EL23875 2022 03 ContractorAcquisitionFinalReport

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY REPORT
AIRBORNE MAGNETIC AND HELITEM2 SURVEY

TANAMI
PROJECT 2105059
MINING PROJECTS ACCELERATOR PTY LTD
October 13, 2022

Disclaimer
1. The Survey that is described in this report was undertaken in accordance with current
internationally accepted practices of the geophysical survey industry, and the terms and specifications
of a Survey Agreement signed between the CLIENT and Xcalibur. Under no circumstances does
Xcalibur make any warranties either expressed or implied relating to the accuracy or fitness for
purpose or otherwise in relation to information and data provided in this report. The CLIENT is solely
responsible for the use, interpretation, and application of all such data and information in this report
and for any costs incurred and expenditures made in relation thereto. The CLIENT agrees that any
use, reuse, modification, or extension of Xcalibur’s data or information in this report by the CLIENT is
at the CLIENT’s sole risk and without liability to Xcalibur. Should the data and report be made available
in whole or part to any third party, and such party relies thereon, that party does so wholly at its own
and sole risk and Xcalibur disclaims any liability to such party.
2. Furthermore, the Survey was performed by Xcalibur after considering the limits of the scope of
work and the time scale for the Survey.
3. The results that are presented and the interpretation of these results by Xcalibur represent only the
distribution of ground conditions and geology that are measurable with the airborne geophysical
instrumentation and survey design that was used. Xcalibur endeavours to ensure that the results and
interpretation are as accurate as can be reasonably achieved through a geophysical survey and
interpretation by a qualified geophysical interpreter. Xcalibur did not perform any observations,
investigations, studies or testing not specifically defined in the Agreement between the CLIENT and
Xcalibur. The CLIENT accepts that there are limitations to the accuracy of information that can be
derived from a geophysical survey, including, but not limited to, similar geophysical responses from
different geological conditions, variable responses from apparently similar geology, and limitations on
the signal which can be detected in a background of natural and electronic noise, and geological
variation. The data presented relates only to the conditions as revealed by the measurements at the
sampling points, and conditions between such locations and survey lines may differ considerably.
Xcalibur is not liable for the existence of any condition, the discovery of which would require the
performance of services that are not otherwise defined in the Agreement.
4. The passage of time may result in changes (whether man-made or natural) in site conditions. The
results provided in this report only represent the site conditions and geology for the period that the
survey was flown.
5. Where the processing and interpretation have involved Xcalibur’s interpretation or other use of any
information (including, but not limited to, topographic maps, geological maps, and drill information;
analysis, recommendations and conclusions) provided by the CLIENT or by third parties on behalf of
the CLIENT and upon which Xcalibur was reasonably entitled or expected to rely upon, then the
Survey is limited by the accuracy of such information. Unless otherwise stated, Xcalibur was not
authorized and did not attempt to independently verify the accuracy or completeness of such
information that was received from the CLIENT or third parties during the performance of the Survey.
Xcalibur is not liable for any inaccuracies (including any incompleteness) in the said information.
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Introduction
This report describes the logistics, data acquisition, processing and presentation of results of a HELITEM 2
electromagnetic and magnetic airborne geophysical survey carried out for Mining Projects Accelerator
PTY LTD over property near Tanami, WA. The breakdown of kilometres flown, line direction and spacing
are shown in Table 1.
Block
Block Line Numbers Line direction Line Spacing Line km
1 100010 - 101400 000°/180° 100 m 968.0 km

Total 968.0 km
Table 1 Flown line kilometre summary
The purpose of the survey was to map the geology and structure of the area. With this in mind, and in
consultation with Mining Projects Accelerator PTY LTD, the delivered products were chosen. Data were
acquired using a HELITEM2 electromagnetic system supplemented by a high-sensitivity cesium
magnetometer. The information from these sensors was processed to produce products that display the
magnetic and conductive properties of the survey area. A GPS electronic navigation system ensured
accurate positioning of the geophysical data with respect to the base map coordinates.
The survey was performed by Xcalibur Multiphysics. Grids and data in digital format are provided with this
report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SURVEY AREA DESCRIPTION 6
Location of the Survey Area 6
SYSTEM INFORMATION 8
Aircraft and Geophysical On-Board Equipment 10
Base Station Equipment 12
Pulse Configuration and Sampling windows 12
SURVEY SPECIFICATIONS AND DATA QUALITY CONTROL 15
Navigation 15
Flight Path 15
Survey Elevation 15
Airborne High Sensitivity Magnetometer 16
Magnetic Base Station 16
Electromagnetic Data 16
In-Flight EM System Calibration 17
Data Gaps 17
Tanami - Acquisition 17
DATA PROCESSING 18
Flight Path Recovery 18
Altitude Data 18
Magnetics 18
Magnetic Base Station Diurnal 18
Residual Magnetic Intensity 18
Total Magnetic Intensity 19
Calculated Vertical Magnetic Gradient 19
Electromagnetics 19
dB/dt Data 19
B-field Data 19
Apparent Conductivity from Z data 20
Differential Conductivity™ 20
Time Constant (TAU) 20
dB/dt Fraser Filtered X Data 20
Digital Elevation 21
Gridding 21
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 22
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A LIST OF PERSONNEL 23
APPENDIX B DATA ARCHIVE DESCRIPTION 25
APPENDIX C MAP PRODUCT GRIDS 29
APPENDIX D HELICOPTER AIRBORNE ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEMS 43
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APPENDIX E AIRBORNE TRANSIENT EM INTERPRETATION 46
APPENDIX F MULTICOMPONENT MODELING 51
APPENDIX G GLOSSARY 55
TABLES
TABLE 1 FLOWN LINE KILOMETRE SUMMARY 3
TABLE 2 SURVEY AREA CORNERS 7
TABLE 3 GPS BASE STATION LOCATION 12
TABLE 4 MAGNETIC BASE STATION LOCATION 12
TABLE 5 HELITEM2 GATE POSITIONS 14
FIGURES
FIGURE 1 TANAMI – LOCATION MAP 6
FIGURE 2 TANAMI – FLIGHT PATH 7
FIGURE 3 HELITEM2 SYSTEM 8
FIGURE 4 GEOMETRY OF THE HELITEM2 SYSTEM 9
FIGURE 5 TYPICAL HELITEM2 SYSTEM WAVEFORM FOR ONE HALF CYCLE 13
FIGURE 6 TANAMI – DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL 30
FIGURE 7 TANAMI – TOTAL MAGNETIC INTENSITY 31
FIGURE 8 TANAMI – FIRST VERTICAL DERIVATIVE OF TMI 32
FIGURE 9 TANAMI – TIME CONSTANT FROM DB/DT Z 33
FIGURE 10 TANAMI – APPARENT CONDUCTIVITY FROM DB/DT Z CHANNEL 1 34
FIGURE 13 TANAMI – DIFFERENTIAL CONDUCTIVITY 50M DEPTH SLICE FROM DB/DT Z 37
FIGURE 16 TANAMI – FRASER FILTERED FROM DB/DT X CHANNEL 5 40
FIGURE 19 PLATE MODEL WITH A FLYING DIRECTION OF LEFT TO RIGHT 53
FIGURE 20 PLATE MODEL WITH FLYING DIRECTION FROM RIGHT TO LEFT 54
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Survey Area Description
Location of the Survey Area
One block near the Tanami, WA (Figure 1) was flown between September 02 and September 06, 2022,
with Tanami, WA as the base of operation. Survey coverage consists of 968 km of traverse lines flown
with spacing of 100 m and 0.0 km of tie-lines for a total of 968 km flown.
Figure 1 Tanami – Location Map
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Figure 2 Tanami – Flight Path
Table 2 contains the coordinates of the corner points for the main survey block.
Block Corners X-UTM (E) Y-UTM (N) Corners X-UTM (E) Y-UTM (N)
1 1 713400 7700700 4 716800 7693500
UTM Zone 52S 2 727300 7700700 5 716800 7695500
3 727300 7693500 6 713400 7695500
Table 2 Survey Area Corners

WGS84 UTM Zone 52S
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System Information
Figure 3 HELITEM2 System
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The HELITEM2 system is composed of a 40 m cable to which is attached the transmitter loop (Figure 4).
The top of the cable is attached to a helicopter and when in flight it drags to form a 25 degree angle from
the vertical putting the transmitter coil approximately 35 m below the helicopter. The receiver platform and
the receiver coil is located at the centre of the 35 m diameter transmitter loop approximately 0.1 m above
the centre of the transmitter plane. The real time navigation GPS antenna is on the tail boom of the
helicopter. The barometric altimeter, radar altimeter, laser altimeter and data recorder are all installed in
the helicopter. GPS antennae are attached to the transmitter loop to give positional information and
transmitter orientation. An IMU was mounted on the front of the transmitter loop to measure receiver pitch,
roll and yaw.
Figure 4 Geometry of the HELITEM2 System
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Aircraft and Geophysical On-Board Equipment
Helicopter: AS350 B3
Operator: United Aero Helicopters
Registration: VH-TMY
EM System: HELITEM2 35m diameter loop
Transmitter: Vertical axis loop slung below helicopter
Loop area: 962 m2
Number of turns: 4
Nominal height above ground: 35 m
Receiver: Multicoil system (X, Y and Z) with a final recording rate of 10 samples
per second, 25 channels of X, Y and Z component data
Inflight Vertical Rx-Tx separation (m) 0.1 m
Nominal height above ground: 35 m
Helicopter-Loop Separation: 35.7 m, calculated using GPS located on the helicopter and
transmitter loop.
Base frequency: 6.25 Hz
Pulse end (true time): 40.1270 ms
Pulse width: 39.8730 ms
Transmitter Current: 147 A
Dipole moment: 5.66x105Am²
Digital Acquisition: Xcalibur HeliDAS
Magnetometer: CS-3 Scintrex Cesium Vapour, mounted in the plane of the

transmitter loop;
Operating Range: 15,000 to 100,000 nT

Operating Limit: -40°C to 50°C
Accuracy: ±0.002 nT
Measurement Precision: 0.001 nT
Sampling rate: 10.0 Hz
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Radar Altimeter: Honeywell Sperry Altimeter System. Radar antennas are mounted to
the exterior bottom of the helicopter between the forward skid tubes
Operating Range: 0 – 2500ft

0 to 55,000 ft
Accuracy:
±3% (100 – 500ft above obstacle)
±4% (500 – 2500ft above obstacle)
Measurement Precision: 1 ft
Sample Rate: 10.0 Hz
Laser Altimeter: Laser Technology TruSense S200 mounted at the bottom of the
helicopter between the forward skid tubes
Operating Range: 0.46 – 750 m

