SOIL MECHANICS

AND
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Dr. K.R. Arora

... j .. ..
\. '--:=I

. -'- 11
 SOIL MECHANICS
AND
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
[ IN SI UNITS 1

Ilr. K.R. ARORA

H E lC ;vi/); M E. (11011.\',): Ph , D . amn
rir: Al I.C.S.. nso t: MIWRS
Former Professor and Head of Civil Engg. Department
Engineering Co llege. KOTA (Raj.)

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First Edition . 1987

Seco nd Edition . 1989
Third Edition . 1992
Fourth Edi tion. 1997
(Revised and Enlarged )
Reprint, 2000
Fi fth Edi tion. 2000
Reprint. 2001
Reprint. 2002
Sixth Edition, 2003
(Revised and Enlarged)
Reprint, 2004

e K.R. ARORA

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parI of this publication in general and diagrams in particular may be reproduced or I:raf\,;miued in any form or by any
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Fig. No. 32.2 011 page 839 and Fig. No. 32.7 on page 848 of this publ ication have been reproduced with
permi ssion of BIS. from IS: 1893 (Par t 1)-2002 to which reference IS invited fOf/ furth er de tails. It is desirable
that for more complete details. reference be made only to the latest version of this standard. which is
availa ble from Bure au of Indian Standards, Manak S hawano New Delhi.

PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION

In this editio n, the text has teen revised and updated. A Ot:W chapter on 'Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering' has been included to introduce the readers (0 the recent developme nts. The importance of geo-
tec hnical aspects of earthquake engineering has considerably increased in recent years. especially after the Bhuj
Earthquake of 200t. On the suggestions received from readers, this chapter has been included in this text book..
The author hearlily ihanks his wife Mrs Rani Arora and son-in-law Dr. B.P. Suneja. Lecture r (Selection
scale) in Ci\;1 Engineering, Engineering College. Kotu for the assistance provided. The author also thanks Sh.
Bhagwan Sawroop Sharma. Drougtasman. Eng ineering College. Kota for excellent drawings.
The author gratefully acknowledges the courtesy of the Bureau of Indian Standards. 9 Bahadur Shah
Zafar Marg, New Dclh i-llOOO2 to include two figures from IS: 1893 (Pan 1)-2002.
Suggestions for turtber improvement of the text will be gratefully acknowledged.
2K4.Dadat'lari.
. KOTA (Raj.) - Dr. K.R . ARORA
July. 2003

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

The basic aim of the founh edition of Soil Mechanics lind Foundation Engineering is the same as that
of the earlier three editions, namely. to present the fundamental s of the subject in a simplified manner. In this
edition. a number of improveme nts and additions have been Incorporated to make the text more useful.
A large number of multiple-choice questions and objective type questions [ with answers) have been
added at the end of each chapter. Chapter 30 gives the detailed procedure for conducting nineteen common
laboratory expertrncnts. Chapter 3 1 covers the basic principles '"If Rock Mechanics. Appendix A gives the
glossary of common tenus for ready reference. Selec ted reterc . ces and a list of relevant publications of
Bureau of Indian Standards are given at the end for further study.
It is gratifying that the hook has been appreciated hy students. teachers and practising engineers
throughout the countr y. TIll' hook has es tablished itself as a useful text in most of the engineerin g colleges
and technical institutions of the country. The author is grateful 10 the teachers and students who have scm
their comments, suggestions and letters of appreciatio n.
TIle author thanks his colleagues Dr. R. C. Mishra and Sh. N. P. Kaushik for their help in proof reading.
The author also thanks his wile Mrs. Rani Arora for her assistance in the revision of the hook. The help
received from Shri Bhagwan Sawroop Sharma. Draughtsman , in improving the diagrams is appreciated .
Efforts made hy the publisher Sh. N. C. Jain and his sons Sh. Ajay Kumar Jain and Sh . Atul Kumar Jain
for bringing out this edition in a short time and in a good form are appreciated.
In spill' of every care taken to ensure accuracy, some errors might have crept in. The author will be
grateful to the readers for bringing such errors. if any. to his notice. Suggestions for the Improvements of the
text will be grate fully acknowledged.
KOTA (Raj.) - Dr. K .R. ARORA
February 26. 1997
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Soil mechanics and Foundation engineering (geotechnical engineering) is a fast develo ping discipline of
civil engineering. Cons idcrable work has been done in (he field in the last 6 decad es. A student finds it
diffiru!1 to have acc ess to the latest literature in the field. The author has tried (0 collect the material from
various sou rces and to present in the form of a text.
The tcxr has been divided into two parts. The first part deals with the fundam entals of soil mech anics .
'[be SCI."'Ond part deals with earth retaining structures and fou ndatio n engineering. T he subject matte r has been
presented in a logi cal and organise d manne r such U1.'1t it may be taken up serially without an y loss uf
conli nuity. 'ibc book covers the syllabi of undergraduate courses inn Soil Mechanics and Fuundmion
Engineering prescribed by most Indian universities and institutes.
An attempt nes been made 10 explain the Iundamema js in a simple. lucid language . Bas ic concepts have
been cmph::L s iscd throug hout. Th e author. who has about 25 years of teac hing experience, has paid special
uu cnuon to the difficulti es experienced by stude nts. A large number of illustrativ e examples have been given
10 show the appli cation of the theory to field problems, Numerica l problems, with answers, have been givc e
for practice . Some cojcctt..'c type questions have also been given at the end o f each chapter. The text is
profusely illustrated with diagram s an d charts. Latest IS codes have been fo llo wed , as far as possible .
Refe rences are g iven :11 the end of each chapter. As comple te switch over to SI units has not taken place in
' Ind ia, both MKS and SI un its have been used .
The book will be useful for the undergraduate stude nts. The students appearing for various competitive
examina tions and AM IE will also find the text use ful. A large number of charts and tables have been included
10 make the text usefu l (or ' pnu...
using engineers.
The author is grateful 10 Pro f. Alam Singh of Jodhpur University who introduced the subjec t to him
aboul 3 decades ago as a student .11 M.llM. Engineerin g Coll ege, Jodhpur . The author is indebted to Prof. A.
v arad arejan of ITT. Delhi . w tx) helped him in understand ing some of (he intricate problems during hi..
doctoral programme. Th e author thanks the facully of Geotech nical Division of lIT. Delh i. for the help
extended. The author also thanks his fellow resea rch scho lars. Dr. K.K. Gu pta, Dr. B. Shankcriab , Dr. T.S.
Rekh i, Dr. B.S. Sat ija, and Dr. R.N. Shahi for the fruitf ul discussions.
Th e author is gra teful to Prof. A. V. Ramanujam, Princ ipal. Enginee ring College. KOla for constant
encouragement . The author thanks his colleagues at Engineerin g Colleg e, Kota, especially Sb. Amin Uddin .
Dreughtsman . The author also thanks his wife Mrs. Rani Arora who helped in proof reading and otbcr worn
related with this text. 'In c hel p rece ived from his daughte r Sang ceta Aro ra and son Scnje ev Arora is also
acknowled ged .
In spi te o f every care taken 10 ensure accuracy, some errors might have crept in. The author will be
grateful to readers for bringin g such errors 10 his notice . Suggcs tions for improveme nt of the text will be
acknowledged with thanks .

KOTA(Raj .) -K.R.ARORA
January 4. 1m
 NOTATIONS
The notations have been explained wherever Ihey appear. The following notations have been more
commonly csed.
A '" Pore preioSUrc parameter P,» Act ive pr C!i.'iUfC toece w...~ Weigh t of water
'" Aetivity of soils Pp '" Passi ve pressure force W. = Weighl of sol ids
A~ = Arcaof voids p'" Pressure Wq = water table factor
AO'" Angstrom po " Active pressure Wy '" Water table factor
A.. = Air conrem PP= Passive pressure IV= water content
Qv = coe rncem of rompressibilily pit'" Horizonllli press ure }.f = Mass, lo tal mass
B '" Porepressure parameter- Q '" Fonx:,Load /tI...= Massof water
C.. = Compression index " Toul quantity ofwarer /tI,= Mass of sol ids.
= Coeffi cienl of curvature Q" = Allowable load WI'" Liquidlimit
e .. = Unifo rmi ty Coeffi cient Q,," Ultimate load 1Vp" Ptasnctlmit
'" Coefficient of elastic uniform q = Surcha rge w,= Sh rinkage limi l
co mpressi on '" Inrens nyor Lcc d 1" Bulk unit weight
C'" Unit cohesion .. Discharg e 1d = Dry unit wei ght
c' =. Effective unit cohesion qc " Static cone resistance r_ = Satu rated unit weigh t
e" = Appa ren t cohcsjon q.." Net fccting pressure capachy y' = Submerged unit weight
cv» Coefficienl of consol ida tion q.... Net safe beari ng capac ity Ys= Unitwelghlofsolids
Dw; Effectivesize q,.,.z Net safe seulerrent press ure 1..... Unit wei ght of wa ter
Dr '" Poendation depth q.w:: Allowable bearing pressure b: Angle o f wall friction
D ; » Rchlliv cdensilY q" = Ulli mate bearing capacity [ .. Strain
E'" Modulus of elasticity '" Unconfined compressive 1] = Coe fficient of viscosi ty
e o:: Void rntio strength "" '" Potsson's rutlo
FS = Faoor otsarety S " Degreeo f SUIural ion = Micron
1= frict ion " Surfa ce area : Coefficie nt of viscosi ty
G'" Specific gravity of particles S,,= Sla bility no. p= Displ ace ment
g = Acceleration due to gravity 5,,, Sensi tivity '"' Setuemem
II = Hydraulic head s" Shear strength PI" Flnatsetnemenr
[: Momenlofinc:rtia " Seuerrenr 0 : totaIstress
lp = P1asticityirxlcll T" Tangential ccnponen 0 = Effect ivestress
i= Hydraulicgradienl = Temperature 0 1,02, 0) coPri ncipal stresses
'" Angle of surcharge Ts " S urface tension 01 ,02, 03'" Effectiv e princ ipal stresses
K :a Cocfficicnl ofa bsolule
pe rmea bility
t= TIme c, = Preconsolidation pressure
U= pegreeorcoosotdauoo Oz,o.. " Verticcl stress
Ko = Coefficient of earth pressure al
= Total pore water pressure Or. 0" s Hori zon lal str ess
=1
U = Porewater pressure
1(.,: coerncemcr ecuve pesecre 't " Soear seess
ii ", Hydrasta ticexo.::ssporepressure 't. '" Mobi lised shear streng th
Kp'" Coefficient of passive pressure
V " \bI ume , total vol ume. Velocil y • '" Angle of shea ring resistance
k = Coefficient of pcrrne<tbility
V..." \bI umeof drysoi l
., Coe fficien t of sub grade react ion . ' .. FJJeaive angle of shea ring
V,,= \blumeofair resistance
Ie., = Coe ffic ient of subgrode reaction
V", = \tllumeofwnler ~ : Apparenl angle of shea ring
kp " Coefficient of percolation
V,,= Volumeofvoids resistan ce
N = Number of blows (SP1) .... ,. mobi lised ang le of shea ring
V. = VoIume of sol ids
" Pem.:nt fi ncr resistan ce
s Normal compooent vs Velocily
p s Dulkdensity
II:: Porosity vc zCri licalvt'locity
pis Drydensity
1I<J" Percentageai r voids
v,= Secpage velocity
W ,. Weighl. tOlal wr ipht
p' . Submers:edde nsity
p . Fon-.
 (vi)

