Mechanical Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering

Materials Laboratory
Manual

2020-2021
 LAB (1)

MICROSPECIMEN PREPARATION AND USE OF THE

METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE

Introduction:
Since many of the important engineering properties of materials depend upon the micro-
structural arrangement of its components, it is of interest and value to be able to examine and evaluate
these materials under a microscope. Quality assurance laboratories rely heavily upon the microscopic
examination of materials. It is the purpose of this laboratory exercise to acquaint the student with the
techniques of specimen preparation and of microscopic examination of materials. A secondary purpose
is to acquaint the student with the general microscopic features of important engineering materials.

Equipments and materials required:

1. Metallurgical microscope.
2. Etching equipment, and suitable etchant.
3. Grinding & Polishing equipment, abrasive papers.
4. Specimens:
Steel, brass

Procedures:
1. Bevel or chamfer the edges of the specimen surface to be observed.
2. Grind the specimen using different abrasive paper, starting with coarse, medium and fine (3
stages).
3. Show your specimen to the instructor at this stage. If your specimen is in proper condition for
proceeding, you will be asked to continue, otherwise appropriate polishing methods will be
demonstrated. he will direct you to continue and may demonstrate the polishing technique to use.
4. Polish the specimen with polishing cloths (2 stages)
5. After completing the polishing, show your specimen to the instructor for inspection and indicate
whether you may proceed to the etching step. He may also demonstrate etching techniques.
6. Etch with suitable etchant.
7. Ask the instructor to check your etched specimen and advise you whether to proceed to examine it
on the microscope or whether re-etching is required.
8. Transfer the specimen to the microscope, use coarse adjustment wheel to lower the stage (or raise
body) so that there is sufficient space between the objective lens and the stage for specimens to fit
without coming too close to the lens.
(There should be sufficient clearance so that there is little likelihood of scratching the lens or
specimen when the specimen is placed on the stage.)
Put the lowest total magnification lens combination (objective and eyepiece) into position on the
microscope. Turn on the microscope light.
Place one specimen on the stage. Place the specimen directly under the objective lens being used,
trying to centre the specimen under the lens.
9. Do not look through the microscope yet. Instead, watch the etched surface of the specimen by
directly looking at it. While watching the specimen, turn the coarse adjustment to slowly raise the
stage towards the objective lens. As the specimen and the lens become closer, a spot of light
should appear on the surface of the specimen. You should still be looking directly at the specimen
and not through the microscope. Reposition the specimen, if necessary, so that the light falls on its
centre. Continue to close the gap between the specimen and the lens. Watch this gap while it
decreases. When the specimen almost, but not quite, touches the lens, look through the eyepiece
and slowly turn the coarse adjusting wheel in the proper direction to increase the gap. You should
notice that the illumination of the circular field of view will become brighter. Keep moving the
coarse adjusting wheel in the opposite direction to increase the gap. You should notice that the
illumination of the circular field of view will become brighter. Keep moving the coarse adjustment
until the field of view reaches maximum illumination. At that time the microstructure should come
into focus although you may see it flash into view only momentarily as you pass it by. You have
focused “going away” from the lens in order to avoid damaging the objective lens by running the
specimen into it which you might have done had you focused going toward the lens. Now move
your hand to the fine adjustment knob and turn it in the direction which brightens the view until
the structure comes into sharpest focus.
 Fig 1 Optical microscope

10. Study the structure under the microscope

Fig 2a Fig 2b
Fig 2a shows the essential parts of a reflected light microscope and the trace of light rays through
its optical system. Fig 2b shows the microstructure appeared under microscope.
 11. Change microscope total magnification to approximately 2or 3 times that used before and
indicate the total magnifications available on your microscope by multiplying the eyepiece lens X
objective lens= total magnification

12. . Turn off the microscope light. Cover the microscope with a dustcover. It is recommended that the
microscope be left assembled at the close of the laboratory session because unnecessary assembly
and disassembly will cause looseness to develop in the disturbed connections. Store the specimen
properly according to the practice in the laboratory.

Report requirements & Questions

Sketch and label the microstructure of each of the samples examined, indicating etchant and total
magnification. Identify on your sketches the micro-constituents present and any significant features
observed. Answer the following questions:
1. Define metallographic. State the steps of metallographic preparation
2. Explain why grain boundaries are the first to be visualized on a specimen of properly polished
and etched metal under the optical microscope.
 LAB (2)

THE HARDNESS TEST

Introduction

The hardness is defined as "Resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However,
the term may also refer to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal,
which gives it the ability to resist being permanently, deformed when a load is applied. The greater the
hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.

In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to being
scratched by another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist
plastic deformation.

The indentation hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation. This is the usual type
of hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a surface under a substantially
static load.

HARDNESS MEASUREMENT METHODS

There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell hardness
test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test. Since the definitions of metallurgic
ultimate strength and hardness are rather similar, it can generally be assumed that a strong metal is also a
hard metal. The way the three of these hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the
metal's resistance to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth
which such a ball or cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time.
The followings are the most common hardness test methods used in today`s technology:

1. Rockwell hardness test

2. Brinell hardness
3. Vickers

1- Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal surface with 10mm- diameter- steel ball at a load
of at aload of 3000 Kg. for a soft metals the load is reduced to 500 Kg to avoid too deep impression, for
very hard metals we use a tungsten carbide ball to minimize distortion of the indentor.

The load is applied for a standard time, usually 30 seconds, and the the diameter of the indentation is
measured with a low power microscope after removal of the load. The average of two diameters of the
impression at right angles is made. And then the Brinell hardness number (BHN) is expressed as the load
P divided by the surface area of the indentation as shown in the following figure.

It is noticed that the units of the BHN are kg/mm2. However, the BHN is not satisfactory physical
concept since it doesn't give the mean pressure over the surface of the indentation.

2- Vickers Hardness
The Vickers harness test uses a square base diamond pyramid as the indenter. The vickers hardness
number (VHN) is defined as the load divided by the surface area of the indentation. In practice, the area
is measured by microscopic measurements of the lengths of the diagonals of the impression as shown in
the following figure.
Ordinarily, the loads used in this test are in the range of 1 to 120 Kg, depending on the hardness of the
metal to be tested. The test isn't widely accepted because it is slow, requires careful surface preparation
for the specimen, and allows for personal error in determination of the diagonals.

