indicates which
phase (solid, liquid, or gas) is stable at a given temperature and pressure. Boundaries separate these phase regions. When a boundary line is crossed owing to changes in temperature
and/or pressure a phase change occurs.
Part A
Identify each of the labeled points (indicated with letters) or changes (indicated with two letters separated by an arrow) shown on the phase diagram.
Match the words in the left column to the appropriate blanks in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before submitting your answer.
Hint 1. Identify the regions of the phase diagram

High pressure and low temperature tend to favor the condensed phases whereas low pressure and high temperature tend to favor the gas state. Use the axes on the diagrams
to help identify these conditions. Then, identify which physical state is shown by each of the colored regions labeled with the letters X, Y, and Z on the phase diagram.

ANSWER:
Reset Help
Solid Liquid Gas
Hint 2. Define the specific characteristics of the phase diagram

Complete the following sentences related to phase diagrams.
Match the words in the left column to the appropriate blanks in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before submitting your answer.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The phase change from gas to liquid is called condensation .
2. The phase change from solid to gas is called sublimation .
3. The phase change from solid to liquid is called melting .
4. The phase change from liquid to solid is called freezing .
5. The phase change from gas to solid is called deposition .
6. The phase change from liquid to gas is called boiling .
7. The triple point marks the temperature and pressure at which all three phases coexist.
8. The critical point marks the temperature and pressure above which a substance is a supercritical
fluid.
ANSWER:
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1. The transition shown by the line from E to C is melting .
2. The point indicated by A is the triple point .
3. The transition shown by the line from D to C is condensation .
4. The point indicated by B is the critical point .
5. The transition shown by the line from C to D is boiling .
6. The transition shown by the line from E to F is sublimation .
7. The transition shown by the line from F to E is deposition .
8. The transition shown by the line from C to E is freezing .
Correct
Part B
The phase diagram for an organic compound is shown.
What is the normal boiling point of this compound?
Hint 1. Definition of normal boiling point

The normal boiling of a substance is the temperature required to establish liquid-vapor equilibrium at standard pressure. On a phase diagram, this point occurs where the
liquid-vapor line crosses standard pressure.
Hint 2. Identify the value of standard pressure

What is the value of standard pressure?
ANSWER:
standard pressure = 1.00 atm
ANSWER:
normal boiling point = 50 ∘ C
Correct
Introduction to the Unit Cell and Crystal Packing

Learning Goal:
To understand basic information about unit cells and how it relates to crystal packing.
Atoms and molecules generally form one of two solids: a crystal or an amorphous solid. In an amorphous solid, the spacing of the individual units (atoms or molecules) are not ordered.
Most materials can pack in both forms, depending on the rate at which they solidify. A rapid liquid-to-solid transition does not allow the atoms time to arrange themselves, and an
amorphous solid results. A slow liquid-to-solid transition generally results in the crystalline form. For example, glass is the amorphous form of silicon dioxide (SiO2 ), whereas quartz is a
crystalline form. Quartz is more dense than glass because the atoms are packed more efficiently.
Amorphous solids have a much broader melting temperature range than crystalline metals. In the crystalline solid, the atoms are all arranged in the same way. Therefore, they all require
the same amount of energy to undergo the transition from solid to liquid. In contrast, the disordered atoms in an amorphous solid will require different amounts of energy to undergo the
same transition because each atom is a different distance from its neighbor.
In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in a pattern that repeats throughout the structure. Since the spatial arrangement of the atoms repeats in a stepwise fashion in a crystal, one can define
the smallest nonrepeating unit of the crystal. This is called the unit cell. The entire structure of a crystal can be recreated by translating copies of the unit cell in three dimensions.
In a simple-cubic (sc) crystal lattice, the unit cell is composed of eight atoms that each take a corner of a cube. Because this is such an
inefficient way to pack atoms, it is a rare arrangement for metals. Only one metal is known to pack in this form: polonium, Po .
The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal lattice consists of a simple cubic unit cell and an additional atom at the center of the unit cell. Metals
such as iron, chromium, tungsten, and sodium pack in the bcc crystal lattice form.
The face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell consists of a simple cubic unit cell with an extra atom
at the center of each of the six sides of the cube. Some examples of metals that pack in this
form are nickel, silver, gold, copper, and
aluminum.
Another crystal lattice is the hexagonal

close packing (hcp) crystal lattice. Some
metals that pack in the hcp crystal lattice are
zinc, titanium, and cobalt.
Part A
Rank the crystal lattice structures in order of decreasing efficiency of space in the structure.
Rank from most to least efficient use of space. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.

Use the images of the different types of crystal lattices given in the introduction to determine how much empty space is present in each structure. Structures with more empty
space use space less efficiently than structures with less empty space.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
hexagonal close packing

body-centered cubic simple cubic
face-centered cubic
Correct
Part B
You are a researcher for a golf club manufacturer. You are given two identical looking cubes of a metal alloy. You are informed that they are made of the exact same material, but one
is crystalline, whereas the other is amorphous. It is your job to determine which one is amorphous because this one is more stress-resistant and is useful in reinforcing golf clubs.
Which of the following is the best way to determine which is which?

