RUBY PARK PUBLIC SCHOOL

CLASS: 7
STUDY MATERIAL
EARTH’S MOVEMENT AND CHANGING LANDFORMS

The outer part of the earth formed by the crust and the upper mantle is called
Lithosphere. It comprises several plates known as lithospheric plates. The plates
move by a few millimetres every year because of the circular movement of molten
magma inside the earth. When lithospheric plates move, it causes changes on the
earth's surface and results in various landforms. The lithospheric plates are
irregular and rigid.

Forces Causing Earth Movement:

• The earth's movements are determined by the forces causing them. These
forces are of two types: endogenic forces and exogenic forces.
• Endogenic forces are forcing that act on the interiors of the earth.
• Endogenous forces are divided into sudden forces and catastrophic forces.
Sudden forces are the result of earthquakes, volcanoes, and landslides. The
sudden force caused widespread destruction. Disastrous forces are the cause
of the formation of mountains. The disastrous force is slow.
• Exogenic forces are forces that are experienced on the earth's surface.
• Exogenic forces may be erosional or dispersive.

➢ Volcano:
• Volcanoes are the result of endogenic forces acting on the earth's interiors.
• It is a vent or crack in the earth's crust through which molten magma erupts
suddenly.
• The Magma coming out from the earth's surface in the form of a volcano is
called lava.
• It is found in a region where the plates either converge or diverge.
• Volcanoes occur in plate boundaries.
• Volcanoes occur in mountains, hills, plateaus, and also deep inside the ocean
bodies.
• They can be divided into active and dormant volcanoes based on their
activity. www.vedantu.com
• In Yellowstone National Park, there exists a super volcano. According to
scientists, the eruption of a super volcano will lead to the destruction of the
entire planet.

➢ Earthquake:
• Earthquakes are vibrations occurring in the lithospheric plates which move
the surface of the earth.
• The vibrations spread all over the earth.
• The earthquake originates in the crust, and this point is called the focus.
 • The point on the earth's surface perpendicularly above the focus is called the
epicentre. The vibrations travel in waves, and their strength decreases as
distance increases from the epicentre.
• Earthquakes cannot be predicted.
• Earthquakes are measured using a machine called the seismograph. The
intensity of an earthquake is calculated on the Richter scale.
• In 2001, on the 26th of January, a massive earthquake of 6.9 intensity on the
Richter scale hit the Bhuj town of Gujarat, causing massive destruction and
damage to life and property.
• Earthquake waves are of three kinds-
1. P waves or called longitudinal waves
2. S waves or transverse waves
3. L waves which are also called surface waves

➢ Folding:
In folding, because the compressional forces act from two opposite sides towards
the centre, the land in the centre rises in a series of folds. There are various types of
folds. These are
 • Symmetrical folds: When two compressional forces act from two opposite
directions, gentle and simple folds are formed which are known as
symmetrical folds.
• Asymmetrical folds: When the compressional force is intensive from one
side, one limb becomes steeper than the other, and the folds which are
formed are known as asymmetrical folds.
• Recumbent fold: When the fold is pushed further, the limbs get placed in a
horizontal position known as recumbent fold.
• Overthrust fold: When one side of a fold slides past the other side of the
fracture or fault, it is known as an overthrust fold.
• Fan-shaped fold: Sometimes, small arches are formed when the
compressional forces act from opposite sides. Under such circumstances,
many fan-shaped folds which resemble a fan are formed.

Fold Mountains
When the two tectonic plates move against each other, the compressional forces
cause the crust of the Earth to fold. This leads to the bending of the crustal rocks
resulting in the formation of fold mountains. Fold mountains are formed in a zone
where the crust of the Earth is the weakest.
Because there are many parallel folds and troughs, folding results in the formation
of long chains of parallel mountain ranges having high peaks. The Himalayas,
Alps, Rockies and Appalachians are famous fold mountains.
 ✓ Characteristics of Fold Mountains
• Existence of peaks and valleys is an important feature of fold mountains.
The top of anticlines are mountain peaks, while the synclines are valleys.
• In between the high ranges of fold mountains, intermontane plateaus may be
found.
• Fold mountains have many parallel ranges.
• Waterfalls and rapids are present in fold mountains.
• Many glaciers are found in this mountain system.
• A region of the fold mountain system is usually also the region of volcanoes
and earthquakes.

➢ Faulting:
Faults result in the formation of block mountains. There are three main kinds of
faults. They are
• Normal faults: Normal fault is a simple fault where the blocks of the rocks
move up or down. In a normal fault, a piece of land may slide down along
the fault plane.
• Reverse fault: Because of compressional forces acting from opposite
directions, a block of rock is forced up and over other rock against the slope
of the fault plane.
 • Tear fault: When the blocks on the either side of the fault are displaced
horizontally or sideways, tear faults take place. Tear faults generally occur
during earthquakes.
Main Features of Faulting:

• Usually, faults do not occur singly but run parallel to each other.
• The elevated or subsided rocks are known as fault blocks.
• A piece of block which is elevated is called horst.
• A depressed piece of land between two elevated blocks is called a
graben or rift valley.