3- Rockwell hardness test

It is one of the most widely used hardness test, because it is a fast test, freedom from human error,
ability to distinguish small hardness differences in hardness and producing a small size indentation. The
test uses the depth of indentation from constant load as a measure of hardness. A minor load of 10 Kg is
used to set the specimen. Then, the major load is applied and the depth of indentation is automatically
recorded on a dial gage in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers.

The indenters used in this test are 120 diamond cone and 1.6 and 3.2 mm diameter steel balls. Major
loads of 60, 100 and 150 Kg are used. As the Rockwell hardness is dependent on the load and indenter,
it is necessary to specify the combination which it is used.

Procedure

1. The indenter and anvil should be clean and well seated.

2. The surface to be tested should be clean, dry, smooth and free from oxide.
3. The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter.
4. Tests on cylindrical will give low readings, the error depend on the curvature, load, indenter and
hardness of the material. Theoretical and empirical corrections for this effect have been published.
5. The thickness of the specimen should be such that a mark isn't produced on the reverse side of the
piece.
6. The spacing between indentations should be three to five times the diameter of the indentation.

Report requirements & Questions

1- Produce a simple sketch for the hardness testing device in the lab indicating its main parts and
functions. What is the type of this hardness machine?
2- For the same sample you used for microstructure examination, follow the above shown
procedures to prepare the sample for hardness testing. Report the hardness value with its proper
designation, and hence answer the following:
a- Describe the shape of the indenter.
b- Describe the shape of the indentation.
c- According to the hardness reading is this material hard or soft?
d- Compare the hardness with the microstructure of the part.
 LAB (3)

THE IMPACT TEST

Introduction
Under ordinary operating conditions, metals in general are ductile.
However, it is possible to make them rather brittle by strengthening techniques which increase the
yield strength. These techniques are applies to ductile metals by engineers in a controlled manner to
produce a stronger material. However, other circumstances can cause some ductile metals to become
brittle often in an unexpected manner. Brittle failure has been observed for normally-ductile mild
steel tanks, bridges and pipes for over 100 years. During World War II many ships which had been
constructed of mild steel fractured in a brittle manner in the icy waters in the North Atlantic Ocean.
This prompted extensive research which leads to a better understanding of the mechanical behavior
of materials. It is essential for the engineer to understand all of the environmental conditions which
may inadvertently enhance the brittle nature in metals and result in brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is
characterized by a sudden failure of the part with little or no plastic deformation and no prior
warning.

Objectives
To observe the energy that was absorbed by the specimen before fracture.

Equipments and materials required

1. Impact testing machine.
2. Vernier caliper.
3. Micrometer.
4. Standard V-notch Charpy impact test specimen 10x10x60.

Procedure
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in the safe rest position, place the specimen across the
parallel jaws of the testing machine.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its topmost striking position unless it is already there, and lock it at
that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum.
The total energy of the pendulum is not absorbed by the specimen. Thus it continues to swing. At
its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum
falls back. Note the indicator reading at that topmost final position.
5. Record the data from the indicator of the machine.

Impact Tests
Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to a suddenly applied force.
The test measures the impact energy, or the energy absorbed prior to fracture. The most common
methods of measuring impact energy are the:

• Charpy Test

What is Impact Energy

Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen.

When the striker impacts the specimen, the specimen will absorb energy until it yields. At this point, the
specimen will begin to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The test specimen continues to absorb
energy and work hardens at the plastic zone at the notch. When the specimen can absorb no more
energy, fracture occurs.

The Charpy Test

While most commonly used on metals, it is also used on polymers, ceramics and composites. The
Charpy test is most commonly used to evaluate the relative toughness or impact toughness of materials
and as such is often used in quality control applications where it is a fast and economical test. It is used
more as a comparative test rather than a definitive test.

Charpy Test Specimens

Charpy test specimens normally measure 55x10x10mm and have a notch machined across one of the
larger faces. The notches may be:

• V-notch – the V-shaped notch is 2mm deep, with 45° angle and 0.25mm radius along the base

What Does the Charpy Test Involve?

The Charpy test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at the end of a pendulum.
The test piece is fixed in place at both ends and the striker impacts the test piece immediately behind a a
machined notch.

Figure 1. Schematic of the Charpy impact test.

Determination of Charpy Impact Energy
At the point of impact, the striker has a known amount of kinetic energy. The impact energy is
calculated based on the height to which the striker would have risen, if no test specimen was in place,
and this compared to the height to which the striker actually rises.

Tough materials absorb a lot of energy, whilst brittle materials tend to absorb very little energy prior to
fracture.

Factors Affecting Charpy Impact Energy

Factors that affect the Charpy impact energy of a specimen will include:

• Yield strength and ductility

• Notches

• Temperature and strain rate

• Fracture mechanism

Yield Strength and Ductility

For a given material the impact energy will be seen to decrease if the yield strength is increased, i.e. if
the material undergoes some process that makes it more brittle and less able to undergo plastic
deformation. Such processes may include cold working or precipitation hardening.

Notches

The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and some materials are more sensitive towards notches
than others. The notch depth and tip radius are therefore very important.

Temperature and Strain Rate

Most of the impact energy is absorbed by means of plastic deformation during the yielding of the
specimen. Therefore, factors that affect the yield behavior and hence ductility of the material such as
temperature and strain rate will affect the impact energy.

This type of behavior is more prominent in materials with a body centered cubic structure, where
lowering the temperature reduces ductility more markedly than face centered cubic materials.
Fracture Mechanism

Metals tend to fail by one of two mechanisms, micro-void coalescence or cleavage.

Cleavage can occur in body centered cubic materials, where cleavage takes place along the {001} crystal
plane. Micro-void coalescence is the more common fracture mechanism where voids form as strain
increases, and these voids eventually join together and failure occurs. Of the two fracture mechanisms
cleavage involved far less plastic deformation ad hence absorbs far less fracture energy.

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a ‘ductile to brittle transition’. This
behavior is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of temperature. The resultant curve will
show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the temperature decreases. If the impact energy drops off
very sharply, a transition temperature can be determined. This is often a good indicator of the minimum
recommended service temperature for a material.

Report requirements & Questions

1. Study the machine in the lab, draw a schematic of the machine and add the function of each of its
parts. Write the machine model and specifications.