Accuracy: 4 cm
Resolution: 1 cm
Sample Rate: 10 Hz
Transmitter Loop attitude: VN-300 mounted on the front of the transmitter loop;
Operating Range (Heading, Roll): ±180°

Operating Range (Pitch): ±90°
Dynamic Accuracy (Heading): 0.3° RMS
Dynamic Accuracy (Pitch/Roll): 0.1° RMS
Sample Rate: 10 Hz
Aircraft Navigation: NovAtel OEM4 Card with an Aero antenna mounted on the tail of the
helicopter;

Real-Time Accuracy:
1.8m CEP (L1);
Real-Time Measurement Precision: 6 cm RMS
Sample Rate: 2.0 Hz
Transmitter Loop Positional Data: NovAtel OEM4 with Aero Antenna mounted on the EM Transmitter

Real-Time Accuracy:
1.8m CEP (L1);
Real-Time Measurement Precision: 6 cm RMS
Sample Rate: 2.0 Hz
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Base Station Equipment
Magnetometer: Xcalibur CF1 using Scintrex cesium vapour sensor with Marconi
GPS card and antenna for measurement synchronization to GPS
Magnetometer Operating Range: 15,000 to 100,000 nT

Barometric Operating Range: 55kPa to 108 kPa
Temperature Operating Range: -40°C to 75°C
Sample Rate: 1.0 Hz
GPS Receiver: JAVAD TRIUMPH-1M

Real-Time Accuracy: < 0.5m
Sample Rate: 1.0 Hz
During the survey, GPS base station was set up to collect data to allow post processing of the positional
data for increased accuracy. The location of the GPS base station is shown in Table 3.
WGS84 Latitude (deg- WGS84 Longitude Orthometric Date Set Date Torn
Status Location Name
min-sec) (deg-min-sec) Height (m) Up Down
Primary Consiton Station, NT 22° 3' 1.01412" S 132° 29' 45.49059" E 624.335 29-Aug-2022 07-Sep-2022
Table 3 GPS Base Station Location
During the survey, MAG base stations were set up to collect data to allow for diurnal correction of magnetic
data. The locations of the Magnetic base stations are shown in Table 4.
WGS84 Latitude WGS84 Longitude Date Set Up Date Torn

Status Location Name
(deg-min-sec) (deg-min-sec) Down
Primary Consiton Station, NT 22° 03' 00.99" S 132° 29' 45.51" E 29-Aug-2022 07-Sep-2022
Secondary Consiton Station, NT 22° 03' 01.01" S 132° 29' 45.49" E 29-Aug-2022 07-Sep-2022
Table 4 Magnetic Base Station Location
Pulse Configuration and Sampling windows
At 6.25 Hz one half cycle of the HELITEM2 system is made up of a square pulse (on-time) of approximately
twenty milliseconds in duration followed by approximately twenty milliseconds of off-time before the pulse
is repeated with the opposite polarity. Figure 5 is a graphic of what the receiver coils measure during the
half cycle. After acquisition the measured data are windowed into twenty five ranges called “gates”. Gate
widths increase as time after turn off increases because as the energy from the transmitter decays a wider
sample must be taken to get a valid average. The gates used for this project are documented in Table 5.
The position of the first off-time gate is selected after examining several flights of data and is as close to
the transmitter turn off as possible. The power of the pulse causes eddy currents in the system after the
turn off and the first off-time gate cannot start until these have died away. The earliest data has had less
time to penetrate the subsurface and so contains information from the near surface.
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Figure 5 Typical HELITEM2 System Waveform for one half cycle
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HELITEM2 Gate positions 6.25 Hz / 40 ms pulse width
Gate Start Time End Time Midpoint Width (ms)
After Pulse After Pulse (ms)
(ms) (ms)
1 0.0684 0.0879 0.0781 0.0195
2 0.0879 0.1172 0.1025 0.0293
3 0.1172 0.1465 0.1318 0.0293
4 0.1465 0.1855 0.1660 0.0391
5 0.1855 0.2441 0.2148 0.0586
6 0.2441 0.3125 0.2783 0.0684
7 0.3125 0.4004 0.3564 0.0879
8 0.4004 0.5176 0.4590 0.1172
9 0.5176 0.6641 0.5908 0.1465
10 0.6641 0.8594 0.7617 0.1953
11 0.8594 1.1133 0.9863 0.2539
12 1.1133 1.4355 1.2744 0.3223
13 1.4355 1.8555 1.6455 0.4199
14 1.8555 2.3926 2.1240 0.5371
15 2.3926 3.0859 2.7393 0.6934
16 3.0859 3.9844 3.5352 0.8984
17 3.9844 5.1465 4.5654 1.1621
18 5.1465 6.6504 5.8984 1.5039
19 6.6504 8.5938 7.6221 1.9434
20 8.5938 11.0938 9.8438 2.5000
21 11.0938 14.3262 12.7100 3.2324
22 14.3262 18.5059 16.4160 4.1797
23 18.5059 23.9063 21.2061 5.4004
24 23.9063 30.8789 27.3926 6.9727
25 30.8789 39.8730 35.3760 8.9941
Table 5 HELITEM2 Gate Positions
Additional information regarding the HELITEM2 system waveform and gate positions can be found in the
waveform directory.
The HELITEM2 electromagnetic receiver (dB/dt - X, Y, & Z) data are in units of nanoteslas per second
(nT/s) and are normalized by the effective receiver area (1 nV/m² = 1 nT/s). The data are not normalized
by transmitter moment.
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Survey Specifications and Data Quality Control
Digital data for each flight were transferred to the office, in order to verify data quality and completeness.
A database was created and updated using Geosoft Oasis Montaj and proprietary Xcalibur Atlas software.
This allowed the processor to calculate, display and verify both the positional (flight path) and geophysical
data. The initial database was examined as a preliminary assessment of the data acquired for each flight.
Daily processing of Xcalibur survey data consists of differential corrections to the airborne GPS data,
verification of EM calibrations, drift correction of the raw airborne EM data, spike rejection and filtering of
all geophysical and ancillary data, verification of the digital video, calculation of preliminary resistivity data,
and diurnal correction of magnetic data.
All data, including base station records, were checked on a daily basis to ensure compliance with the
survey contract specifications. Re-flights were required if any of the following specifications were not met.
Navigation
A specialized GPS system provided in-flight navigation control. The system determined the absolute
position of the helicopter by monitoring the range information of twelve channels (satellites). The Novatel
OEM4 receiver was used for this application.
A JAVAD TRIUMPH-1M GPS base station was used to record pseudo-range, carrier phase, ephemeris,
and timing information of all available GPS satellites in view at a one second interval. These data are used
to improve the conversion of aircraft raw ranges to differentially corrected aircraft position. The GPS
antenna was set-up in a location that allowed for clear sight of the satellites above. The set-up of the
antenna also considered surfaces that could cause signal reflection around the antenna that could be a
source of error to the received data measurements.
Flight Path
Flight lines did deviate from the intended flight path by more than 25% of the planned flight path over a
distance of more than 1 kilometre. Flight specifications were based on GPS positional data recorded at
the helicopter. Deviations were due to infrastructure within the survey blocks.
Survey Elevation
The survey elevation is defined as the measurement of the helicopter radar altimeter to the tallest obstacle
in the helicopter path. An obstacle is any structure or object which will impede the path of the helicopter to
the ground and is not limited to and includes tree canopy, towers, and power lines.
Survey elevations may vary based on the pilot's judgement of safe flying conditions around man-made
structures or in rugged terrain.
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The ideal survey elevation for the helicopter and instrumentation during data collection was:
Helicopter 72 metres
Magnetometer 35 metres
HELITEM2 Receiver 35 metres
HELITEM2 Transmitter 35 metres
Survey elevations did not deviate by more than ±15 m from the contracted/revised elevation over a
distance of 2 km.
Airborne High Sensitivity Magnetometer
To assess the noise quality of the collected airborne magnetic data, Xcalibur monitors the 4 th difference
results during flight which is verified post flight by the processor. There was no contract specification, the
normal contracted specification for the collected airborne magnetic data was that the normalized 4 th
difference would not exceed 0.05 nT over a continuous distance of 1 kilometre excluding areas where this
specification was exceeded due to natural anomalies.
Magnetic Base Station
Ground magnetic base stations were set-up to measure the total intensity of the earth's magnetic field.
The base stations were placed in a magnetically quiet area, away from power lines and moving metallic
objects. There was no contract specification, the normal contracted specification for the collected ground
magnetic data was the non-linear variations in the magnetic data were not to exceed 10 nT per minute.
Electromagnetic Data
The noise envelopes of the EM data, as calculated from the last off-time channel shall not exceed the
following tolerances continuously under normal survey conditions:
dB/dt Z < 0.5 nT/s
The EM noise level is defined as the standard deviation of Z dB/dt secondary field collected during high
altitude backgrounds of the last time channel.
Flying was not performed when spheric pulses became sufficiently intense and frequent that digital data
processing techniques could not recover useful data.
The HELITEM2 system includes a power line channel for noise monitoring.
There are no major power transmission lines or electric fences evident within in the survey areas. The
50Hz mains monitor channel did not detect linear noise sources.
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In-Flight EM System Calibration
The in-flight calibration consists of measuring the system characteristics out of ground effect and
compensation of the electromagnetic data for these measured effects. The reference waveforms recorded
during the pre-flight calibration form an important part of the delivered data and are critical to accurate
inversion of the data. During the pre-flight calibration, a minimum of 30 seconds of data is collected out-
of-ground-effect to monitor the effectiveness of the calibration and the accuracy to the base levels. During
any post-flight calibration, a minimum of 30 seconds of data is collected out-of-ground-effect; these data
are compared with the pre-flight calibration data to quantify drift.
Measurements of in-flight noise levels, out of ground effect, are made at the high-altitude portions of each
flight. Static or hover noise levels are not directly related to those seen in flight due to geometry and
compensation considerations that are only addressed in a dynamic situation.
Data Gaps
Isolated errors, spikes and narrow non-sequential data gaps were corrected by interpolation providing no
similar data gaps existed on nearby sections of adjacent flight lines.
Tanami - Acquisition
Below summarize any oddities outside our normal operations.
- None
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Data Processing
Flight Path Recovery
To check the quality of the positional data the speed of the bird is calculated using the differentially
corrected x, y, and z data. Any sharp changes in the speed are used to flag possible problems with the
positional data. Where speed jumps occur, the data are inspected to determine the source of the error.
The erroneous data are deleted and splined if less than five seconds in length. If the error is greater than
five seconds the raw data are examined and if acceptable, may be shifted and used to replace the bad
data. The GPS-Z component is the most common source of error. When it shows problems that cannot
be corrected by recalculating the differential correction, the barometric altimeter is used as a guide to assist
in making the appropriate correction. The corrected WGS84 longitude and latitude coordinates were
transformed to WGS84 UTM’s.
Datum: WGS84
Ellipsoid: WGS 84
Projection: UTM Zone 52S
Central meridian: 129o East
False Easting: 500000 metres
False Northing: 10000000 metres
Scale factor: 0.9996
WGS84 to Local Conversion: None
Dx,Dy,Dz: 0, 0, 0
Altitude Data
Radar altimeter data are despiked and filtered using a median/Hanning filter. The radar altimeter data are
then subtracted from the GPS elevation to create a digital elevation model that is examined in grid format
for spurious values.
Magnetics
Magnetic Base Station Diurnal

