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Iron Ore Sintering: Raw Materials and Granulation

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Iron Ore Sintering: Raw Materials and Granulation

D. Fernández-González, I. Ruiz-Bustinza, J. Mochón, C. González-Gasca & L. F.

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MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW
2017, VOL. 38, NO. 1, 36–46
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2016.1244059

Iron Ore Sintering: Raw Materials and Granulation

D. Fernández-Gonzáleza, I. Ruiz-Bustinzab, J. Mochónb, C. González-Gascac, and L. F. Verdejaa
a
Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering, School of Mines, Energy and Materials, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias,
Spain; bDepartment of Primary Metallurgy and Recycling, National Centre for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain; cEuropean
University of Madrid-Laureate International Universities, Villaviciosa de Odón, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Sintering is an agglomeration process that fuses iron ore fines, fluxes, recycled products, slag-forming Agglomeration; blast
elements and coke. The purpose of sintering is to obtain a product with suitable composition, quality furnace; coke; granulation;
and granulometry to be used as burden material in the blast furnace. This process is widely studied and iron ore; sintering
researched in the iron and steelmaking industry. In this context, achieving an adequate sintered product
depends on the adequate raw materials supply and the previous stage to the sintering process,
granulation. For that reason, in this paper, the granulation process is studied as a consequence of
being the source of pre-agglomerated materials for the subsequent sintering process. Thus, the main
tests used to the determination of the properties are reviewed as well as the main granulation
processes.

1. Introduction Asia belongs to sinter (Lu 2015). This material was loaded in
the blast furnace in alternative layers with coke and fluxes
Steel and cast irons are two materials thoroughly used in the
(Cores et al. 2010). In this context, agglomeration processes
modern society in spite of the predictions of materials statis-
(sintering and pelletization) were developed with the purpose
tics intellectuals (Ashby 1992). In this context, for instance,
of using this material with a size lower than 10 mm (Sancho
professor Ashby proposed in 1992 (Ashby 1992) that the
et al. 2000). Apart from the granulometric point of view, it is
relative importance of metals will be around 28% in 2015
necessary taking into account that the raw materials that
and also that demand for steel and cast irons would have
arrive to the iron and steelmaking factories have neither the
fallen in the 90s. Nothing further from the truth, the first
same chemical composition nor the same granulometry.
assessment can be considered truth because the relative influ-
Besides, the suitable blast furnace behavior is associated with
ence of metals is around 23% according to data from World
homogeneous processes that prompt improvements in eco-
Steel Association, United States Geological Survey, American
nomic efficiency, consistency in the pig iron and minimal
Foundry Society, U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization,
coke consumption (Fernández-González et al., 2016). For
Association of Plastics Manufacture, Roskill Information
that reason, sintering plants are extremely necessaries in
Services and Roca 2005.
modern iron and steel factories.
In this way, the second assessment of the metals demand
fallen is not reliable according to the historical data (930 Mt in
1999, 1327 Mt in 2005, and 1772 Mt in 2011). In the case of 1.1. Sintering and pelletization: Comparison
the iron and steel industry, the steel production is growing
The presence of this fine granulometry is consequence of the
(Figure 1), mainly in China, with the Oxygen Blow Converter
reduction of size and concentration processes. These pro-
(Blast Furnace), with 72% of the steel production in 2013, as
cesses have as objective enriching the ore (in this case iron)
the main technology (Electric Furnace, 27.5%; Open Heart
by eliminating the gangue. After mining operations, the
Furnace, 0.5%). By regions: Asia is the major steel producer
reduction of mineral’s size is the following step. The purpose
(mainly China), followed by Europe, Russia and USA. China
of this step is to individualize ore and gangue particles, and
was where the steel production grew more in the last forty
the typical mechanisms are by compression, by abrasion and
years (in Mt), while in the other four main steel producers,
wear and by impact. Graca et al., 2015, studied the effect of
productions remain stable (Table 1) (data from United States
the mineralogical features in grinding of iron-ore products.
Geological Survey: Steel).
Graca et al., 2015, showed the results of grinding in the plants
Until the fifties of the last century, the materials that were
of pelletization of 4 mines (Minas Gerais in Brazil), and
loaded in the blast furnace (Peacey and Davenport 1986) were
observed a strong relation among the gain of specific surface
oxidized iron ores with a granulometry within 10 and 120 mm
area and the iron ore morphology.
because lower sizes caused permeability problems in the fur-
After the process of size reduction, it is necessary to carry
nace bed. Nowadays, 70% of blast furnace ferrous bed in East
out concentration operations, which have as objective the

CONTACT D. Fernández-González fernandezgdaniel@uniovi.es Calle Independencia, 13, 33004, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 37

(magnetite is free of harmful elements and is interesting

in the high quality market), where a concentrate with
less than 2% SiO2 was achieved by using amine (Sandvik
and Larsen, 2014). Sandvik and Larsen, 2014 developed
a commercial process with good results for this mine by
using Mg anions in the silica activation followed by
anionic flotation (pH 10.5), all this with the purpose of
avoiding the use of amines, which is prohibited by
Norwegian laws.
● Magnetic or electrostatic separation: uses magnetic sus-
ceptibility or electric conductivity.