2. Draw the specimen with dimensions.

Specimen Material Dimensions Notch

no. Specifications
W H L

3. Note the rupture energy of each specimen.

Specimen Rupture Energy

 4. Study the features and draw the texture of the fractured surface of each specimen.

Specimen Illustration Comments

5. Comment on the results.

Discussion
1. Discuss the significance and advantages of impact tests in comparision with static tests.
2. What physical property of a material is determined by means of an impact test?
3. Why are charpy impact specimens notched?
4. Discuss the effect of the following factors upon the results of impact tests:
(i) Characteristics of the notch
(ii) Speed of the hammer
(iii) Temperature of the specimen
 LAB (4)

THE TENSILE TEST

Objectives:
1. To draw, analyze and determine different mechanical properties of different materials from the
stress-strain diagram

Equipment and materials required:

1. Computerized universal tensile testing machine
2. Specimens
3. Vernier caliper 0 to 25 cm
4. De-burring tool to remove excess burrs off the specimen

Procedures:
1. Note the dimensions of the specimen and determine the average diameter of the middle parallel
portion. Prepare a data sheet using the following format:

Material tested ………………………..

Average initial diameter …………………………………. mm

Original gauge length (Lo) …………………………………. mm

Original cross-sectional area (Ac) …………………………………. mm2

Final diameter. At neck …………………………………. mm

Final gauge length (Lf) ………………………………… mm

Final cross-sectional area (Af) ………………………………… mm2

 Fig 3 a, b tensile test specimen

2. Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in the jaws of the universal testing machine and adjust
the machine to read zero
3. Start increasing the load gradually
4. Get the data points of the Load (F) vs. Extension (ΔL)
5. Convert the data into Stress (σ) vs. Strain (ϵ)
Where σ=F/Ac and ϵ= ΔL/Lo
Report requirements & Questions

Complete the following table:

Load (kg) Extension (ΔL) Stress (F/AInitial) Strain (ΔL/L)

0 0 0 0

Plot the stress-strain diagram for your specimen material, and indicate the
0.2 % yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, the % elongation, % reduction in area, modulus of
elasticity,. Use ordinary millimeter graph paper. After finishing answer the following questions.

1. Calculate the values of % elongation and % reduction in area and indicate their significance?
2. Calculate the elastic modulus using the slope of the linear portion of the curve.
3. Determine the 0.2 % yield stress.
4. What property does the area under the stress-strain define?
5. Compare the stress-strain curves for the cold-rolled and annealed steel and the aluminum
specimens.

Stress-strain diagram

Cold rolled steel

Annealed steel

Aluminum alloy
 LAB (5)

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Objective
To gain experience with and understanding, advantages and applications of some types of NDT
methods. To be able to choose the best NDT method for a given part.

Introduction
The previous testing methods (tensile, hardness and impact) has to destroy the test specimens. The
evaluation of engineering materials or structures without impairing their properties is very important,
such as the quality control of the products, failure analysis or prevention of the engineered systems in
service. This kind of evaluations can be carried out with Non destructive test (NDT) methods. It is
possible to inspect and/or measure the materials or structures without destroying their surface texture,
product integrity and future usefulness. The field of NDT is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that
plays a critical role in inspecting that structural component and systems perform their function in a
reliable fashion. Certain standards has been also implemented to assure the reliability of the NDT tests
and prevent certain errors due to either the fault in the equipment used, the miss-application of the
methods or the skill and the knowledge of the inspectors.
Successful NDT tests allow locating and characterizing material conditions and flaws that might
otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and variety of less
visible, but equally troubling events. However, these techniques generally require considerable operator
skill and interpreting test results accurately may be difficult because the results can be subjective.
These methods can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, cermets, and coatings in
order to detect cracks, internal voids, surface cavities, delamination, incomplete defective welds and
any type of flaw that could lead to premature failure. Commonly used NDT test methods can be seen in
table 1. These are universal NDT methods; however, very special tests have been developed for specific
applications.

Table 1 Commonly used NDT techniques

Technique Capabilities Limitations

Visual Inspection Macroscopic surface flaws Small flaws are difficult to detect, no
subsurface flaws.
Microscopy Small surface flaws Not applicable to larger structures; no
subsurface flaws.
Radiography Subsurface flaws Smallest defect detectable is 2% of the
thickness; radiation protection. No
subsurface
flaws not for porous materials
Dye penetrate Surface flaws No subsurface flaws not for porous materials

Ultrasonic Subsurface flaws Material must be good conductor of sound.

 Magnetic Particle Surface / near surface and Limited subsurface capability, only for

layer flaws ferromagnetic materials.

Eddy Current Surface and near surface Difficult to interpret in some applications;
flaws only for metals.

Acoustic emission Can analyze entire structure Difficult to interpret, expensive equipments.

Visual inspection:
VI is particularly effective detecting macroscopic flaws, such as poor welds. Many welding flaws are
macroscopic: crater cracking, undercutting, slag inclusion, incomplete penetration welds, and the like.
Like wise, VI is also suitable for detecting flaws in composite structures and piping of all types.
Essentially, visual inspection should be performed the way that one would inspect a new car prior to
delivery, etc. Bad welds or joints, missing fasteners or components, poor fits, wrong dimensions,
improper surface finish, delaminations in coatings, large cracks, cavities, dents, inadequate size, wrong
parts, lack of code approval stamps and similar proofs of testing.

Radiography:
Radiography has an advantage over some of the other processes in that the radiography provides a
permanent reference for the internal soundness of the object that is radiographed.
The x-ray emitted from a source has an ability to penetrate metals as a function of the accelerating
voltage in the x-ray emitting tube. If a void present in the object being radiographed, more x-rays will
pass in that area and the film under the part in turn will have more exposure than in the non-void areas.
The sensitivity of xrays is nominally 2% of the materials thickness. Thus for a piece of steel with a
25mm thickness, the smallest void that could be detected would be 0.5mm in dimension. For this reason,
parts are often radiographed in different planes. A thin crack does not show up unless the x-rays ran
parallel to the plane 0 the crack. Gamma radiography is identical to x-ray radiography in function. The
difference is the source of the penetrating electromagnetic radiation which is a radioactive material such
m Co 60. However this method is less popular because of the hazards of handling radioactive materials.

Liquid (Dye) penetrant method:

Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which are its relative ease of use and its
flexibility. The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking
flaw by capillary action.
This method is an inexpensive and convenient technique for surface defect inspection. The limitations of
the liquid penetrant technique include the inability to inspect subsurface flaws and a loss of resolution
on porous materials. Liquid penetrant testing is largely used on nonmagnetic materials for which
magnetic particle inspection is not possible.
Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following; metals (aluminum, copper,
steel, titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials, rubber, plastics.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some of
these flaws are listed below; fatigue cracks, quench cracks grinding cracks, overload and impact
fractures, porosity, laps seams, pin holes in welds, lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond
line.

