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3 Table of Contents
1 Transmittal ............................................................................................................................... 2
2 Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... 3
3 Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... 4
4 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... 6
5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 6
6 List of Equations ...................................................................................................................... 6
7 Abstract....................................................................................................................................
7
8 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 8
9 Cooling Tower .......................................................................................................................... 9
9.1 Components ..................................................................................................................... 9
9.2 Materials ........................................................................................................................ 11
9.3 Types .............................................................................................................................. 12
9.3.1 Natural draft cooling tower .................................................................................... 12
9.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower .............................................................................. 12
9.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers .............................................................................. 13
9.3.4 Hybrid Towers ......................................................................................................... 13
9.4 Performance ................................................................................................................... 15
9.5 Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 18
9.6 Factors Affecting Performance ...................................................................................... 18
9.6.1 Design ...................................................................................................................... 18
9.6.2 Fill media effects ..................................................................................................... 24
9.6.3 Water Distribution .................................................................................................. 25
9.6.4 Fans ......................................................................................................................... 25
9.7 General Improvement Procedures ................................................................................. 26
10 Cooling Water Chemistry ................................................................................................... 28
10.1 Corrosion ........................................................................................................................ 28
10.1.1 Corrosion Control .................................................................................................... 29
10.1.2 Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................................................................ 29

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10.1.3 Inhibitor Selection ................................................................................................... 30

10.2 Scaling ............................................................................................................................. 31
10.2.1 Types ....................................................................................................................... 31
10.2.2 Deposit Control Methods ....................................................................................... 32
10.3 Microbial Growth ........................................................................................................... 35
10.3.1 Problems ................................................................................................................. 35
10.3.2 Selection of Micro Biocides ..................................................................................... 36
10.3.3 Oxidizing Toxicants ................................................................................................. 37
10.3.4 Non Oxidizing Biocides ............................................................................................ 40
10.4 Chemical Dosing at CT – 4 .............................................................................................. 40
11 Performance Improvement ............................................................................................... 42
11.1 Water Use ....................................................................................................................... 42
11.1.1 Reduce water loss ................................................................................................... 42
11.1.2 Reduce blow down.................................................................................................. 43
11.1.3 Use alternative water supplies ............................................................................... 44
11.1.4 Reuse blow down .................................................................................................... 44
11.2 Water treatment ............................................................................................................ 44
11.2.1 Sulphuric “Acid” Treatment .................................................................................... 45
11.2.2 Side Stream Filtration ............................................................................................. 45
11.2.3 Ozone ...................................................................................................................... 46
11.2.4 Magnets .................................................................................................................. 46
11.2.5 Sonication ............................................................................................................... 47
11.2.6 Electro coagulation ................................................................................................. 47
11.2.7 Activated carbon ..................................................................................................... 47
11.2.8 Ultraviolet radiation (UV)........................................................................................ 47
11.2.9 Hydrocavitation ....................................................................................................... 48
11.2.10 Radio frequencies ................................................................................................ 48
12 Recommendation ............................................................................................................... 49
13 References ......................................................................................................................... 50

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4 List of Figures
Figure 1 Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower .............................................................................. 9
Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types ........................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3 Range and approach schematic ....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach..................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 5 Tower size v/s wet-bulb ..................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 6 Tower size v/s head load .................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 7 Tower size v/s range variance .......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 Corrosion cell ......................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 9 Biofouled Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 10 Hierarchy of opportunities .............................................................................................................. 42
Figure 11 Hydrocavitation system ................................................................................................................... 48

5 List of Tables
Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers ...................................................................................................................... 15
Table 2 Design Values of Different Fills .......................................................................................................... 24
Table 3 Chemical Dosing Rate ........................................................................................................................... 41
Table 4 Chemical Dosing at CT 4....................................................................................................................... 41
Table 5 Treatment options comparison ......................................................................................................... 46

6 List of Equations
Equation 1 CT Range ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Equation 2 CT Approach ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Equation 3 CT Effectiveness ............................................................................................................................... 16
Equation 4 Evaporation Loss ............................................................................................................................. 17
Equation 5 Blow down ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Equation 6 Liquid/Gas ratio ............................................................................................................................... 17
Equation 7 CT Range Def. 2 ................................................................................................................................ 18
Equation 8 Water losses ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Equation 9 Cycle of Concentration C.O.C. ..................................................................................................... 43

