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Abstract: In recent years, the increased rate of urbanization has led to the generation and release of large amounts of construction and
demolition (C&D) waste. From the viewpoint of environmental preservation and effective utilization of resources, it is beneficial and neces-
sary to reuse C&D waste. Recycled concrete aggregate, which is obtained from C&D waste, is currently being considered as an alternative
aggregate for structural concrete. Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), an ecofriendly concrete produced by partial or full substitution of
natural aggregates with recycled concrete aggregates in a concrete mix, has drawn much attention recently. Over the last decade, a significant
volume of studies has been reported in the literature on the behavior of RACs. This paper summarizes the literature dealing with the mechani-
cal properties (and the parameters affecting them) of RACs produced using coarse recycled concrete aggregates published between 1978 and
2017. In order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of RAC, this review takes into account more than 200 published
studies. The review also discusses the less understood influences of aggregate surface treatment, aggregate moisture state, and concrete
mixing on the behavior of RAC. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first review dealing with all the potential influential
factors affecting the mechanical properties of RAC. Hence, this review is expected to help researchers better understand the behavior
of this construction material. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002304. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Recycled concrete aggregate; Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC); Compressive strength; Elastic modulus; Flexural
strength; Splitting tensile strength.
strength, elastic modulus, splitting tensile strength, and flexural unexpected observation can be explained by the reduction in the
strength are reviewed here. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, actual water content of RAC mixes during hydration because of
this is the first review discussing the effect of aggregate surface the higher water absorption by recycled aggregates. Consequently,
treatment, aggregate moisture state, and method of concrete mixing most studies available on RAC have specifically dealt with the effec-
on the mechanical properties of RAC. tive water-to-binder ratio (weff =c) in concrete mixes, which is calcu-
lated from the amount of water that is available for reaction with the
binder. Figs. 2(a and b) show the influence of weff =c on the f cm of
Review of Existing Studies of Mechanical Properties RAC. In these figures the solid lines represent the trendlines obtained
of RAC from the data sets in different segments of the database. For a given
RCA%, the concrete prepared using a lower weff =c exhibited a higher
The following sections review four mechanical properties of RAC, fcm . For a given weff =c, the f cm of RAC decreased with an increase
namely the compressive strength, elastic modulus, splitting tensile in its RCA%. The following section discusses influence of RCA% on
strength, and flexural strength. Table 4 summarizes the studies the fcm of concrete.
reviewed in this paper.
Influence of Aggregate-to-Cement Ratio
The aggregate-to-cement ratio by weight (a=c) of concrete mixes is
Compressive Strength of RAC
considered to be an important factor affecting the f cm of NAC.
Compressive strength (f cm ) is widely recognized as the most However, few studies have systematically investigated the effect
important mechanical property of concrete. The following subsec- of this ratio on the f cm of RAC. Fig. 3 illustrates the results ob-
tions review the influence of the water-to-binder ratio, aggregate- tained by Duan and Poon (2014) for a RAC with RCA% ¼
to-cement ratio, recycled concrete aggregate replacement ratio 100%. For a given weff =c, the fcm of RAC decreased with an
(RCA%), parent concrete strength, adhered mortar content and increase in its a=c. Poon and Chan (2007) and Poon and Lam
particle size of recycled concrete aggregates, moisture state of re- (2008) reported that f cm of RAC decreased consistently with an
cycled concrete aggregates, RAC density, mixing method, curing increase in a=c from 3 to 6. Bairagi et al. (1990) compared
condition, chemical admixture, pretreatment of recycled concrete RAC and NAC mixes with the same a=c and found that the
aggregate, and mineral admixture on the compressive strength of RAC mix required approximately 8–13% lower a=c than did
RAC. Where relevant, possible interactions among these parame- the NAC mix to reach a comparable f cm .
ters are also discussed in these subsections.