The final product of the previous operations is a material

Figure 1. World steel production.
separation ore-gangue. Carlson et al., 2008, studied the parti-
cle shape on the filtration rate of iron concentrates, and they
observed differences up to 60% as a function of the mine’s
location. Carlson et al., 2008, concluded that size and shape of
particles are not responsible of this difference, surface chem-
istry is the reason. There are four possibilities for concentra-
tion according to the properties of the materials (Ballester
et al., 2003):
● Classification: The basis of the separation is the particle
size.
● Gravimetric concentration: Separation is carried out by
means of density and/or volume differences.
● Flotation: Superficial properties are considered in this
case. This process is based on the adherence of solid
particles in suspension to gases or liquid, mainly water
(Haselhuhn 2012; Haselhuhn 2013; Haselhuhn and
Kawatra, 2015a; Haselhuhn and Kawatra, 2015b;
Haselhuhn and Kawatra, 2015c). Some chemical agents
are used with the finality of achieving an adequate
process: collecting agents, that help the surface of the
material to be hydrophobic, achieving a good adherence
to the air bubbles; foaming agents, that allows for achiev-
ing a stable foam once the mineral particle-air bubble
was formed; and finally, in order to increase the differ-
ences of surface physical-chemical properties, improving
the action of collectors, conditioning agents are added.
Sydvaranger mine (Norway) is a magnetite mine
rich in iron but with a fine granulometry that requires
agglomeration processes: briquettes (used in the ferroalloys
industry, Ordiales et al., 2016), cold pressing with or without
agglomerating agents; nodules, obtained in rotatory horizontal
and cylindrical furnaces, where nodules are formed as a con-
sequence of the rolling and coking at high temperature; and
sintering and pelletizing, that are those commonly used.
Sintering is a thermal process (1300-1480°C, Eisele and
Kawatra, 2003) by which a mixture of iron ores, return
fines, recycled products of the iron and steel industry (furnace
dusts and mill scale, Eisele and Kawatra, 2003), slag-forming
elements, fluxes and coke are agglomerated in a sinter plant to
manufacture a sintered product of a suitable chemical com-
position (chemically), quality (physically), and granulometry
to be used as burden material in the blast furnace (Fernández-
González et al., 2016). The products that are usually agglom-
erated has a particle size lower than 8 mm, so that the result-
ing sinter, with a screened size of 12-35 mm, can withstand
pressure and temperature conditions in the blast furnace
(Sancho et al. 2000).
In this way, the first step is acquiring a good knowledge of the
granulometry and composition of the materials that are going to
be sintered (mainly iron ore, but also the other materials such as
coke, fluxes, recycled products, etc.) because this information is
really important to obtain a sintered product with suitable proper-
ties for the subsequent load in the blast furnace. The second stage
is the raw materials granulation. This process is based on the
homogenization of the raw mix in a mixing drum for several
minutes with the addition of 6-8% water. This product will be
subsequently delivered as a layer onto a continuously moving
grate or “strand” (third stage, sintering process beginning). This
product is ignited with gas burners at the strand start, while air is
drawn through the bed causing the fuel to burn. In the sintering

Table 1. Steel production by regions.