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7 Abstract
Cooling towers are one of the most important industrial utilities used to dissipate the

unwanted process heat to the atmosphere through the cooling water in the heat exchangers

across the plant site. Cooling tower is one of the most expensive utility in terms of power

consumption and water circulation. Maintaining water quality in the circulation loops is one of

the major challenges in process optimization for most efficient performance. To identify the

key performance parameters with respect to perspective of the operations’ team, the water

chemistry is the most crucial level and demands proper understanding to maintain complete

control over the variations.

Latest technological developments have made the water conservation more efficient and use

of chemicals more limited by introducing “Recycling / reusing water practices” and “Chemical

free platforms”. With limited options available to the designed and operating cooling tower,

these areas could be explored for better and cost effective performance and environment

friendly impact.

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8 Introduction
“You cannot create experience, you must undergo it”

Industrial internships are incomparable experience for an undergraduate student. With

fertilizer industry holding the maximum learning potential for a chemical engineer, Engro leaves

an impact of its own. The six week internship experience is unique in every sense of the word.

The learning opportunities and industrial exposure at the EFERT made not just possible to relate

the book knowledge to field application but also in developing a thorough understanding of

industrial practices and operating concepts.

Enven 1.3 – the world largest single train ammonia urea complex was an amazing experience

for the author. From the up to date urea complex technology to world’s tallest prilling tower, it

added many landmarks in list of experience. With internship project over cooling water

chemistry and performance improvement parameters, the author has compiled the information

on cooling water design, chemistry and operation; which could serve as a comprehensive study

aid on the subject. The recommendations generated are but most effective to date, which

should be considered with economical feasibility.

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9 Cooling Tower
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a
cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source
is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other
units for further cooling.Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than
devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-
effective and energy efficient.

Figure 1 Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower

9.1 Components

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.

a) Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior
enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such
as some glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be the frame.

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b) Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer
by maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:

 Splash fill: Water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars,
continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills.

 Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and
provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

c) Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has
a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the
coldwater basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design,
however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that
functions as the coldwater basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air
up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access
to the fans and their motors.

d) Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.

e) Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an
entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of
the tower (counter-flow design).

f) Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter
flow tower designs do not require louvers.

g) Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and
spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in
some circular cross-section towers.

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h) Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are
found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is
either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used
over a wide kW range because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the
lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response
to changing load conditions.

9.2 Materials

Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing,
louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete.
Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers.

Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote
reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fibre,
and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminium and plastics for some
components.

a) Frame and casing. Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made of
different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fibre, the
inlet air louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many
towers (casings and basins) are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive
atmosphere is a problem, the tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger
towers sometimes are made of concrete. Glass fibre is also widely used for cooling tower
casings and basins, because they extend the life of the cooling tower and provide
protection against harmful chemicals.

b) Fill. Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. When
water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in wooden
towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer

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efficiency, film fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of
debris that could block the fill passageways.

c) Nozzles. Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC,
ABS, polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.

d) Fans. Aluminium, glass fibre and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan
materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are
made from galvanized steel, aluminium, or moulded glass fibre reinforced plastic.

9.3 Types
9.3.1 Natural draft cooling tower

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature between
the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through the tower
(because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due
to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could
affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These
cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are
expensive. There are two main types of natural draft towers:

 Cross flow tower: air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located outside
the tower

 Counter flow tower: air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is therefore
located inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions

9.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The
water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the
water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of
mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed
of operation, fills for system resistance etc.

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9.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an open or closed-
circuit tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped through the equipment where it
picks up thermal energy and then flows directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed
through spray nozzles over the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is
collected in the tower sump and is sent back to the equipment to begin the process again. In an
open tower any contaminants in the water are circulated through the equipment being cooled.

