Chapter 2

Step Motors
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 2.1. Introduction
Stepper motors convert electrical energy into discrete
mechanical rotation. Stepping motors have the following
advantages and disadvantages
➢ Advantages:

▪ Full torque when rotation is stopped. This aids in

maintaining the current position.
▪ Precise open-loop positioning and repetition. High quality
stepping motors have three to five percent precision
within a single step.
▪ Quick starts, stop, and reverse capability.
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▪ High reliability because there is no brush or physical

contact required for commutation.
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 2.1. Introduction

➢ Disadvantages:

▪ Inherent resonance can cause noise, jerky rotation, and at

extreme levels, loss of position.
▪ It is possible to lose position control in some situations,
because no feedback is natively provided.
▪ Power consumption does not decrease to zero, even if load
is absent or motor is in stop mode.
▪ Stepping motors have low-power density and lower
maximum speed compared to brushed and brushless DC
motors. Typical loaded maximum operating speeds for
stepper motors are around 1000 RPM.
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 2.2. Category
❖ Types of Stepping motors:

▪ Variable reluctance (VR) motors

▪ Permanent magnet (PM) motors
▪ Hybrid motors

2.2.1 VR Step Motors

VR stepping motors have three to five
windings and a common terminal
connection, creating several phases
on the stator. The rotor is toothed and
made of metal, but is not permanently
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magnetized.
4 teeth and 3 independent windings (three phases), creating
4 30 degree steps.
 2.2.1 VR Stepper Motors
Operation: The rotation of a VR motor is produced by
energizing individual windings.
When a winding is energized, current flows and magnetic
poles are created, which attracts the metal teeth of the rotor.
The rotor moves one step to align the offset teeth to the
energized winding. When the phases are turned on
sequentially, the rotor rotates continuously.
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12 steps per revolution

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 2.2.2. PM Step Motors

▪ A PM stepping motor consists of a

stator with windings and a rotor with
permanent magnet poles. Alternate
rotor poles have rectilinear forms
parallel to the motor axis.

▪ Stepping motors with magnetized

rotors provide greater flux and
3 rotor pole pairs and
torque than motors with variable
2 independent stator
reluctance.
windings, creating 30
degree steps. ▪ PM motors are subjected to influence
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from the back-EMF of the rotor,

which limits the maximum speed.

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 2.2.2. PM Step Motors
Operation: Rotation of a PM stepping motor is produced by
energizing individual windings in a positive or negative
direction.
When a winding is energized, a north and south pole are
created, depending on the polarity of the current flowing.
These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor.
The rotor moves one step to align the offset permanent poles to
the corresponding energized windings. When the phases are
turned on sequentially the rotor is continuously rotated.
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12 steps per
7 revolution
 2.2.2. PM Step Motors
Another alternative to rotate a permanent magnet rotor is to
energize both windings in each step. The vector torque
generated by each of the coils is additive; this doubles the
current flowing in the motor, and increases the torque.

12 steps per
revolution

Typical PM motors have more poles to create smaller steps

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and to make significantly smaller steps down to one degree or

even lower.
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 2.2.3. Hybrid Step Motors

▪ Hybrid stepping motors combine a

permanent magnet and a rotor with
metal teeth to provide features of the
VR and PM motors.

▪ Hybrid motors are expensive, but

they use smaller steps, then have
greater torque, and have greater
maximum speeds.

▪ Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced with the

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same control method as a PM motor, by energizing

individual windings in a positive or negative direction.
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 2.3 Motors Connection and Wiring
2.3.1. Identify the motor leads
The color code of the wires coming out of the motor are not
standard; however, using a multimeter/ohmmeter, it is easy to
identify the winding ends and center tap.
▪ 4 leads: the motor is a bipolar motor. If
the resistance measured across two
terminals is finite, then those are ends
of a coil. If the multimeter shows an
open circuit then the terminals are of
different windings.
▪ 5/6 leads: the resistance across
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one terminal and other terminals

will be almost equal (5 leads) or
10 double (6 leads).
 2.3 Motors Connection and Wiring

▪ 8 leads: it is similar to 4 leads case. However, 8 wire motors

have two coils per phase. The coils can be run in series,
parallel or half coil mode.