The raw diurnal data are sampled at 1 Hz and imported into a database. A non-linear variation is then
calculated and a flag channel is created to indicate where the variation exceeds the survey tolerance. The
data are filtered with a 51 second Median filter and then a 51 second Hanning filter to remove spikes and
smooth short wavelength variations. Acceptable diurnal data are interpolated to a 10 Hz sample rate and
the local regional field value of 52080 nT, calculated from the average of the first day’s diurnal data, were
removed to leave the diurnal variation. This diurnal variation is then ready to be removed during the
processing of the airborne magnetic data based on the assumption that both the static ground observatory
and (nearby) airborne magnetometer are subject to equivalent temporal magnetic variation from solar wind
interactions with the magnetosphere.
Residual Magnetic Intensity

The Total Magnetic Intensity (TMI) data collected in flight were profiled on screen along with a fourth
difference channel calculated from the TMI. Spikes were removed manually where indicated by the fourth
difference. The despiked data were then corrected for lag by 2.7 seconds. The diurnal variation that was
extracted from the filtered ground station data was then removed from the despiked and lagged TMI. The
IGRF was calculated using the 2020 IGRF model for the specific survey location, latitude and longitude,
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date and altitude of the sensor and removed from the TMI to obtain the Residual Magnetic Intensity (RMI).
The results were then levelled. Manual adjustments were applied to any lines that required levelling, as
indicated by shadowed images of the gridded magnetic data. The manually levelled data were then
subjected to a micro levelling filter.
Total Magnetic Intensity

To the levelled Residual Magnetic Intensity, a tilt IGRF value of the survey area was added back resulting
the Total Magnetic Intensity (TMI). IGRF value was calculated using the 2020 IGRF model based on the
latitude, longitude, average altitude of the sensor, and constant date.
Calculated Vertical Magnetic Gradient

The levelled, Total Magnetic Intensity grid was subjected to a processing algorithm that enhances the
response of magnetic bodies in the upper 500 metres and attenuates the response of deeper bodies. The
resulting calculated vertical gradient grid provides better definition and resolution of near-surface magnetic
units. It also identifies weak magnetic features that may not be quite as evident in the TMI data. Regional
magnetic variations and changes in lithology, however, may be better defined on the Residual Magnetic
Intensity.
Electromagnetics
dB/dt Data
The X, Y and Z component data are re-processed from the raw stream to produce the 25 raw channels at
10 samples per second from the square pulse.
The following processing steps are applied to the dB/dt data from all coil sets:
 The raw stream data, recorded at 102.4 kHz sampling, is processed using start-of-flight and end-
of-flight calibrations to remove spheric spikes, system drift, and to reject VLF noise;
 Noise filtering is done using an Alpha-trim and Hanning that is cosine tapered between the early
and late times. Filter lengths ranging from 2.0 to 6.0 seconds were applied to the square wave EM
data.
 A lag was applied to the EM data for all flights:
Flt 16001 +0.4sec Flt 16004 -0.3sec

Flt 16002 +0.5sec Flt 16005 -0.1sec
Flt 16003 -0.5sec Flt 16006 +0.1sec
 The filtered X, Y, and Z component data are then levelled in flight form for any residual and
nonlinear drift that was not adequately corrected during the drift correction;
B-field Data
The data acquisition system produces 25 B-field channels each component in real-time during flight,
however these channels are only used for field QC. For delivery, mapping and generation of derived
products, the final B-field channels are derived from the final levelled dB/dt data.
The advantage of B-field data compared with dB/dt data are that it enhances the slow decaying response
of good conductors while suppressing the rapid decaying response of less conductive overburden. B-field
data can also be used to enhance conductors hidden below thick conductive overburden.
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Apparent Conductivity from Z data
Xcalibur has developed an algorithm that converts the response in any measurement window (on-time or
off-time) into an apparent conductivity. This is performed using a look-up table that contains the response
at a range of half-space conductivities and altimeter heights. The apparent conductivity is calculated by
fitting all channels of the Z-coil response of the dB/dt component to the homogeneous-half-space model.
Differential Conductivity™
Differential Conductivity™ is a simple, relatively accurate resistivity section developed by Xcalibur to be
derived from airborne electromagnetic data (Huang and Fraser, 19961). This type of resistivity section is
fast and robust, and provides a good picture of resistivity conditions in the earth. It can be derived from
both frequency 1 domain and time domain EM data.
Differential Conductivity™ is derived from a homogeneous halfspace model of the resistivity calculated for
each time channel, each at an approximate depth of maximum induced current flow. The early time
channel provides a measure of the shallow conductivity, and the deeper (later time) halfspace
conductivities are modified using the shallow information to give a more accurate measure of the
conductivity at depth. The depth of investigation for each time channel is adjusted as well.
It is very important to recognize that Differential Conductivity™ sections, like conductivity-depth images or
layered-earth inversions, assume that the earth is made of uniform layers. Any feature in the earth which
is not much wider than the footprint of the airborne EM system will not be properly represented (generally
they are too deep) and the contrast will be reduced.
Differential Conductivity™ sections tend to smooth sharply defined layers (compared to layered-earth
inversions) but provide an excellent model of the resistivity, quickly and without the complex processing
necessary for inversions, and without the dependence on accurate starting models.
Time Constant (TAU)

Time constant values are obtained for windows consisting of four consecutive gates starting with the first
off-time using the equation below. Each window is shifted by one gate until the last channel is reached
and from this series of windows the maximum detectable Tau for each measurement point is chosen:
t
Y  Ae 
where A is amplitude at time zero, t is time in microseconds and τ is the time constant, expressed in
microseconds. A semi-log plot of this exponential function will be displayed as a straight line, the slope of
which will reflect the rate of decay and therefore the strength of the conductivity. A slow rate of decay,
reflecting a high conductivity, will be represented by a high time constant.
As a single parameter, the time constant provides more useful information than the amplitude data of any
given single channel, as it indicates not only the peak position of the response but also the relative strength
of the conductor. It also allows better discrimination of conductive axes within a broad formational group
of conductors.
dB/dt Fraser Filtered X Data

For a vertical conductor, the X component response reaches a maximum as the system approaches the
conductor, rapidly decreases to zero near the top of the conductor and reaches a negative minimum on
the other side of the conductor. The shape of the X component response over a discrete conductor
1
Huang, Haoping and Fraser, Douglas, 1996, The differential parameter method for multifrequency airborne
resistivity mapping, Geophysics Vol 61, No 1, January-February 1996, P 100-109.
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depends on both the dipping angle of the conductor and the flight direction, which renders a grid image of
the X component responses over discrete conductors complicated and hard to interpret. The Fraser Filter
is a gradient filter which, when applied to the X component data, highlights the steep gradients near the
zero crossing of the response on top of discrete conductors and suppresses the responses from the half-
space earth. Thus the Fraser filtered X component data are simplified with anomalous features indicating
the existence and location of discrete conductors or edges of broad conductive bodies. For this dataset,
the Fraser filtered dB/dt X component data at 0.1855ms, 0.8594ms and 3.0859 ms after the end of pulse
were presented.
Digital Elevation
The radar altimeter values are subtracted from the differentially corrected and de-spiked GPS-Z values to
produce profiles of the height above mean sea level along the survey lines. These values are gridded to
produce contour maps showing approximate elevations within the survey area. Any subtle line-to-line
discrepancies are manually removed. After the manual corrections are applied, the digital terrain data are
filtered with a microlevelling algorithm.
The accuracy of the elevation calculation is directly dependent on the accuracy of the two input
parameters, radar altimeter and GPS-Z. The GPS-Z value is primarily dependent on the number of
available satellites. Although post-processing of GPS data will yield X and Y accuracies in the order of 1-
2 metres, the accuracy of the Z value is usually much less, sometimes in the ±5 metre range. Further
inaccuracies may be introduced during the interpolation and gridding process.
Because of the inherent inaccuracies of this method, no guarantee is made or implied that the information
displayed is a true representation of the height above sea level. Although this product may be of some
use as a general reference, THIS PRODUCT MUST NOT BE USED FOR NAVIGATION PURPOSES.
Gridding
The magnetic and electromagnetics data are interpolated onto a regular grid using a Akima spline technique.
The grid cell size is 20% of the line separation of the blocks, 20m respectively.
The resulting grids are suitable for image processing.
R2105059 21
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This report provides a very brief description of the survey results and describes the equipment, data
processing procedures and logistics of the airborne survey over the blocks, near Tanami, WA. The various
maps included with this report display the magnetic and conductive properties of the survey area.
It is recommended that the survey results be assessed and fully evaluated in conjunction with all other
available geophysical, geological and geochemical information. In particular, structural analysis of the data
should be undertaken and areas of interest should be selected. It is important that careful examination of
these areas be carried out on the ground in order to eliminate possible man-made sources of the EM
anomalies. An attempt should be made to determine the geophysical “signatures” over any known zones of
mineralization in the survey areas or their vicinity.
The anomalous resistivity and magnetic targets defined by the survey should be subjected to further
investigation using appropriate surface exploration techniques. Any inferred contacts and structural breaks
are considered to be of particular interest as they may have influenced or controlled mineral deposition within
the survey area. Anomalies that are currently considered to be of moderately low priority may require
upgrading if follow-up results are favourable, or if they occur in areas of favourable geology.
It is also recommended that image processing of existing geophysical data be considered, in order to
extract the maximum amount of information from the survey results. Current software and imaging
techniques often provide valuable information on structure and lithology, which may not be clearly evident
on the contour and colour maps. These techniques can yield images that define subtle, but significant,
structural details.
Respectfully submitted,
Xcalibur
R2105059
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Appendix A List of Personnel
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List of Personnel:
The following personnel were involved in the acquisition, processing, interpretation and presentation of
data, relating to a HELITEM2 airborne geophysical survey carried out for Mining Projects Accelerator PTY
LTD over the blocks, near Tanami, WA.
Acquisition:
Denis Cowey Project Manager
Almar Van Den Berg Electronics Technician
Danny Kimba Pilot (United Aero Helicopters)
Processing:
Yuri Mironenko Geophysicist
Mihai Szentesy Data processor
All personnel were employees of Xcalibur, except where indicated.
R2105059 24
Appendix B Data Archive Description
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Data Archive Description:
Survey Details:
Survey Area Name: Tanami
Project number: 2105059
Client: Mining Projects Accelerator PTY LTD
Survey Company Name: Xcalibur
Flown Dates: September 02 to September 06, 2022
Archive Creation Date: October 13, 2022
Geodetic Information for map products:

Datum: WGS84
Ellipsoid: WGS 84
Projection: UTM Zone 52S
Central meridian: 129° East
False Easting: 500000 metres
False Northing: 10000000 metres
Scale factor: 0.9996
WGS84 to Local Conversion: None
Dx,Dy,Dz: 0, 0, 0
Geosoft Grids, GeoTiffs and KMZ:

File Description Units
*_dtm Digital terrain model m
*_mag_tmi Total magnetic intensity (TMI) nT
*_mag_tmi_1vd Calculated vertical magnetic gradient of TMI nT/m
*_emx_db_ff_ch5 Fraser filtered dB/dt X component channel 5 nT/s/m
*_tcon_max Time constant dB/dt Z maximum detectable µs
*_conductivity_db_z_ch1 Apparent conductivity dB/dt Z channel 1 mS/m
*_dcon_db_z_50m Differential conductivity depth slice dB/dt Z at 50m mS/m
Disclaimer: Google Earth Accuracy

Xcalibur provides images of geophysical data in KMZ format for viewing in Google Earth as a convenient
product to our clients. It is important to recognize that the horizontal and vertical positional accuracy of
Google Earth is not sufficient for close location of targets for drilling, verifying outcrop, etc. Xcalibur makes
no warranty as to the accuracy of apparent positioning of Xcalibur data when converted and displayed in
Google Earth.
R2105059 26
Geosoft Databases:
Variable Description Units
line Line number -
flight Flight number -
date Flight date yyyymmdd
fiducial Fiducial s
time_ssm Universal time, seconds since midnight s
easting_WGS84 Helicopter Easting WGS84 UTM Zone 52S m
northing_WGS84 Helicopter Northing WGS84 UTM Zone 52S m
latitude_WGS84 Helicopter Latitude WGS84 degrees
longitude_WGS84 Helicopter Longitude WGS84 degrees
easting_tx_WGS84 Transmitter Easting WGS84 UTM Zone 52S m
northing_tx_WGS84 Transmitter Northing WGS84 UTM Zone 52S m
latitude_tx_WGS84 Transmitter Latitude WGS84 degrees
longitude_tx_WGS84 Transmitter Longitude WGS84 deg
laser Helicopter height above surface from laser altimeter m
radar Helicopter height above surface from radar altimeter m
height_tx Transmitter height above surface m
gpsz_heli Helicopter GPS height above mean sea level m
gpsz_tx Transmitter GPS height above mean sea level m
dtm Digital terrain model m
diurnal Measured base station ground diurnal magnetic intesity nT
mag_lag Total magnetic field, lagged nT
IGRF International geomagnetic reference field nT
mag_rmi Final residual magnetic intensity nT
mag_tmi Final total magnetic intensity nT
pitch_tx Pitch angle of loop (+ve nose up) degrees
roll_tx Roll angle of loop (+ve left up) degrees
yaw_tx Yaw angle of loop (forward azimuth) degrees
powerline Powerline monitor -
tx_current Transmitter current A
emx_db_final Final dB/dt X component channels 1-25 nT/s
emz_db_final Final dB/dt Z component channels 1-25 nT/s
emx_bf_final Final B-field X component channels 1-25 pT
emz_bf_final Final B-field Z component channels 1-25 pT
emx_db_ff Fraser filtered dB/dt X component channels 1-25 nT/s/m
tcon_max Time constant dB/dt Z maximum detectable µs
chn_conductivity_db_z Apparent conductivity dB/dt Z channels 1-25 mS/m
dcon_db_z_750m_by5m Differential conductivity of dB/dt Z @ 5m intervals to a depth of 750m mS/m
Note – The null values in the GDB are displayed as *.
R2105059 27
Report:
A logistics and processing report for Project #2105059 in PDF format:
R2105059.pdf
EM Reference Waveform Description:

The information shown below is a sample.
/Calibration Data [FLT ##### Cal# 1 Start FID 18493 End Fid 18553]
/Base Frequency : 6.25 Hz
/Sample Interval: 9.7656250 µs
/------------------------------------------------------------------------------
/XYZ REF WAVEFORM EXPORT
/SAMPLE T_Current[A] dB/dt_X[nT/s] dB/dt_Y[nT/s] dB/dt_Z[nT/s]
0 0.001 17.218 -11.788 43.569
1 0.001 -44.755 45.039 20.224
2 0.001 -95.206 38.448 -45.793
3 0.001 44.976 0.306 -137.511
4 -0.010 -152.009 -251.488 6393.644
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
8188 -0.001 -0.024 -0.167 -0.052
8189 -0.001 -0.024 -0.167 -0.052
8190 -0.001 -0.024 -0.167 -0.052
8191 -0.001 -0.024 -0.167 -0.052
The first column is the sample number. There are a total of 8192 samples representing a half-wave cycle
or one pulse. The subsequent columns are: transmitter current, measured X primary field, measured Y
primary field, and measured Z primary field for dB/dt.
R2105059 28
Appendix C Map Product Grids
R2105059 29
Figure 6 Tanami – Digital Terrain Model
R2105059 30
Figure 7 Tanami – Total Magnetic Intensity
R2105059 31
Figure 8 Tanami – First Vertical Derivative of TMI
R2105059 32
Figure 9 Tanami – Time Constant from dB/dt Z
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Figure 10 Tanami – Apparent Conductivity from dB/dt Z Channel 1
R2105059 34
R2105059 35
R2105059 36
Figure 13 Tanami – Differential Conductivity 50m Depth Slice from dB/dt Z
R2105059 37
R2105059 38
R2105059 39
Figure 16 Tanami – Fraser Filtered from dB/dt X Channel 5
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R2105059 41
R2105059 42
Appendix D Helicopter Airborne Electromagnetic Systems
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General
The operation of a helicopter time-domain electromagnetic system (HELITEM™) involves the
measurement of decaying secondary electromagnetic fields induced in the ground by a series of short
current pulses generated from a towed transmitter. Variations in the decay characteristics of the secondary
field (sampled and displayed as windows) are analyzed and interpreted to provide information about the
subsurface geology.
A number of factors combine to give the helicopter platforms good signal-to-noise ratio, depth of
penetration and excellent resolution: 1) the principle of sampling the induced secondary field in the
absence of the primary field (during the “off-time”), 2) the large dipole moment 3) the low flying height of
the system and spatial proximity of the transmitter and receiver. Such a system is also relatively insensitive
to noise due to air turbulence. However, sampling in the “on-time” can also result in excellent sensitivity
for mapping very resistive features and very conductive geologic features (Annan et al, 1991, Geophysics
v.61, p. 93-99).
Methodology
The Xcalibur time-domain helicopter electromagnetic system (HELITEM™) uses a high-speed digital EM
receiver. The primary electromagnetic pulses are created by a series of discontinuous square current
pulses fed into a transmitting loop towed below the helicopter. The base frequency rate is selectable, with
6.25, 7.5, 12.5, 15, 25, 30, 75 and 90 currently being available. The length of the pulse can be tailored to
suit the targets. Standard pulse widths can be tailored to anywhere from 4 ms to 40ms. The amount of
off-time is dependent on the pulse frequency. The dipole moment depends on the pulse width and base
frequency used on the survey. The specific dipole moment, waveform and gate settings for this survey
are given in the main body of the report.
The receiver sensor is a three-axis (x, y & z) induction coil set housed in a platform suspended on the tow
cable below the helicopter and above the transmitter. The tow cable is non-magnetic to reduce noise
levels. The tow cable is 40 m long. The receiver is 0.1 m above and 0.0 m ahead of the transmitter in
flight.
For each primary pulse a secondary magnetic field is produced by decaying eddy currents in the ground.
These in turn induce a voltage in the receiver coils, which is the electromagnetic response. Good
conductors decay slowly, poorer conductors more rapidly.
Operations, which are carried out in the receiver, are:
1. Primary-field removal: In addition to measuring the secondary response from the ground, the
receiver sensor coils also measure the primary response from the transmitter. During flight, the
receiver sensor position and orientation changes slightly, and this has a very strong effect on the
magnitude of the total response (primary plus secondary) measured at the receiver coils. The
variable primary field response is distracting because it is unrelated to the ground response. The
primary field is measured by flying at an altitude such that no ground response is measurable. These
calibration signals are used to define the shape of the primary waveform. By definition this primary
field includes the response of the current in the transmitter loop plus the response of any slowly
decaying eddy currents induced in the helicopter. We assume that the shape of the primary will not
change as the receiver sensor position changes, but that the amplitude will vary. The primary-field-
removal procedure involves solving for the amplitude of the primary field in the measured response
and removing this from the total response to leave a secondary response. Note that this procedure
removes any “in-phase” response from the ground which has the same shape as the primary field.
2. Digital Stacking: Stacking is carried out to reduce the effect of broadband noise in the data.
R2105059 44
3. Windowing of data: The digital receiver samples the secondary and primary electromagnetic field
at 2048, 4096 or 8192 points per EM pulse and windows the signal in up to 30 square time gates
whose centres and widths are software selectable and which may be placed anywhere within or
outside the transmitter pulse. This flexibility offers the advantage of arranging the gates to suit the
goals of a particular survey, ensuring that the signal is appropriately sampled through its entire
dynamic range.
4. Primary Field: The primary field at the receiver sensor is measured for each stack and recorded as
a separate data channel to assess the variation in coupling between the transmitter and the receiver
sensor induced by changes in system geometry.
One of the major roles of the digital receiver is to provide diagnostic information on system functions and
to allow for identification of noise events, such as sferics, which may be selectively removed from the EM
signal. The high digital sampling rate yields maximum resolution of the secondary field.
System Hardware
The airborne EM system consists of the helicopter, the on-board hardware, and the software packages
controlling the hardware.
Transmitter System
The transmitter system drives high-current pulses of an appropriate shape and duration through the coils
towed below the helicopter.
System Timing Clock