Influence of RCA%
Influence of Water-to-Binder Ratio The effect of RCA% on the f cm of concrete has been widely studied
Water-to-binder ratio (w=b) is recognized as the most important (Table 4). Figs. 4(a and b) show the corresponding results obtained
parameter influencing the f cm of concrete. The effect of w=b on from the studies summarized in Table 4. For a given weff =c, the f cm
the f cm of hardened RAC has been widely studied (Table 4). Some of the RAC mixes obtained from either cubical or cylindrical spec-
of these studies also considered the effect of the total water-to-cement imens decreased with an increase in RCA%. This can be explained
ratio (wtotal =c). The total water is the sum of the effective water and on the basis of the RAC microstructure. Fig. 5 shows that the mi-
saturation water that is absorbed by fine and coarse aggregates. Fig. 1 crostructure of RAC is different from that of NAC. RAC has an
shows the influence of wtotal =c on the fcm of RAC. The f cm of a additional interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the aggregate
concrete with RCA% ¼ 100% increases with a decrease in and the old mortar attached (i.e., old ITZ) to the surface of recycled
wtotal =c. However, because of the porous nature of RACs, which concrete aggregates. ITZ is generally regarded as the weak link in
is due to the large amount of mortar attached to the aggregate surface concrete. Therefore, the presence of an additional ITZ in RAC leads
(Topcu 1997; Wardeh et al. 2014), the total water added in a RAC mix to a lower f cm. Moreover, because of the porous nature of the old
does not accurately represent the actual amount of water hydrated mortar attached to the surface of recycled concrete aggregates, the
with a binder because a significant proportion of the total water ITZ between the old and new mortar (new ITZ) has a lower
is absorbed by the recycled aggregates in the mix. For instance, strength, and it forms another weak link in the concrete, which
the tests conducted by Limbachiya et al. (2012b), Gayarre et al. in turn results in a lower fcm (Medina et al. 2015). According
(2014), and Butler et al. (2014) showed that for the same wtotal =c, to some previous studies, for the same weff =c, concretes with a
RAC can exhibit a fcm comparable to or even higher RCA% of less than 30% show only a slight decrease in f cm com-
than that exhibited by natural aggregate concrete (NAC). This pared with NAC (Limbachiya et al. 2000; Etxeberria et al. 2007b;
© ASCE
Drying Water Frost Freeze-thaw and reinforcement penetration Sulfate Alkali-aggregate
Reference Creep shrinkage Permeability absorption Porosity resistance resistance corrosion resistance resistance reactions
Nixon (1978) X X — — X — — — — — —
Hansen (1986) X X X X — X — X — — X
Li (2008) — X X — — — X X X X —
Xiao et al. (2012a, b, c) X X — — — — — X X — —
Safiuddin et al. (2013) — X X X X X X X X X —
Behera et al. (2014) X X X X X X X X X X —
Gonzalez-Taboada et al. (2016) — — — X — — — — — — —
04018211-3
Mineral
Total Effective Aggregate-to- Parent Attached Moisture RAC Concrete Concrete
admixture
Stress-strain water-to-cement water-to-cement cement concrete mortar content state bulk mixing curing Chemical RCA
Reference behavior ratio ratio ratio RCA% strength aggregate size of RCA density method condition admixture pretreatment SF FA GGBS
© ASCE
Number shape of water-to- Aggregate- RCA Bulk Bulk absorption absorption Compressive Elastic Flexural tensile