/'

CONVERSION FACTORS
(0) MKS to Sl Units
F_ To Mullip lyby &pvaknce
kgf N 9.81 1 kgf .. 9.81 N
gmC N 9.81 x 10-) Igmf ... O.(J()l~IN
1M", kN 9.81 1 t ... 9.81kN
2 2 2
k~f/cm2 kN.'m 98.1 I kgf/cm .. 98.1 kN /m
kgf/C'm
2
N/mm
2 9.81 x 10*2 1 kgflcm2 .. 0.()l)81N/m m2
2 2 98.1 2
1 gmflcm .. 98.1 N/m
2
gmf/cm N/m
I/m
2
kN/m
2 9.81 1 11m 2 .. 9.81 kN/m 2
1 kN/m) 9.81 x 10*) 1 kgflm 3 .. O.OO9RI k.N/ m3
kgfiln·
um' kN/m) 9"1 1 tim"' .. 9.81 kN /m )
3 3 9.81 1 gmrtcm1 .. 9.81 kN/m
J
grrJ/cm kN/m
kgflm Nhn 9.81 1 k~flm .. 9.81 N/m
kgf.m N·m 9.tH 1 kgf-m ... 9.81 N-m
2 9.tH 2 2
kgf.seclm N_' 1 kgf-sec/m .. 9.81 N-s/m

(b) SI to MKS Uni..

F_ To Mulliply F.q.Iivalrnce
/>y
N kg' 0.102 1 N .. O.IOHgf
N gmf 102.0 IN .. 102gmf
kN 0.102 IkN .. 0.102 1
kN/m
2
k.gf/an 2 0.102)( 10- 1 1 kN /m 2 .. 0.0102 k.gf/cm 2
2 2 10.2 1 NAnmJ .. 10.2 kgf/an 2
N/mm kgfJan
2 0.102 )( 10- 1 2 2
N/m' gmf/an 1 N/m ... 0.0102 gmf/cm
kN /m 2 um' 0.102 1 kN /m 2 ... 0.102 11m2
1 1
kN/m kgftm 0.102 x 1~ 1 kN/m1 ... 102.0 kgf/m]
3
tN/in um' 0.102 1 kN/m1 .. 0.1021/m]
kN/m] gmf/m' 0.102 lkN/m 3 .. O.I02gmf/an]
N/m kgUm 0.102 1 N/m .. 0.102 kgflm
N·m kgf-m 0.102 1 N-m .. 0.102kgf-m
2 2 0.102 2 2
N""m kyJ«c/m 1 N-s/m .. 0.102 kgf-seclm

Noc~ : 1 poise '" 0.1 N4/m2 .. 1.D2x 10-~ kgf-scclm2

2
1 bar ., 100 tN!m
 (m )

CONTENTS
Chapter Page No.
PART I. FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL MECHANICS
1. Introduction 3 -12
1.1. Definition of soil , I: 1.2. Definition of soil mechanics, 2: 1.3. Definition of Soil Engi neering lind
Geotechnica l Engineering, 2: 1.4. SCope of soil Engineering.2; 1.5. Origin of So ils, 4: 1.6. Format ion of
So ils, 5 ; 1.7. na nsponation of Sai ls, 6: 1.8. Maja- Sai l Deposits of India, 7; 1.9. Ccrnpa rison of Soils with
other materials, 8; 1.10. Limitatioos ci Soil Engineering 8; 1.11. Tennin ology of different types of soils, 9;
1.12. Cohesive and Cohe<;ionless Soi ls, 1 ~; 1.1.'\. Brief HislOryd Soil Engineering. 11; Problems,12.

2. Basic Definitions and Simple Tests 13 - 44

21. Introduction , 13; 2.2 Volumetric Relationships, 14: 2.3 water content, 15; 2.4. Units, I: 2.5 Volume
Mass Relationship, 16; 26. Volume-Weight Relationships, 17, 2.7. tnter-relauon betw een Mass and Weight
Units. 18; 2.8. SpecificGravity ofSol.ids.,19; 2.9 . Three- Phase Diagram inn Tenns dVoid ratio, 20; 2.10 .
Three-Phase Diagram in 'Ierms of Porosity, 22; 2 11. Expressions for Mass Density in Terms of waier
Contant, 23 ; 2.12 &pression f(% mass density in tenns of wa ter" coo tent. 24: 2.13. Relationship between
Dry Mass Density and Percen tage Air \bids, 25; 2.14. Water Content Determinalion, 26; 2.15. Specific
Grnvity Determination, JO; 2.16. Measurement of Mass Densi ty, 32 : 2.17. Detennination of Void Ratio,
Porosity and Degree of Saruratlon, 36; Illustrative Examples, 37; Problems, 42.
3. Pa rticle Size Analysis 45 - 68
3.1. Introduction. 45; 3.2 Mechanical Analysis, 46; 3.3 . Sieve Analysis. 46: 3.4. Stokes ' law, 47; 3.5.
Preparation of suspemiOll.for sedimentBIion analysis, 49; 3.6. Theory of Sedimentation. SO; 3 .7. Pipette
Metbod. 51 ; 3.8. lI ydromel er Melbod, 52: 3 .9 . Relalio nship Beeween Percentage fine r and lIydrometCf
Reading, 5S; 3.10 . Limita tion of Sedimentation Analysis, 57; 3.11. Combined Sieve and Sedimentalion
Analysis, 57; 3.12. Pan icle Size Distribution Curv e, 57; 3 .13. Uses of Particle Size Distribution Curve, 59;
3.14. Sha pe of Partideol, 59; 3 .15. Relative Densily, 60; 3.16. Determination of Relative Density, 61;
Illustrative Examples.,62; Problems. 66.
4. Plasticity Characteristics 01 Solis 69- K8
4.1. P1&'1licity of Soils, 69; 4.2. Comistency U milS, 69; 4.3. Uquid Limit, 70; 4.4. Cone Pcnetromel(.'1
Method , 73; 4.5 . Plastic Limil, 73; 4.6 . Shrinkage Limit, 74; 4.7. Alternative Method for dete rmination of
shrinkage limit, 75; 4.8. Shrinkage Parameters, 76; 4.9 . Plasticity,Uquidity and Con sistency Indexes, 78:
4.10. flow Index, 78: 4. 11. Tocghness Index, 79: 4. 12 Meesuremem of Consistency, 80; 4.13 . Sensitivity
80; 4.14. Thixotropy, 81; 4.15. Activity 01 Soils., 81; 4. 16. Uses of consisteocy LimilS, 82; lII~tralive
Examples, &3; Problems. 87.
5. SoD Classillcatlon 89 - 106
5.1. Introduction, 89; 5 .2. Partide Size Oasstrtcauon, 89 ; 5.3. 'Iextura! O llssifical ion, 91; 5.4. AASJrro
O assi ficalion System, 92; 5.5. Uni fied soil Oassification System , 72; 5.6. Comparison of AASII10 and
USC systems, 95; 5.7. Indian Standard O ass ification System, 98; 5.8. Boundary c..'as.<;ification, 99; 5.9.
field IdentifK:lllion of Soils, 10 1; 5.10. General Olarncterislics of Soils of Different Groups, 103;
lllcsrra tive Examples, 103; Problems, 105.
6. Clay Mineralogy and SoD Structure 107 -119
6.1. Intnxluetion, 107; 6.2. Grnvitational and Surface f~ 107; 63 . Primary valence Bonds, 108; 6.4.
Hydrogen Dand. 109; 6.5. Sea.mdary Valence iJonds. 110; 6.6. ImI c Structural Units of Clay Minerals,
 (viii)

111; 6.7. !$()Q)(Ifphous Substi tution, 112; 6 .8. Kaolinite Mineral , 112; 6.9. Montmorill oni te Mineral , 112;
6.10. Illite Mineral, 113; 6. 11. FJectrica! chargeson clay minerals, 113; 6 .12. Ua.'\C Exchange Ca paci ty, 114;
6.13. Diffuse Double Layer, 114; 6 14. Ad.. "OI'bcdWa t~,1l6; 6.15. Soil Structur es. 116, Problem.s, 118.