In all the above cases, once the terminals are identified, it is

important to know the sequence in which the windings should
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be energized. This is done by energizing the terminals one

after the other, by rated voltage.
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 2.4 Torque and Speed
2.4.1. Torque
Torque is a critical consideration when choosing a stepping
motor. Stepper motors have different types of rated torque.
▪ Holding torque: The torque required to rotate the motor’s
shaft while the windings are energized
▪ Pull-in torque: The torque against which a motor can
accelerate from a standing start without missing any
steps, when driven at a constant stepping rate.
▪ Pull-out torque: The load a motor can move when at
operating speed.
▪ Detent torque: The torque required to rotate the motor’s
shaft while the windings are not energized.
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Stepping motor manufacturers will specify several or all of

these torques in their data sheets for their motors.
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 2.4 Torque and Speed

2.4.2. Speed
The speed of a stepper motor depends on the rate at which you
turn on and off the coils, and is termed the step-rate.
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The current response is in the form of first order system with

time constant: 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐿
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 2.4 Torque and Speed

The best way to decide the maximum speed is by studying the

torque vs. step-rate (expressed in pulse per second or pps)
characteristics of a particular stepper motor

The ‘maximum self-starting frequency’ is 200 pps. While

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being at no-load, this motor can be accelerated up to 275 pps.

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 2.5 Stepper driver
2.5.1. Drivers for VR motors

➢ Power amplifier
C
ppr = 360/StepAngle
1 2 3
pps = (rpm/60)*ppr
Tdelay = 1/pps
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 2.5. Stepper driver
2.5.2. Drivers for PM motors
❖ Unipolar
▪ Full step, 1 phase ON

▪ Full step, 2 phase ON ▪ Half step

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 2.5. Stepper driver

▪ Power amplifier

1 2

a b a b
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 2.5. Stepper driver
❖ Bipolar
1 phase ON

2
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2 phase ON

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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Power amplifier

1a 1b 2a 2b
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H-Bridge

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 2.5. Stepper driver
2.5.3. Drivers for hybrid stepper motors
❖ Pentagon bipolar (5-phase hybrid stepper motor)

▪ Step angle: 0.72°/0.36°.

▪ This motor can be driven at full
step, half step and even micro-
step while ensuring that
maximum torque is being
generated by the motor on every
step.
▪ It also provides extremely
smooth motion as well as
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maintaining torque and step

accuracy.
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 2.5. Stepper driver
❖ Power amplifier
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 2.5. Stepper driver
❖ Full step (4 phases ON)
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “0” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “1” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “2” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
❖ Half step (4-5 phases ON)
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “0” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “1” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step
2.5.3. “2” for hybrid stepper motors
Drivers
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 2.5. Stepper driver
▪ Step “3”
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 2.5. Stepper driver
2.5.3. Micro-Stepping
▪ Single stepping results in jerky movements of a motor,
especially at a lower range of speed. Micro-stepping is
used to achieve increased step resolution and smoother
transitions between steps.
▪ If we move the motor in micro-steps, i.e., a fraction of a
full step (1/4, 1/8, 1/16 or 1/32), then the step-rate has to
be increased by a corresponding factor (4, 8, 16 or 32) for
the same rpm. Micro-stepping offers some advantages:
✓ Smooth movement at low speeds
✓ Increased step positioning resolution, as a result of a
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smaller step angle

✓ Maximum torque at both low and high step-rates
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 2.5. Stepper driver (Microstepping)
▪ In full step and half step modes, rated current is supplied to
the windings, which rotates the resultant flux in the air gap
in 90 degrees and 45 degrees “electrical”, respectively.

▪ In micro-stepping, the current is changed in the windings in

fractions of rated current. Therefore, the resultant direction
of flux changes in fractions of 90 degrees electrical.
Usually, a full step is further divided into 4/8/16/32 steps.
▪ The magnitude of the current in the windings:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑃𝐸𝐴𝐾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑃𝐸𝐴𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
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where, 𝐼𝑎 : instantaneous current in stator winding A

𝐼𝑏 : instantaneous current in stator winding B
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θ: microstep angle; 𝐼𝑃𝐸𝐴𝐾 : rated current
 2.5. Stepper driver (Microstepping)

The resultant stator current is the vector sum of the individual

winding currents.
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I sum = I a 2 + I b 2 = I PEAK

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 2.5. Stepper driver (Microstepping)
▪ But in practice, the current in one winding is kept constant
over half of the complete step and current in the other
winding is varied as a function of sinθ to maximize the
motor torque.
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I sum = ( I PEAK ) 2 + ( I PEAK sin  ) 2 = I PEAK 1 + (sin  ) 2

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 2.5. Stepper driver (Microstepping)

Table for full step (bipolar)

Table for microstep (bipolar)

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