of compressive cement to-cement replacement density density of RCA of NA strength modulus strength strength
different strength test ratio ratio ratio of RCA of NA (WARCA ) (WANA ) (fcm ) (Ec ) (fr ) (f st )
Year Source mixes specimens (weff=c ) (a=c) (RCA %) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (%) (%) (MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1988 Yoda et al. 4 C1 0.50 2.3–2.6 0–100 — — — — 41.3–42.8 31.2–32.1 — —
2000 Limbachiya et al. 12 S1 0.29–0.45 2.2–3.3 0–100 2,400 2,610 4.9 2.5 50.2–70.8 27.0–31.0 4.9–7.2 —
2002 Ajdukiewicz and 18 S2 0.36 2.2–2.7 0–100 — — — — 38.7–54.4 21.3–39.8 — 3.2–4.2
Kliszczewicz
2002 Gómez-Soberón 5 C2 0.38–0.47 2.3–2.5 0–100 2,410 2,590 5.8 0.9 34.5–39.0 26.6–29.7 — 3.3–3.7
2004 Gonçalves et al. 8 S2 0.35–0.60 2.3–4.6 0–100 2,450 2,670 5.6 0.5 38.2–74.4 — — —
2004a Poon et al. 12 S1 0.57 2.7–3.1 0–100 2,330 2,620 6.3 1.3 38.1–48.3 — — —
2004 Lin et al. 4 C1 0.50–0.70 2.3–3.3 100 — — — — 20.4–36.2 — — —
2006b Xiao et al. 5 S1 0.43 2.7–3.0 0–100 2,520 2,820 9.3 0.4 26.7–35.9 — — —
2006 Wei 5 S2 0.27–0.42 2.0–3.0 0–100 2,442 2,786 6.0 0.3 35.2–37.8 25.1–31.9 4.9–5.1 2.7–2.9
2007a Etxeberria et al. 4 C2 0.50–0.55 3.5–4.0 0–100 2,430 2670 4.4 0.9 40.0–42.0 27.0–33.7 — 2.7–3.2
2007b Etxeberria et al. 4 S2 0.50–0.55 3.5–4.0 0–100 2,430 2,670 4.5 0.9 35.5–39.4 27.1–32.4 — 2.8–3.4
2007 Evangelista and De Brito 6 S2 0.41–0.45 3.1–4.4 0–100 2,165 2,564 6.8 0.8 58.4–62.2 28.9–35.5 — 3.0–3.9
2007 Poon et al. 5 S1 0.45–0.51 2.5–2.6 0–100 2,570 2,620 3.5 1.1 37.1–48.6 — — —
2007 Ajdukiewicz and 12 C2 0.36–0.49 2.2–5.1 0–100 2,270–2,780 — — — 34.6–61.8 24.3–41.9 — 2.6–4.5
Kliszczewicz
2007 Hu 5 S2 0.32–0.47 3.0–3.3 0–100 2,449 2,788 6.0 0.3 27.2–31.2 23.3–30.3 4.2–4.6 2.3–2.5
2007 Kou et al. 8 S1 0.45–0.55 2.5–2.8 0–100 2,570 2,620 3.5 1.1 38.1–66.8 21.7–38.7 — 2.8–3.4
2007 Rahal 10 S1 0.40–0.65 2.4–3.1 0–100 2,390 2,860 4.4 0.7 21.8–33.7 11.3–17.8 — —
2007 Wang 9 S2 0.28–0.54 2.4–3.1 0–100 2,512–2,670 2,840 1.8–6.3 0.4 24.6–38.6 — — —
2008 Casuccio et al. 9 C1 0.34–0.70 1.9–4.3 0–100 2,510–2,520 2,700 3.8–3.9 0.5 15.4–48.4 22.6–39.9 — —
04018211-4
2008 Kou et al. 16 C1 0.40–0.55 2.5–2.9 0–100 2,580 2,620 3.5 1.1 38.1–72.3 24.2–33.5 — 3.3–4.2
2008 Yang et al. 7 C1 0.50 2.7–2.9 0–100 2,400–2,530 2,600 1.9–6.2 1.4 29.5–39.5 23.7–31.7 3.2–4.0 3.2–4.3
2008 Zhou et al. 7 S1 0.45–0.58 3.2 0–100 2,650–2,880 2,970 4.4–4.8 0.8 36.6–44.6 — — —
2009 Domingo-Cabo et al. 4 C2 0.32–0.41 2.3–2.6 0–100 2,338 2,647 5.2 1.0 42.3–54.8 30.3–33.5 — —
2009 Padmini et al. 10 S2 0.52–0.54 2.7–3.2 0–100 — — — — 20.5–50.8 32.1–36.2 2.9–3.1 —
Table 4. (Continued.)
Geometric Effective Water Water Splitting
© ASCE
Number shape of water-to- Aggregate- RCA Bulk Bulk absorption absorption Compressive Elastic Flexural tensile
of compressive cement to-cement replacement density density of RCA of NA strength modulus strength strength
different strength test ratio ratio ratio of RCA of NA (WARCA ) (WANA ) (fcm ) (Ec ) (fr ) (f st )
Year Source mixes specimens (weff=c ) (a=c) (RCA %) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (%) (%) (MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
2013 Butler et al. 8 C1 0.19–0.48 1.5–4.1 0–100 2,220–2,360 2,670 4.7–7.8 1.5 38.1–62.8 27.4–35.4 4.4–5.8 3.1–4.4
2013 Chen 5 S2 0.52 2.9–3.1 0–100 2,440–2570 2,710 2.9–5.6 0.83 37.6–44.7 — — —
2013 Hou and Zheng 7 S1 0.52–0.58 3.2 0–100 2,650–2880 2,970 4.4–4.8 0.8 36.6–44.6 — — —
2013 Ismail and Ramli 40 S1 0.41 1.7 15–60 2,320–2400 2,600 3.5–4.6 0.7 40.0–56.9 — — —