7. Capillary Water 120 -133

7.1. Types of Soil Weller,llO; 7.2. SurfaceTension, 120; 7.3. Capillary Rise in SITJ3I1Diameter Tube s, IU ;
7.4. Capillary Tension . 122; 7.5. Capill:lry Rise in S<Y.ls, IU; 7.6 . Soil Suc tio n. U5; 7.7. Capillary
Potential , 125; 7.8. Ca pillary Tensio n During Drytngot Sods, lZ6; 7.9. Factors Aff«ting Soil Suction,
126; 7.10. Measurement of Soil Suction, 127; 7.lt:>~¥t lI.ctr: e, 128; 7;12. Frost Boil, 129; 7.13.
Prevention of Frost Action , 1Z9; 7.14. Shrinkage and ~~;Cl hng Of Soils, 129; 7.15 . Sinking of Ctay, l30;
7.16. Bulking of Sand , 131;7.17. Capillary S i phooing~ 131; Illustrative Examples, 131; Problem.'>, 132.

g. Permeablllty ~r Soil 134 -162

s.t .fnuoc ccucn, 134 ; 8.2. Hydra ulic Head, 134; 8 .3. Darcy's Law, 135; 8.4 . Validity of Darcy's Law, 136 ;
85. Determination of Coeffici ent of Permeab ility, 136 ; 8 .6.. Constant Head Permeability 'Iesr, 137; 8 .7.
Variable-llead Permeabilit y Test, 138; 8.8. seepage Vdooty, 140; 8.9. General Expression for Laminar
Flow, 141; 8. 10. Laminar Flow through Porous Media , 142; 8.11. Factors affecting Permeability of Soils,
143; 8.12 . Coefficie nt o f AbsoIule Permeability, 145; 8. 13. Pumping Out Tests, 146; 8.14. Pumping in
Tests, 148; 8.15 . Coe fficient of pe rmea bility by Indirect Melhods, 151; 8.16. Capillarity- Permea bility Test ,
152; 8.17. Permeability o f Strati fied Soil Deposi ts, 1S4; Illustrative Examples, 156 ; Problems., 160.

9. Seepage Analysis 163 - 188

9.1. Introductio n, 183; 9.2. Laplace's equation 164; 93. Strea m and PQ(ential Functions, 165 ; 9.4.
Characteristics of Flow Net, 161; 9.5 . Graphical Method , 168; 9.6. Electrica l Analogy Method, 168; 9.7 .
Soil Model s, 171; 9.8. Plastic Models, 172; 9.9. Flow Net by Solution of La place's Equation, 172; 9.10
flow Nel in Earth Dam.'> with a Horfzonta l Filter, 173; 9.11. See page through Ea rth Dam with sloping
Discharge face, 175; 9.12. Seepage through Earth Dam with Discharge angle less than 30~, 176; 9. 13.
seepage through Eanh Dam with Discharge angle greater than 30~, 177; 9 .14. Uses of Flow Net, '178;
9.15 . Flow Net for Antsouoptc Soi ls, 180; 9.16 . Coefficient o f Permeabi lity',in an Inclined Direction , 182;
9.17 . Flow Net in a Noe -horrog eeeo us Soil Mass, J82 ; Illustrative Examples , 184; Problems, 185 .

10. Effective Stress Principle 189 - 217

10.1. Introduct ion. 189; 10 .2. Effective Stress Principle, 189; 10.3. Nature of Effective Stress, 190 ; 10.4.
Effect of Waler Table Auet ~tions on Effective Stress, 192; 10.5. Effective Stress in a Sci l Mess under
Hydrostatic Conditions, 193; 10.6 . Increase in effecti ve Stresses due to surcharg e, 195; 10.7. Hfcctive
Stresses in Soi ls sat urated by Capillary Action, 195; 10.8. Seepage Pressure, 197; 10.9. Perce Equilibrium
in Seepage Problems, 198; 10.10. Effective Stresses under Sleady Seepage Condilions, 200 ; 10.11. Qui d
Sand Condi tion 201; 10.12. seepage Pressure Approach for Quid Cond ition , 203; 10.13. Effect of
Surcharge 0lI Quick Conditions, 203; 10.14. Failures of lI ydrnulic Structures by Piping, 204; 10.15.
Prevention of Piping Failu res, 206; 10.16 . Design of Graded Filler, 207; 10.17. Effective Stress in Partially
Saturated Soils, 209; Illustrative Examples, 210; Problem.s, 215 .

II . Stresses Due ro Applied Loads 2lK - 255

11.1IntroduetiOll,218; 11.2. Stress-Strain Parameters, 218; ILl . Geos tetlc Stresses, 219 ; 11.4. Vcniall
Stresses Due 10Co ncentrated Loads, 221; 11.5. Il orizon tal and Shear Stresses Due to ~n lratcd Loa ds ,
223; 11.6. Isobar Diagram , 225; 11.7. Vertical Stress Distribution on a Horiwnlal Plane, 22.5; IUt
Influence Diagram, 226; 11.9. Vertical Stress DiSlribwion on a Vertical Plane, 227; 11.10. Vertical Stresses
Doe lOa Une l.oad ,227; lU I. Vertical Stresses Under a Strip lood,229; 11.12. Maximum Shear Suesses
at a PaRI Under a Strip Load, 132; 11.13. Vertk:al Seesses Under a Qm.I1ar Area, 2.lJ ; 11.14. Vcr1iml
SIre.".'> UDder Corner 0( a Rectangul ar Area, 234 ; 11.15. Veniad Stress at any Poinl Under a RCClangular
Area, 236; 11.16. Newmart.' s Influence Charts,231; 11.17. Comparison d Stresses Due to Lcccs on arca~
of ~fferen l Sha pes, 139; 11.18 . \Utica! Stresses Underl'riangular Load, 240 ; 11.19. Vertj(;al Stress lInJcr
Trapezoidal toads, 241; 11.20. Stresses Due to lIorizontal Loads, 241;. 11.21. Stresses Due lo lnclinui
Loads, 242 ; 11.22. Weslergaard' s Solution. 243; 11.23. Fenskc.'s awlS, 244; 11.24 . Approx ilTJ3lC
M'etbods, 245; 11.15. Conlact Pressure Distribution, 247; 11.26. Limitalions of Elastic The ories, 24&;
U1ustrative Exarnples, 249; PrOOlems,153.
 lix)

12. Co nsolid ation of So ils 256-305

12.1. l ntroductm n, 256 : 12.2. lnIIl:J.I. Prim ary and Secon dary Con schd auon. 257; 12.3. Sp ring Analogy for
Pn mary Consondouon . 257 ; IlA. Behaviou r of Sa turated Soils Unde r Pressure, 258 ; 12.5. Consoli dation
TCM.259: 12.6. D"h..'fmln'ltiun III Void Ratio aI Various Load fncremems. 261; 12.7. Con solidation Test
Results. 263 : 12.l'I. HN l· Definincns. 265 ; 12.9. Terl aghi 's Th eo ry of Coo solidation. 267: 12.10 . Solution
ot Basic Differential Equatnm. 27 1: 12.11. Determ ination of Coc tfic jcm o f Con solidat ion, 277 ; 12.12.
Precon sotid anon Pressure . 2S0. 12.13. Ca uses of Preconsottd auon in Soils. 281: 12.14 . Final Sculemenr of
a Soil Dcposu in the FI1,'ld . 2111; 12.15. Time Settlement Curve, 283 : 12.16. FJeld Co nso lidat ion Curve.
2l!.J; 12.17. Secondary Cllnsulkl'ltion. 2l15 : 12. 18. 3..0 Ccnsohdanon Eq uation in Cart esian Coo rdmare s,
2l!7; 12. 11). ~ ..D CllIIs"lid<lllOn Equanon in Cylin drical Co ..o rdinates. 289 ; 12.20. Sand Drain s. 29 1: 12.21.
Effect of Late ral Srra jn on \nnsnlidati nn. 29.$: lllustrau vc Ellample". 295: Prob lems, 302

13. She ar Strength 306 - 356

13.1. lntroducriou . .\On: I l 2. Stress Syste m with Princip al Planes Parallel to the Coordinate Alles. 311":
13.3. Mohr ' s Circle . .3(17: 1.'.4 Principal planes inclined In the coordueuc allis, 308; 13.5. Stress syste m
with Vertical ;llIU Horizonlal Planes not Principal Planes. •m9 : 13.6. Importa nt Ch aracte ristics of Mohr 's
Circle. 3 11: J.t 7. Moh r-Coulmn h Theo ry. 312: 13.8. Revised Mohr.. Coulo mb equat ion, 3L3 ; 13.1).
Different Types o r tests and Drainage Conditions. 3 U : 13.10 . Mode o f App licat ion of Shear Force 314;
13.11. Direct Shear Teet, 3 14 ; 13.12. Prcscntauon of Resul ts o f Dlte,'1 Shear Test. 3 1": 13.13. Merits and
Deme nts of Direct She ar Te st. .' I ll: 13.14. Triaxial Co mpression Appar.uu s. 318 : 13.15. Triax ial Tests lin
Cohesiv e Soils . 32 1: LU6 , Triaxial 'Icsts o n C'o hesionle.I;s Su iI.-. 322: I l1 7. Merits and Dements 01
Triaxial Test• •\ 2.' : 13.111. Comput.nion ul various Param eters, 324 : 13. 1\). Pre sen tation tlf Re sults of
Triaxial Te sts. 32 5 13.20. Etfcct of Consclidc non Pressure on Undr ain ed Streng th 32fl; 13.21. Relat iul1.ship
Between Und nuned Shea r Strength and Effectiv e Ove rburden Pres sure. 321);: 13.22. Uncon fin ed
CompressitllJ Test. .UII : 13.2.1. Vane Shear Te"l, 332: 13.24. Pore Pressure Parame re rs. 333 ; 13.25.
Mohr--Cnulomb Failu re Cru cnon. .\.\ 7; 13.26. M,M.1 ifll.'tl Failurc envelope, 338; 13.27. Stress Path, 33 9:
13.28. Shear Stre ngth o f Parn atly Sam rared Soil s, 3·n ; 13.29. Hvorsle v's Strength Th eory , 342; 13.30.
Liqucf acuon of Sands . .l B; 13.3 1. Shear Charccten sno, of Coh esionles s Soils. 344 : 13.32. Shear
Characteristics of Cobe-ive Su iIs. 3.JS; 13.33. ('",.ice of Te~ Condilions ami Sh.....a r Pararreters , 34"'
I. Hluxtrative Examples. 347 : Problems. 35.'