In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a fluid cooler, the cooling water flows through
the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is when the water is pumped to the cooling
tower, it is pumped through a closed loop heat exchanger that is internal to the cooling tower,
then returned to the equipment. In this application, water in the closed loop is not in direct
contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means contaminants are not circulated
through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small pump, known as a

“spray pump” circulates a separate body of evaporative water from the tower sump, through
the spray nozzles and over the internal heat exchanger piping. This “open” evaporative body
of water is contained within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish
evaporative and other losses. However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is
stabilized, the only time it needs to be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.

9.3.4 Hybrid Towers

Hybrid towers are closed towers which can operate either in the sensible heat transfer mode
only (without evaporation) or a combination of sensible and latent heat transfer (with
evaporation). During periods of low load and/or low ambient temperature, the spray of water
is stopped and heat is sensibly transferred to the flow of air across the fins of the coils
containing the cooling fluid. During periods when this is not enough, a latent heat transfer
system is activated by switching on an evaporative cooler or water is sprayed across the dry
coils to allow for increased heat transfer through evaporation. These processes offer
substantial savings in water.

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Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types

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Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers can be
either factory built or field erected – for example concrete towers are only field erected.

Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired
capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or

“cells.” The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers.
Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape of the
individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the cells.

Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Forced draft
Air is blown through the tower by a fan located
in the air inlet
Induced draft cross flow
 Water enters at top and passes over fill
 Air enters on one side (single-flow tower) or
opposite sides (double-flow tower)
 An induced draft fan draws air across fill
towards exit at top of tower
Induced draft counter flow
 Hot water enters at the top
 Air enters bottom and exits at the top
 Uses forced and induced draft fans
9.4 Performance
 Suited for high air  Recirculation due to high air-
resistance due to entry and low air-exit
centrifugal blower fans velocities, which can be solved
 Fans are relatively quiet by locating towers in plant
rooms combined with
discharge ducts
 Less recirculation than  Fans and the motor drive
forced draft towers mechanism require weather-
because the speed of proofing against moisture and
exit air is 3-4 times corrosion because they are in
higher than entering air the path of humid exit air

These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower performance
in several ways.

a) Range. This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the
water temperature effectively, and is thus performing well. The formula is:

Equation 1 CT Range
(° ) = (° ) − (° )

b) Approach. This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling tower

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performance; although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach’ is
a better indicator of cooling tower performance.

Equation 2 CT Approach
(° ) = (° ) − (° )

Figure 3 Range and approach schematic

c) Effectiveness. This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature,
or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the
cooling tower effectiveness.

Equation 3 CT Effectiveness
(–)

(%) = ×
(–)

d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass
flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

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e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the
3
evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The
following formula can be used (Perry):
Equation 4 Evaporation Loss
( )= . × . ( )×( − )

T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water

f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water
to the dissolved solids in makeup water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is
given by formula:
Equation 5 Blow down
=...−

h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio. The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the
air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations require
adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness.
Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments.
Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following formulae can
be used: ( − )= ( − )

Equation 6 Liquid/Gas ratio

=(−)(−)

Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (°C)

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h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature

h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature

9.5 Assessment

The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and
range against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest
improvements. During the performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used
to measure the following parameters:

 Wet bulb temperature of air

 Dry bulb temperature of air
 Cooling tower inlet water temperature
 Cooling tower outlet water temperature
 Exhaust air temperature
 Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
 Water flow rate
 Air flow rate

9.6 Factors Affecting Performance

9.6.1 Design
9.6.1.1 Capacity
3
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m /hr) are not sufficient to understand
cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along with flow
3 3
rate m /hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m /hr through a 13.9°C range might
3
be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m /hr through 19.5°C range.

9.6.1.2 Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at the
exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through the
exchanger and on to the cooling water.

Equation 7 CT Range Def. 2

(/)°=()

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Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.

Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to
another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower might
3
be specified to cool 48000 m /hr from 44°C to 34°C at 26.7°C wet bulb temperature.
(°)= ( °)− ( °)

As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the
cooling tower due to increased size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to the design wet bulb is the
coldest water temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate,
range, approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a
tower, approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb
would be of lesser importance.

The range increases when the quantity of circulated water and heat load increase. This means
that increasing the range as a result of added heat load requires a larger tower. There are two
possible causes for the increased range:

 The inlet water temperature is increased (and the cold-water temperature at the exit
remains the same). In this case it is economical to invest in removing the additional heat.