This subsystem provides appropriate timing signals to the transmitter, and also to the analog-to-digital
converter, in order to produce output pulses and capture the ground response. All systems are
synchronized to GPS time.
Platform Systems
A three-axis induction coil sensor is mounted inside a platform on the tow cable. The platform is connected
to the transmitter loop through a network of cables to ensure a more robust and better stability of the
transmitter-receiver geometry. A magnetometer sensor is attached to the transmitter loop near its centre.
R2105059 45
Appendix E Airborne Transient EM Interpretation
R2105059 46
Introduction
The basis of the transient electromagnetic (EM) geophysical surveying technique relies on the premise
that changes in the primary EM field produced in the transmitting loop will result in eddy currents being
generated in any conductors in the ground. The eddy currents then decay to produce a secondary EM
field which may be sensed in the receiver coil.
The HELITEM™ airborne transient (or time-domain) EM system incorporates a high-speed digital receiver
which records the secondary field response with a high degree of accuracy. Most often the earth’s total
magnetic field is recorded concurrently.
Although the approach to interpretation varies from one survey to another depending on the type of data
presentation, objectives and local conditions, the following generalizations may provide the reader with
some helpful background information.
The main purpose of the interpretation is to determine the probable origin of the responses detected during
the survey and to suggest recommendations for further exploration. This is possible through an objective
analysis of all characteristics of the different types of responses and associated magnetic anomalies, if
any. If possible the airborne results are compared to other available data. Certitude is seldom reached,
but a high probability is achieved in identifying the causes in most cases. One of the most difficult problems
is usually the differentiation between surface conductor responses and bedrock conductor responses.
Types of Conductors
Bedrock Conductors
The different types of bedrock conductors normally encountered are the following:
1. Graphites. Graphitic horizons (including a large variety of carbonaceous rocks) occur in sedimentary
formations of the Precambrian as well as in volcanic tuffs, often concentrated in shear zones. They
correspond generally to long, multiple conductors lying in parallel bands. They have no magnetic
expression unless associated with pyrrhotite or magnetite. Their conductivity is variable but generally
high.
2. Massive sulphides. Massive sulphide deposits usually manifest themselves as short conductors of
high conductivity, often with a coincident magnetic anomaly. Some massive sulphides, however, are
not magnetic, others are not very conductive (discontinuous mineralization or sphalerite), and some
may be located among formational conductors so that one must not be too rigid in applying the
selection criteria.
In addition, there are syngenetic sulphides whose conductive pattern may be similar to that of graphitic
horizons but these are generally not as prevalent as graphites.
3. Magnetite and some serpentinized ultrabasics. These rocks are conductive and very magnetic.
4. Manganese oxides. This mineralization may give rise to a weak EM response.
Surficial Conductors
1. Beds of clay and alluvium, some swamps, and brackish ground water are usually poorly conductive to
moderately conductive. Lateritic formations, residual soils and the weathered layer of the bedrock may
cause surface anomalous zones, the conductivity of which is generally low to medium but can
occasionally be high. Their presence is often related to the underlying bedrock.
Cultural Conductors (Man-Made)
R2105059 47
2. Power lines. These frequently, but not always, produce a conductive type of response. In the case
when the radiated field is not removed by the power line comb filter, the anomalous response can
exhibit phase changes between different windows. In the case of current induced by the EM system
in a grounded wire, or steel pylon, the anomaly may look very much like a bedrock conductor.
The power line monitor gives the amplitude of the received signal at the power line frequency (50 or
60 Hz). Appropriate selection of the base frequency (such that the power line frequency is an even
harmonic of the base frequency) and tapered stacking combine to strongly attenuate power line
signals. When passing directly over a power line, the rapid lateral variations in the strength and
direction of the magnetic fields associated with the power line can result in imperfect cancellation of
the power line response during stacking. Some power line related interference can manifest itself in a
form that is similar to the response of a discrete conductor. The exact form of the monitor profile over
a power line depends on the flight line direction, power line direction, power line current, and receiver
component, but the monitor will show a general increase in amplitude approaching the power line.
Grids (or images) of the power line monitor reveal the location of the transmission lines. Note that the
X component (horizontal receiver coil axis parallel with the flight line direction) does not register any
response from power lines parallel to the flight line direction since the magnetic fields associated with
power lines only vary in a direction perpendicular to the power line. Note also that the Y component
(horizontal receiver coil axis perpendicular to the flight line direction) is sensitive to power lines parallel
to the flight direction.
3. Grounded fences or pipelines. These will invariably produce responses much like a bedrock
conductor. Whenever they cannot be identified positively, a ground check is recommended.
4. General culture. Other localized sources such as certain buildings, bridges, irrigation systems, tailings
ponds etc., may produce EM anomalies. Their instances, however, are rare and often they can be
identified on the visual path recovery system.
Analysis of the Conductors
The rate of decay of a conductor is generally indicative of the conductivity of the anomalous material.
However, the decay rate alone is not generally a decisive criterion in the analysis of a conductor. In
particular, one should note:
 its shape and size,

 all local variations of characteristics within a conductive zone,
 any associated geophysical parameter (e.g. magnetism),
 the geological environment,
 the structural context, and
 the pattern of surrounding conductors.
The first objective of the interpretation is to classify each conductive zone according to one of the three
categories which best defines its probable origin. The categories are cultural, surficial and bedrock. A
second objective is to assign to each zone a priority rating as to its potential as an economic prospect.
Bedrock Conductors
This category comprises those anomalies which cannot be classified according to the criteria established
for cultural and surficial responses. It is difficult to assign a universal set of values which typify bedrock
conductivity because any individual zone or anomaly might exhibit some, but not all, of these values and
still be a bedrock conductor. The following criteria are considered indicative of a bedrock conductor:
1. An intermediate to high conductivity identified by a response with slow decay, with an anomalous
R2105059 48
response present in the later windows.
2. For vertical conductors, the anomaly should be narrow, relatively symmetrical, with two well-defined z-
component peaks and a null between the peaks.
3. If the conductor is thin, the response characteristics varies as a function of depth and dips. If the
conductor is wider, the responses might look more similar to the sphere responses.
4. A small to intermediate amplitude. Large amplitudes are normally associated with surficial conductors.
The amplitude varies according to the depth of the source.
5. A degree of continuity of the EM characteristics across several lines.
6. An associated magnetic response of similar dimensions. One should note, however, that those
magnetic rocks which weather to produce a conductive upper layer will possess this magnetic
association. In the absence of one or more of the characteristics defined in 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, the related
magnetic response cannot be considered significant.
Most obvious bedrock conductors occur in long, relatively monotonous, sometimes multiple zones
following formational strike. Graphitic material is usually the most probable source. Massive syngenetic
sulphides extending for many kilometres are known in nature but, in general, they are not common. Long
formational structures associated with a strong magnetic expression may be indicative of banded iron
formations.
In summary, a bedrock conductor reflecting the presence of a massive sulphide would normally exhibit the
following characteristics:
 a high conductivity,
 an appropriate anomaly shape,
 a small to intermediate amplitude,
 an isolated setting,
 a short strike length (in general, not exceeding one kilometre), and
 preferably, with a localized magnetic anomaly of matching dimensions.
Surficial Conductors
This term is used for geological conductors in the overburden, either glacial or residual in origin, and in the
weathered layer of the bedrock. Most surficial conductors are probably caused by clay minerals. In some
environments the presence of salts will contribute to the conductivity. Other possible electrolytic
conductors are residual soils, swamps, brackish ground water and alluvium such as lake or river-bottom
deposits, flood plains and estuaries.
Normally, most surficial materials have low to intermediate conductivity so they are not easily mistaken for
highly conductive bedrock features. Also, many of them are wide and their anomaly shapes are typical of
broad horizontal sheets.
When surficial conductivity is high it is usually still possible to distinguish between a horizontal plate (more
likely to be surficial material) and a vertical body (more likely to be a bedrock source) thanks to the
characteristic shapes of the two anomalies and the differences in the x-component responses.
One of the more ambiguous situations as to the true source of the response is when surface conductivity
is related to bedrock lithology as for example, surface alteration of an underlying bedrock unit. At times, it
R2105059 49
is also difficult to distinguish between a weak conductor within the bedrock (e.g. near-massive sulphides)
and a surficial source.
In the search for massive sulphides or other bedrock targets, surficial conductivity is generally considered
as interference but there are situations where the interpretation of surficial-type conductors is the primary
goal. When soils, weathered or altered products are conductive, and in-situ, the responses are a very
useful aid to geologic mapping. Shears and faults are often identified by weak, usually narrow, anomalies.
Analysis of surficial conductivity can be used in the exploration for such features as lignite deposits,
kimberlites, paleochannels and ground water. In coastal or arid areas, surficial responses may serve to
define the limits of fresh, brackish and salty water.
Cultural Conductors
The majority of cultural anomalies occur along roads and are accompanied by a response on the power
line monitor. This monitor is set to 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the local power grid. In some cases, the
current induced in the power line results in anomalies which could be mistaken for bedrock responses.
There are also some power lines which have no response whatsoever.
The power line monitor, of course, is of great assistance in identifying cultural anomalies of this type. It is
important to note, however, that geological conductors in the vicinity of power lines may exhibit a weak
response on the monitor because of current induction via the earth.
Fences, pipelines, communication lines, railways and other man-made conductors can give rise to
responses, the strength of which will depend on the grounding of these objects.
Another facet of this analysis is the line-to-line comparison of anomaly character along suspected man-
made conductors. In general, the amplitude, the rate of decay, and the anomaly width should not vary a
great deal along any one conductor, except for the change in amplitude related to terrain clearance
variation. A marked departure from the average response character along any given feature gives rise to
the possibility of a second conductor.
In most cases a visual examination of the site will suffice to verify the presence of a man-made conductor.
If a second conductor is suspected the ground check is more difficult to accomplish. The object would be
to determine if there is (i) a change in the man-made construction, (ii) a difference in the grounding
conditions, (iii) a second cultural source, or (iv) if there is, indeed, a geological conductor in addition to the
known man-made source.
The selection of targets from within extensive (formational) belts is much more difficult than in the case of
isolated conductors. Local variations in the EM characteristics, such as in the amplitude, decay, shape
etc., can be used as evidence for a relatively localized occurrence. Changes in the character of the EM
responses, however, may be simply reflecting differences in the conductive formations themselves rather
than indicating the presence of massive sulphides and, for this reason, the degree of confidence is
reduced.
Another useful guide for identifying localized variations within formational conductors is to examine the
magnetic data in map or image form. Further study of the magnetic data can reveal the presence of faults,
contacts, and other features which, in turn, help define areas of potential economic interest.
Finally, once ground investigations begin, it must be remembered that the continual comparison of ground
knowledge to the airborne information is an essential step in maximizing the usefulness of the airborne
EM data.
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Appendix F Multicomponent Modeling
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PLATE MODELING
The CSIRO Leroi plate program has been used to generate synthetic responses over a number of plate
models with a burial depth of 50 m and varying dips (0, 45, 90 and 135 degrees). The geometry of the
HELITEM™ system is with the receiver located in the centre of the loop with a 0.1 m vertical separation
above the loop. In all cases the plate has a strike length of 300 m perpendicular to flight direction. The
depth extent of the plate is 100 m. As the flight path traverses the center of the plate, the Y component
is zero and has not been plotted.
The plate responses are plotted using the receiver location. GPS position in the data archive is
referenced to the helicopter tail, 8.0 m in front of the receiver.
R2105059 52
Figure 19 Plate model with a flying direction of left to right
R2105059 53
Figure 20 Plate model with flying direction from right to left
R2105059 54
Appendix G Glossary
R2105059 55
Xcalibur GLOSSARY OF AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL TERMS
accelerometer: an instrument that measures both acceleration (due to motion) and acceleration due to
gravity.
altitude attenuation: the absorption of gamma rays by the atmosphere between the earth and the
detector. The number of gamma rays detected by a system decreases as the altitude increases.
AGG: Airborne gravity gradiometer.
AGS: Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry.
amplitude: The strength of the total electromagnetic field. In frequency domain it is most often the sum
of the squares of in-phase and quadrature components. In multi-component electromagnetic surveys it
is generally the sum of the squares of all three directional components.
analytic signal: The total amplitude of all the directions of magnetic gradient. Calculated as the sum of
the squares.
anisotropy: Having different physical parameters in different directions. This can be caused by layering
or fabric in the geology. Note that a unit can be anisotropic, but still homogeneous.
anomaly: A localized change in the geophysical data characteristic of a discrete source, such as a
conductive or magnetic body: something locally different from the background.
apparent- : the physical parameters of the earth measured by a geophysical system are normally
expressed as apparent, as in “apparent resistivity”. This means that the measurement is limited by
assumptions made about the geology in calculating the response measured by the geophysical system.
Apparent resistivity calculated with HEM, for example, generally assumes that the earth is a
homogeneous half-space – not layered.
attitude: the orientation of a geophysical system relative to the earth. Some surveys assume the
instrument attitudes are constant, and other surveys measure the attitude and correct the data for the
changes in response because of attitude.
B-field: In time-domain electromagnetic surveys, the magnetic field component of the (electromagnetic)
field. This can be measured directly, although more commonly it is calculated by integrating the time rate
of change of the magnetic field dB/dt, as measured with a receiver coil.
background: The “normal” response in the geophysical data – that response observed over most of the
survey area. Anomalies are usually measured relative to the background. In airborne gamma-ray
spectrometric surveys the term defines the cosmic, radon, and aircraft responses in the absence of a
signal from the ground.
base-level: The measured values in a geophysical system in the absence of any outside signal. All
geophysical data are measured relative to the system base level.
base frequency: The frequency of the pulse repetition for a time-domain electromagnetic system.
Measured between subsequent positive pulses.
base magnetometer: A stationary magnetometer used to record the diurnal variations in the earth’s
R2105059 56
magnetic field; to be used to correct the survey magnetic data.
bird: A common name for the pod towed beneath or behind an aircraft, carrying the geophysical sensor
array.
bucking: The process of removing the strong signal from the primary field at the receiver from the data,
to measure the secondary field. It can be done electronically or mathematically. This is done in
frequency-domain EM, and to measure on-time in time-domain EM.
calibration: a procedure to ensure a geophysical instrument is measuring accurately and repeatably.