1". Com paction or So ils 357 - 375

14 .1. Introd uction .•'5 7 : 14 .2. Sla nd;ln! Procto r Test, 35M: 14,3. ~l odificJ Pr0\.1 0r Test. 360: 14 .4.
Compaction of Sands . •'61 ; 14.5. Jod hpur ~ Iini O lmpal.1urTcsl, 362 ; 14 .6. Harva rd Mini arure Com pecuo n
Test. 3(. 2; 14 .7. Abbn t CIHnp'll"IIUn Test. .\6 2 : 14.K. Fal10f s Alfcl."ting Compac tion. 362 ; 14.9. Effect of
Compuc non o n Properuc-, lIf Soih. •\6 01: 14 .10. MethorJ ~ uf Comp acnon Used in Field , 366 : 14. 11.
Pt-ccmenr Wate r Co nte nt. 3(.7; 14 ,12. Rela tive Compact ion, 36M: 14 .13. Compaction Comrcl. 3M; 14. 14.
1lbrollnt,Ilion Methnd . 3(,9 ; 14 .15. Te rm Probe Melhod , J 70 : 14.16. Corn pacnon by Pou nding , 370; 14. 17.
Comp action by Ellplosl\' es. 37 1: 14 .111. Prccomp resston, 37 1: 14.19. Com paction Pilc s, .'7 1: 14 .20.
Suitability of Various Melhuu ., of Co mpac tion , 371 : Illustrative Exam ples. 372 ; Prob lem s, 374
~.
15. Soil Stab ilisat ion 376 - 390
15. 1. Introduction. 31(, : 15.2. Mcchunicu l Stnhiiisution , 376 : IS.3. Ceme nt Stabilis ation. 377: 15.4 Lime
Sralulis utiou . •\IUl: 15.5. Bitum inous Sl;lhilisalion . 381 : 15.6 . Che mical Stahilisatiun, 3l1Z: 15.7. Thcr m. I
Stabilisation. 3K3: 15.K lilcc uical Stabilisation. 3K4; 15.9 . Stabilismion by gruuling, 3K4: 15. 10
Stabilisa tion by G': lllm;tile ;IIlU Pabncs, 3115 : 15. 11. Reinforced E arth, 3117; Pmhl ellls. 38'1.

16. Dr ainage, De-wat er ing and Wells 391 - 414

16 .1. lntrod ucuon . 39 1: 16.2. Inte rcepto r Ditches. 39 1; 16.3. Single Stage Well Po ints. 3'12; 16A.
Mu llistage Well Points. 3'U : 16.5. V:K'IlUm w et! Poinl.'o .393: 16.6. Shallow Well Syste m, 394 : 16.7, Deep
Well System. 394; 16.N. Horizont al We lls. 394 : 16.9. Elect ro-Os mo sis. 394: 16. 10. Permanent Drainage
Afte r ('onslIUC'lion . 395 ; 1(>.11. Design o f Dew atering Sy,t ems. 396 : 16. 12. Discharge from a Full y
Penetrat ing Slo t. 3% : 16 .13. Discharge from a Partially Pcnctr atin p 5 101.3'19; 16. 14. Discharge in a SIOI
fro m Both sides . 4UO: 16.15 . Well Hydraulics. 40 1: 16.16. Term s Ur.ed in Well Hydraulics . 4t12; 16.17.
Dechargc From a Fully Pcnetr aung Well , 4t13; Ill.l ll. Discharge From a Partially Pene uu ring Wel l. 404 :
16. 19. Interference alll\llIg We lls, -105: 16.20. Spbcncal fl ow in a Well. 407 ; 16.2 1. Discharge From an
Open w ell, 407 ; 16.22 . Adverse Effects 01 Drama ge. -ItJ9; lllustrauv e Exa mples. 409 : Prob lem s. 4 12.
 (,)

PART II. EARTH RETAINING STRUcrURFS AND

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
17. Site Investigations 415-439
17.1. Introduction, 415; 17.2. Planning a Sub-Surf ace Exploralion Programmes, 416; 17.3. Stages in
Sub-surface Bxptorauons, 416; 17.4. Reconnaissance, 417; 17.5. Depth of Exploration.417; 17.6. Lateral
Extent of Exploration, 4l9; 17.7. O pcn Excavation Methods of Explo ration. 420; 17.8. Borings for
Explorati on ,420; 17.9. Auger Borin g, 420; 17.10 . Wash Boring, 420 ; 17.11. Rota ry Drilling , 422 ; 17.12 .
Percussion Drilling, -In; 17.13. Core Drilling, 4ZZ; 17.14. Types of Soil sam ples, 423; 17.15. Design
Features AffCCling lhe Sample Disturba nce, 423; 17.16. Split. Spoon Samplers. 42-1; 17.17.
&Taper-Buckel Sampler . 425; 17.18. Shelby Tubes and Thin Walled Samplers, 425; 17.19. Piston
Samplers, 426; 17.20. Denison Sampler. 426; 17.21. Hand-Carved Samples, 426; 17.22. SCandard
Penceauoe Test, 427; 17.23. Cone Penetration Tests, 429; 17.24. In-situ vane Shear Test, 431; 17.2.'i.
In-situ Test Using a Pressure Meter. 431: 17.26. C>bs.eTvalion of Ground Water Table 432; 17.27.
Geophysical Methods, 433; 17.28. Seism ic MClhods. 4JJ; 17.29. Electrical Resistivit y Methods, 4..15;
1730. sot-soninvcsugeuon Repo rts, 437: Problems. 4..18.

18. Stability of Shipes 440 - 477

18.1 . huroduciicn, 440 ; 11'1.2. Basis of Analysis, 441; IIL l Different Factors of safety , 441; 18.4 . Types of
S lope Failures, 442 ; lK5 . Stability of an Infinite Slo pe o f Coheslonlc ss Soi ls, 444; 18.6. Stahility Analysis
oCan Infinile Slope o f Cohcsive So ils, 446; 18.7. Wt.'dgc Failure, 447; 18.8. C ulmann's Method , 448; 18.9.
'" .. 0 Analysis , 450; 18.10. Friction Circle Melhod , 4 .5'J; 18.11. StaNlilY Charts, 453; Utl2. Swedish
Orde Method, 455; 18.13 . Stability of Slope Under Steady Seepage Condition, 460: 18.14. Stabilily of
Slope Unde r Sudden During Conslruaioo, -161: 18.15. SUbil ity of Slopes During Con.«JlUClion, 462;
18.16. lli~'s Simplified Method , 463 ; 18.17. Other Mell:Kxls of Analysis, 466: 18.18. Improving
Siahili ty of Slopes , 467 ; Illustrative Examples, 467 ; Problems., 475
19. Earth Pressure Theories 478 - 516
19.1. lntrodection, 478; 19 .2. Different types of 1,.3ICI1II Eart h Pressure, 478: 193. Earth Pressure at Rc..~I.
480; 19.4. Rankine's Eanh Pressure Theory , 481; 19.5. Rankine 's Banh Pressurc whcn the Surface is
Inclined, 485; 19.6. Rankin e's Earth Pres.sure in Cohesive So ils, 491; 19.7. Coulomb's w edge Theory, 494 ;
19.8. Cou lomh's Active Pressure in Cobcstonless Soi ls, 494; 19.9. Rchbann 's Cc ostrucuoo for Actlvc
Pressure, 497 ; 19.10. Culman n's C'.onsl l"Ut.1ion for Active Pressure, 501: 19.11. Cou lomb's Active Earth
Pressur e for Cohesive Soils, SOl; 19.12. Trial Wedge Method, 503; 19.13. Coulomb's Passive Earth
Pressure for Cobesontcss Soil, 504: 19.14. Passive Pressure By the: Friction Circle Method, 505; 19.15.
Dclt.-rminalionof Shear Strength Paramclcrs, 507; Illust rativ e Exam!,,!.:s, 508; Problems, 5 15.
20. Design of Reta ining Walls and Bulkheads 517-5-19
20.1. 1nlroduclion, 5 17; 20.2. Types of Re taining Walls. 517 : 20.3 . 1'ri~p1CS of lhe Design of retaining
Walls, 517; 20.4. Gravity Re taining Walls, 520; 2".~ . Cantilever Retaining walls, 5~1 ; 20.6. Coumcrfort
Retaining Walls, 523; 20.7. Other Modes of Failure of Rctainin g Walls, 524; 20.8. Drainage from the
Backfill, 525; 20.9. Types of s heet pile Walls, 526; 20.10. Free Ca ntilever sheet pile, 51:7; 20. 11. Cantilever
Sheet Pile in Cohcsiontcss Soils, 528; 20.12. Canutcve r Sheer Pile Penetrating Clay, 5J{) ; 20.13. Anchored
Sheet Pile with Free Earth liUpJXlI"t, 532; 20.14. Rowe 's Moment Red uct ion Curves, 5..'4; 20.15 . Anch ored
Sheel Pile with Fixed Eart h Suppor l, 5.\S ; 20.16. Design of Anchor.;;, SJ6; Inusnanv c examp les, 5.\S;
Problcm,5541.
21. Braced Cuts and Coffer Dams 550 - 569
21.1. Introdoction, 5..(,0; 21.2. Lateral Earth Pressure on Sheelings. 551. 2 1_'t Different Types of Sheeting
and Ikecing Sys tems, 553 ; 2 1.4. Desi ~ n of Various Components of Brocing. 554: 21.5. TyP"S of ColTer
Dams, 556; 21 .6 . Design of Cellular Coffer dams on Rock, 559; 2 1.7. Designof Cellular Coffer dams on
Soil, .562; lllustrauve Example, 564 ; Problems, 568.
22: Sh;ll'ts, Tunnels and Und erground Conduils 570 - 586
22 .1. Stresses in Soi l in ne vldnhy of Vertical Shaft, 570 ; 22.2 Stresses in Soil around Tunnels , 571; 22 .3.
Co nstr uction of Eanh Tunnels. 572; 22.4. Arch ing in Soils, 573; 22.~ . Types of Unde!ground Conduits,
 (n)