 The exit water temperature is decreased (and the hot water temperature at the inlet
remains the same). In this case the tower size would have to be increased
considerably because the approach is also reduced, and this is not always economical.

9.6.1.3 Heat Load

The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served. The degree
of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of the process. In most
cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency or to improve the
quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines),
however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The size and cost of the cooling tower is
proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low undersized

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equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load is high, oversize and more costly,
equipment will result.

Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved. Determination
of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper consideration can
produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and refrigeration heat loads
can be determined with greater accuracy.

9.6.1.4 Wet Bulb Temperature

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling
equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to
which water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the
air entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant,
process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb
temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is required to
reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when
a heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower
capability.

Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the
basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the
average maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection
is whether it is specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which
exists generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature
of the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being
re-circulated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is
no initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be
specified. The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to
absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment.

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It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to exchange heat or to
condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By evaluating the cost and size of heat
exchangers versus the cost and size of the cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the
cooling tower water can be selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.

The Table 7.1 illustrates the effect of approach on the size and cost of a cooling tower. The
3
towers included were sized to cool 4540 m /hr through a 16.67°C range at a 26.7°C design
wet bulb. The overall width of all towers is 21.65 meters; the overall height, 15.25 meters, and
the pump head, 10.6 m approximately.

The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical location. For a certain
approach value (and at a constant range and flow range), the higher the wet bulb temperature, the
3
smaller the tower required. For example, a 4540 m /hr cooling tower selected for a16.67°C range

and a 4.45°C approach to 21.11°C wet bulb would be larger than the same tower to a 26.67°C wet
bulb. The reason is that air at the higher wet bulb temperature is capable of picking up more heat.
This is explained for the two different wet bulb temperatures:

 Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 21.1°C contains 18.86 kCal. If
the air leaves the tower at 32.2°C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 24.17 kCal.
At an increase of 11.1°C, the air picks up 12.1 kCal per kg of air.

 Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 26.67°C contains 24.17 kCals.
If the air leaves at 37.8°C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 39.67 kCal. At an
increase of 11.1°C, the air picks up 15.5 kCal per kg of air, which is much more than the first
scenario.

9.6.1.5 Tower Size

If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the fourth
will affect the tower size as follows:

a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.
Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5°F approach,

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the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not
customary in the cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5°F.

Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach

b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load, range, and
approach values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb temperature increases the size of
the tower. This is because most of the heat transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of
evaporation (which extracts approximately 1000 Btu’s for every pound of water
evaporated), and air’s ability to absorb moisture reduces with temperature.

Figure 5 Tower size v/s wet-bulb

c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.

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Figure 6 Tower size v/s head load

d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this. First;
increasing the range—also increases the ITD (driving force) between the incoming hot
water temperature and the entering wet-bulb temperature. Second, increasing the range
(at a constant heat load) requires that the water flow rate be decreased—which reduces
the static pressure opposing the flow of air.

Figure 7 Tower size v/s range variance

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9.6.2 Fill media effects

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through
evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts
energy consumption in two ways:

 Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An
efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator,
fan, gearbox and motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.

 Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange,
duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness
of intermixing. The fill media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat
exchange. The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.

There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing
water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets
is the surface area for heat exchange with the air.

b) Film fill media. In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The surface
area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film fill can result
in significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head requirements.

c) Low-clog film fills. Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to handle
high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea water in terms
of power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.

Table 2 Design Values of Different Fills

Splash fill Film fill Low clog film fill

Possible L/G ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
Effective heat exchange area 30 – 45 m2/m3 150 m2/m3 85 - 100 m2/m3
Fill height required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping head required 9 – 12 m 5 –8m 6 –9m
Quantity of air required High Lowest Low

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9.6.3 Water Distribution

9.6.3.1 Optimize cooling water treatment
Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is mandatory for any
cooling tower independent of what fill media is used. With increasing costs of water, efforts to
increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water treatment would help to reduce make
up water requirements significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is
often considered a key area for water conservation.