Magnetic particles:
Magnetic particle inspection is one of the simple, fast and traditional nondestructive testing methods
widely used because of its convenience and low cost. This method uses magnetic fields and small
magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an
inspect ability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic
material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys, since these materials are materials that can be
magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective. On the other hand, an enormous
volume of structural steels used in engineering is magnetic. In its simplest application, an electromagnet
yoke is placed on the surface of the part to be examined, a kerosene-iron filling suspension is poured on
the surface and the electromagnet is energized. If there is a discontinuity such as a crack or a flaw on the
surface of the part, magnetic flux will be broken and a new south and north pole will form at each edge
of the discontinuity. Then just like if iron particles are scattered on a cracked magnet, the particles will
be attracted to and cluster at the pole ends of the magnet, the iron particles will also be attracted at the
edges of the crack behaving poles of the magnet. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the
actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection. For the best sensitivity, the lines of
magnetic force should be perpendicular to the defect.

Eddy current testing:

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating current
is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor.
This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is
reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing
magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. These currents are influenced by the
nature of the material such as voids, cracks, changes in grain size, as well as physical distance between
coil and material. These currents form an impedance on a second coil which is used to as a sensor. In
practice a probe is placed on the surface of the part to be inspected, and electronic equipment monitors
the eddy current in the work piece through the same probe. The sensing circuit is a part of the sending
coil.
Eddy currents can be used for crack detection, material thickness measurements, coating thickness
measurements, conductivity measurements for material identification, heat damage detection, case depth
determination, heat treatment monitoring.
Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include; sensitivity to small cracks and other defects,
ability to detect surface and near surface defects, immediate results, portable equipment, suitability for
many different applications, minimum part preparation, no necessity to contact the part under
inspection, ability to inspect complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials.
Some limitation of eddy current inspection; applicability just on conductive materials, necessity for an
accessible surface to the probe, skillful and trained personal, possible interference of surface finish and
roughness, necessity for reference standards for setup, limited depth of penetration, inability to detect of
the flaws lying parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction.
Ultrasonic Inspection:
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses a high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more. A typical UT inspection system consists of several
functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an
electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by the pulser, the transducer of
various types and shapes generates high frequency ultrasonic energy operating based on the
piezoelectricity technology with using quartz, lithium sulfate, or various ceramics. Most inspections are
carried out in the frequency rang of 1 to 25MHz. Couplants are used to transmit the ultrasonic waves
from the transducer to the test piece; typical couplants are water, oil, glycerin and grease.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves and reflected
from the opposing surface. An internal defect such as crack or void interrupts the waves' propagation
and reflects back a portion of the ultrasonic wave. The amplitude of the energy and the time required for
return indicate the presence and location of any flaws in the work-piece.
The ultrasonic inspection method has high penetrating power and sensitivity. It can be used from various
directions to inspect flaws in large parts, such as rail road wheels pressure vessels and die blocks. This
method requires experienced personnel to properly conduct the inspection and to correctly interpret the
results. As a very useful and versatile NDT method, ultrasonic inspection method has the following
advantages; sensitivity to both surface and subsurface discontinuities, superior depth of penetration for
flaw detection or measurement, ability to singlesided access for pulse-echo technique, high accuracy in
determining reflector position and estimating size and shape, minimal part preparation, instantaneous
results with electronic equipment, detailed imaging with automated systems, possibility for other uses
such as thickness measurements.
Its limitations; necessity for an accessible surface to transmit ultrasound, extensive skill and training,
requirement for a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test specimen, limits for
roughness, shape irregularity, smallness, thickness or not homogeneity, difficulty to inspect of coarse
grained materials due to low sound transmission and high signal noise, necessity for the linear defects to
be oriented parallel to the sound beam, necessity for reference standards for both equipment calibration,
and characterization of flaws.

Acoustic Method:
There are two different kind of acoustic methods: (a) acoustic emission; (b) acoustic impact technique.

Acoustic emission:
This technique is typically performed by elastically stressing the part or structure, for example, bending
a beam, applying torque to a shaft, or pressurizing a vessel and monitoring the acoustic responses
emitted from the material. During the structural changes the material such as plastic deformation, crack
initiation, and propagation, phase transformation, abrupt reorientation of grain boundaries, bubble
formation during boiling in cavitation, friction and wear of sliding interfaces, are the source of acoustic
signals. Acoustic emissions are detected with sensors consisting of piezoelectric ceramic elements. This
method is particularly effective for continuous surveillance of load-bearing structures.
Acoustic impact technique:
This technique consists of tapping the surface of an object and listening to and analyzing the signals to
detect discontinuities and flaws. The principle is basically the same as when one taps walls, desktops or
countertops in various locations with a finger or a hammer and listens to the sound emitted. Vitrified
grinding wheels are tested in a similar manner to detect cracks in the wheel that may not be visible to the
naked eye. This technique is easy to perform and can be instrumented and automated. However, the
results depend on the geometry and mass of the part so a reference standard is necessary for identifying
flaws.

Procedure
Liquid penetrant method:
In this method the surfaces to be inspected should be free from any coatings, paint, grease, dirt, dust,
etc.; therefore, should be cleaned with an appropriate way. Special care should be taken not to give
additional damage to the surface to be inspected during the cleaning process. Otherwise, the original
nature of surface could be disturbed and the results could be erroneous with the additional interferences
of the surface features formed during the cleaning process. Surface cleaning can be performed with
alcohol. Special chemicals like cleanerremover can also be applied if needed. In the experiment, only
cleaner-remover will be sufficient. Subsequent to surface cleaning, the surface is let to dry for 2 minutes.

Commercially available cans of liquid penetrant dyes with different colors are used to reveal the surface
defects.

Steps used in the experiment:

1. Clean the surface with alcohol and let surface dry for 5 min.
2. Apply the liquid penetrant spray (red can) to the surface and brush for further penetration. Then,
wait for 20 min.
3. Wipe the surface with a clean textile and subsequently apply remover spray (blue can) to remove
excess residues on the surface and wait for a few min.
4. Apply the developer spray (yellow can) at a distance of about 30cm from the surface.
The developer will absorb the penetrant that infiltrated to the surface features such as cracks, splits,
etc., and then reacted with it to form a geometric shape which is the negative of the geometry of
the surface features from which the penetrant is sucked.
5. The polymerized material may be collected on a sticky paper for future evaluation and related
documentation, if needed.

Magnetic particle:
In this experiment, commercially available magnetic powder manufactured for NDT inspection will be
used. A strong U shape magnet will be used to provide the necessary magnetic field at the inspected
area.