2013 Manzi et al. 5 C1 0.48 4.9–5.1 0–64 2,250 2,570 7.0 1.2 41.3–51.4 24.9–31.4 4.8–6.4 3.0–4.1
2013 Matias et al. 10 C2 0.50 2.4–2.6 0–100 2,452 2,652 4.1 0.8 48.0–52.0 — — —
2013 Sheen et al. 20 C1 0.23–0.80 2.0–4.2 0–100 2,260 2,630 7.5 1.2 13.4–54.1 13.8–34.5 3.9–7.7 —
2013 Thomas et al. 24 C2 0.42–0.70 1.8–3.6 0–100 2,320 2,540 5.3 1.8 32.0–58.0 27.0–37.5 — 2.3–3.9
2013 Ulloa et al. 25 C2 0.41–0.62 2.3–2.6 20–100 2,320–2,360 2,590 3.9–6.1 1.2 26.0–48.5 — — —
2013 Xiao et al. 5 S2 0.31–0.41 2.6 0–100 2,578 2,820 9.3 0.4 36.7–47.2 26.5–33.1 — —
2013 Younis and Pilakoutas 5 S1 0.47 3.5–3.8 0–100 2,273–2,336 2,610 3.6 1.0 41.6–53.1 — — —
2014 Andreu and Miren 10 S2 0.29 2.5–2.9 0–100 2,300–2,470 2,680 3.7–5.9 2.1 91.2–108.5 37.1–50.4 6.3–8.0 4.2–6.3
2014 Beltrán et al. 10 C2 0.45–0.72 1.9–6.0 0–75 2,380 2,680 6.94 1.53 14.2–66.9 — 1.9–3.8 1.7–4.3
2014 Beltrán et al. 8 C2 0.50–0.60 2.4–3.5 0–100 2,380 2,680 6.9 1.9 40.9–51.6 25.1–30.0 4.7–5.3 —
2015 Çakır and Sofyanlı 4 C2 0.50 3.4 0–100 2,380 2,670 — — 46.4–48.6 — — 3.3–3.8
2014 Carneiro et al. 2 C1 0.49–0.52 2.1–2.2 0–25 2,500 2,810 6.6 0.4 29.9–32.6 31.1–32.1 3.3–3.6 3.2
2014 Dilbas et al. 2 C2 0.50 3.2–3.5 50 2,280–2,330 2,750 3.8–4.1 0.8 29.1–33.0 22.9–23.4 — 1.6–2.2
2014 Duan and Poon 16 S1 0.34–0.68 2.0–3.8 0–100 2,360–2,450 2,600 3.1–7.8 0.9 27.7–80.8 20.5–35.4 — 1.9–4.7
2014 Folino and Xargay 4 C1 0.50 2.8–3.1 0–100 2,570 2,730 2.7 0.3 29.1–36.5 20.7–31.7 — 3.3–4.0
2014 Gayarre et al. 8 C2 0.65 3.1–3.2 0–100 2,300 2,500 5.2–5.5 1.7 38.8–43.7 — — —
2014 Kang et al. 4 C1 0.36–0.42 2.2–2.7 0–52 2,200 2,570 5.4 1.1 29.0–38.6 25.3–29.2 8.9–10.2 2.7–3.3
04018211-5
2015 Pedro et al. 18 S1 0.40–0.87 2.8–4.9 0–100 2,362–2,496 2,537–2,665 3.6–7.8 1.0–1.3 19.7–72.3 25.2–47.6 — 2.0–5.5
2014 Pepe et al. 3 C1 0.64–0.77 3.0–3.4 0–100 1,946–2,268 2,634 4.9–11.9 1.3 27.5–33.0 24.4–24.9 — 3.4–3.9
2014 Thomas et al. 24 C1 0.42–0.70 1.8–3.6 0–100 2,320 2,730 5.3 0.5 47.5–72.9 26.8–38.7 — 2.3–5.0
2014 Wardeh et al. 4 S1 0.50 1.2–2.9 0–100 2,240 — 6.5 — 33.0–39.5 30.5–39.5 4.0–4.9 3.0–3.5
2014 Butler et al. 14 C1 0.37–0.6 1.9–4.1 0–100 2,220–2,360 2,670 4.7–7.8 1.5 31.6–69.5 26.0–35.4 — 3.2–4.4
60
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
(a) RCA%
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b) RCA%
(a)
Aggregate
Old mortar
ITZ between
aggregate and old
mortar New mortar
ITZ between
old and new Sand particle
mortar
(b)
Fig. 5. Microstructure of RAC. (Reprinted from Construction and
Fig. 2. Influence of effective water-to-cement ratio on compressive Building Materials, Vol. 40, G. C. Lee and H. B. Choi, “Study on inter-
strength of RAC: (a) cylindrical specimen; and (b) cubical specimen. facial transition zone properties of recycled aggregate by micro-
hardness test,” pp. 455–460, © 2013, with permission from Elsevier.)
a RAC mix is likely to have a slightly higher fcm than its NAC on its constituents. Therefore, as reported by Akbarnezhad et al.
counterpart. They attributed this to the better quality of recycled (2013), the effect of the parent concrete strength on the f cm
concrete aggregates (used in RAC mixes) than that of natural ag- of RACs is related to the effects of other recycled concrete
gregates (used in NAC mixes). aggregate–related parameters such as the attached mortar content,
Influence of Parent Concrete Strength size of natural aggregate, and number of crushing stages used to
Only a few studies have focused on the influence of the parent obtain the recycled concrete aggregates.