9.6.3.2 Install drift eliminators

It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays most of the end
user specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to technological developments
and the production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift eliminator designs. As a
result drift losses can now be as low as 0.003 –0.001%.

9.6.4 Fans
The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system.
The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss, to move
the air. The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure loss.
The fan output and kW input determines the fan efficiency.
The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. Blades include:

a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore
it is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles

b) Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand moulded which makes it easier to
produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions. Because FRP
fans are light, they need a low starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the
gear box, motor and bearing is increased, and maintenance is easier.

A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum twist,
taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency is
drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.

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Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced
by efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of 20-30%and
with simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).

9.7 General Improvement Procedures

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling towers:

i. Follow manufacturer’s recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust
ii. Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis
iii. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance

iv. In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square
spray nozzles that do not clog
v. Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill
vi. Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern
vii. Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly
viii. Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins
ix. Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling

x. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of
concentration (COC)limit

xi. Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self-extinguishing PVC
cellular units
xii. Restrict flows through large loads to design values

xiii. Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by (a) segregating high heat loads
like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets and (b) isolating cooling towers from sensitive
applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power plant etc. Note: A 1°Ccooling
water temperature increase may increase the A/C compressor electricity consumption by
2.7%. A 1oC drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 kCal/kWh in
a thermal power plant

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xiv. Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously optimize the
cooling tower performance, but consider seasonal variations and side variations

xv. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on the
design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase water loads during summer
and times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when
approach is low.
xvi. Consider COC improvement measures for water savings
xvii. Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan energy savings
xviii. Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in small units
xix. Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency

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10 Cooling Water Chemistry

Cooling towers are dynamic systems because of the nature of their operation and the
environment they function within. Tower systems sit outside, open to the elements, which
makes them susceptible to dirt and debris carried by the wind. Their structure is also popular
for birds and bugs to live in or around, because of the warm, wet environment. These factors
present a wide range of operational concerns that must be understood and managed to
ensure optimal thermal performance and asset reliability. Below is a brief discussion on the
four primary cooling system treatment concerns encountered in most open re-circulating
cooling systems.

10.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the destruction of the system
metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a corrosion cell that may be encountered throughout
the cooling system metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and deposited at the cathode. The
process is enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in the water and the presence of
oxygen, both of which are typical of most cooling tower systems.

Figure 8 Corrosion cell

There are different types of corrosion encountered in cooling tower systems including pitting,
galvanic, microbiologically influenced and erosion corrosion Loss of system metallurgy, if
pervasive enough, can result in failed heat exchangers, piping, or portions of the cooling
tower itself.

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10.1.1 Corrosion Control

10.1.1.1 Cathodic Polarization
Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the driving force of the
corrosion reaction is called “polarization”. Polarization reduces the driving force of the
corrosion reaction and minimizes metal loss by changing the potential of either the anode or
the cathode or both so that the difference in potential between them is reduced to a
minimum. If the amount of oxygen diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the
corrosion reaction can be polarized. This is achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors. They
form a film, which prevents the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode side.

10.1.1.2 Anodic Polarization

Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film formation is
accomplished by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless steel naturally forms such
films. This unfortunately is not always the case with all metals. Most metals must be aided
by the addition of such anodic corrosion inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.

10.1.1.3 Passivation
When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be at “passive state”
At this point there is no difference in potential between the anode and cathode areas, and
corrosion ceases. When polarization is disrupted in a passive metal at a given point, a very
active anodic site is set up, with resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal
was strongly anodically polarized.

10.1.2 Corrosion Inhibitors

The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is by means of
chemical corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing corrosion lies in their ability to
insulate the electric current between the cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at
the anodic site, then the inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is
insulated then the inhibitor is classified as a cathodic inhibitor.

Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon the corrosion
reaction each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or more of three general

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mechanisms. In the first, the inhibitor molecule is adsorbed on the metal surface by the
process of chemisorption, forming a thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction with
metallic ions. In second mechanism inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form its own
protective film of metal oxides, by increasing its resistance. In the third type inhibitor reacts
with a potentially corrosive substance in the water.

Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the potential at the
anode and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated at the anode although it may
eventually cover the entire metal surface. Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so
the appearance of the metal will be left unchanged.

Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they often form a
visible film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal by restricting the access of
dissolved oxygen to the metal substrate. The film also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites
and prevent the resultant depolarizing effect.

Examples include:

  Chromates
  Orthophosphates
  Zinc
 Polyphosphates

 Synergic Blends like o
zinc-chromates

o chromate-polyphosphates
o chromate-orthophosphate

10.1.3 Inhibitor Selection
It is often difficult to make a proper choice between the many cooling water corrosion
inhibitors unless there is some understanding of their properties. Choice of the proper inhibitor
is determined by:

  Design parameters
  Water composition
 Metals in the system

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  Stress conditions
  Treatment level required
  pH
  Dissolved oxygen content
 Salts and SS composition

10.2 Scaling
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated in
solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and
temperature. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of
the insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling
demand. Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e.CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaF2, etc),

corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and
microbiological mass.

10.2.1 Types
10.2.1.1 Waterborne salts
Precipitated salts of calcium and magnesium often form dense scales and sludge’s which are
usually quite adherent and therefore difficult to remove. In addition they are effective heat
insulators, which reduce process efficiency. Calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium and
magnesium silicates and calcium phosphate are some of the more prevalent compounds found
in cooling water systems.

10.2.1.2 Waterborne foulants

A variety of such materials as suspended mud, sand, silt, clay, biological matter or even oil
may enter a cooling water system through its make up supply. They usually accumulate in low
flow areas, or in locations at which an abrupt change in flow velocity occurs. Therefore the
most sedimentation is found in such places as cooling tower basins and heat exchangers. To
control sedimentation it is necessary to control the suspended particulate matter. The control
of particle size and density is accomplished by use of modern deposit control materials. To a
certain degree mud, sand, slit, dirt and clay are suspended in most make up supplies. However
the amount of these constituents is usually much greater for surface waters.

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Microbiological growth may be a particularly troublesome foulant in the makeup supply. The
microbiological population in a towers make up supply often approaches or exceeds the control
limit for proper tower operation. Oil often adheres to metal; surfaces and acts as a deposit binder.
Oil films serve as insulators and can seriously retard heat transfer. In addition oil acts as a nutrient
for microbes, therefore increasing microbiological activity, fouling and slime binding. Also oil films
prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching and passivating metal surfaces.

10.2.1.3 Airborne foulants

The air in contact with open cooling water systems contains many of the same suspended
materials found in the makeup water. Sand, slit, clay, dirt, bacteria etc. entering with the air
add to the overall fouling of the system. Airborne contamination by gases also helps in
deposition. Oxygen and carbon dioxide accelerate corrosion, leading to deposition and
further corrosion by the under-deposit mechanism. Since pick up of both gases occur
continuously, near saturation levels of these dissolved gasses are present in the water.
Gaseous contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may also be
absorbed from the air. The first two reduce oxidizing corrosion inhibitors (e.g. chromates) to
insoluble foulants. Hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive and quickly forms iron sulphide
deposits, which lead to further corrosion. Ammonia selectively corrodes copper and its alloys
leading to the deposition of copper corrosion products.

10.2.2 Deposit Control Methods

10.2.2.1 Conventional treatments
 Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and demineralization all
remove the ions that cause scale formation)

 Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing carbonate formation)

 Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling tower applications, with
1 to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing through the filter. Several type of media are used
but sand is the most common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency level. For greater
efficiency, anthracite or mixed media can be substituted. If the suspended solids are in the
range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 % removal can be achieved, and in highly turbid waters, 90 %
removal is possible. In general a side stream filter allows cooling water turbidity to

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approach the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil contamination side stream filters are
impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter medium.)

10.2.2.2 Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents

A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of repeating units of “building
blocks”. These units are referred to as monomers. Modern technology has made it possible to
build chains of various lengths and compositions by varying the polymerization conditions
and the monomer groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a polymer results
primarily from two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its functional group.

These polymeric deposit control agents include, Scale inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants

10.2.2.3 Scale Inhibitors

Scale inhibitors are important to the performance of many treatment programs. Scale
inhibitors function by adsorbing on to suspended solids/scaling particles and adsorbing on to
solids/ surfaces in the system, thereby acting to prevent growth of scale/deposits and
enhancing performance of corrosion inhibitors.