The following steps are applied during the experiment;

1. The surface of the specimen will be roughly cleaned wiping with a piece of textile.
2. The fluorescent magnetic spray will be applied on the surface being inspected.
3. Magnetic field will be applied with a strong magnet to the location of interest.
 4. The spots where the fluorescent magnetic particles accumulated will be inspected under
UV light.

Eddy current inspection:

For this experiment, Magnefest ED-51 0 type unit will be used. A pencil type prop will be used for the
inspections. The inspection is performed with 2 MHz frequency and at the related calibration settings.
The test blocks were previously prepared for this experiment. Any coatings or paints on the surface
of inspected specimens should be treated with special procedures.

The following steps should be applied during the experiment:

l. Inspection area should be clean, smooth, free from any irregular or uneven paint, dirt, grease,
etc.
2. There shouldn't be any visible damage or discontinuity.
3. During the inspection procedure the probe will be positioned near the inspection area, on
the compensation point and lift off and zero will be adjusted if necessary.
4. The inspection will be carried out by using probe scans. The probe tip will be always at a
right angle the inspection surface.
5. Any indication with indicator deflection to the right should be evaluated. All evaluated
indications should be measured.
6. After this procedure, all evaluated indications with indicator deflections, will be
classified as cracks and be recorded.

Ultrasonic inspection:
For this experiment,USM-2 type ultrasonic unit will be used. The props used supports to work at
frequency of 5 MHz. Echo techniques will be employed to find the cracks.
Instrument will be tuned to a frequency of 5 MHz. An appropriate couplant used should not cause
corrosion or other damage. During the inspection the calibration will be done on the reference standard,
if needed. Two different test blocks will be employed in this test, sufficient amount of couplant will be
applied to the transducer scan areas on the forward and after sides of the support fitting. The display will
be monitored for crack indications. A crack signal will be similar to the following:

The following steps should be applied during the experiment:

1. The couplant should be applied on the inspected area.
2. For the circular test specimen, the prop will be placed in the corresponding space in the
supporting fitting tool. Enough couplant should be used between the probe and tool.
3. For the flat specimen, no tool is needed, couplant only applied between the inspected
surface and the probe.
4. Special attention should be paid on the location where possible cracks exist.
5. A discontinuity like a crack produces a peak on the screen.
6. Attention should also be given to the movement of the possible peak caused by the cracks
on the specimen.
In certain applications, the evaluation of engineering materials or structures without
impairing their properties is especially important, such as the quality control of the products, failure
analysis or prevention of the engineered systems in service. This kind of evaluations can be carried out
with Nondestructive test (NDT) methods. It is possible to inspect and/or measure the materials or
structures without destroying their surface texture, product integrity and future usefulness. The field of
NDT is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a critical role in inspecting that structural
component and systems perform their function in a reliable fashion. Certain standards has been also
implemented to assure the reliability of the NDT tests and prevent certain errors due to either the fault in
the equipment used, the miss-application of the methods or the skill and the knowledge of the
inspectors.Successful NDT tests allow locating and characterizing material conditions and flaws that
might otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and variety of
less visible, but equally troubling events. However, these techniques generally require considerable
operator skill and interpreting test results accurately may be difficult because the results can be
subjective. These methods can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, and coatings in
order to detect cracks, internal voids, surface cavities, delamination, incomplete defective welds and any
type of flaw that could lead to premature failure.

Requirements
You are supposed to prepare a test report for this experiment obeying the report
preparation rules. Therefore, your report should contain experimental procedures, results, discussion,
conclusion and references. The advantages and disadvantages of each NDT method must be stated
precisely in your reports.
 LAB (6)

MATERIAL PROCESSING LAB

SHEET METAL FORMING

SHEET METAL FORMING & SPOT WELDING

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To expose to the techniques of shaping metal in the processes of cutting, bending, and folding, either
with the used of hand tool or by use of specific machine.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
The sheet metal shop is very important for every engineering concern. It deals with the working of
metal sheets. It requires a thorough knowledge of projective geometry particularly the development of
surfaces because the laying out of pattern and cutting of metal sheets to correct sizes and shapes entirely
depends upon the knowledge of the workman. The various operations performed in a sheet metal shop
are cutting, shearing, bending etc. In this chapter, we shall discuss the sheet metal tools and the various
processes.

3.0 METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK

The following metals are generally used in sheet metal work :

Black iron sheet

It has a bluish-black appearance and is often referred to as uncoated sheet. Since it is uncoated,
therefore, it corrodes rapidly. The use of this metal is limited to articles that are to be painted or
enameled such as stove pipes, tanks and pans.

Galvanised iron
It is a soft steel coated with molten zinc. The zinc coating resists rust, improves the appearance of the
metal, and permits it to be soldered with greater ease. The galvanised iron sheet is used extensively in
fabricated products such as pans, buckets, furnaces, heating ducts, cabinets, gutters and in many other
articles.

Copper
It is a reddish coloured metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. It is used extensively in the
electrical field. Since it does not deteriorate rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere, therefore, this
metal is employed frequently in the building trades for water pipe, roofing, gutters and other parts of
buildings.
Aluminium
It is a silvery white coloured metal and has many qualities like high ratio of strength to weight,
corrosion resistant qualities and ease in fabrication. Now-adays it is used in the manufacture of number
of products such as household appliances, refrigerator trays, lighting fixtures windows, duct work, in
construction of airplanes, in the building trades, and in many electrical and transportation industries.

Stainless steel
It is an alloy steel possessing the ability to resist corrosion without any surface coating. One important
type of stainless steel contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel This steel is commonly known
as 18/8 steel. It is widely used in building stream lined trains, food handling equipments, kitchenwares
and in many other applications which require great strength and resistant to corrosion.The stainless steel
sheets can be formed, bent, drilled and soldered in the same manner as other types of sheet metal. Since
stainless steel has greater tensile strength and hardness, therefore, sheets of this metal are slightly more
difficult to work.

Tin plate
It is a steel sheet coated with pure tin. This metal has a very bright silvery appearance and is used
principally in making food containers, cans and pans.

Teme plate
It is a thin steel coated with a mixture of molten tin and lead. This metal has dull appearance and is used
for roofing and tanks. Since the lead coating is poisonous, therefore, it should not be used for containers
that are to hold foods. Note : The thickness of the metal sheets is indicated by series of numbers called
gauge numbers. Each gauge designates a definite thickness. The thickness of sheet in inversely
proportional to gauge number i. e., larger the gauge number, lesser is the thickness.