concrete strength on the f cm of RAC mixes. Fig. 6 illustrates the
results obtained from these studies (Hansen and Boegh 1985; Influence of Adhered Mortar Content and Particle Size
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; Andreu and Miren 2014; of Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Kou and Poon 2015). For a given weff =c, the f cm of RAC increased Recycled concrete aggregate often has inferior mechanical proper-
with an increase in the compressive strength of the parent concrete. ties compared to natural aggregate because of the large amount of
This influence was more significant in specimens with low and mortar attached to its surface (Montgomery and Sturgiss 1996;
moderate weff =c (i.e., weff =c ¼ 0.285–0.5), and only a minor in- Levy and Helene 2004; Nagataki et al. 2004; Abbas et al. 2008,
crease was seen in RAC mixes with a high weff =c (i.e., >0.7). This 2009; Butler et al. 2011), which contributes to its high porosity
phenomenon can be explained by different failure mechanisms of and low aggregate crushing and Los Angeles abrasion indices.
RAC mixes having different weff =c values. In concretes with a low As discussed previously, the attached mortar content adversely af-
or moderate weff =c, the strengths of new mortar and the ITZ be- fects the fcm of RAC. Fig. 7 shows the effect of the attached mortar
tween the new and old mortar regions are generally higher than content on the f cm of a RAC mix with 100% RCA% (Duan and
that of the recycled concrete aggregates. Therefore, the failure Poon 2014). For a given weff =c, the f cm of the mix decreased
of such concretes starts from the recycled concrete aggregates. with an increase in the attached mortar content. As discussed in
The overall compressive strength of these concretes is governed previous studies (Hansen 1986; Sagoe-Crentsil et al. 2001;
by the strength of the recycled concrete aggregates. On the other Etxeberria et al. 2007b; Berndt 2009; de Juan and Gutiérrez
hand, in concretes with a high weff =c, the failure starts in the 2009; Kou and Poon 2009; Akbarnezhad et al. 2013; Manzi
new mortar region or in the ITZ between the new and old mortar et al. 2013) and shown in Fig. 8, there is a strong correlation be-
regions because of their lower strengths compared with that of re- tween the particle size of recycled concrete aggregates (Φ) and the
cycled concrete aggregates. Therefore, the influence of the parent amount of mortar attached to their surfaces. The amount of mortar
concrete strength decreases with an increase in weff =c (Medina attached to the surface of recycled concrete aggregates decreases
et al. 2015). with an increase in Φ. These observations provide important
Some studies (i.e., Hansen and Boegh 1985; Kikuchi et al. insights into the often reported increase in the f cm of recycled con-
1998; Dhir 1999; Nagataki 2001; Otsuki et al. 2003; Hansen crete aggregate with an increase in Φ (Tavakoli and Soroushian
2004; Nagataki et al. 2004; Poon et al. 2004a; Ajdukiewicz and 1996; Sagoe-Crentsil et al. 2001; Etxeberria et al. 2007b;
Kliszczewicz 2007; Tabsh and Abdelfatah 2009; Paine and Dhir de Juan and Gutiérrez 2009; Sriravindrarajah et al. 2012; Manzi
2010; Pedro et al. 2014; Andreu and Miren 2014) reported that et al. 2013; Dilbas et al. 2014).
Fig. 6. Influence of parent concrete strength on compressive strength Fig. 7. Influence of attached mortar content (in percentage of total ag-
of RAC with RCA% ¼ 100% and different weff =c. gregate weight) on compressive strength of RAC with RCA% ¼ 100%.
the aggregate–new mortar ITZ of RAC, thus improving its immersion curing.
mechanical strength. In addition to the TSM approach, the literature
has reported several other mixing methods. Fathifazl et al. (2009) Influence of Chemical Admixture
proposed an equivalent mortar volume (EMV) method by using the Superplasticizers (SPs) have been widely used as chemical admix-
same total mortar volume for NAC and RAC mixes. They found tures in conventional concrete to attain a workable mix with a lower
that for the same weff =c, the fcm of the RAC produced using the wtotal =c. Because of the higher water absorption of recycled con-
EMV method increased by up to 14% compared with that of the crete aggregate than that of natural aggregate, a fresh RAC usually
RAC produced using the conventional mixing approach. Liang et al. has lower slump than does a fresh NAC having the same wtotal =c.