These polymers have the ability of adsorbing on active sites of the crystal to prevent any
further growth of crystal. Some of the functional groups of the scale inhibitor adsorbed on the
crystals but the rest of them are free from the adsorption and give electrical charge to the
crystals. Thus, the static electrical repelling force of the crystals is increased and the crystals are
kept in a dispersed condition.

Certain polymers can distort scale crystals by disrupting their lattice structure and normal
growth patterns. The inclusion of a relatively large irregularly shaped polymer in the scale
lattice tends to prevent the deposition of a dense uniformly structured crystalline mass on the
metal surface. These crystals can develop internal stresses which increase as the crystal
grows, with the result that deposit breaks away from the metal surface. Anionic polymers
such as polyacrylates, polymethacrylates and maleic anhydride derivatives are excellent scale
control agents. Also polyphosphate, phosphate esters and phosphonates can control scale.

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10.2.2.4 Dispersants
“The principal role of a dispersant is to reduce the tendency for small particles to agglomerate”.

Dispersants are polymers, which control particles by increasing charge on the particle surface,
thereby keeping the particles repelled and suspended. A polymer can be adsorbed on foulant
surface imparting a like charge to them and thereby causing the particles to remain in
suspension because of charge repulsion.

Dispersant polymer is a common component of cooling water treatment programs. These

polymers prevent deposit because they keep suspended particles from adhering to pipes,
tubes, or other surfaces in the cooling systems and are removed with the water by blow down.
In order to be effective the polymers must strongly adhere to the particle surfaces so that the
polymer’s fate is the same as the particle it is bound to. The amount of polymer necessary is a
complex function of hardness, temperature, pH, and many other factors. Much of this is due to
the increased thermodynamic “driving force” for precipitation of calcium carbonate or calcium
phosphate. At high bulk water temperatures (>60 °C), high calcium concentrations (>750mg/lit

as CaCO3), or low flow rates (<1 m/sec), the tendency for scale formation, even with cooling

water treatment programs, is greatly increased.

10.2.2.5 Flocculants
A high molecular weight polymer can attach itself to many foulant particles creating a low
density floc. With an increase in the overall size of suspended material, there is a corresponding
decrease in the surface area available for attachment, which reduces the extent of deposition
possible.

Much of suspended matter found in cooling water has a negative surface charge. This charge keeps
the suspended matter separated. If the surface charge of the particles can be reduced, the particle
will agglomerate into light, fluffy flocs with little tendency to adhere to metal surfaces. This can be
accomplished by adding a long chain oppositely charged (cationic) polymer to the cooling water,
which neutralizes the negative charge of the suspended material.

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10.3 Microbial Growth

Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling tower and cooling
system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for biological activity due to the
warm, moist environment. There are two distinct categories of biological activity in the tower
system. The first being plank tonic, which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The
other is sessile bio-growth, which is the category given to all biological activity, biofilms, or bio-
fouling that stick to a surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic for multiple
reasons. They have strong insulating properties, they contribute to fouling and corrosion, and
the bi-products they create that contribute to further micro-biological activity. They can be
found in and around the tower structure, or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat
exchangers surfaces, and in the system piping. Additionally, bio films and algae mats are
problematic because they are difficult to kill. Careful monitoring of biocide treatments, along
with routine measurements of biological activity are important to ensure bio-activity is
controlled and limited throughout the cooling system. Cooling water microorganisms include:
Algae, Fungi, and Bacteria etc

Figure 9Biofouled Heat Exchanger

10.3.1 Problems
Continued accumulation and growth of microorganisms in a cooling water system causes a
number of problems. Good corrosion and deposit control programs are incumbent upon a

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successful microbial control program. A plant unable to control microbial growth will
experience increased difficulty in controlling corrosion and deposition. Another problem
associated with microbial growth is the deterioration of cooling tower lumber this reduces
the efficiency of the cooling tower operation and increases operating cost of the plant.
Microbiological growth also causes environmental pollution.