575 : 22.6. Ditch t:onduib. 575; 22.7. Positive Projecting Con du us, 577; 22.8 Negative Projecting
Conduit s. 580 : 22.'1. Imperfect Ditch C(louuir. 5M2; 22. 10. Tun neled C..mduit v. 5K2: 22. 11. Lo ads on
Conduits Due to Surface Loads, SIU; 22. 12. Co nstructi on of Conduits, StU : Illustrative Exam ples. 5K4:
Problem s.5K5.
23. Hearing Capacity of Sha llow Foundations 587 - 635
23. 1. Intr oduction, %7 ; 23.2. Basic Definitions , 5K7: 23.3. Gru ss and Net fOUling Pressure. 51'8: 23.4.
Rankine 's Analysis. 5~ 1 ; 23 .5. Hogenrog tcr and T~·rt<l~ h i ·s Analysis, 59]; 23.6. Pram hl's Analysis. 592;
2.1.7. Tcrzaghi's bear ing Capacity Th eo ry. 593 : 23Ji . Types of Shear Failure". 5%: 2.l9. Ultima te Bearing
Capacuy in case 01 lI.,,,:,11Shear Failure. S'J7: 23.10. Effect Ill' Water 1;lhlc on Beari ng Capaci ty. MJ(); 23. 11.
Bearin g C apucu y of Square and Circular Footing s. 6tH : 2.'. 12. MeYl'rhof 's Heuring Cnpocity Theory, 602 ;
23. 13. Hansen 's Bea ring Ca pacity Theory. 60-1; 23. 14. v csic's Re;u-ing Capacity T heo ry. 605 : 23. 15, IS
Code Methud 606 ; 23.11•. Skcmpton'v Analysis fu r Cohesive So ils, (107: 23. 17. IS Code Method for
Coh esive Soi l, 611S: 23. IK Her ve of the Hullum of the Cut in CI;lY.(,OS; l. UI). Fou edanons on Layered
C1'lY. 6111: 23.20 . Ik,lring Capa city rrom Sumdurd Pcncmuion ll' S!. 6111 : 23.2 1. Eccenmcully Loaded
Foundanons. 61 1; 23.22. Sellk melll 01' F' lllnualillns. (,12 : 2123 . UK/US for Sett lement Analysis. 613 :
23.24. Imrnediarc Settleme nt of Cohesive So ils. 6U; 23.25. Ir nmcdi.ne Senlerucnt of Cohesion less Soils.
614 : 2.l26. Consolidation Scutcmcnt in Clays. 615 : 2.l27. Sc ulcme m of Iound anons on Cohesinnlc~s
Soil s. 616 ; 23 .2N. Accuracy of foun d.nion Scule mcrn Prediction. 617 ; 23.29. Allowable Scnlemcnt. 617 :
2.1.30. Al lowabk Soil Pressure for O lhesk,okss Soils. 6 1S; 23.3 1. Allowable Soil PresMlrc for Cohes ive
So ils. 62L 23.31. Presu mptive Bearing C..pacity, 62 L 23.33 . Plate Luad Test, 62 L 2.l34. Housel' s
Method for des ign o f Fou ndation, 625 ; lllustrouvc Exa mples. 625 : Proble ms. 625 .

24. Design of Sha llow Foundations 636 - 670

24 .1. Types (If Shallow foundations. 636; 2·L:!. Dep th IIf Footin gs, 637 ; 24.3 . Foundation uJUlling. 639 ;
24.4 . Princi ple o f Design of FO(l(ings . tHO; 24.5. PrOr(Jl1ilmi n~ Foo lings for & Iual Scnlcmc m, 64 1; 24.6.
Desi gn of Strip FIH'lings. 641 : 24 .7. Design of Spr ead Foo tings, 643 ; 24 ,11 , Design of Eccenm cnlly loade d
spread fool i ng~. f>4.l: 24.1). Combine d F(Il.llinp , 645 ; 24. 10. Rel1 all~ular Combined Footin gs. 114524 .11.
Trapezoida l FOOling 647: 14. 11. Simp Fuuti np. 64lt 24. 13. Pri nciples (If Design of Mat Foundatio ns. 649 ;
24 .14 . Common Type....of ~ht f ound.uion , 651: 24. 15. Desig n Method s for ~bl Founda tion. 653 ; 24.1 6.
Conv entional Design of RIft Foundations, 65.1; 24. 17. Desi gn of com t nucd fOOling by Elastic Line
Meehod . 655; 24.IK. P mue Diffe rence Melhod (or c-omhi ned Fonl ings . 656: 24. 1<.1. Blas nc Plate Me thod ,
657: 24 .20. Finne Difference Method fur M ilts. 6SS; 24.21. Coefficien t of SUhgradc:- Re action , 659 ;
Illustrati ve Examples. 660 ; Problems , 669 .

25. Pile Foundation.. 671 -705

25.1. lmrod ucnon . 671 ; :!5.2. Neces.silY of Pile Fou ndalmn . 67 1; 25.3. C lassification of Piles. 672 : 25,4
Pile Driving , 67.1; 25.5. Con struction o f Bored Piles. 675; 25.6. Driven Cast-m-snu Concrete Piles. 676
25.7. Load Carryi ng Capacny of Pilcv. 677 ; 25.!4. Sta lil' Metho ds for Driven Piles in Sand, 677: 25.9.
Static Mcrb od fur Drive n Piles in SaturalcJ Clay, 681; 25. 10. Stalic Method for Bored Piles, 6&3: 25. 11.
Fact or of SJfely. 684 : 25.12. Negative Skin Friction . 6K4 2.' U3. Dynamic Fo rmulae, 6H5: 25. 14. Wave
Equuuun Analysb. 6117: 25. 15. In-situ penetrutjon tests for Pile capa cu y, fIl18 : 25. 16. Pile Load Test. 688:
25.17 . Other LYI)CS Ill' Pile Load le,t , 6' )0 ; 25 , IN, Grou p Action o f Pile s, 69n 25. 19. Pile Grou ps in Sand
and gravel, 691 : 25.211.Pile G roups in clay. 692 : 25.21. Serucmc nt {If Pile Groups . 692 : 25.22 Sharing III'
loads in a Pile Group. 69.1 25.23. Ten sion Piles , 694 : 25.24. Laterally I.....adcd Piles, 696 : Illustrative
Exa mples. 697 ; Problems . 70·1.

26. Drilled Piers and Cai..sons 706-721

26. l.l nlroJ uct ion. 7116; 26 .2. Drilled Piers . 706 : 26.3. Construction of DriltcJ Piers 708: 26.4. Advantages
and Dis advanutpce of Drifted Pie rs, 7U9: 26.5. Design of ope n Ca isso ns, 7 111; 26.6. Coe strucmm 01'ope n
Caissons. 7 13; 26. 7. Pneumat ic Cais sons . 7 14; 26 ,tL Construcuou o f Pneumatic Cais sons. 715; 26.9.
Adva magcs anJ Disadvantages of I' rc umanc Cai, stl1ls. 7 15; 2(1.10. Flo.ain g Caissons, 7 16 ; 26. 11.
Slabili ly o f F1oat in~ Caiss,m". 716: 26.12 . Advanta~'C, and Dis advantages (If Floa ting Caissons, 717;
Illustrative Example s. 7 17 ; Problems. 710

27. Well Foundation s 722 -754

27. 1. lmrod uction , 72 2; 27.2. Differen t Shapes .. f Wells, 723; 27.3. Grip Length, 723 ; 27.4. Forces Acting
 /~ij)

on the Well rClunLl~lioll. 724 ; 27.5. Tcrz~ghi 's Analysis. 725 ; 27.6. Bane rjee and Gan!!opaLihyay's
Anillysi.~ , 72K; 27.7. Simplilicd Analysb for Heavy Werts, 733 ; 27.K. IRC method, 7.~.t 27.9. Individual
Cllmpnllems o f the well. 7.'9: 27. rn. Sinking o f Well~, 742 : 27.1 I . Measures for Rectification o f TIlts and
Shins, 74·t lIIu ~I r;lI l v e Ell,mlple~. 746; Problems, 754

28. Mach ine Fou nda tions 755 -772

2K.1. 100Iuc.!ul·linn. 755; 2N.2. 'TYpes o r M,lch ine Founda lions, 755; 2iU. Ba~i(' Deli nilions. 756 ; 2K.4.
Degree o f Freedom of a Block Foundation , 757; 28.5. General Criteria fur deMgn of Ma("hine found alions ,
758 ; 2K.6. Free Viorallnll 759; 28.7. fo rced Vibrat ion. 76 1: 2KH. vibraucn An;l!ysis of a Machine
Fcuudauon, 76.1; :!N,9. Dcrcrrninatjon nf Nal.urJ I FrClEucney. 765; 19. 10. lk-:-ign Cr ucna fur Foundations
of Rer..1pml,:m ing !\,l;1l'hine.~ . 766 ; 2N.I I. Rl' inlCm:-emcnt and Cons lrul1ion Oetai l~. 767; 28.12. Weight of
FounLl;ltil,ln. 767 ; 2K.IJ. Vihralil,m lsotanon and Contro l. 767; lIIu.slralive Ell<lmples, 76H: Prob lems, 771 .
29. Pa\'cmcnt DcsiJ;:1l 773 - 787
29.1 Types o f Pavemenrc, 77.\; 21,).2. Ha.~k Requircl1l('n ts of Pa\'ell~",s. 175 ; 2t)..l Functions of Differen t
e{lrnponcnl~ of a Pavement . 774; 29.4. Factors Affecting Pavcrncnl Design , 77!<; 29.S. Ca lifomia Reari ng
Ratio T~~I. 775; ;!<J.6 . Design of Flexible Pavemenrx, 'trt , 29 .7. Group ImJe l. Ml1hod , 777 29.8. eRR
.\1'ethl,ld. 17H: 2'1.9. Catuorma Resi~lanl-e Value Metrnld n x; 29.10. McLeod Meth od, 179 ; 29.1 I. Triaxia l
T~SI Ml"lhud . 7SII: 19.11. Runni~ler\ MClhlld. 7lID' 29 .13. Coettioem (I t <;u h~r.ll.le RC<lClion, 7HI: 29.14.
\VeSlerj.'! aard ·~ An;Lly~h. 7H2; 19. 15. Te mperature strcsse, in Rigid Pa~'enlt."I1b. 7H4: 29.16 . Comhined
S1re~sc.~ In Rigid PJ\'enk.'nb, 71'S; lJIu~lr~llive El.<l m ple~ . 785; l'roh lems. 786 ;