(2015) proposed mortar mixing (MM) and sand enveloped mixing A few studies have investigated the influence of superplasticizers
(SEM) approaches, in which mortar is formed or sand is covered on the fcm of RACs (Pereira et al. 2012a, b; Matias et al. 2013; Rao
(enveloped) by water during the initial mixing stage of RAC, and Arun 2015). Fig. 11 shows the effect of the addition of two
respectively. Liang et al. (2015) found that for the same weff =c, types of superplasticizers on the fcm of RACs with 25, 50, and
the fcm of the RAC mixes prepared using the MM and SEM ap- 100% RCA% (Matias et al. 2013). For a weff =c of 0.5, the addition
proaches improved by 39 and 15%, respectively, compared with of 0.5% superplasticizer (of cement weight) led to a decrease of up
that of the RAC mixes prepared using the conventional mix ap- to 6% in f cm . This can be attributed to the fact that the addition of a
proach. Kong et al. (2010) developed a triple mixing approach superplasticizer in a concrete mix results in an increase in the
by slightly modifying the TSM approach by introducing an addi- amount of water trapped in the mixture, which gradually evaporates
tional stage in which the aggregate is coated by a chemical admix- and leads to the creation of voids in the concrete (Matias et al.
ture. Li et al. (2009) developed the coarse aggregates enveloped 2013). Studies currently available in the literature do not allow
with pozzolanic powder (SEPP) approach, in which the recycled the investigation of the influence of superplasticizer on f cm of
concrete aggregates in RAC mixes are initially enveloped using ei- RACs with a lower weff =c. Therefore, additional studies on spec-
ther a pozzolanic material or conventional portland cement. They imens with a lower weff =c are required to understand the influence
found that the fcm of the RAC developed by the SEPP approach of superplasticizer on f cm under such conditions.
was approximately 10% higher than that of the RAC mix obtained Recently, other types of chemical admixtures have also been
by the conventional mix approach with the same weff =c. Wang et al. considered for use in RACs. Hani et al. (2015) investigated the
(2013) proposed the W3T4 method, which involves water addition influence of the addition of micronized biomass silica (MBS) on
in three parts and four stages of mixing procedures, to prepare their the f cm of RAC. They reported that the addition of 12% MBS
RACs with superfine pozzolanic powders. They showed through (by cement weight) to a RAC mix resulted in a 17% increase in
scanning electron microscopy that the recycled concrete aggregate its f cm due to the higher pozzolanic reactivity imparted by MBS.
prepared by the W3T4 method had much denser ITZ and hence Sahoo et al. (2016) found that the addition of bacillus subtilis bac-
better quality than the recycled concrete aggregate obtained by teria (106 cells=mL) in RAC resulted in an approximately 20% in-
the conventional mix approach. All the mixing approaches dis- crease in its fcm as a result of the formation of calcium carbonate
cussed thus far were aimed at enhancing the aggregate–mortar (CaCO3 ) precipitation in the mix.
ITZ to increase the f cm of RAC.
crete. Murali et al. (2012) immersed recycled concrete aggregate in fly ash (FA) and with sodium silicate impregnation increased by
different acid solutions [nitric acid (HNO3 ), sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), up to 34.8 and 32.4%, respectively.
and hydrochloric acid (HCl)] to remove the attached mortar and In addition to the two treatment approaches mentioned previ-
observed an increase of up to 12% in f cm with the nitric acid– ously, Ismail and Ramli (2014) proposed a recycled concrete
treated recycled concrete aggregate. Ismail and Ramli (2013) pre- aggregate–pretreatment method involving both the chemical-
treated recycled concrete aggregate using HCl solutions with three treatment and surface-modification approaches. They initially
different concentrations (0.1, 0.5, and 0.8 mol) and found that the soaked recycled concrete aggregates in a HCl solution to remove
0.8-mol HCl solution removed more attached mortar, resulting in the attached mortar and then subsequently coated the recycled
an increase of up to 21% in the fcm of the concrete compared to that concrete aggregates with wollastonite (CaSiO3 ). The concrete
of the control specimen containing ordinary recycled concrete ag- manufactured using the recycled concrete aggregates modified
gregates. Purushothaman et al. (2014) conducted a comparative by this method showed a 12% higher 28-day fcm compared to
study and found that for a 0.1-mol solution concentration, H2 SO4 the concrete prepared using untreated recycled concrete aggregates.