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013
Europe 202 206 223 218 212 205 210 221 207 205
Western Europe 161 155 161 159 163 156 187 196 173 166
Eastern Este 40 51 61 59 49 49 24 25 34 39
Russia 116 141 148 155 154 79 98 113 108 108
Canada and USA 131 119 117 95 101 110 118 110 94 102
Latin America 13 19 29 36 39 48 56 62 62 62
Africa 5 8 11 12 13 14 14 18 17 16
Medium East 1 1 2 3 4 8 11 15 20 27
Asia 121 144 178 193 239 280 332 599 918 1123
Oceania 7 8 8 7 7 9 8 9 8 6
World 595 646 716 719 760 752 848 1148 1433 1649
38 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
process, strand displacement speed and gas flow are controlled
(flame front) with the purpose of achieving the coke burn pre-
vious to the sinter being discharged. Temperatures reached in the
process (1250-1350°C) allows for achieving the partial melting of
the raw mix, that afterwards after a series of reactions crystallizes
into several mineral phases of different chemical composition and
morphology (mainly hematite, magnetite, ferrites and gangue).
The sintered product is broken up and screened when it reaches
the end of the strand. As a result of the breaking and screening
process, a fine fraction (< 5 mm, return fines) is generated. These
return fines are recycled to process beginning. In order to control
the gases emissions, the wind boxes are connected to a gas scrub-
bing system.
Pelletization is a process of agglomeration of iron ore
concentrates with a granulometry lower than 150 µm
(Sancho et al. 2000; Palacios et al., 1998), and low concentra-
tion of impurities. This iron ore is mixed with water, bento-
nite, and lime and treated in a furnace at temperatures of
around 1,100°C, with the finality of obtaining a product with
suitable physical, chemical, and mechanical (Halt et al., 2015a
and Halt and Kawatra, 2015, studied the relation of dustiness
generation with abrasion index, pellet chemistry, firing tem-
perature, coke breeze and tumble index, and observed 21%
increasing dustiness for every percentage decrease in firing
temperature) properties (Halt et al., 2015c, described a new
method for predicting pellet quality) to be fed into the blast
furnace (Pal et al., 2015). Bentonite is traditionally used in the
manufacture of pellets, but is expensive and can contaminate
the pellets. Halt and Kawatra, 2014, reviewed the use of
organic binders as an alternative to bentonite in the manu-
facture of pellets.
Thermal induration of pellets is expensive and energetically
inefficient (Bolen, 2014, proposed new control technology for
air pollution during iron ore induration). Halt et al., 2015b
studied the cold bonding of iron ore concentrate pellets with
lime, cement, sponge iron powder and organic material such
as starch and flour. Nikai and Garbers-Craig, 2016, studied
the feasibility of producing direct reduced iron from cold-
bonded (self-reducing composite pellets) from beneficiated
iron ore slime, coke and different binders (dextrin, bentonite,
calcium lignosulfonate, and carboxymethyl-cellulose).
Chemically, pellets have the following composition and
granulometry (approximately): 94% Fe2O3, 3.3% SiO2, 1.0%
CaO, 0.20% MnO, 0.50% MgO and 1.0% Al2O3, 10-20 mm
(Sancho et al., 2000). On its behalf, sinter: 64% Fe2O3, 10% Fe,
5.0% FeO, 6.5% SiO2, 10.5% CaO, 1.0% MnO, 1.0% MgO,
2.0% Al2O3, 5-30 mm (Sancho et al., 2000). For that reason,
pellets are products of: great uniformity with regard to size
(10-20 mm in diameter); high mechanical strength; almost
inert to water (low CaO), and can be stored and transported
outside; good reducibility (high Fe2O3 or Fe3O4, in its case,
content); high iron content. As opposed to sinter, where the
formation of liquid phases, which agglomerate the iron ore, is
consequence of the combustion of fine particles of coke in a
Dwight–Lloyd machine, the development of liquid phases in
pellets is achieved by an external source of energy (fuel,
natural gas or pulverized coal) in a shaft, rotatory or con-
veyor-belt furnace.
2. Raw materials
As it was mentioned, the iron ore that arrives to the iron and
steelmaking facilities has different precedencies. Moreover, the
raw mix that forms the sinter bed also comprises return fines,
iron and steelmaking recycled products, slag-forming elements,
fluxes, and coke. In this way, achieving homogeneous chemical
composition, granulometry and mineralogy implies a good sinter
quality, and consequently an excellent process in the blast furnace
with the advantages previously mentioned. Thus, several research
projects have established a series of parameters that allows us for
achieving the suitable sinter quality. These parameters are: basicity
(CaO/SiO2), Al2O3 and MgO contents, ferrites content, total
hematite, reoxidized hematite from magnetite, reducibility index
(RI), reduction degradation index (RDI), Tumbler index (TI),
porosity and coke rate.
2.1. Iron ore
Iron ore global market is mainly formed by hematite (Fe2O3),
goethite (α-FeOOH), and magnetite (Fe3O4). This iron ore has
large influence in steel quality (Mohanan et al., 2015), so nowa-
days low impurities content (alkalis, sulphur, and phosphorus),
and iron average content, which changed in the last 80 years
from 40% in 1940 to 60-65% in 2016, are important. These
requirements caused the closure of local mines that could not
satisfy iron ore quality standards, and volume of mineral
reserves did not ensure the economical profitability. That is
the reason of that, in 2012, nine countries produced more than
80% of iron ore world production, and six countries (Australia,
41%; Brazil, 29%; South Africa, 4.8%; Ukraine, 3.1%; Canada,
3.0%; and India, 2.9%) (data from United States Geological
Survey: Iron Ore) accounted for more than 84% of world iron
ore exports (1130 Mt in 2012). On their behalf, four countries
(China, Germany, Japan, and Republic of Korea) imported for
more than two-thirds of world iron ore imports. The main iron
ore producers are: BHP Billiton Ltd. (Australia) 176 Mt, Rio
Tinto (Australia and Canada) 199 Mt, Fortescue Metals Group
(Australia) 63.7 Mt, Vale S. A. (Brasil) 320 Mt, in 2012. Projects
in Australia will increase its iron ore production capacity in
2015 in 100 Mt annually. The Australian iron ore production
increase and the lower than expected consumption in China
moved the market into oversupply, and in this context the
prices per dry metric ton of fines at 62% iron content fell to
nearly $80 in October 2015 from $154 in 2013. Mine closures
and idles are expected in the next years (in Canada, the Wabush
Scully Mine was closed and the Pointe-Noire Pellet plant was
idled indefinitely; three mines in Australia were closed or idled
in late 2014) (United States Geological Survey: Iron Ore). As a
result of lower prices an estimated 200 million tons of iron ore
capacity was idled between 2014 and 2015 (United States
Geological Survey: Iron Ore). In this context, the iron ore
worldwide market has a growing tendency that can be observed
in Figure 2.The main iron ore mines are listed in Table 2.
In this global market, Western Europe and North America
import, mainly, high-quality dense hematite ores from South
America for their sinter plants, while in Asia porous iron ores
from Australia are imported (apart from their own mines).
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 39

limestone, lime, dolomite, dunite, soda, fluorspar, bauxite,

etc. (Sancho et al. 2000).
Quality and chemical technical standards of the slag form-
ing elements and fluxes are important to be controlled in
order to avoid undesirable elements in the process (mainly,
sulphur, and phosphorus).