4.0 SHEET METAL TOOLS

The tools commonly used in sheet metal work are as follows :

4.1 Rules
The rules are available in a variety of lengths and types, each of which is designed for measuring and
laying out different work. The following rules are generally used in sheet metal shop:

(a) Steel rule, folding rule and steel tape. The steel rule (30 cm long), is particularly useful in
measuring and laying out small work. The folding rule (2 metres long) and the steel tape respectively
are very helpful in measuring and laying out large work. In order to measure accurate distance, the rule
should be placed on its edge so that the graduations are in actual contact with the metal.

(b) Circumference rule. The circumference rule is also used for measuring, laying out or as a
straight edge. In addition to this, the rule also shows the circumference of circles. The top edge is
graduated in centimeters for regular measuring and the lower half is graduated to indicate
circumferences.
4.2 Steel square
It is a L-shaped piece of hardened steel with graduation marks on the edges for measuring. The narrow
arm of the square is called the tongue and the wide part is known as the body.

4.3 Swinging blade protractor

The swinging blade protractor, used in sheet metal work are made of steel. These are used for marking
or measuring angles.

4.4 Straight edge

It is a flat bar of steel with a bevelled edge. This bar comes in a variety of lengths ranging from 1 metre
to 3 metre. It is useful for drawing long lines.

4.5 Scratch awls or scribers

They are used to scribe or mark lines on a metal surface for a variety of purposes in laying out patterns.
The following are the three common types of scratch awls.

(a) Ring scratch awl. It is a solid steel rod about 5 mm in diameter and 150 mm to 200 mm long. It
has a sharp tapered point at one end and a ring at the other end.

(b) Socket scratch awl. It has a steel blade about 150 mm and provided with a replaceable wooden
handle.

(c) Shank type scratch awl. For general purposes, this type of scratch awl is preferred by most sheet
metal workers because the steel blade passes through the handle which reinforces the top.

4.6 Dividers
The dividers are made with each leg tapered to a needle point. The two types of the dividers are the
spring divider and the wing divider as shown in Fig. 17.5(a) and (b) respectively. The legsof the spring
divider are adjusted by turning the knurled nut. The adjustment, on the wing divider is made by
loosening the screw on the wing and then tightening the knurled nut on the end of the wing.
The dividers are available in number of sizes and types. These are used to space off equal distances, to
divide lines into equal parts and to draw arcs and circles. Trammel points. The trammel points
(sometimes called a beam compass), as shown in Fig. 17.6, consists of two straight, removable legs
tapered to needle points and attached to separate heads or holders. These heads or holders slide on wood
or steel bars or beams and are held in place by thumb screws. A special clamp for a pencil can be
attached to one of the points. The trammel points are used to draw large arcs and circles that are beyond
the limit of dividers.

4.7 Punches
The various hand punches commonly used in sheet metal shop are as follows :
(a) Prick punch. The prick punch, is a tool steel rod whose one end has a tapered point ground to
approximately an included angle of 30°. It is used for making small indentations or establishing
points for dividers and trammel points.

(b) Centre punch. The centre punch, is similar to prick punch, but its point is ground to an angle of
approximately 90°. It is used to mark the location of bend lines on heavy metal and to mark the
centres of holes to be drilled.

(c) Solid punch. The solid punch, is used for punching small holes in thin metal sheets.

Punchs

(d) Hollow punch. The hollow punch, is used for punching holes upto 10 mm or above from metal
sheets. The inner and outer faces of the punch meet at an angle of 40°. In order to avoid clipping the
edges of the hollow punch, the metal sheets should be placed over a block of lead. (e) Hand lever
punch. A hand lever punch, is sometimes used for making holes when too much holes are to be
punched. The tool consists of a punch and die and is operated by hand. The die and punch may be
replaced depending upon the size of the hole required.

4.8 Chisels
The cold chisels are used to cut or shear metal. It is made from a piece of high carbon or alloy steel of
hexagonal or octagonal in shape. There are many different types of chisels, but the flat chisel, is mostly
used for cutting sheet metal, rivets, bolts and in chipping operations. The flat chisel has a tapered end
with a sharp cutting edge which is properly hardened and tempered. The edge is bevelled to an angle of
40° to 45° for cutting sheet metal. The cutting edge is also ground to a slight curve to prevent the chisel
from 'digging in' at the comers of metal being cut.
 Chisels

4.9 Snips
The snips are somewhat similar to a pair of scissors but are considerably heavier. There are several
types of snips available for making straight or circular cuts, but the most common are the straight snips
and the curved snips. The straight snips, have straight blades for straight line cutting. These snips may
be obtained in various sizes.

Snips

The curved snips, as shown in Fig, have curved blades for making circular cuts. They are available for
either right hand or left hand cuts.

4.10 Hammers
The hammers, in sheet metal work, are used for forming shapes by hollowing, raising, stretching or
throwing off processes. There are many types of hammers, but the most commonly used hammers, in
sheet-metal work, are as follows :

(a) Balipe hammer. The ball peen hammer, has a round, slightly curved face and a round head. It is a
general purpose hammer.
b) Riveting hammer. The riveting hammer, has a square, slightly curved face with bevelled edges to
prevent the head of the hammer from marking the metal. The peen side is double tapered and has a
slightly rounded end. It is used for spreading rivets and for hammering a rivet set.

(c) Setting hammer. The setting hammer, has a square, Hat face and a tapered peen with bevelled
end. The flat face is used for flattening seams without damage to the metal while peen end is used for
peening operation.

(d) Hollowing or blocking hammer. The hollowing or blocking hammer, has a dome face without
any sharp comers. It is used for hollowing discs into bowl shapes.

(e) Raising hammer. The raising hammer, has an oblong flat face with comers slightly rounded off.
It is used in raising circular discs and many other raising and bumping operations.

Several ha mmer commonly used in sheet metal process

(f) Planishing hammer. The planishing hammer, has a round face. It is used on domed circular
work.

(g) Collect hammer. The collect hammer, has an oblong shaped faces. It is used on cylinders and in
curved collects.

(h) Tray hammer. The tray hammer, has oval shaped faces. It is used to sink the bottom when
shaping a tray.
4.11 Mallets
The mallets may be made from hide, fibre or wood. The best size of mallet is 5 cm diameter. These may
be obtained in various shapes to suit special work.