removed more attached mortar than did HCl, and the fcm of the
concrete prepared using H2 SO4 -treated recycled concrete aggre- Influence of Mineral Admixture
gates improved by 16 and 39% compared to that of the concretes Previous studies of NAC have reported that the pozzolanic
prepared using HCl-treated and untreated recycled concrete aggre- and microfiller effects related to mineral materials are beneficial
gates, respectively. Pepe et al. (2014) proposed an autogenous for both short-term and long-term properties of concrete (Neville
cleaning process. In this process, recycled concrete aggregates are 1995; González-Fonteboa and Martínez-Abella 2008). To date,
placed in a rotating mill drum, where they collide against each other several studies have reported the use of FA, silica fume, ground-
while removing the pieces of the mortar attached to their surfaces. granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), and a few other pozzolanic
Pepe et al. (2014) found that the concrete prepared using autog- materials [i.e., metakaolin (Corinaldesi and Moriconi 2009; Kou
enously cleaned recycled concrete aggregates exhibited a 9% et al. 2011), rubble powder (Corinaldesi et al. 2002), and munici-
higher fcm than the concrete prepared using as-received recycled pal solid waste ash (Kou et al. 2011; Somna et al. 2012)] as a
concrete aggregates. Tam et al. (2007a) evaluated the effect of pre- cement additive or an alternative to cement to improve the perfor-
soaked recycled concrete aggregates using three different types mance of RACs. This subsection discusses the influence of three
of aggressive acid solutions [HCl, H2 SO4 , and phosphoric acid commonly used mineral admixtures, i.e., FA, SF, and GGBS on
(H3 PO4 )]. Their experimental observations indicated that all three the f cm of RACs.
acid solutions could significantly reduce the amount of mortar at- Silica Fume. Fig. 12 shows the effect of the addition of 5 and 10%
tached to the surface of recycled concrete aggregates, which in turn SF on the fcm of RACs with different RCA% values. The use of SF
improved the fcm of the RAC mixes. Tam et al. (2016) investigated as a cement replacement at a ratio of 5 and 10% by weight can
the effect of carbon-conditioned recycled concrete aggregates with improve the fcm of a RAC mix by up to 7 and 11%, respectively
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) on the fcm of RAC. They found that the (Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; González-Fonteboa and
RAC mix carbonized for 90 min showed a 7% higher f cm than Martínez-Abella 2008; Dilbas et al. 2014; Çakır 2014; Çakır
that of the RAC mix containing untreated recycled concrete aggre- and Sofyanlı 2015). This is because SF can offer a higher pozzo-
gates. Pandurangan et al. (2016) assessed the effect of different lanic effect than cement by producing additional calcium silicate
treatment methods (acid, thermal, and mechanical treatments) on
the mechanical properties of RACs. They found that the fcm of
a RAC mix improved by 6, 7, and 8% when the constituent recycled
concrete aggregates were exposed to an acid treatment with
1 mol HNO3 , a thermal treatment at 500°C for 2 h in a furnace,
and a mechanical treatment with a Los Angeles abrasion machine
(for 300 revolutions), respectively.
The second approach involves the use of nonreactive fine min-
eral admixtures (as microfiller materials) and reactive fine mineral
admixtures to enhance the recycled concrete aggregate surface and
to strengthen the ITZ of recycled concrete aggregate through poz-
zolanic reactions, respectively. Katz (2004) studied the pretreat-
ment of recycled concrete aggregate by immersing the aggregate
in a silica fume solution. As expected, the silica fume reacted with
Fig. 12. Influence of silica fume replacement on compressive strength
the calcium hydroxide generated by the hydration of the aggregate,
of RAC with weff =c ¼ 0.36.
resulting in the formation of a dense layer covering the surface of
(a)
Fig. 23. Influence of RCA% on flexural strength of RAC with different
weff =c.
Influence of RCA%
A number of previous studies have investigated the effect of RCA%
on f st and fr . Figs. 22 and 23 show the influence of RCA% on the
fst and f r of RACs, respectively. In most cases, an increase in RCA
% led to a decrease in both fst and fr . This is attributed to the lower
tensile strength of recycled concrete aggregates than that of natural
(b)
aggregates (Abd Elhakam et al. 2012; Sriravindrarajah et al. 2012).
Fig. 21. Axial stress-strain curve of RAC with postpeak branch: (a) in- Some studies reported that a concrete mix with a RCA% of 100%
creased slope of second branch with increasing RCA% for specimens had a decrease of up to 23% and approximately 10–13% in fst
with weff =c ¼ 0.43 (data from Xiao et al. 2005); and (b) identical (Wu et al. 2001; Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; Katz
slope of second branch with increasing RCA% for specimens with 2003; Hansen 2004; Kou et al. 2007; Kou et al. 2008; Tam and
weff =c ¼ 0.65 (data from Belén et al. 2011). Tam 2008; Kou and Poon 2009; Tabsh and Abdelfatah 2009;
Butler et al. 2014; Guneyisi et al. 2016; Adams et al. 2016) and
fr (Bairagi et al. 1990; Özturan and Çeçen 1997; Kheder and
Al-Windawi 2005; Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2007; de Juan
Xiao et al. (2005). However, Belén et al. (2011) and Pereira et al. and Gutiérrez 2009; Mefteh et al. 2013; Thomas et al. 2013), re-
(2012b) observed a nearly identical slope and a slight increase in spectively, compared with a NAC mix. However, the results of
the length of the second branch on the stress-strain curve of the other studies did not follow this trend and showed that the use
RACs with a higher RCA%. Fig. 21(b) shows this postpeak behavior of recycled concrete aggregates in concrete resulted in a less sig-
through the stress-strain curves reported by Belén et al. (2011). nificant or even positive effect on its f st and fr . Liu et al. (2011),
McNeil and Kang (2013), and Kim et al. (2015) reported that for a
given weff =c, a RAC mix can have a f st comparable to that of a
Splitting Tensile and Flexural Strengths NAC mix. Etxeberria et al. (2007b), Duan and Poon (2014),
According to previous reviews on RAC and NAC, the splitting ten- Andreu and Miren (2014), Çakır and Sofyanlı (2015), and Zaetang
sile (f st ) and flexural (f r ) strengths of RAC are generally lower et al. (2016) reported that RACs had a marginally higher f st than
than those of NAC with the same concrete mix (Xiao et al. NACs with the same mix design. The previous experimental obser-
2006b; Safiuddin et al. 2013; Behera et al. 2014). This section re- vations derived from the flexural tests of RACs (Rao et al. 2011;
views the influence of RCA%, the particle size of the recycled con- Xiao et al. 2012b; Limbachiya et al. 2012a; Akbarnezhad et al.