Figure 2. Iron ore: mine production (China mine production is based on crude
ore; in the other countries mine production is based on usable ore).
These Australian iron ores are poorer in quality than dense
hematite ores (Cores et al. 2013).
The depletion of rich iron ore mines has brought a discussion
topic in the nowadays mining industry. In this way, the high
demand of iron ore has caused the exploitation of low grade iron
ores and more complex chemistries (Semberg et al. 2014). Studies
to evaluate the beneficiation of low-grade hematite-magnetite ore
(18.64% Fe) have been carried out in China (Liu et al., 2014).
Bioprocessing has been considered as an option in the beneficia-
tion of low-grade iron ore resources (Ballester et al., 2003; Zhang
et al., 2015).
2.3. By-products
In the iron and steel industry, a huge amount of by-products
are generated (Table 3). The recycling and utilization of these
by-products have long been promoted in the iron and steel-
making industry as a consequence of environmental policies,
energy saving and use of wastes with high iron content. Most
of the solid by-products can be employed once again in the
sintering process while others are used by other industries
such as blast furnace slags in cement industry (Ramachandran
et al., 2002). Gases (blast furnace gas, coke oven gas and
converter gas) are used as energy source in the steelmaking
factory or in thermal power stations (Soares 2015).
Mukherjee et al. 2015 proposed the beneficiation of the
iron ore slime. That process appeared because of that 15-20%
of the run of mine in India from any iron ore deposit is
reported to slime dam as a by-product of the iron ore bene-
ficiation process. The process was developed by Tata Steel and
produces a concentrate of 2.2% alumina with 40% yield form
slime of 7-9% alumina (in bench scale).

2.2. Fluxes and slag-forming elements
The mineral gangue and the coke ashes have high melting
points (1700-2000°C) so they would have problems to be
melted in the blast furnace process. For that reason fluxes
and slag-forming elements are added with the purpose of
achieving slags with low melting point (1700-2000°C) and
suitable viscosity, which also absorb undesirable elements
that can contaminate the pig iron. Typical fluxes and slag
forming elements added to the furnace charge to lower the
melting point and drawn impurities into the slag are
2.4. Coke
To guarantee the supply of coal for coke production is funda-
mental in the iron and steelmaking. The reason is that coke
provides reductant gas and energy for the process. Coal reserves
are higher than those of other fossil fuel ones. The main problem
is that coking coal is only available in some regions.
Coke is the best fuel for iron ore sintering. Size is a crucial factor
as it was shown in some research projects (Shigema 1968;
Tahanpesaranedezfuly and Heidary 2012). The best economy
and efficiency is obtained with a coke particle size of less than
3 mm, a product known as coke breeze (Shigema 1968). The best

Table 2. Main iron ore mines.

Mine Major Owner Country Iron Ore Production (Mt in 2014)
Hamersley (Brockman, Marra Mamba, Pisoliten, Rio Tinto Australia 163
etc.) (62% Fe)
Carajas (66.7% Fe) Vale Brazil 120
Simandou (65.5% Fe) Rio Tinto and others Guinea 95 (expected once opened)
Chichister Hub (57.6% Fe) Fortescue Metals Group Australia 90
Yandi BHP Billiton Australia 79
Mount Whaleback BHP Billiton Australia 77
Solomon Hub Fortescue Metals Group Australia 58
Area C (62% Fe) BHP Billiton Australia 57
Kalia (54.1% Fe) Bellzone Mining Guinea 50 (expected once opened)
Hope Downs (61.6% Fe) Rio Tinto/Hancock Australia 43
Sishen (59.2% Fe) Kumba Iron Ore Limited South 34
Africa
Karara (36.4% Fe) Karara Mining Limited Australia 30
Zanaga (34% Fe) Glencore Xstrata/Zanaga Iron Ore Congo 14 (expected stage-1 once opened) 30 (expected stage 2
Company once opened)
Kiruna (>60% Fe) Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB Sweden 27.5 (2008)
Samarco Alegria (40.2% Fe) BHP Billiton/Vale Brazil 21.8 (2012)
Yekepa Mine Arcelor Mittal Liberia 4 (15 expected once completed 2nd-phase)
40 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.