Landforms Formed by Faulting:

Rift valleys and block mountains are two main landforms formed due to faulting.
• Rift valley: A rift valley is formed when the middle portion of a land
between two faults subsides. It is also formed when the middle land remains
stable but the two side blocks rise upwards.
• The East African Rift Valley is the longest rift valley in the world. Rift
valleys have flat bottom and steep sides.
• Many rift valleys also become lakes such as Lake Nyasa in Tanzania. In
India, the Damodar Valley and Tapi Valley are examples of faulting.
Block Mountains
The mechanism of the formation of block mountains is similar to a rift valley.
Because of tensional features, when a piece of land between two parallel folds
subsides, a rift valley is formed.
However, when a piece of land rises, a block mountain is formed. In the above
figure, while a graben represents a rift valley, an elevated piece of land known as
horst denotes a block mountain.
Some examples of block mountains are the Vogues Mountains in France and the
Black Forest Mountains in Germany.

Major Landforms on Earth:

• The landscapes on earth are continuously formed and worn away by two
processes – weather and erosion.
• Weathering is a process by which rocks on the earth's surface are broken
up.
• Erosion is the process by which there are layers of landscapes on the earth's
surface.
• water, ice, wind, etc are the agents of erosion.
• These processes of erosion and deposition are responsible for the formation
of various landforms on the surface.
 ➢ Riverine Landforms:
• Waterfalls

Fig: Waterfalls
o When the river water falls down almost vertically from a sufficient height
along the course of the River, it forms a waterfall.
o In the course of the River, there is the presence of hard and soft rocks at
several places. The soft rocks are eroded easily and quickly, and the river
bed is lower at the place of soft rock. Thus, the water falls from a height, and
a waterfall is created.

• Meanders

Fig: Meanders
o The word “meanders” is derived from the name of a small winding river’s
meanders in Turkey.
o Meanders the longitudinal bends of river courses.
o Every bend of the river course has two slopes:
o A concave slope where the River strikes valley sides directly. This
side is steeper and is referred to as the cliff slope side.
o A convex side receives the deposition of sand and gravel. This site is
characterized by a gentle slope and is referred to as a slip-off side.
o Thus, Meanders are a result of both erosion and deposition.
o The shape of the meander is semi-circular though it may be circular.
o A river meanders almost in every terrain. However, the magnitude varies
according to the slope of the terrain. It is most pronounced in an even and
gentle slope.
• Oxbow Lakes

Fig: Oxbow lakes

o They are also referred to as cut-offs or buyouts in the Mississippi basin.
o Oxbow lakes are formed in the lower course of the River when a meander
becomes more pronounced. The concave side of the meander is rapidly
eroded and results in a complete circle. The curvature becomes so sharp due
to the lateral erosion that the rivers break through the meander and form a
loop. This is known as the Oxbow Lakes.
o Like meanders, oxbow lakes owe their origin to both erosion and deposition.
 o In addition to the Meander River of Turkey, the Mississippi of the USA, the
Ganga of India, and the Po of Italy are famous for oxbow lakes.
• V Shaped Valley and Interlocking Spurs

Fig: Interlocking spurs and V-shaped valleys

o Most of the world’s rivers have formed V-shaped valleys. Such valleys are
normally formed in areas of sufficient rainfall where the rocks are not very
hard.
o Downcutting and side or lateral cutting are done simultaneously by the
River, and a V-shaped valley is formed.
o The valleys are gradually widened due to lateral erosion with the
advancement of the cycle of erosion, and they become broad with flat valley
floors and rectilinear valley slopes in the mature stage.
➢ Landforms by Glaciers:
Glaciations typically result in depositional features in the lowlands and erosional
features in the highlands. It uses two techniques to erode its valley: plucking and
abrasion.
Plucking: Glaciers pull out individual blocks and drag them away by freezing the
joints and beds of underlying rocks.
Glacier abrasion: The debris that is frozen into it causes the glacier to scratch,
scrape, polish, and scour the valley floor.
There are mainly two types of glacial landforms: Depositional and Erosional
Glacial Landforms Depositional
Landscapes in mid- and high-latitude alpine regions have been significantly shaped
by glaciers. The main glacial depositional landforms include

• Drumlins
• Esker
• Glacial Till
Glacial Landforms Erosional
The main glacial erosional landforms include
• Cirques
• Glacial Valleys/Troughs
• Aretes and Horns

Erosion by Sea Waves:

• Sea waves on erosional and depositional activities give rise to coastal
landforms.
• There are rocks present near the seas which are struck continuously by the
sea waves.
• Cracks develop inside as a result of erosion and become enormous over
time.
 • There are hollow cave-like structures formed in the rocks, and these are
known as the sea caves.
• When the cavities become large, the only roof of the cave remains, and this
structure is known as sea arches.
• When only the walls of the caves are left behind, this feature is known as
stacks.
• When a rocky coast rises steeply and vertically above the seawater, it is a sea
cliff.
• Sea waves bring along deposits and sediments to shore, which forms
beaches.

Erosion by Wind:
• The wind is an active agent of erosional and depositional activities in the
deserts.
• There are mushroom rocks in the desert, which decline at the lower section
more than the upper chamber. Hence, they have a narrow base and wider
top.
• Blowing wind lifts and transports sand from one place to another in the
desert. When the sand is deposited, it forms a low hill-like structure known
as dunes.
• Very fine, light grains of sand, transported over long distances by winds, get
deposited in more significant areas to form loess. China harbours large
deposits of loess.