crete aggregate, the RAC density, and the mixing method on the fst 2013; Andreu and Miren 2014) also indicated that RACs can have
and fr of RACs, along with the correlation between the f st and f cm a fr equal to or higher than that of NACs with the same weff =c. The
and that between the f r and fcm of RAC. higher f st and fr of RACs compared to those of NACs may be due
(b)
Fig. 24. Influence of recycled aggregate size (Φ) on (a) splitting tensile
strength and (b) flexural strength of RAC with weff =c ¼ 0.3. RAC1 and
RAC2 were produced with recycled concrete aggregates sourced from
crushed concrete pavements of US 23 Fenton and 1-75 Detroit, respec- Fig. 26. Correlation between bulk density and flexural strength of
tively. RAC with RCA% ¼ 100%.
to the dependence of these properties on the quality and surface As was well-established by several previous studies on both RAC
roughness of recycled concrete aggregates (Akbarnezhad et al. and NAC, the bulk density of concrete can serve as a measure of its
2013; Andreu and Miren 2014; Behera et al. 2014). Yang et al. porosity, homogeneity, and compactness, and hence also reflects its
(2008), Rao et al. (2011), Matias et al. (2013), Behera et al. (2014), mechanical strength (Gómez-Soberón 2002; Carneiro et al. 2014).
and Çakır and Sofyanlı (2015) reported that recycled concrete
aggregates with a rougher surface texture and higher parent con- Correlation between f st and f r and f cm of RAC
crete strength develop better bonding and interlocking between Like elastic modulus, fcm of concrete is commonly used to predict
the recycled concrete aggregate and the new adhered mortar matrix, its splitting tensile and flexural strengths. Several models have been
which in turn improved fst and fr of RACs. proposed to predict f st (Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996; Kheder and
Al-Windawi 2005; Xiao et al. 2006a) and f r (Bairagi et al. 1993;
Influence of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Size Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996; Kheder and Al-Windawi 2005;
Only a few studies have investigated the effect of the recycled ag- Xiao et al. 2006b) of RAC using the related fcm . Figs. 27 and 28
gregate size (Φ) on f st (Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996; Padmini illustrate the relationship of fst and f r , respectively, with f cm of
et al. 2009) and fr (Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996; Padmini RAC. Both fst and fr increase with an increase in fcm of RAC.
et al. 2009; Manzi et al. 2013) of RACs. Figs. 24(a and b) show This is attributed to the higher mortar strength of the concrete with
the results reported by Tavakoli and Soroushian (1996), which in-
dicate that an increase in the Φ of recycled concrete aggregate leads
to an increase in both the f st and fr of RAC. This observation can
be attributed to the fact that an increase in Φ results in an increase in
the roughness of the aggregate surface, leading to an increase in the
stress concentration and crack propagation within the ITZ, which in
turn results in a lower strength of the aggregate–mortar ITZs
(Akçaoğlu et al. 2002; Elices and Rocco 2008). However, Padmini
et al. (2009) reported that f st and f r of RACs are not significantly
affected by Φ.
Conclusions Acknowledgments
This study presented a comprehensive review of the mechanical The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the
properties of RAC on the basis of 242 studies reported in last three National Natural Science Foundation of China through Grant
decades. The effect of all the potential influential factors on the 51650110495 and from the University of Adelaide through a
mechanical properties of RAC, including the compressive strength, Research Excellence Grant awarded to the third author.
elastic modulus, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and ax-
ial stress-strain behavior, was carefully reviewed and explained.
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