Table 3. Wastes of the ironmaking and steelmaking industry (Elias 2000).
Solid Blast furnace sludge, dust and
slags
Steelmaking sludge, dust and
slags
Mineral Sinter plant dust
Ironmaking and Dust catcher and electrofilter
steelmaking wastes powders
Coke plant rejects
Refractories
Metal Scurf, mill scale, swarf
Chemical Ferrous sulphate, ammonium
sulphate, ferrous oxides
Liquid Oil, acids, cianides, etc.
Gas Blast furnace gas, converter gas, coke oven
gas
sinter productivity and reducibility are obtained with a coke size
between 0.25 and 3 mm (Tahanpesaranedezfuly and Heidary
2012). However, a coke size lower than 0.25 mm has negative
influence on productivity, although does not affect the combustion
process efficiency (Loo 1991). Tests with coke breeze have shown
that the coarser fraction (within 1 mm and 3.15 mm) is preferable
and more economical in terms of consumption
(Tahanpesaranedezfuly and Heidary 2012; Loo 1991; Peters et al.
1989). Fine coke burns quickly, while coarse coke burns more
slowly and can widen the flame front, leading to a possible loss of
productivity. Besides, coarser fuel is more economical, reinforces
sinter production, improves RDI (Rodero et al. 2015) and lowers
SO2 emissions. Sun et al., 2015, studied the metallic iron size
distribution with the purpose of achieving a better knowledge of
the coal-based reduction mechanisms in the case of refractory
iron. Sun et al., 2015, observed the strong dependence of reduction
time and temperature with time.
Sinter-pot tests are used in the research of how coke affects
productivity, coke consumption and sinter quality in the sinter
bed (Loo 1991). In this way, it is observed that the coarser
fraction of coke breeze implies higher flame front speed and
better combustion efficiency. On the contrary, fine coke causes
poorer combustion efficiency, less heat and lower sintering
temperature. As a consequence, coke rate needs to be increased
with the purpose of maintaining sinter quality.
Research carried out by Lovel et al. 2009 has found that the
flame front speed is increased when the coke reactivity (r) rises:
Flame Front Speedðcm=minÞ ¼ 0:2014  ln r þ 4:039 (1)
The higher the flame front speed implies a higher productivity,
and productivity rises with reactivity. However, obtained sinter is
less resistant as a consequence of the formation of less melt in these
circumstances.
3. Granulation
Granulation consists of the homogenization of iron ore mixture in
a rotation drum with 7-8% water for a few minutes with the finality
of obtaining a pre-agglomerated product. The process has dura-
tion between 30 minutes to 1.0 hour, including the addition of
moisture, granulation and insertion in the sintering machine. This
process has a fundamental importance for the iron ore sintering
because a good granulation ensures a suitable sinter bed perme-
ability and hence the productivity of the sinter plant. That is as a
consequence of that a good sinter bed permeability determines the
rate at which the sintering process progresses. Nippon Steel
Corporation defined the term quasi-particle in their first studies
on the structure of granulated raw mixes. A quasi-particle
(Figure 3) consists of an iron ore nuclei (remains un-melted during
the sintering process) surrounded by fine ore grains with silica
gangue in the presence of high basicity (CaO/SiO2). Particles with
a size higher than 0.7 mm plays the role of nuclei while particles
with a size lower than 0.2 mm act as adherent fines. The amount of
particles with a size comprised within 0.2 and 0.7 mm should be
minimal because they affect the mix permeability in two different
ways depending on the role that they could play:
(1) Being nuclei: They give rise to a smaller quasiparticle
size, lowering the bed permeability.
(2) Adherent fines: They are poorly bonded and easily
separated from the dry particles.

Serpentine
Coke
Breeze

Iron Ore Adhering

Iron Ore Fine
Nuclei

Limestone
Moisture (Water
between particles that
QUASI-PARTICLE for capillary action keeps
them joined)

Figure 3. Quasi-particle schematic.

 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 41

Increasing the water content in the raw mix during gran-

ulation helps these intermediate particles to adhere to the
coarse nuclei, but they quickly detach during drying.
The study of micro-particles (<10 µm and submicron size) is
also important. In this context a research has been carried out on
the effect of micro-particles in 7 different iron ores on the
optimum granulation moisture (Kawachi and Kasama 2009).
The presence of an Anionic Polymer Dispersant (APD) accel-
erates micro-particles (<10 μm and submicron size) dispersion
in water with an increase in micro-particles content, resulting in
strengthening the contact points between nuclear particles and
fine particles or among fine ores. In this context, when there is a
change from the wet state to the dry state, micro-particles con-
centrate at the water bridge, and at the end of the drying process
these particles form a solid bridge that stick these micro-particles
to the nuclear particles. The presence of APD causes the effective
amount of liquid phase increase, and as a result saturation
degree increases allowing for ore optimal granulation with a
lesser amount of water. See Figure 4.
In sintering, ferrites form in the layer adhered to the nuclei
due to the solid-liquid reaction between hematite and a CaO-
Fe2O3 melt containing small amounts of SiO2 and Al2O3.
Adhesion is highly influenced by the moisture available for
granulation (Litster et al. 1986; Litster and Waters 1988).
Other factors such as the nature of the nuclei, particle shape
and surface properties are of secondary importance.