10.3.1.1 Microbiological Induced Corrosion, (MIC)

Any corrosion initiated or propagated by the action of microorganisms either directly
or indirectly is called MIC.

Many microorganisms found in cooling water utilize hydrogen in their metabolic processes,
which often results in the cathodic depolarization of the corrosion reaction. Many microbial
species present special corrosion problems, in addition to those inherent in the basic nature of
their actions. Sulphate reducing bacteria produce extremely dangerous hydrogen sulphide gas,
which corrodes metals by low pH attack and by the formation of ferrous sulphide.

Sulphate oxidizing bacteria produce sulphuric acid and produce localized low pH areas in the
system. Corrosion proceeds very rapidly in these low pH areas. Nitrifying bacteria nullify the
effectiveness of nitrite corrosion inhibitors by oxidizing nitrite to nitrate. This is the most
serious in closed re-circulating systems which commonly use nitrite as a corrosion inhibitor
in the systems where NH3 is present in water.

10.3.1.2 Deposit Problems

Deposit of microbial matter may lead to physical problems in the system, culminating in loss of
efficiency, heat transfer and production. The accumulation of bio matter on the internal
sections of cooling towers can seriously reduce the units efficiency e.g. deposition on splash
plates will increase the water droplet size and will reduce the effective surface area. Algae can
plug the holes in the distribution deck of a cooling tower producing uneven distribution of
water over the tower packing, resulting in a serious loss in efficiency.

10.3.2 Selection of Micro Biocides

A number of factors will determine the proper choice of micro biocide or combination of micro
biocides, oxidizing and non-oxidizing micro biocide. The selection of a micro biocide involves

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12 conclusion
Based on the study on the assigned project, it is recommended to reduce the water leakages in

the tower by overcoming the construction flaws of the project. Further it also recommended to

ursue the options for water and chemical conservation opportunities in cooling tower

operation. The field will unleash the wide spectrum of cost effective and environmental friendly

operating practices which would be next to the international eco-efficiency standards.

Water conservation will not only reduce the load on environment and natural resources, but

would also enable the organization to claim for eco-efficiency indicator points – a new

brand image perspective.

The adoption of chemical free platforms completely or partially will reduce the cost of

chemical purchases, dependence of service provider and most important – regional leadership

in emerging the cooling water treatment technologies, since the application has only been

adopted in Western continents.

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13 References
  Bonneville Power Administration. (1991, November). Optimizing Cooling Tower Performance.
Technology Update, pp. 1-4.

 Clayton Technologies. (2011). Clayton Cooling Towers. Indore, India: Clayton Technologies
India Pvt. Ltd.

 Daeil Aqua Co., Ltd. (2004, May 10). Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual. Retrieved August
2011, from Cooling Tower Technical Site:
http://myhome.hanafos.com/~criok/english/publication/thermal/thermallisteng.html

 Federal Energy Management Program. (2011). NASA Marshal Space Flight Center
Improves Cooling System Performance. Huntsville, Alabama: US Department of Energy.

 General Services Administration. (2011). Water Management: A Comprehensive Approach for
Facility Managers. In Water Management Guide (pp. 1-140). Kansas City.

 Ken Mortensen. (2003, May). How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality. RSE Journal, pp.
1-4.

 Muhammad Yousuf. (2010). Cooling Tower Treatment Manual. Mirpur Mathelo: Fauji Fertilizer
Company.

 N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2009). Water Efficiency Manual. North
Carolina: N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. (2011). Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components
of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water Efficiency. US Department of Energy.

 Ray Congdon, Rand Conger, Mike Groh, Roger van Gelder. (2011). Cooling Tower Efficiency
Manual. In R. C. Ray Congdon, Cool Tunes (pp. 1-26). Washington DC: Water Smart Technology
Program.

 Saving Water. (2011, August). Improve Control of Cooling Tower Water. WATER SMART
TECHNOLOGY, pp. 1-2.

 SPX Cooling Technologies. (1986). Cooling Tower Performance. USA: Cooling Tower Information
Index.

 SPX Cooling Technologies. (2005). Corrosion Protection for Cooling Towers. Kansas: SPX Cooling
Technologies.

 Sydney Waters. (2010). Water conservation. Sydney: Sydney Waters.

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