Several types of mallet

4.12 Pliers
The pliers are used in sheet metal work for holding, cutting and bending work. The various types of
pliers commonly used are as follows :

(a) Flat nose plier. The Hat nose plier, flat jaws with small grooves. It is used for forming and
holding work.

Plier

(b) Round nose plier. The round nose plier, has long jaws rounded on the outside. It is used for
holding and forming the various shapes and patterns.
(c) Slip-joint combination plier. The slip-joint combination plier, has an adjustable jaw. It is a
general purpose tool.

4.13 Hacksaws and files

The hacksaws and files used in sheet metal shop are similar to those used in bench work and fitting.

5.0 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS

The following are the various sheet metal operations :

1. Marking; 2. Cutting ; 3. Notching; 4. Bending; 5. Riveting ; 6. Soldering ; 7. Folding edges; 8. Seam

making; 9. Hollowing or blocking; 10. Sinking; 11. Raising; and 12. Planishing.

5.1 Marking
The marking out operation consists of scratching of lines on the surface of a sheet metal. It is also called
scribing operation. Before marking operation is carried out, the paper or metal pattern of the object is
prepared. The metal pattern is desireable for repetitive work because it maintains accuracy for a long
time, whereas the paper pattern tears quickly if used repeatedly. The pattern is now transferred to the flat
sheet metal and marked as discussed below :

1. When a paper or metal pattern is transferred to the hat sheet metal, it should be held in place by
weights to prevent the pattern from slipping.
2. A sharp pointed pencil is used to mark the outline of the paper pattern, whereas a scriber is used
for metal pattern. The scriber should not be used to mark the paper pattern because it will tear the edges
of the paper.

3. When a pattern is to be traced on aluminum and stainless steel sheets, a sharp pointed pencil
should be used because the scriber will ruin the finish of the metal.

4. The best method of transferring the paper pattern to sheet metal is to mark the ends of all lines
by a prick punch through the paper. Then remove the paper from the metal and joint the all prick points
by a scriber in the proper manner.

Many simple objects can be laid out directly on the sheet metal. Usually, it is better for the beginner to
prepare a paper pattern for objects of complicated design rather than to layout directly on the sheet
metal. Since the paper pattern may be checked by folding it into the required shape, therefore,
unnecessary wastage of material is avoided. In making a layout directly on the steel metal involves
operations such as drawing straight lines or curved lines and making indentation marks to serve as guide
for drilling holes. The procedure for marking straight lines, curved lines and indentation marks is as
follows :

1. Marking straight lines. The straight edge (it is flat bar of steel with beveled edge) or a steel square is
used to draw straight lines as discussed below :
(a) When a straight edge is used, it is placed on the sheet metal in the correct position. A sharp
pointed scriber is held in one hand at an angle with the point resting against the edge of the straight
edge. Now the line is drawn by applying a little pressure to the scriber.

(b) When a steel square is used, the body or tongue of square is placed against the even side of the
sheet metal. The scriber is run along the edge of the tongue or body of the square to mark the straight
line.

2. Marking circles and arcs. The circles and arcs on the surface of a sheet metal are marked with a
divider. One leg of the divider is placed at the centre of a circle or arc to be drawn while the other end is
moved with a little pressure on the divider to mark the circle or arc. The divider is held in one hand. In
order to prevent slipping, the divider is inclined in the direction in which the circle or arc is drawn. The
large circles and arcs are drawn with trammel points.

3. Marking irregular curves. The irregular curves are marked by first laying out a series of points to
indicate the shape of the curve. Now the french curve is set in such a way that atleast three points
coincide with the curve and mark this with a scriber on the surface of the sheet metal. The french curve
is now moved to coincide next three points and the curve is scribed connecting the first curve. This
process is repeated till the whole curve is marked. The irregular curves may also be drawn by a flexible
rule made of spring steel.

4. Marking indentation marks. The indentation marks are used as locations for drilling holes,
centres for dividers and for transferring a pattern. The indentation marks for drilling are made with a
centre punch, whereas marks for all other purposes are made with a prick punch. Both the centre punch
and prick punch are used in the same manner. In using these tools, first of all the location of the hole is
marked with two intersecting lines. The punch is held is one hand with its point directly on the
intersection of the two lines. Now strike the head of the punch with a light blow of the hammer held in
other hand.

5.2 Cutting
The sheet metals up to approximately 18 S.W.G. can be cut with hand snips. The following procedure is
adopted for straight cutting.

1. Hold the snip in one hand and the nearest part of the metal in the other hand.
 Cutting Technique

2. Open the blades of a snip and place the upper blade on the line of cut to be followed. The blade
should be kept perpendicular to the surface of the metal.

3. Start the cut at the edge of sheet by exerting pressure on handles of snips. When the cut is about 15
mm from the blade tips, open the blades again and push the snip forward. Repeat this until cut is
completed.

4. As the metal is sheared off, it will curl up on the left hand side of the snips and curls down on the
right hand side of the snips.

5. When cutting a large sheet of metal, it is advisable to cut along the left hand edge of the sheet to
permit the scrap or smaller section to curl away.

6. The inside curves such as circular holes are cut with curved snips. The holes are first cut roughly with
a cold chisel and hammer. It is finally trimmed to the required size by the curved snip.

7. The outside curves are easily cut with straight snips.

5.3 Notching
In bent sections that have folded edges, there should be some provision so that there is no overlapping
of metal where the comers come together. In order to prevent bulging at such a place, it is necessary to
slit or clip the metal or provide small openings. The openings left at the comers of seams and edges are
known as notches and the operation is called notching. The size, locations and types of notches depend
upon the shape of object. The following are the different types of notches commonly used in sheet
metal.

1. Straight notch. This notch is prepared by simply making a straight cut where the bend is to
occur. This is used in dovetail seams. The method of laying out a straight notch.
 Straight notch.

2. Square notch. The square notch is used for making a square or rectangular box. The squares on
the comers must be removed to permit the sides to be bent property.

Square notch.

3. V-notch. The V-notch is used when the corners of a flange must come together. If the flange
forms a right angle, both sides must be cut at an angle of 45°.

V-notch
If the flange is bent at an angle that is less or more than a right angle, the notch must correspond to the
particular angle that is required.

4. Slant notch. When single hems are to meet at right angles, the comers must be clipped at an
angle of 45°.

Slant notch

5. Wire notch. The wire notch is used on an article which has wired edges. This notch must be
provided to prevent the wired edge from overlapping at the seam. The usual practice is to notch the
seam at an angle of about 300, the angle is started at a point located at a distance from the upper edge of
the pattern equal to approximately 3.5 times the diameter of wire.