3.1. Moisture content

Moisture content in the raw mix to be sintered is a very impor-
tant parameter in the granulation stage because the process of
adhering fine particles to the nuclei to form quasi-particles is
very strongly influenced by the moisture available for granula-
tion (Litster et al. 1986; Litster and Waters 1988).
Achieving the maximum air permeability requires a higher
moisture addition than the maximum production (Rankin
1986), so it is a common practice working with 0.85 times
the requirement for maximum permeability. This practice is
Figure 4. Behavior of micro-particle on granulation.
carried out as a consequence of that moisture condenses at the
bottom layer of the bed after evaporating from the upper part
as the flame front approaches. The condensation process is (1) Interlocking of the particles. This force can be varied
reported to happen during the first 2 minutes of sintering in two different ways:
before the raw mix reaches its dew point temperature (Wild a. By altering the sequence of the mix to be sintered
and Dixon 1962). formation in order to favor the granulation
Due to the large importance of moisture control, many nucleus action, which is provided by a certain
plants have installed online infrared analyzers with the pur- component as it could be the return fines.
pose of having a monitoring of the moisture content in the b. By modifying the sinter mix formation sequence
sinter plant granulated feed. The control of water addition is with the purpose of including a selective granula-
performed automatically (Wild and Dixon 1962). tion or pre-agglomeration process.

3.2. Granulation fitness An example of selective granulation can be observed at one

As it was mentioned previously, the purpose of granulation is
to achieve that fine particles adhere between them and in this
way form coarse particles. In this context, the granulated
would give homogeneous particle size, and consequently less
resistance to the gases circulation (also improves permeability
and productivity). There are two kinds of attraction forces
that govern granulation:
factory of the Nippon Kokan Keihin (NKK) (Fukuyama),
where the return fines act as the nuclei and lime act as the
agglomerating agent. In this way, using higher amount of
fines without deteriorate the productivity.
(2) Attraction by the creation of liquid phase “bridges”
between particles. This type of forces can be heigh-
tened by means of additives.
42 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
In any case, described forces are not important, they are
only strong enough to ensure that the granulated can be
transported and disposed on the sinter grate without break-
ing. The size of the granulated is comprised between 1 mm
and 10 mm.
3.3. Granulation practice
Sinter productivity is directly related with bed permeability.
On its behalf, permeability is related with the granule size
distribution and average granule size (dependent on the
moisture addition). In this way, permeability reaches its max-
imum value as a function of the moisture, and the maximum
productivity is achieved by using 85% of the moisture
required for maximum permeability (higher contents would
cause condensations in the bottom layer of the bed).
Several research works have proposed different equations
for calculating the optimum moisture content, which could be
defined as the lowest amount necessary to achieve maximum
bed permeability. The first equation was proposed by Lv et al.
2010. They defined a new parameter that is known as moist-
ure capacity (mc, maximum water content that can be
retained between ore particles). Moisture capacity increases
in line with the external surface area and decreases as the ore
pore volume rises. In this situation, optimum moisture (W) is:
W ¼ 6:94 þ 0:12  mc (2)
It was established that a sample with high moisture capa-
city needs more water to achieve the best bed permeability.
Kosha and Manuel 2007, proposed an equation to calculate
the optimum moisture as a function of the nature, composi-
tion and granulometry of the ore:
W ¼ 2:28 þ 0:427  L þ 0:810  A  0:339  S þ 0:104
 d0:15mm þ 0:0359  I (3)
Where:
L: ore weight loss during heating (wt %)
A: alumina in ore (wt %)
S: silica in ore (wt %)
d0:15mm : ore size fraction less than 0.15 mm
I: ore size fraction between 0.1 and 1 mm
It has not been possible to directly relate permeability with
the ore nature.
Research has been carried out into the effect of moisture
addition and wettability on granulation by determining the
contact angle between iron oxide and water and the iron ore
granulation fitness (Maeda et al. 2005). The study considered
one reagent grade hematite, three hematite ores and three
goethite ores, determining interaction between the following
parameters: nature of ore; porosity (range from 5 to 20);
moisture content (11.8, 12.8, and 13.8% vol.); wettability time
(0 to 20 min); measurement of ore-water contact angle by
sessile drop method (50 to 100°); surface roughness (1.4 to
6.7 μm); rpm of pelletizing machine (20, 30 and 40); adherent
fine ratio (AR) of fine particles to nucleus (0 to 1); and fracture
strength (FS) of quasi-particles (0 to 6). The best granulation is
achieved with a goethite ore nuclei, with high porosity, low
roughness, and a low contact angle (more wetted).
Kosha and Manuel 2007 also proposed an equation to
calculate the maximum permeability:
Pmax ðin Japanese Permeability UnitÞ
¼ 28:6 þ 1:22 L þ 3:85 A  2:97 S þ 0:593  d6:3þ4
 1:83  d0:25þ0:15 þ 0:831  d0:15þ0:063 þ 0:282  I
(4)
Where:
L: ore weight loss during heating (g)
A: alumina in ore (wt %)
S: silica in ore (wt %)
d6:3þ4 : ore size fraction between 4 and 6.3 mm
d0:25þ0:15 : ore size fraction between 0.15 and 0.25 mm
d0:15þ0:063 : ore size fraction between 0.063 and 0.15 mm
I: ore size fraction between 0.1 and 1 mm
3.4. Safe analysis on frozen elements (SAFE)
This test gives a measure of the aptitude to granulation/
agglomeration of a certain raw material, and is dependent on
the chemical composition, granulometry, and moisture. This
test was established by the Italian Centro Sviluppo Materiali
standard (Errigo et al. 1981). The SAFE test allows for knowing
the granulometric state of a certain raw material or raw mate-
rial blend, because the test is performed in freezing strength-
ened granules, by means of the size distribution calculation
using a conventional sieving procedure.
Carrying out the test requires that 1 kg of raw material
blend is placed in a metallic pallet inside a freezer at tempera-
ture lower than −20°C for 90 minutes. Granules humidifica-
tion water solidifies and in this context granules acquire
strength enough for being screened in sieving equipment at
3000 vibrations/minute for 10 minutes. During the screening
the temperature of the sieves tower is kept at low temperature
by means of packed ice between the double walls of a metallic
container. The granulometric distribution can be determined
by weighting the retained in each sieve.
At the end of the SAFE test it is possible to know how
permeability and productivity of the mix varies, and in this
way change the mix composition. It is also possible to evaluate
the distribution of coke fines in each granulometric fraction
(Formoso et al. 2000a).
3.5. G Index
This parameter allows for making a classification of the iron
ore previously to the sintering process and forecasting the
kind of sintered product that could be obtained (Formoso
et al. 2000b). There are different raw materials classifications
according to their physical, chemical and mineralogical prop-
erties. One of the classifications is: neutral (Al2O3<2%), alu-
minous (Al2O3>2%), siliceous (SiO2>10%), concentrates and
of magnetite. Some operators have their own classifications.
The main feature is that choosing a base blend, using different
classifications, it is possible to change raw materials without
affecting the final product. Other classification is related with