Most often applied in EM and gamma-ray spectrometry.
calibration coil: A wire coil of known size and dipole moment, which is used to generate a field of known
amplitude and phase or decay constant in the receiver, for system calibration. Calibration coils can be
external, or internal to the system. Internal coils may be called Q-coils.
coaxial coils: [CX] Coaxial coils in an HEM system are in the vertical plane, with their axes horizontal and
collinear in the flight direction. These are most sensitive to vertical conductive objects in the ground, such
as thin, steeply dipping conductors perpendicular to the flight direction. Coaxial coils generally give the
sharpest anomalies over localized conductors. (See also coplanar coils)
coil: A multi-turn wire loop used to transmit or detect electromagnetic fields. Time varying
electromagnetic fields through a coil induce a voltage proportional to the strength of the field and the rate
of change over time.
compensation: Correction of airborne geophysical data for the changing effect of the aircraft. This process
is generally used to correct data in fixed-wing time-domain electromagnetic surveys (where the
transmitter is on the aircraft and the receiver is moving), and magnetic surveys (where the sensor is on
the aircraft, turning in the earth’s magnetic field.
component: In frequency domain electromagnetic surveys this is one of the two phase measurements
– in-phase or quadrature. In “multi-component” electromagnetic surveys it is also used to define the
measurement in one geometric direction (vertical, horizontal in-line and horizontal transverse – the Z, X
and Y components).
Compton scattering: gamma ray photons will bounce off electrons as they pass through the earth and
atmosphere, reducing their energy and then being detected by radiometric sensors at lower energy levels.
See also stripping.
conductance: See conductivity thickness
conductivity: [] The facility with which the earth or a geological formation conducts electricity.
Conductivity is usually measured in milli-Siemens per metre (mS/m). It is the reciprocal of resistivity.
conductivity-depth imaging: see conductivity-depth transform.
conductivity-depth transform: A process for converting electromagnetic measurements to an

approximation of the conductivity distribution vertically in the earth, assuming a layered earth. (Macnae
and Lamontagne, 1987; Wolfgram and Karlik, 1995)
conductivity thickness: [t] The product of the conductivity, and thickness of a large, tabular body. (It
is also called the “conductivity-thickness product”) In electromagnetic geophysics, the response of a thin
R2105059 57
plate-like conductor is proportional to the conductivity multiplied by thickness. For example a 10 metre
thickness of 20 Siemens/m mineralization will be equivalent to 5 metres of 40 S/m; both have 200 S
conductivity thickness. Sometimes referred to as conductance.
conductor: Used to describe anything in the ground more conductive than the surrounding geology.
Conductors are most often clays or graphite, or hopefully some type of mineralization, but may also be
man-made objects, such as fences or pipelines.
continuation: mathematical procedure applied to potential field geophysical data to approximate data
collected at a different altitude. Data can be continued upward to a higher altitude or downward to a lower
altitude.
coplanar coils: [CP] In HEM, the coplanar coils lie in the horizontal plane with their axes vertical, and
parallel. These coils are most sensitive to massive conductive bodies, horizontal layers, and the
halfspace.
cosmic ray: High energy sub-atomic particles from outer space that collide with the earth’s atmosphere
to produce a shower of gamma rays (and other particles) at high energies.
counts (per second): The number of gamma-rays detected by a gamma-ray spectrometer. The rate
depends on the geology, but also on the size and sensitivity of the detector.
culture: A term commonly used to denote any man-made object that creates a geophysical anomaly.
Includes, but not limited to, power lines, pipelines, fences, and buildings.
current channelling: See current gathering.
current gathering: The tendency of electrical currents in the ground to channel into a conductive
formation. This is particularly noticeable at higher frequencies or early time channels when the formation
is long and parallel to the direction of current flow. This tends to enhance anomalies relative to inductive
currents (see also induction). Also known as current channelling.
daughter products: The radioactive natural sources of gamma-rays decay from the original “parent”
element (commonly potassium, uranium, and thorium) to one or more lower-energy “daughter” elements.
Some of these lower energy elements are also radioactive and decay further. Gamma-ray spectrometry
surveys may measure the gamma rays given off by the original element or by the decay of the daughter
products.
dB/dt: As the secondary electromagnetic field changes with time, the magnetic field [B] component
induces a voltage in the receiving coil, which is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
over time.
decay: In time-domain electromagnetic theory, the weakening over time of the eddy currents in the
ground, and hence the secondary field after the primary field electromagnetic pulse is turned off. In
gamma-ray spectrometry, the radioactive breakdown of an element, generally potassium, uranium,
thorium, into their daughter products.
decay constant: see time constant.
decay series: In gamma-ray spectrometry, a series of progressively lower energy daughter products
produced by the radioactive breakdown of uranium or thorium.
R2105059 58
depth of exploration: The maximum depth at which the geophysical system can detect the target. The
depth of exploration depends very strongly on the type and size of the target, the contrast of the target
with the surrounding geology, the homogeneity of the surrounding geology, and the type of geophysical
system. One measure of the maximum depth of exploration for an electromagnetic system is the depth at
which it can detect the strongest conductive target – generally a highly conductive horizontal layer.
differential resistivity: A process of transforming apparent resistivity to an approximation of layer