30. Lab orat ory Experiments 788 _ 816

30.1. Til dcrcmune the water content of a samp le hy ovendrying mel hod . 7XX; 30.2 . T(I delennine the water
CI,JOlen! o f a suil oy pyonumcter rncrbod , 71'9; 30.3. To de termine the .~pedlk gmvi ly of Mllid.~ by the
densuy boule mcrhod, 71'9; .10 .4. To dercrmme lile specific gravity uf sulids hy pYl'nllmeler nlelhod . 791;
3O.S. To dclermine the dry dl'lls ily of Ilk: ~oiJ by corc cuncr method . 792; 30.b. To det ermi ne Ilk: in-situ dry
dens ily hy the sand rcp taccmcm mcmod. 79_\ ; 30.7. To del(,f1lline the: dl)' densily o f a ~oil by
water-displacclTlelll melh(ld. 795 ; 30X To dete rmine the pan icle SilC(hst rihuli('n of a Mlil lIy siev ing, 796 ;
30.9. Til delermine the part ide size disuih ulion by lhe hydrometer method , 797 ; 3().J0. To determ ine the
liquid limn o f .1~"il spccrmcn. 1'00; 30. 11. To de termin e the pl'lslie limil o f a soi! specime n. HOI; 30.12.
Til dctermme the shrinkagc limn of a specimen of the remlluldr..'lI soil. H02 ; 30.1.1. To determi ne the
pcrme;loilily uf ,I snil specimen by the mn slanl·head permcamcrcr, N(~; 30 .14. To dctcrm inc the
pt.'l'llleahility n f ;I suil speci men hy the vartahle head pcr memnC!er. N05: 30. IS. To Jc tem'ine the
conslllid,llilll1 ch;lr"(lerisl ic~ of a ...o il specimen. X07; m .16. Tn determine the she'ITparame ters nf a sandy
suil by duccr shear IC~t. X1I9; 30. 17. To dcteruun e the uncon fined co mpr":"sivc strenglh uf a co hesive soi l.
I'l l; 30. Ill. To dcrcr mmc the co rnpuc non c;h"ranc rislic ufa soil spec ime n hy Proctor 's rest. 81 2: 30. 19, Tn
determine the Ca lilorni' l He'lring Ratiu (CHR) nf a soil specim en. SI.\ .
31, In troduct ion to Rock Mechanics
817 - 837
3 1.1, Intm duc tion, H17: 3 1.2. Gcolugical Cla ssificatio n of Rocks, H17; 3 1.3. Rask Terminolo gy, 81X: 3 1.4.
Index I'ro r c rliCS o f Rocks, HIl}; 31.5. Unit Weight (or mass density ), H19: 3 1.6. Porosity, H20; 3 1.7.
PermeahililY, X2U; 3 I ,K.Point load strength. 821: 3 1.9. Slaking and Dumbiluy, H22: 3 1.10. Snn il.'Velocity,
823: 3 1.11. Cla ,,~ itkal illl111f Roc ks tor Engineering pmp crtics, 824 : 3 1. 12. Strength class iflcatlon uf tnracr
Rocks, X27; 3 1.13. Ll hllratory tests fur determination of strength of Ruck s, H28; 31.14. Stress -slrain
curves. X29 ; 3 1.15. MuLies oj" Failure of Rod s. 1l]1; 3 1.16. Mohr·Coulnmb COlerinn for Rocks, 832 ;
3 1.17. Shear Slrenglh uf Roc·h . H33: 3 1.18. Hardne~s nf Rocks , XJ4: 31.19. In-situ stresse s in Rucks, 834 ;
3 1.20. Me<lsuremc lll o ri n-situ ~ l rcMies, lj ~6 : Prohlems, 837.
 hii;)

32. Geo tec hnica l Ea rt hqua ke Engtncer tng 838 - 863

32. 1. Introdu ctio n. l!3ll: 32.2. Hisltlry of Earthquakc~ in Ind ia. H3X; 32 ..1. Seismic 7....1nC1> of lndra . H40;
32 .... Magnitude of ;111 Eart hquake. 8.&0: 32.5. I n k"n~ i ly o f Eart hlJu"k C'\. ~2 : .\2.6 . Effec t \11 Ground
mOllun on Stru ctures. W; 32. 7. Genera l Pri rw:ipb 0 1 Earth qua ke- Resista nt des ign. 1U6; _'2.lt ~n
Seismic coefficient . K-UI: 32.9. Dc ~i gn Seis mic forces. 849; 32. 10. Site-Specific Respons e spec tra. H5l!:
32. 11. Haz ards du e to Earthquakes. H51; 32 . 12. Liqu efaction Phenom eno n. 852; .12.1]. Fac tors t\I )<.'t.>lll1g
Liquc facno n. H54; 32 . 14 . A, se ssmcn l llf Su...c eptihiluy of a So il tn Liquefaction. 854: 32. 15. Prcvcunon " I
Liquefaction. SOS7: Hlusrr.uive Examples. K51!: Problems, tllIl; Selected References . KfoJ

Appe nd ix A-Gl os..mr y of Co mmon Terms 8(>4 - 868

Appendix B-l\1iscella neous Ob jec tive-Type Q ues tion . . Hh9 - 876
References 877 - 881
,I
Publ ications of Burea u of Indi a n St an da r ds 882- 883
Inde x 884- 886
 PART-I

FUNDAMENTALS OF
SOIL MECHANICS

1
Introduction

1.1. DEFINnl ON 0 .. SOIL

The word ' so il' is deriv ed from the latin won..! solillm wlucn , acconJing 10 Wcb..;tcr's dictiona ry. means
the upper laye r of the earth thai may be dug or plowed ; specifi ca lly, the loose surface material o f the earth
in which plants grow. The above defi nition of so il is used in the field of agron omy where the main conce rn
is in the use of soil for raising crops. In geology, earth's crust is assumed to consist of unconsolidated
sediments, called mantle or regolith . overlying rocks . Th e term ' so il' is used for the uppe r layer of mantle
which can suppo rt plants. The material which is culled soil by the agronomi st or the geologi st is known as
lap soil in geotechnical engineering or soil engineering. The top soil contains a large quantity of organic
ma tter and is not suitable as a const ruction materi al or as a foundation for structures. The top so il is removed
from the eart h's surface befor e the co nstruct ion of struct ures.
The term 'so il' in soil eng ineering is de fined as an unconso lidated mate rial, co mposed o f solid particles.
produced by the d isintegration of rocks. The vo id space between the particles may con tain air, water or both .
Th e solid panicles may contai n organ ic matt er. 1bc soil particles can be separat ed by such mechanica l means
as agi tation in water,
A natural aggregate of min eral particles bonded by strong and permanent cohesi ve forces is called 'rock ' . II
is an indurated materi al that req uires dril ling. wedging or blasting for its remov al from Lhe earth 's surface . Since

1
the terms wcak and strong have differen t interp retations, the boundary between soil and rock is rather arb itrary.
In case of a partially disintegrated rock, it is extremely difficult to locate the bo undary between soil and rock:.
Fig. 1.1 shows a cross-section through the canh's surface, indicating the nomenc lature used in geo logy,

-rS~I '" G'"uq,d, s ud, ' .> G" und s~dac, ,,11

I"~1
(a ) Nomenclature in Gqology
..J',-,
(b) Noml.nclat ur q in S o il Eng inur ing
Fig. 1.1. Nomenclature.
 SOIL MECHAN ICS AN D FOUN DATION ENGINEER ING

and in' Soil Engineering. It may be rioted tha t the mate rial which is called mantle (regolith) in geology is
known.as soil in Soil Enginee ring.
1.2. DEFINITION OF SOIL MECHANICS
The term ' soil mechanics ' was coined by Dr. Karl Tcrzaghi in 1925 when his book Erdbaumechanic on
the subject was published in Gcrrnnn. According to Tcrzagfu, ' So il mechanics is tile application of the laws
of mechani cs and hydraulics to eng ineering problem s dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumu lations of solid p articles produced by Ihe mechani cal nnd che mical disinteg ration of rock, rcgnrdlcss
of whethe r or not they contai n en admixt ure o f organic co nstitucms'. So il mechan ics is, therefo re, a branch
of mechanicswhic h deals with the action of forces on soil and wit h lhe now of wate r in soil.
The soil consists of discre te solid particles which are neither strongly bonded as in solids nor they are as free
as particles of flu ids. Consequently, the behaviour of soil is somewhat intermediate between that of a solid and
a fluid. II is no t, therefo re, surprising that soil mechanics craws heavi ly from solid mechanics and fluid
mechan ics. As the soi l is inheren tly a particulate syste m. soil mechanics is also called pa rticulate mechanics.
Rock mechan ics is the science dealin g with the mecha nics of rocks .
1.3. DEFINITION OF SOIL ENGINEERING ANI> GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Soil engineering in lin appli ed scie nce deali ng wit h the apptlcntons of principle s of soil mechan ics to
practi cal problems. II has a much wider scope than so il mechanics, as it deals wit h all engi neer ing
probl ems relercd wi th soils. It includes site lnvcsugeuon s, des ign and construction of fou ndmions.
earth -reta ining st ructures and earth structu res.
Geotechnical engineering is a brooder term which includ es soil engineering. rock mechanics end geology,
This term is used synonymously with soil engineering in this text .
1.4. SCOPE OF SOIL ENGINE ERING
Soil eng ineering has vast applica tion in the cons truction o f various ci vil engi neering works. Some of the
import ant applications are l1S under:
LOAd
Load

--Column
_ COlumn

Ground le ve l I$ound l evel

.'/ .

5 0 i 1.

I Footing Soil

. S oi 1 ~ P i le
(a ) Shallow f ou nda ti~n

.'0 Stratum
( b) Pite fou ndation

MS. 1.2. Diffe rent types of Io und nticns.