granulometry. The Nippon Steel Corporation in a research
project has defined the G index for the raw materials granulo-
metric classification according to their behavior in the sinter-
ing process. The equation that defines G index is:
M
G¼ (5)
N the second stage, coke, limestone and dolomite are added to
Where N represents the mass percentage of the particle
fraction of a size higher than 0.7 mm in the granulometric
curve; F the fraction lower than 0.2 mm; and Mthe fraction
between 0.2 and 0.7 mm. G index has been established as a
result of practical observation that some fractions have a
positive behavior facing to granulation and others negative.
In this way, N (between 0.7 and 8 mm) is an excellent support
for the granules formation. On his behalf, F fraction
(<0.2 mm) as a consequence of the particles finer size sticks
on the particles of N fraction and gives stable granules.
However, M fraction (between 0.2 and 0.7 mm) is not desir-
able because the particles are neither higher enough for form-
ing stable nuclei nor finer enough for being adherent. M
fraction would stay in the hollows between granules and
would deteriorate the bed permeability and would diminish
productivity. There are four groups, which listed in descend-
ing fineness are: A (coarse raw material), B, C and D (ultra
concentrates of high fineness). The boundaries for each
group are:
Group A: G  15
Group B: G between 15 and 35
Group C: G between 35 and 70
Group D: G  70
In this way it is possible to achieve the optimal sintering
mix from the granulometric point of view.
3.6. Granulation types
3.6.1. Two stage granulation
Sumitomo Metal Industries has added a preliminary granu-
lation stage based on a mixer with a high stirring rate
followed by a drum mixer at the existing granulation equip-
ment number 4 and number 5 of Wakamaya (Japan). The
product like this obtained is included in the principal gran-
ulation line. In this way, it is possible to treat fine ores and
achieve an improvement of the flame front speed, perme-
ability and productivity of the subsequent sintering process
(Oboso et al. 1998).
On its behalf, Tata Steel (India) has implemented a two-
stage granulation to include in the conventional granulation
process fines with 1.83% Al2O3 with proportions of 10 to 25%
in the normal mix that uses ores with 2.46% Al2O3. In the first
stage of the process, fines are granulated with water and lime
in the form of micro-pellets, and in the second stage they are
added to the normal mix and granulated (Nandy and Gupta
2000). The use of this product lowers alumina content in the
sinter and improves productivity, Reductibility Index (RI) and
Reduction Degradation Index (RDI, considered by Tata Steel
as the most critical sinter property).
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 43
3.6.2. Coating granulation
Goethitic and limonitic ores usually have a high Al2O3 con-
tent in comparison with hematitic ores. The presence of Al2O3
leads to a sinter properties deterioration. In this respect, a
two-stage granulation has been developed: in the first stage
the iron ore mix and return fines are placed in the drum; in
the mix resulting from the first stage. The granule obtained is
formed by a nuclei composed mostly of iron surrounded by
coke and flux.
This process improves the reaction of flux formation as a
consequence of the segregation of CaO (from the limestone)
on Fe (from the iron ore). In this way, sintering process takes
place at a lower temperature and permeability and productiv-
ity are improved, and the secondary hematite formation
decreases. Besides, due to the advantages above mentioned
an improvement of the RDI is reached. Tumbler index and
reducibility also improve by the formation of more micro-
pores (prevent the propagation of cracks that are responsible
for RDI deterioration).
Mixing time in the second stage has a marked influence in
the process (50 seconds is the optimum time). The reason is
that shorter times does not allow the nuclei to become well
coated with coke and flux, and longer times causes quasi-
particles destruction due to the inclusion of coke and flux in
the granules (of the nuclei) and lead to a similar quasi-particle
to that obtained in single-stage conventional granulation.
JFE Steel (Japan) has carried out a research project on the
coke and limestone coating granulation method at Kurashiki
number 2 sinter plant and number 2 blast furnace with the
purpose of improving productivity, reducibility and blast fur-
nace operation (Oyama et al. 2005). See Figure 5. This tech-
nology consists of coating coke and limestone on the surface
of quasi-particles that have been granulated in the primary
part of the drum mixer. Coke and limestone are injected from
the end of the drum mixer by the belt conveyor at high speed
to achieve their coating on the quasi-particles. The coating
granulation time is the most important control factor and is
adjusted by changing the conveyor speed (within 40 and 60
seconds).
3.6.3. Selective granulation
The concept of selective granulation or pre-agglomeration has
been studied in some Japanese plants with the purpose of
improving permeability of raw mixes to be sintered with a
huge amount of fine materials. Commonly, the process
implies the treatment of raw material fines and concentrates,
return fines and lime in a separated line (Additional line,
Figure 6). These materials are mixed with water and are
micro-pelletized in a drum or a disc. Obtained product is
included in the principal granulation line in the stage pre-
viously to the granulation drum.
This system has been installed in the sintering plant num-
ber 4 of Nippon Kokan Keihin (NKK) in Fukuyama (Formoso
et al. 2000a). In this process, shown in Figure 6, as it was
mentioned previously, return fines are used as nuclei and lime
acts as agglomerating agent. This practice allows for using a
higher amount of fines without deteriorate the productivity.
44 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.