resistivity at each depth. The method uses multi-frequency HEM data and approximates the effect of
shallow layer conductance determined from higher frequencies to estimate the deeper conductivities
(Huang and Fraser, 1996)
dipole moment: [NIA] For a transmitter, the product of the area of a coil, the number of turns of wire, and
the current flowing in the coil. At a distance significantly larger than the size of the coil, the magnetic field
from a coil will be the same if the dipole moment product is the same. For a receiver coil, this is the product
of the area and the number of turns. The sensitivity to a magnetic field (assuming the source is far away)
will be the same if the dipole moment is the same.
diurnal: The daily variation in a natural field, normally used to describe the natural fluctuations (over hours
and days) of the earth’s magnetic field.
dielectric permittivity: [] The capacity of a material to store electrical charge, this is most often measured
as the relative permittivity [r], or ratio of the material dielectric to that of free space. The effect of high
permittivity may be seen in HEM data at high frequencies over highly resistive geology as a reduced or
negative in-phase, and higher quadrature data.
dose rate: see exposure rate.
drape: To fly a survey following the terrain contours, maintaining a constant altitude above the local ground
surface. Also applied to re-processing data collected at varying altitudes above ground to simulate a
survey flown at constant altitude.
drift: Long-time variations in the base-level or calibration of an instrument.
eddy currents: The electrical currents induced in the ground, or other conductors, by a time-varying
electromagnetic field (usually the primary field). Eddy currents are also induced in the aircraft’s metal
frame and skin; a source of noise in EM surveys.
electromagnetic: [EM] Comprised of a time-varying electrical and magnetic field. Radio waves are
common electromagnetic fields. In geophysics, an electromagnetic system is one which transmits a time-
varying primary field to induce eddy currents in the ground, and then measures the secondary field
emitted by those eddy currents.
energy window: A broad spectrum of gamma-ray energies measured by a spectrometric survey. The
energy of each gamma-ray is measured and divided up into numerous discrete energy levels, called
windows.
equivalent (thorium or uranium): The amount of radioelement calculated to be present, based on the
gamma-rays measured from a daughter element. This assumes that the decay series is in equilibrium
– progressing normally.
exposure rate: in radiometric surveys, a calculation of the total exposure rate due to gamma rays at the
R2105059 59
ground surface. It is used as a measurement of the concentration of all the radioelements at the surface.
Sometimes called “dose rate”.See also: natural exposure rate.
fiducial, or fid: Timing mark on a survey record. Originally these were timing marks on a profile or film;
now the term is generally used to describe 1-second interval timing records in digital data, and on maps
or profiles.
Figure of Merit: (FOM) A sum of the 12 distinct magnetic noise variations measured by each of four flight
directions, and executing three aircraft attitude variations (yaw, pitch, and roll) for each direction. The flight
directions are generally parallel and perpendicular to planned survey flight directions. The FOM is used
as a measure of the manoeuvre noise before and after compensation.
fixed-wing: Aircraft with wings, as opposed to “rotary wing” helicopters.
flight: a continuous interval of survey data collection, generally between stops at base to refuel.
flight-line: a single line of data across the survey area. Surveys are generally comprised of many parallel
flight lines to cover the survey area, with wider-spaced tie lines perpendicular. Flight lines are generally
separated by turn-arounds when the aircraft is outside the survey area.
footprint: This is a measure of the area of sensitivity under the aircraft of an airborne geophysical system.
The footprint of an electromagnetic system is dependent on the altitude of the system, the orientation of
the transmitter and receiver and the separation between the receiver and transmitter, and the conductivity
of the ground. The footprint of a gamma-ray spectrometer depends mostly on the altitude. For all
geophysical systems, the footprint also depends on the strength of the contrasting anomaly.
frequency domain: An electromagnetic system which transmits a harmonic primary field that oscillates
over time (e.g. sinusoidal), inducing a similarly varying electrical current in the ground. These systems
generally measure the changes in the amplitude and phase of the secondary field from the ground at
different frequencies by measuring the in-phase and quadrature phase components. See also time-
domain.
full-stream data: Data collected and recorded continuously at the highest possible sampling rate. Normal
data are stacked (see stacking) over some time interval before recording.
gamma-ray: A very high-energy photon, emitted from the nucleus of an atom as it undergoes a change in
energy levels.
gamma-ray spectrometry: Measurement of the number and energy of natural (and sometimes man-
made) gamma-rays across a range of photon energies.
GGI: gravity gradiometer instrument. An airborne gravity gradiometer (AGG) consists of a GGI mounted
in an inertial platform together with a temperature control system.
gradient: In magnetic surveys, the gradient is the change of the magnetic field over a distance, either
vertically or horizontally in either of two directions. Gradient data can be measured, or calculated from
the total magnetic field data because it changes more quickly over distance than the total magnetic field,
and so may provide a more precise measure of the location of a source. See also analytic signal.
gradiometer, gradiometry: instrument and measurement of the gradient, or change in a field with
location usually for gravity or magnetic surveys. Used to provide higher resolution of targets, better
R2105059 60
interpretation of target geometry, independence from drift and absolute field and, for gravity,
accelerations of the aircraft.
gravity: Survey collecting measurements of the earth’s gravitational field strength. Denser objects in the
earth create stronger gravitational pull above them.
ground effect: The response from the earth. A common calibration procedure in many geophysical
surveys is to fly to altitude high enough to be beyond any measurable response from the ground, and there
establish base levels or backgrounds.
half-space: A mathematical model used to describe the earth – as infinite in width, length, and depth
below the surface. The most common halfspace models are homogeneous and layered earth.
heading error: A slight change in the magnetic field measured when flying in opposite directions.
HEM: Helicopter ElectroMagnetic, This designation is most commonly used for helicopter-borne,
frequency-domain electromagnetic systems. At present, the transmitter and receivers are normally
mounted in a bird carried on a sling line beneath the helicopter.
herringbone pattern: A pattern created in geophysical data by an asymmetric system, where the
anomaly may be extended to either side of the source, in the direction of flight. Appears like fish bones,
or like the teeth of a comb, extending either side of centre, each tooth an alternate flight line.
homogeneous: This is a geological unit that has the same physical parameters throughout its volume.
This unit will create the same response to an HEM system anywhere, and the HEM system will measure
the same apparent resistivity anywhere. The response may change with system direction (see
anisotropy).
HFEM: Helicopter Frequency-domain ElectroMagnetic, This designation is used for helicopter-borne,

frequency-domain electromagnetic systems. Formerly most often called HEM.
HTEM: Helicopter Time-domain ElectroMagnetic, This designation is used for the new generation of
helicopter-borne, time-domain electromagnetic systems.
in-phase: the component of the measured secondary field that has the same phase as the transmitter
and the primary field. The in-phase component is stronger than the quadrature phase over relatively
higher conductivity.
induction: Any time-varying electromagnetic field will induce (cause) electrical currents to flow in any
object with non-zero conductivity. (see eddy currents)
induction number: also called the “response parameter”, this number combines many of the most
significant parameters affecting the EM response into one parameter against which to compare responses.
For a layered earth the response parameter is h2 and for a large, flat, conductor it is th, where
 is the magnetic permeability,  is the angular frequency,  is the conductivity, t is the thickness (for
the flat conductor) and h is the height of the system above the conductor.
inductive limit: When the frequency of an EM system is very high, or the conductivity of the target is
very high, the response measured will be entirely in-phase with no quadrature (phase angle =0). The
in-phase response will remain constant with further increase in conductivity or frequency. The system can
R2105059 61
no longer detect changes in conductivity of the target.
infinite: In geophysical terms, an “infinite’ dimension is one much greater than the footprint of the system,
so that the system does not detect changes at the edges of the object.
International Geomagnetic Reference Field: [IGRF] An approximation of the smooth magnetic field of
the earth, in the absence of variations due to local geology. Once the IGRF is subtracted from the
measured magnetic total field data, any remaining variations are assumed to be due to local geology. The
IGRF also predicts the slow changes of the field up to five years in the future.
inversion, or inverse modeling: A process of converting geophysical data to an earth model, which
compares theoretical models of the response of the earth to the data measured, and refines the model
until the response closely fits the measured data (Huang and Palacky, 1991)
layered earth: A common geophysical model which assumes that the earth is horizontally layered – the
physical parameters are constant to infinite distance horizontally, but change vertically.
lead-in: approach to a flight line outside of survey area to establish proper track and stabilize
instrumentations. The lead-in for a helicopter survey is generally shorter than required for fixed-wing.
line source, or line current: a long narrow object that creates an anomaly on an EM survey. Generally
man-made objects like fences, power lines, and pipelines (culture).
mag: common abbreviation for magnetic.
magnetic: (“mag”) a survey measuring the strength of the earth’s magnetic field, to identify geology and
targets by their effect on the field.
magnetic permeability: [] This is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction to the inducing magnetic
field. The relative magnetic permeability [r] is often quoted, which is the ratio of the rock permeability to
the permeability of free space. In geology and geophysics, the magnetic susceptibility is more
commonly used to describe rocks.
magnetic susceptibility: [k] A measure of the degree to which a body is magnetized. In SI units this is
related to relative magnetic permeability by k=r-1, and is a dimensionless unit. For most geological
material, susceptibility is influenced primarily by the percentage of magnetite. It is most often quoted in
units of 10-6. In HEM data this is most often apparent as a negative in-phase component over high
susceptibility, high resistivity geology such as diabase dikes.
manoeuvre noise: variations in the magnetic field measured caused by changes in the relative positions
of the magnetic sensor and magnetic objects or electrical currents in the aircraft. This type of noise is
generally corrected by magnetic compensation.
model: Geophysical theory and applications generally have to assume that the geology of the earth has
a form that can be easily defined mathematically, called the model. For example steeply dipping
conductors are generally modeled as being infinite in horizontal and depth extent, and very thin. The
earth is generally modeled as horizontally layered, each layer infinite in extent and uniform in characteristic.
These models make the mathematics to describe the response of the (normally very complex) earth
practical. As theory advances, and computers become more powerful, the useful models can become
more complex.
R2105059 62
natural exposure rate: in radiometric surveys, a calculation of the total exposure rate due to natural-
source gamma rays at the ground surface. It is used as a measurement of the concentration of all the
natural radioelements at the surface. See also: exposure rate.
natural source: any geophysical technique for which the source of the energy is from nature, not from a
man-made object. Most commonly applied to natural source electromagnetic surveys.
noise: That part of a geophysical measurement that the user does not want. Typically this includes
electronic interference from the system, the atmosphere (sferics), and man-made sources. This can be a
subjective judgment, as it may include the response from geology other than the target of interest.
Commonly the term is used to refer to high frequency (short period) interference. See also drift.
Occam’s inversion: an inversion process that matches the measured electromagnetic data to a
theoretical model of many, thin layers with constant thickness and varying resistivity (Constable et al,
1987).
off-time: In a time-domain electromagnetic survey, the time after the end of the primary field pulse,
and before the start of the next pulse.
on-time: In a time-domain electromagnetic survey, the time during the primary field pulse.
overburden: In engineering and mineral exploration terms, this most often means the soil on top of the
unweathered bedrock. It may be sand, glacial till, or weathered rock.
Phase, phase angle: The angular difference in time between a measured sinusoidal electromagnetic
field and a reference – normally the primary field. The phase is calculated from tan-1(in-phase /
quadrature).
physical parameters: These are the characteristics of a geological unit. For electromagnetic surveys,
the important parameters are conductivity, magnetic permeability (or susceptibility) and dielectric
permittivity; for magnetic surveys the parameter is magnetic susceptibility, and for gamma ray
spectrometric surveys it is the concentration of the major radioactive elements: potassium, uranium, and
thorium.
permittivity: see dielectric permittivity.
permeability: see magnetic permeability.
potential field: A field that obeys Laplace’s Equation. Most commonly used to describe gravity and
magnetic measurements.
primary field: the EM field emitted by a transmitter. This field induces eddy currents in (energizes) the
conductors in the ground, which then create their own secondary fields.
pulse: In time-domain EM surveys, the short period of intense primary field transmission. Most
measurements (the off-time) are measured after the pulse. On-time measurements may be made during
the pulse.
quadrature: that component of the measured secondary field that is phase-shifted 90 from the primary
field. The quadrature component tends to be stronger than the in-phase over relatively weaker
conductivity.
R2105059 63
Q-coils: see calibration coil.
radioelements: This normally refers to the common, naturally-occurring radioactive elements: potassium
(K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th). It can also refer to man-made radioelements, most often cobalt (Co)
and cesium (Cs)
radiometric: Commonly used to refer to gamma ray spectrometry.
radon: A radioactive daughter product of uranium and thorium, radon is a gas which can leak into the
atmosphere, adding to the non-geological background of a gamma-ray spectrometric survey.
receiver: the signal detector of a geophysical system. This term is most often used in active geophysical
systems – systems that transmit some kind of signal. In airborne electromagnetic surveys it is most often
a coil. (see also, transmitter)
resistivity: [] The strength with which the earth or a geological formation resists the flow of electricity,
typically the flow induced by the primary field of the electromagnetic transmitter. Normally expressed in
ohm-metres, it is the reciprocal of conductivity.
resistivity-depth transforms: similar to conductivity depth transforms, but the calculated