Im'RODUcnON

(1) Fou ndations-Every civil engineering structure, whether it is a building. a bridge, o r a dam. is
founded on or below the surface of the earth. Foundations are required to transmi t the load of the structure
to soil safely and efficiently.
A foundation is termed shallow foundation when it transmits the load to uppe r strata of earth. A
focndarion is called deep focndauon when the load is transmitted 10 strata at considerable depth below the
ground surface (Fig. 1.2). Pile foundation is a type of deep foundatioo. Foundation enginee ring is an
important branch of soil engineering.
(2) Ret atnlng Structures-When sufficien t space is not available for a mass of soil to spread and form
a safe slope. a structure is required 10 retain the soil. An ea rth retaining struct ure is also requ ired 10 keep the

Dredge leve l
Earth
. Soil pressure'

(a) R«.ta ining walt

( b) $hut p lt e
Fig. 1.3. Retaining 5tnidures.
soil at different levels on its either side. The retaining structure may be a rigid retaining wall or a sheet pile
bulkhead which is relatively flexible (Fig. 13). Soil engineering gives the theories of earth pressure 00.
retaining structures.
(3) Sta bi lity of Slopes-I f soil surface is oot horizontal. there is a component of weight of the soil which

~""nkm
s lope .nt
S o il

(a)

Soil
Excavat io n stope

lb)
Fig. 1.4. Slopes in (II) filling . nd (6) CUlling.
tends to move it downward and thus causes instability of slope. The slopes may be natural o r man-made Fig.
1.4 shows slopes in filling and cnung. Soil engineering provides the mdhods fIXchecking the stability of slopes.
(4) Undergro un d Structures-The design and coos.tructioo of underground structures, such as tunnels.
shafts. and conduits. require evaluation of forces exerted by the soil on these stru ctures . These forces are
discussed in soil engineering. Fig. 15 shows a tunnel constructed below the groun d surface and a ron duit laid
below the ground surface .
 o
SOIL MECHANICS AN D I'OUNDATION ENGIN EERING

®
~:.,~.,.:)-.
': " . : .'.
. -.
(a ) Iunnet ( b ) Con duit

~ pb~ ~.-A
?O ~ E~'''''"'
E~n[:~;f~h~~g~f~~:~~~~{:'?;j~'~: ': :':':'.(: ((;
hard crust
Pavement soil (subgmdej
. - , :for the
";', ... . ' . .. • : : . ' : . .... . '; -"." -', ase