Keep in mind that if you melt a solid, its conformation could change depending on how you cool it back to a solid. Also, there is a distinct difference in density between a
crystalline solid and an amorphous solid.
ANSWER:
Determine the density of each cube. The less dense cube is the amorphous solid.
Melt both cubes and look for a broader range of melting temperatures. The one that melts over a broader range of temperatures is the amorphous solid.
Determine the density of each cube. The more dense one is the amorphous solid.
Melt both cubes and measure the range of melting temperatures. The one that melts over a narrower range of temperatures is the amorphous solid.
Correct
It is also important to note that many crystals are made from more than one kind of atom. For example, proteins will form crystals under the right conditions, and proteins
are more complex than a single metal atom. The unit cell concept applies to protein crystals as it does to single atoms. The unit cell may contain one or more proteins and
weigh thousands of atomic mass units. Since it is in the form of a crystal, one of the unit cells will enable you to recreate the entire protein crystal. This fact is exploited when
structural biologists perform X-ray crystallography to determine the atomic structures of proteins.
Cubic Structures
The properties of a given metal are greatly dependent upon the way in which the atoms are arranged. A unit cell is like a "zoomed-in" view of a substance that allows us to see the basic
pattern of the arrangement of atoms. In this problem you will study several types of cubic arrangements: the simple cubic,
the face-centered cubic,

and the body-centered cubic.
Part A
Polonium is a radioactive metal that is used as a heat source in space satellites. Polonium has a simple cubic unit cell. How many atoms of Po are present in each unit cell?
Hint 1. Determine the position of the atoms

Atoms in unit cells may be positioned in corners, along edges, on faces, or centered in the body of the unit cell. All eight of the atoms shown in the simple cubic diagram are in
which position?
ANSWER:
corner
edge
face
body
Hint 2. Find how many cells share corner atoms

Corner atoms are shared by how many total unit cells?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
You have found that for the simple cubic the total number of atoms per unit cell is given by
8
8
=1
Part B
Copper has a face-centered cubic unit cell. How many atoms of Cu are present in each unit cell?
Hint 1. Determine the number of corner atoms

Of the the 14 atoms shown in the face-centered cubic diagram, how many are positioned in corners?
ANSWER:
8

ANSWER:
Hint 3. Find how many atoms are on a face

The faces of a cube are the six flat parts. Of the 14 atoms shown in the face-centered cubic diagram, how many are positioned on a face?
ANSWER:
Hint 4. Find how many cells share face atoms

Face atoms (those on the six flat parts of the unit cell) are shared by how many total unit cells?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
4
Correct
You have found that for the face-centered cubic the total number of atoms per unit cell is given by
8 6
8
+ 2
=4
Part C
Molybdenum has a body-centered cubic unit cell. How many atoms of Mo are present in each unit cell?
Hint 1. Determine the number of corner atoms

Of the the nine atoms shown in the body-centered cubic diagram, how many are positioned in corners?
ANSWER:

ANSWER:
Hint 3. Find the number of atoms within the body

Of the nine atoms shown in the body-centered cubic diagram, how many are positioned within the body of the unit cell?
ANSWER:
Hint 4. Find how many cells share body atoms

Body atoms are shared by how many total unit cells?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
You have found that for the body-centered cubic the total number of atoms per unit cell is given by
8
8
+1=2
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1 Introduction - units and calculations

Significant Figures in Calculations

Significant Figure in Calculations

123.1 × 23 = 2.8 ×103 123.1 / 23 = 5.4

123.1 - 23 = 1.00 × 101

1 d.p. 0 d.p. 0 d.p. 1 d.p. 0 d.p. 0 d.p.

Multiplication and division

Addition and subtraction

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Determine the number of significant figures in the final answer

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Determine the number of significant figures in the final answer

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Determine the number of digits

Compute 4.659 × 104 − 2.14 × 104 . Round the answer appropriately.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Determine the number of digits

4.659 × 104 2.14 × 104

Hint 3. Determine the number of significant figures in the final answer

It will be helpful to remember two guidelines about significant figures.

Hint 2. Calculate the unrounded mass of remaining cake

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Calculate the unrounded density

Hint 3. Determine the number of significant figures in the answer

± Using Conversion Factors

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Convert miles to kilometers

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Convert the efficiency of your car

Hint 3. Calculate the volume of gas needed in one week

Express your answer in liters using four significant figures.

Hint 4. Calculate the cost of gas in euros

70.03 L = 77.03 euros

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Convert meters to kilometers

Hint 3. Convert seconds to hours

Hint 1. How to appoach the problem

Hint 2. Determine the mass in grams of the box of candy

Hint 3. Determine the number of pieces of candy in the box

Hint 4. Determine the total amount of dietary fat in grams

Chemical Properties and Physical Properties

Substances have both chemical properties and physical properties.

Hint 1. How to identify chemical properties

In air it combines with carbon dioxide to form copper carbonate.

It reacts with chlorine to form copper chloride.

It is a shiny, orange-colored metal.

It has a mass of 65.55 g .

Hint 1. How to identify physical properties

In burns in air to produce carbon dioxide.

It has a mass of 2.3 g .

Physical Change or Chemical Reaction

Hint 2. Define important processes

Hint 3. Define important terms

It is the temperature below which the

When coal, oil, and natural gas are

Hint 2. Define important terms

formation of a carbon deposit inside the flask

formation of carbon dioxide gas from glucose

formation of ethanol from glucose by yeast

burning of natural gas

How many moles of atoms are in 6.00 g of 13 C?