(Ordinary method)
Stock Yard
All sinter
granulation mixture
Limestone
Coke Breeze
ZOOM Blending Ore
Limestone Coating granulation line
Coke Breeze

Iron Ore Main granulation line

et al.
coating granulation Drum Mixer

(New coating method)

Sintering Machine

Figure 5. Process flow of coke and limestone coating granulation technology at Kurashiki.

Other example of selective granulation is presented in
Figure 7. Sumitomo Corporation in the sintering plant num-
ber 2 of Kashima has developed the selective granulation as a
system for improving the Reducibility Degradation Index
(RDI, by diminishing its value) (Kawaguchi et al. 1990). It
was established that the RDI index reaches its maximum value
when the CaO content is 10% in the sintered, and that RDI
index improves in the other percentages. In selective granula-
tion two kinds of coarse raw materials are processed sepa-
rately with the purpose of producing granulates of low and
high CaO content as it is possible to see in Figure 7. In this
case, Australian raw materials are used for granulates with
high CaO content. Both types of granulates are combined in a
conveying belt before the hoper over the blending roller.
The third studied selective granulation process was
installed by the Nippon Steel Corporation (NSC) in the sin-
tering plant of Oita. In this case selective granulation is used
with the purpose of increasing the amount of goethitic
mineral in the blend (Hida et al. 1990). Mineral is granulated
Return
CaO Pellet Granulator Granulator
Fines
ADDITIONAL LINE
Return CaO Limestone Iron Ore Coke
Fines
Granulator
Mix
PRINCIPAL LINE
Granulator
Sinter Strand Screening
Figure 6. NKK selective granulation plant.
in a disc with the addition of serpentine and a small amount
of coke fines, as it is possible to see in Figure 8.
4. Conclusions
Steel is the main metal in modern societies, and for that reason
steel manufacture is considered in this paper. The main sources
of raw materials in the iron and steel industry are studied. As a
consequence of the mentioned iron raw materials source, the
grain size (< 8 mm) of these materials is not suitable for the blast
furnace process. In this way, a sintering process is necessary for
the agglomeration of these raw materials.
Before the sintering process a granulation process is neces-
sary. Granulation process constitutes an important stage in
the iron ore sintering because allows for achieving an optimal
sintered structure, ensuring a good permeability and increas-
ing productivity of the sinter plant. Suitable granulation
moistures are evaluated by means of the SAFE test, G Index
and moisture content.
SAFE test informs about the granulometric state of a cer-
tain raw material or raw material blend. G index gives a
classification of the iron ore previously to the sintering pro-
cess from the granulometric point of view. In this way, it is
possible to achieve the optimal sintering mix by knowing the
granulometry. Moisture is an important parameter because it
is responsible of the adherence of fine particles to the nuclei,
but also has influence in the permeability during the sintering
process. Thus, moisture control is required previously to the
sintering process.
Granulation processes were also studied in this paper. Two
stage granulation, coating granulation and selective granula-
tion were reviewed.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the CENIM-CSIC for their cooperation in
conducting the investigation.
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 45

LOW CaO

Return
Iron Ore Coke
Fines

80%
Granulator Granulator

Australian Mill
Limestone
Iron Ore Scale
CROSS-CURRENT

Granulator Granulator
HIGH CaO 20%
NEW LINE

Figure 7. Sumitomo Corporation selective granulation plant.

Goethitic
raw Iron Ore Serpentine Coke
material

Pre-granulator

Sinter
Granulator Granulator
Strand

Figure 8. NSC selective granulation plant.

Funding
This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Education,
Culture and Sports via an FPU (Formación del Profesorado
Universitario) grant to Daniel Fernández González (FPU014/02436).
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