conductivity has been converted to resistivity.
resistivity section: an approximate vertical section of the resistivity of the layers in the earth. The
resistivities can be derived from the apparent resistivity, the differential resistivities, resistivity-depth
transforms, or inversions.
response parameter: another name for the induction number.
secondary field: The field created by conductors in the ground, as a result of electrical currents induced
by the primary field from the electromagnetic transmitter. Airborne electromagnetic systems are
designed to create and measure a secondary field.
Sengpiel section: a resistivity section derived using the apparent resistivity and an approximation of
the depth of maximum sensitivity for each frequency.
sferic: Lightning, or the electromagnetic signal from lightning, it is an abbreviation of “atmospheric

discharge”. These appear to magnetic and electromagnetic sensors as sharp “spikes” in the data. Under
some conditions lightning storms can be detected from hundreds of kilometres away. (see noise)
signal: That component of a measurement that the user wants to see – the response from the targets,
from the earth, etc. (See also noise)
skin depth: A measure of the depth of penetration of an electromagnetic field into a material. It is defined
as the depth at which the primary field decreases to 1/e of the field at the surface. It is calculated by
approximately 503 x (resistivity/frequency ). Note that depth of penetration is greater at higher resistivity
and/or lower frequency.
spec: common abbreviation for gamma-ray spectrometry.
spectrometry: Measurement across a range of energies, where amplitude and energy are defined for
each measurement. In gamma-ray spectrometry, the number of gamma rays are measured for each
energy window, to define the spectrum.
R2105059 64
spectrum: In gamma ray spectrometry, the continuous range of energy over which gamma rays are
measured. In time-domain electromagnetic surveys, the spectrum is the energy of the pulse distributed
across an equivalent, continuous range of frequencies.
spheric: see sferic.
stacking: Summing repeat measurements over time to enhance the repeating signal, and minimize the
random noise.
stinger: A boom mounted on an aircraft to carry a geophysical sensor (usually magnetic). The boom
moves the sensor farther from the aircraft, which might otherwise be a source of noise in the survey data.
stripping: Estimation and correction for the gamma ray photons of higher and lower energy that are
observed in a particular energy window. See also Compton scattering.
susceptibility: See magnetic susceptibility.

tau: [] Often used as a name for the decay time constant.
TDEM: time domain electromagnetic.
thin sheet: A standard model for electromagnetic geophysical theory. It is usually defined as a thin, flat-
lying conductive sheet, infinite in both horizontal directions. (see also vertical plate)
tie-line: A survey line flown across most of the traverse lines, generally perpendicular to them, to assist
in measuring drift and diurnal variation. In the short time required to fly a tie-line it is assumed that the
drift and/or diurnal will be minimal, or at least changing at a constant rate.
time constant: The time required for an electromagnetic field to decay to a value of 1/e of the original
value. In time-domain electromagnetic data, the time constant is proportional to the size and
conductance of a tabular conductive body. Also called the decay constant.
Time channel: In time-domain electromagnetic surveys the decaying secondary field is measured
over a period of time, and the divided up into a series of consecutive discrete measurements over that
time.
time-domain: Electromagnetic system which transmits a pulsed, or stepped electromagnetic field.

These systems induce an electrical current (eddy current) in the ground that persists after the primary
field is turned off, and measure the change over time of the secondary field created as the currents
decay. See also frequency-domain.
total energy envelope: The sum of the squares of the three components of the time-domain
electromagnetic secondary field. Equivalent to the amplitude of the secondary field.
transient: Time-varying. Usually used to describe a very short period pulse of electromagnetic field.
transmitter: The source of the signal to be measured in a geophysical survey. In airborne EM it is most
often a coil carrying a time-varying electrical current, transmitting the primary field. (see also receiver)
traverse line: A normal geophysical survey line. Normally parallel traverse lines are flown across the
property in spacing of 50 m to 500 m, and generally perpendicular to the target geology. Also called a
flight line.
R2105059 65
turn-arounds: The time the aircraft is turning between one traverse or tie line and the next. Turn-
arounds are generally outside the survey area, and the data collected during this time generally are not
useable, because of aircraft manoeuvre noise.
vertical plate: A standard model for electromagnetic geophysical theory. It is usually defined as thin
conductive sheet, infinite in horizontal dimension and depth extent. (see also thin sheet)
waveform: The shape of the electromagnetic pulse from a time-domain electromagnetic transmitter.
window: A discrete portion of a gamma-ray spectrum or time-domain electromagnetic decay. The

continuous energy spectrum or full-stream data are grouped into windows to reduce the number of
samples, and reduce noise.
zero, or zero level: The base level of an instrument, with no ground effect or drift. Also, the act of
measuring and setting the zero level.
R2105059 66
Common Symbols and Acronyms
k Magnetic susceptibility
 Dielectric permittivity
, r Magnetic permeability, relative permeability
, a Resistivity, apparent resistivity
,a Conductivity, apparent conductivity
t Conductivity thickness
 Tau, or time constant
m ohm-metres, units of resistivity
AGS Airborne gamma ray spectrometry.
CDT Conductivity-depth transform, conductivity-depth imaging (Macnae and Lamontagne, 1987;
Wolfgram and Karlik, 1995)
CPI, CPQ Coplanar in-phase, quadrature
CPS Counts per second
CTP Conductivity thickness product
CXI, CXQ Coaxial, in-phase, quadrature
FOM Figure of Merit
fT femtoteslas, common unit for measurement of B-Field in time-domain EM
EM Electromagnetic
keV kilo electron volts – a measure of gamma-ray energy
MeV mega electron volts – a measure of gamma-ray energy 1MeV = 1000keV
NIA dipole moment: turns x current x Area
nT nanotesla, a measure of the strength of a magnetic field
nT/s nanoteslas/second; standard unit of measurement of secondary field dB/dt in time domain EM.
nG/h nanoGreys/hour – gamma ray dose rate at ground level
ppm parts per million – a measure of secondary field or noise relative to the primary or radioelement
concentration.
pT picoteslas: standard unit of measurement of B-Field in time-domain EM
pT/s picoteslas per second: Units of decay of secondary field, dB/dt
S siemens – a unit of conductance
x: the horizontal component of an EM field parallel to the direction of flight.
y: the horizontal component of an EM field perpendicular to the direction of flight.
z: the vertical component of an EM field.
R2105059 67
References:
Constable, S.C., Parker, R.L., And Constable, C.G., 1987, Occam’s inversion: a practical algorithm for
generating smooth models from electromagnetic sounding data: Geophysics v. 52, p. 289-300
Huang, H. and Fraser, D.C, 1996. The differential parameter method for muiltifrequency airborne resistivity
mapping. Geophysics v. 55, p. 1327-1337
Huang, H. and Palacky, G.J., 1991, Damped least-squares inversion of time-domain airborne EM data
based on singular value decomposition: Geophysical Prospecting v. 39, p. 827-844
Macnae, J. and Lamontagne, Y., 1987, Imaging quasi-layered conductive structures by simple processing
of transient electromagnetic data: Geophysics v. 52, p. 545-554.
Wolfgram, P. and Karlik, G., 1995, Conductivity-depth transform of GEOTEM data: Exploration
Geophysics v. 26, p. 179-185.
R2105059 68

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GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY REPORT

AIRBORNE MAGNETIC AND HELITEM2 SURVEY

October 13, 2022

1 100010 - 101400 000°/180° 100 m 968.0 km

Table 1 Flown line kilometre summary

Location of the Survey Area

Figure 1 Tanami – Location Map

Table 2 Survey Area Corners

Figure 3 HELITEM2 System

Figure 4 Geometry of the HELITEM2 System

Operator: United Aero Helicopters

EM System: HELITEM2 35m diameter loop

Transmitter: Vertical axis loop slung below helicopter

Loop area: 962 m2

Nominal height above ground: 35 m

Inflight Vertical Rx-Tx separation (m) 0.1 m

Nominal height above ground: 35 m

Base frequency: 6.25 Hz

Pulse end (true time): 40.1270 ms

Pulse width: 39.8730 ms

Transmitter Current: 147 A

Dipole moment: 5.66x105Am²

Digital Acquisition: Xcalibur HeliDAS

Magnetometer: CS-3 Scintrex Cesium Vapour, mounted in the plane of the

Operating Range: 15,000 to 100,000 nT

Operating Range: 0 – 2500ft

Operating Range: 0.46 – 750 m

Operating Range (Heading, Roll): ±180°

Operating Limit: -40°C to 85°C

Operating Limit: -40°C to 85°C

Magnetometer Operating Range: 15,000 to 100,000 nT

GPS Receiver: JAVAD TRIUMPH-1M

WGS84 Latitude WGS84 Longitude Date Set Up Date Torn

Pulse Configuration and Sampling windows

Table 5 HELITEM2 Gate Positions

Airborne High Sensitivity Magnetometer

Magnetic Base Station

dB/dt Z < 0.5 nT/s

Below summarize any oddities outside our normal operations.

Flight Path Recovery

Magnetic Base Station Diurnal

Residual Magnetic Intensity

Total Magnetic Intensity

Calculated Vertical Magnetic Gradient

Flt 16001 +0.4sec Flt 16004 -0.3sec

Time Constant (TAU)

dB/dt Fraser Filtered X Data

The resulting grids are suitable for image processing.

All personnel were employees of Xcalibur, except where indicated.

Geodetic Information for map products:

Geosoft Grids, GeoTiffs and KMZ:

Disclaimer: Google Earth Accuracy

Note – The null values in the GDB are displayed as *.

EM Reference Waveform Description:

Operations, which are carried out in the receiver, are:

System Timing Clock

Cultural Conductors (Man-Made)

 its shape and size,

5. A degree of continuity of the EM characteristics across several lines.