Wire notch

5.4 Bending .
The bending of sheet metal may be done over stakes, blocks of wood pieces of angle iron or the edge of
a bench top. Sometimes the bends can be made in vanous bending machines. The following procedure
may be followed while bending the sheet metal by hand:
1. First of all, a line is marked with pencil or scriber where the metal is to be bent. In order to make
a right angled bend the sheet is placed on the bench so that the line is even with the edge at the bench A
block of wood is set on the metal with is edge directly over the bending line. It is then clamped to the
bench with Cclamps. In order to bend a small piece of metal, the sheet is placed between two blocks of
wood and then clamped in a vice. The bend is now made by striking the metal with a mallet using very
light blows. The work is started at one end and finished along the full length of the metal.

2. In order to make a curved bend, the edge of the wooden block is planed to have the desired
curvature. The wooden block is placed even with the edge of the bench. Another block of the sane
thickness is set on the bench top so that the sheet is in level. Then clamp a piece of angle iron or a
hardwood block over the sheet metal. Now strike the metal with a mallet, gradually bending the sheet
over the curved edge of the block.

3. A tool known as a hand seamer, can be used to make sharp bends on lightgauge sheet metal.
Such a tool is especially helpful in bending narrow portions that are difficult to fold by other methods.
This hand seamer has two adjustable screws which can be regulated for the width of the bend. The
metal is simply placed between the jaws of the seamer and these jaws are clamped together. The Hat
surface of the metal is held firmly with one hand and at the same time the handle of the seamer is
raised. If the metal is longer than the jaws, then small sections are bent at a time.

5.5 Riveting
It is a process of joining permanently two pieces of sheet metal with rivets. The special rivets, called
tinners' rivets, are used for such a purpose. These rivets are made of soft iron and are usually coated with
tin. This prevents corrosion and makes them easier to solder. When riveting aluminium, special
aluminium rivets should be used. The following procedure is adopted in making a riveted joint:

1. First of all, drill or punch the holes of correct size. Insert the rivet in the hole and place the head
on some metal bar or stake.

Riveting
2. Place the deep hole of the rivet set over the rivet and strike the rivet set with few sharp blows.
This draws the metal and rivet together. This process is called drawing process.

3. Remove the rivet set and flatten the e^d of the rivet with the face of a riveting hammer or ball
peen hammer. It should be noted that each blow of hammer should hit the rivet shank squarely.

4. Place the cup shaped opening of the rivet set over the flattened rivet end, and strike the rivet set
until the head is shaped properly. This process is called heading process.

5.6 Folding Edges

The edges of the sheet metal may be folded to strengthen the edges and to eliminate the sharp edges.
The three common types of folded edges are single hem, double hem and wired edges. The single hem is
made by turning the edge over the hatchet stake, and then completed it with a mallet over a flat stake.
The double hem is a single hem with its end bent under.

Folding Edges Techniques

The wired edges are made by bending the sheet with a mallet over a length equal to Wi times the
diameter of wire. This is done on a wooden block whose one edge is rounded to a radius equal to
approximately one half the diameter of the wire. The wire is now placed in the turned edge and held in
position with pliers. The metal is folded over the wire by striking it with a mallet. The final bend is
made by striking the metal with the peen end of a setting hammer.

5.7 Seam Making

A seam is section where pieces of sheet metal are joined. There are many methods of making seams,
but the type of seam is determined by the thickness of metal, the purpose for which the object is to be
used. The seams commonly used in sheet metal are as follow;

1. Lap seam

2. Grooved seam
3. Single seam

4. Double seam

5. Dovetail seam

6. Flanged or burred bottom seam

6.0 SHEET METAL MACHINES

A sheet metal shop must be provided with various machines in order to perform different operations.
The machines may be hand operated for working on thin sheets and power operated for thick sheets.
They are also available as either bench or floor models. Some of the machines commonly used are as
follows:

1. Shearing machine
It is used for cutting metal sheets.

2. Folding machine
It is used for bending and folding the edges of the sheet metal.

3. Bending machine
It is used for shaping the metal sheets into cylindrical objects.

4. Grooving machine
It is used for grooving longitudinal seams in cylindrical objects.

5. Forming machine
It is used for forming sheet metal into cylindrical shapes of various diameters. There are two types of
forming machines; i.e., slip-roll forming machine and plain forming machine, but the former is
generally preferred.

6. Beading or swedging machine

It is used to make depressions in metal such as in pipes, machine guards or wherever reinforcing is
necessary.

7. Burring machine
It is used to turn burrs on circular discs such as bottoms and covers. It is also used for preparing edges
for double seaming cylindrical articles.

8. Turning machine
It is similar to a burring machine but differs in the sharpness of the edge it makes. The burring machine
produces a sharp edge, while the turning machine makes a rounded edge for wiring operations, for
bodies of cylinders and for double seaming.

9. Wiring machine
It is used to complete the metal edge around the wire after the seat to receive the wire has been prepared
by the turning machine.

10. Crimping machine

It is used for crimping (i.e., reducing the diameter of a circular object) and beading in one pass. The
machine may be used only for beading or crimping by changing the rolls of the machine.

11. Setting-down machine

It is used for setting down seams on containers of various shapes.

12. Double seaming machine

It is used for double seaming flat bottoms on straight or flared cylindrical pieces.

7.0 EQUIPMENTS / APPARATUS

1. Snips
2. Mallet
3. Scratch awls
4. L square
5. Steel rule
6. Protractor
7. Shearing machine
8. Aluminium sheets
8.0 PROCEDURES
Further details will be inform later in workshop session.

Note: Before start your project, make sure to follow all the safety procedure

Sheet Metal Project for Basic

Tools Box
NOTE : 1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILIMETER (mm) 2. DO NOT SCALE THE
DRAWING
9. 0 SPOT WELDING PROCESS
The objectives for this workshop are to:
1. Provide students the ability to lead/direct the technician during the welding process.
2. Identify spot welding equipment’s and tools.
3. Select the welding parameters
4. Inspect the quality of the weld and decide whether to accept of reject the welded joint.

Methodology:
In this workshop each student will be assigned thee sets of tensile test specimen in the form of sheet
metal cut to size. Each student will decide based on the samples given, electrodes size, and the welding
machine available his welding parameters to make the tensile test specimen and evaluate the strength of
welded joint.

Report:
Each student will submit a report on this lab including:
1. Complete description of the welding machine, electrodes, and welding parameters selected with
justifications for his selections.
2. Comments on the quality of the welded specimens.