ub base

~~~~~~~;ue~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~ Subgra d~ ( so i ~)
in soil engineering. Fig. 1.6. Pavement deL111$..
(6) Earth Dam-e- Earth dams are huge struct ures in which soil is used as a co nstruct ion material (Fig.
1.7). The earth dams arc built for crea ting water reservoirs. Since the failure of M earth dam may C1USC
widespread catasiro ptc. extreme care is taken in its design aod consrucjon. It requires a thorough knowledge
of soi l enginee ring.

U/ S Slo P;_
Shell
(Per .... i ous s oil )

Fig. 1.7. Earth Dam.

(7) Mlscellanecne Soil Problems-c-Tne geotechnical engineer has sometimes to tickle miscellaneous
problems related with soil. such as soil heave. soil subsidence. frost heave. shrink age and swelling of soils.
Soil engineering provides an in-depth study of such problems.
1.5. ORIGIN OF SOILS
Soils lire formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical decompos ition.
When a rock surface ge ts exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into
small particles and thus the soils are formed.
Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle which goes on
continuously in nature. The geologic cycle consiss of erosion, transportaioo, deposition and upheaval of soil
(Fig. 1.8). Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical processes. The products
ot erosion are picked up _ - - - - - __
by agencies of trans.
porta lion. such as water
and wind. and arc
carried to new locations ~ros;on
where they are
)
deposited . 1b is shifting
Deposi tion Uph Qaval
of the material d isturbs
Fig. 1.8. GtolGgie Cycle.
INTRODUcnON

the equilibrium of forces on the earth and causes large SCI1e earth movemen ts and upheavals. This process
results in further exposure of rocks and the geologic-cycle gets repealed .
If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock , it is known as residual soil or
sedentary soil. When the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of its origi n. it is called a
transported soiL The engineering properties of residua l soils vary considerably from the top layer to the
bottom layer. Residual soils have a grratual transition from relatively fine material ncar the surface to large
fragments of stones at greate r depth. The properties of the bottom layer resemble tha t of the parent rock in
many respects. The thickness of the residual soil formatio n is generally limited to a few metres.
111eengineering properti es of transponcdsoils are entirely different from the properti es of the rock at the
place of deposition. Depos its of transported soils arc quite thick and arc usua lly uniform. Most of the soil
deposits with which a geotech nical eng ineer has to deal arc transported soils.
1.6. FORMAT ION O F SOILB
As mentioned above, soils are formed by e ither (A) physical d isintergration or (Il) chemica l
decompos ition of rocks.
A. Physl cul Dtslutegrutlen-c-Physicul tlisintcgmtiol1 or mechanical weathering of rock s occ urs due to the
following physica l processes :
( I) Temperature ch a nges-Different mine rals of a rock have different coefficients of thermal cxpcnslon.
Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the stresses
Induced due to such changes are repeated many times. the panicles get detached from the rocks and the soils
are formed.
(2) Wed~ing acti on of Ice-Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very mid
clim mcs. As the volum e of ice formed is more than thai of water. expansion occurs . Reeks get broke n into
pieces when large stresses develop in the crac ks due to wedging action of the ice formed.
(3) Sp reading of roo ts of pl ants-As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the crocks and fissures of
the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments of the rock are forced apart and disintegrat ion of rocks OCOJfS.
(4) Ab rasi on-As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock. abrasion and scouring takes
place. It results in the formation of soi l.
In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemi cal composnion . The so il
fonned has the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand , are formed by the
process of physical disintegration.
B. Ch emi cal Decomposition-When chemical deromposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes
place, original rock minerals arc transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions. lbc soils formed do
not have the properties of the parenr rock. The followi ng chemical processes generally occur in nature.
(I ) Hydration-In hydration, water com bines with the rock minera ls and rcsulls in the fonnat ion of a
new chemi cal compoun d. 111e chemical reactio n causes a change in volume and decompos ition of roc k into
small particle s.
(2) Carbonation-It is a type of chemica l decomposi tion in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and causes their
decomposition.
(3) Oxldetton-c-Oxidau oo OCOJrs when oxyge n ions combine with minerals in rocks. Oxidation results in
decomposition of rocks. Oxidat ion of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
(4) Solutlon-SOmc of the rock minerals fonn a solution with water when they get disso lved in water.
Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are formed.
(5) Hyd roly sis-It is a chemica l process in which water ge ts dissoci ated into 11+ and O1r ions. The
hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils
are formed with a new chemical decomposition.
Chemical decom position of rocks results in fonnation of clay minerals . These cla y minerals impart plastic
properties to so ils. Clay ey soils are fonned by che mical decomposit ion.
 SOI L MECHAN ICS AN D FO UNDATIO N ENGINEERING

1.7. TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS

The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places be agents of transporrioo, such as water,
wind, ice and gravity,
(1) Wilier transported Solis- fl ow ing water is one of the most important agems of transportation of
soils. Swifi running water carries a large quantity of soil either in suspension or by rolling along the bed .
Water erodes the hills and deposits the soils in the valleys.
The size of the so il particles carried by water depends upon the velocity. The swift water can carry the
particles of large s ize such as bou lders and gravels. With a decrease in velocity, the coarse particles gel
deposited. The fmer particles are carried further downstream and are deposited when the veloci ty reduces. A
delta is formed when the velocity slows down to almost zero er the ronflucn ce with a receiving body of still
water, such as a lake, a sea or an ocean (Fig. 1.9).
r igin a l ground

-,
Eroded ') ~ ....

ts=: ~:~:~t claY t OOltal

grou nd J ...........

. . ·~-;.::e~'.;, ~ 'Nal., -
Fig. 1.9. Alluvial Deposits .
AU type: of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits. Deposits made in lakes
are called lacustrine depo sits. Such deposits are laminated or varved in layers. Marine deposits are formed
when the flowing water carries soils to ocean or sea.
(2) Wind tra nspo r ted Solls-Soil particles are transported by winds. The particle size of the soil
depends upon the velocity of wind. The finer particles arc carried far away from the place of the formation.
A dust storm gives a visual evidence of the soil pan icles carried by wind. Soils deposited by wind are known
as aeolian deposits.
u rge sand dunes are formed by winds. SaOO dunes occur in arid regions and 011 the leeward side of sea
with sandy beaches .
Loess is a silt depos it made by wind. These deposits have low densily and high compressibili ty. The
bearing capacity of such soils is very low. The permeability in the vertical direction is large.
(3) Glacier-Deposited Soils---Glad ers are large masses of ice formed by the compaction of snow. As the
glaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils varying in size from fine grained to huge boulders. Soils gel
mixed with the ice and arc transported far away from their original position. Drift is a general term used for the
deposits made by glaciers directly or indirectly. Deposits directly made by melting of glaciers a re called Jill.
Termina l morai n e

-,
Ground moraine
Fig. 1.10. Gladu Ik~iled Soil&.
INTRODUCIlON

During their advancement. glaciers transport so ils. At the terminus. a melting glacier drops the material in
the form of ridges. koown as terminal moraine (fig. 1.10). The land which was once covered by glaciers and on
which till has been deposited after melting is called ground moraine. The soil carried by the melting water
from the Irom of a glacier is termed out-wash:
Glaciofluvial deposits arc fonned by glaciers. The material is moved by glaciers and subsequent ly
deposited by strea ms of melting w ater, These deposits have stratification.
Deposits of glacial till are gene rally well-graded and can be compacted 10 a high dry density. These have
generally high she aring strength.
(4) Orevlty-depostted solls-c-Solts can be transported through short distances under the action of gravity,
Rock fragmcnts and so il masses coll ected at the foot of the cliffs or steep slopes had fallen from higher elevation
unde r the action of the grav itationa l force . Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by the grav ity.
Talus consists of irregular, coarse particles. It is a good source of broken rock pieces and coarse-grained
so ils for many engineering works .
(S) Soils transported by combined acncn-c-Soncttmes, two or more agents of trans portatioo act. joint ly
and transport the soil. For example, a soil particle may fall under gravity and may be carried by wind to a
far off place. It miglU by picked up again by flowing water and depos ited . A glacier may carry it still further .
1.8. MAJOI~ SOIL DEPOSITS OF INDIA
The soil deposits of India may be classified in the following five major groups :
(1) Alluvial Depos its-A large p3rt of north India is covered with alluvial deposits. The thickness of
alluvi um in the Indo-Gangetic and Drnhmputra flood plains varies from a few metres to more than one
hundred met res. Even in the peninsular India. alluvial deposits occu r at somc places.
The dis tinct chamcterisncsof alluvial depos its is the existence of alternating layers of sand, silt and clay.
The thickness of each layer depends upon the local terrain and the nature of floods in the riven> causing
depos ition. The depos its are generally of low density and are liable to liquefaction in earthqu ake-pron e areas.
(2) Black Colton SoiL..-A large part of central Ind ia and a portion of South India is covered with blade.
cotton so ils. These soils are residual deposits formed from basalt or trap rocks. 1be so ils are quite su itable for
growing couon.
Black COltonsoils are clays of high plasticity . Tbey contain essent ially the clay mine ral montmorillonite.
The so ils have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. The shearing strength of the so ils is extremely low.
The so ils arc highly compress ible and have very low bearing capacity. It is extremely difficult to work. with
socn soils .
(3) Lateritic Soils-Lateritic soils arc fonned by deco mposition of rock, removal of bases and silica, and
accumu lation of iron oxide a nd a luminium oxide . The presence of iron oxide gives these soils the
characteristic red or pink colour. Tbcsc are residual soils, formed from basalt. Lateritic soils exist in the
central, sou thern and eastern India.
The lateritic soils arc soft and C:1o be cut with a chisel when wet. However. these harden with time. A
hard crust of gravel s ize particles, known as laterite, exists near the ground surface. The plasticity of the
laterit ic soils decreases with depth as they approach the parent rode. These soils, especially those which
con tain iron oxide, have relatively high specific gravity.
(4) Desert Soils--A large pmt of Rajasthan and adjo ining states is covered with sand dunes. In this area,
arid conditions exist, with peacucally lillie rainfall.
Dune sand is uni fonn in gradation. lbc size of the particles is in the range of fine sand. l be sand is
non-p lastic and highly pervious. l\S the sand is generally in loose condition. it requires dcnsificahon to
incn:ase its strength .
(5) Marine Deposits-Marine depos its are main ly con fined along a narrow belt ncar the coast. In !he
south-west coast of India, there are thick layers of sand above deep deposits of soft marine clays.
The marine deposits have very low shearing strength and are highly compressible. They contain a large
amount of organic mailer. The marine clays are soft and highly plastic.
 SOIL MECHA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

1.9. COI\W ARISON OF SOILS WITH OTHER MATERIALS

So il is a highly complex material. It differs from conventional structural materials, such as steel and
concrete.
(1) Steel is a manufactured materia l the properties of which are 3CCW"3tely controlled. The properties of
concrete are also controlled to some extent during its preparation. Soil is a material which has been subjected
to vagaries of nature. without any rontrol. Consequently, soil is a highl y heterogeneous and unpredictable
material
(2) The properties of a soil change not only from one place to the other but also at the place with depth.
The properties also change with a change in the environmental, loading and drainage conditions. The
properties of a soil depend not only on its type but also on the conditions under which it exists.
(3) The main engineering properties of stee l and concrete are modu lus of elasticity and tens ile and
compressive strength. Most of the design work can be done if these properties are known or determined.
However. the engineering properties of soils depend upon a number of factors and it is nOl possible to
characterise them by two or three parameters. Elabnr.lle testing is required to determine the characte ristics of
the soil before desi gn ca n be done.
(4) DOOIUse of huge quanrni cs of soils involved. it is not econom ically feasible to transport the soils from
other places like steel or concrete. Soils arc generally used in thc conditions in which they exist.
(5) w bereas steel and concrete can be inspect ed before use. soils for foundations are at great depth and
not open to inspection. the samples of the soi l taken from the bore holes are generally disturbed and do not
represent the true in-situ conditions,
1.10. LIMITATIONS OF SOIL ENGINEERING
Soil engineering is not an exact science . Because of the nature and the variability of soils, sweeping
assumptions arc made in the derivation of equations. The solution obtained in most cases are for an idealised ,
hypot hetical material, which may not truly re present the actual soil. A good engineering judgmcnt is required
for the interpretation of the results. In fact, each problem in soil engineering is a unique problem because the
soils at two places are seldom identical.
The following limitations must be kept in mind when tackling problems related with soils.
(1) As the soil docs not possess a linear or unique stress-strain relationship, the solutio ns of the theory of
elasticity cannot be directly applied.
(2) The behaviour and the strength of soils depend upon pressure. drainage. environment and many other
factors. These changes m ust be considered when dealing with soils.
(3) As the soil at every location is different. the results and experience from one project to the other
should be trans ferred with caution.
(4) Since: the soils are sensitive to d isturbance , the results of tests conducted on soil samples should be
interpreted carefully.
(5) The most of so il is underground and c annot be Inspected. Adequate soil exploration should be done
10 determine the profile of soil strata. .
(6) The methods of ronstruction may have to be modified as the work progresses and the properties pf
the soil begin to unfold. Occasional observations have to be mode during and even afte r the completion of
work to chccl:.whether the assumptions made were correct.
(7) It may not be of muc h use to app ly highly mathematica l, rigorous solution 10 a material like soil
whose properties cannot be determined to the same accuracy.
(8) Thc soil is a particulate material in which the particles arc relatively free to move with respect to one
another. The behaviour of the soil changes as the pani cles gel shifted.
(9) 1be soil is a muhiphasc system. ronsisting of solid. water and air phases. The behaviour of a soil
depends upon the relative proportion of the three phases.
(10) Soil mechanics is a relatively new science. It is essential to keep abreast of the latest developme nts
in the field.
INTRODUcnON

1.11. TE RM INOLOG Y OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIlS

A geotechnical engineer should be well versed with the nomenc lature and term inology of different types
of so ils. The fo llowi ng list gives the names and salient charact eristics of d ifferen t types of soils. arranged in
alphabetical order.
(I) lIent onite-1t is a type of clay with a very high percentage of clay mi neral montmorillo nite. It L.. a
highly plastic clay. resulting from the dcccmpostnon of volcanic ash. It is highl y wa ter absorbe nt and has
high shrinkage and swelling ct rarao crtsncs.
(2) Black Cott on Soil - It is a residual so il con taining a high percentage of the clay minera l
montmorillonite. It has very low bearing capacity and high swelling and shrinkage properties.
(3) Boul de ra--Boulccrs are rock fragments of large size. more than 300 mm in size.
(4) Ca lcareous so ils-These soils contain a large quantity of calcium carbonate. Such soils effervesce
when tested with weak hydrochloric acid.
(5) Ca liche-It is a type of soil which contains grave l. sand and silt. The panic les arc cemented by
calcium carbo nate.
(6) Cluy- l1 cons ists of microscopic and sub-microsco pic particles derived from the chemical
decomposition of rocks. It contains a large quantity of c lay minera ls. It am be made plastic by adjusting the
wa ter content. It exhibits considerable strengt h w hen dry. Clay is a flnc-gralned so il. It is a chocsive soil. The
particle size is less tb.an 0.002 mm.
Organic day conta ins finely divided organic mcuer and is usua lly dark grey or black in colour. It has a
conspiCUOUS odour. Organic clay is highly compressible and its strength is very high when dry.
(7) Cobbles-Cobbles are large size particles in the range of 80 mm to 30J mm.
(8) Diat omaceous eurtb-c-Diaioms are minu te unicellular marine organisms. Diatomaceous eart h is a
fine, light grey. soft sed imentary deposi t of the silicious remains of skele tons of dia toms.
(9) Dlsperal ve cla ys-These arc special type of clays which dcflocutar e in still wate r. Such soils erode if
exposed to low- velocity water,
Susceptib ility 10 dispersion depends upon the cations in the so il pore water.
(10) Dune sands-c-Thcsc arc wind-rnmsport cd so il'i. There lire composed o f relatively uniform particles
of fine (0 medium sand.
(II) Expa nsive days-These are prone to large volume changes as the water content is changed.
These soil contain the mineral montmorillonilC.
(12) t ills-All man-made deposits of soil and waste -materials are called fills. These are the soil
embankments raised above the ground surface. Engineering properties of fills depend upon the type of soil.
its water content and the degree of compaction.
(13) G ra vel-c-G ravet is a type of coarse-grai ned soil. The pan icle s ize ranges from 4.75 mm to 80 mm .
II is a cohcslonless material.
(14) Hardpens-c-Ilardpans nrc types of soils that oITer great res istance to the pene tration of dr illing too ls
during soil exploration. The soils are designated hnrdpmlS regardless of their particle size. Tbcsc are generally
dense. well-graded. cohesive nggrcgatcs of mineral particles. Hardpanss do nor disin tegrate whe n submerged in
water.
(IS) Humus-It is a dark brown. organic amorphous earth of the topsoil. It consists of partly
decomposed vegetal mailer. It is not suitable for engineerin g works.
(16) Kankar-h is an impure form of lime stone. It con tains calcium carbonate mixed with some
s ilicious material.
(17) La te ri tes-Laterites are residual soils formed in tropi cal reg ions. Laterites arc vcry soft when
freshly cu t but become hard a fter long exposure. Hardness is due to ceme nting action of iron ox ide and
aluminium oxide . These so ils arc a lso ca lled lateritic soils.
(18) Loam-It is a mixture of s.arid, s ilt and c lay. The term is generally used in agronomy. The soil is
well soited to tilling opera tions.
10 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN ,EERING

(19) Loess-It is a wind blown deposit of silt. It is generally of uniform gradation, with the particle size
between 0.01 to 0.05 mm . It consists of quartz and feldspar particles. cemented with calcium carbonate or
iron oxide . When wet, it becomes soft and compressible because cementing action is loot. A loess deposit has
a loose structure with numerous root holes which produce vertical cleavage. The permeability in the vertical
direction is generally much greater than that in the horizontal direction.
(20) Marl-It is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of greenish colour.
(21) Moorum-The word moorum is derived from a Tamil word, meaning powdered rock. It consists of
small pieces of disintegrated rock or shale , with or without boulders.
(22) Muck-It denotes a mixture of fine soil particles and highly decomposed organic matter . It is black
in colour and of extremely soft consistency. It cannot be used for engineering works. The organic matter is in
an advanced stage of decomposition.
(23) Peat-It is an organic soil having fibrous aggregates of macroscopic and microscopic particles . It is
fanned from vegetal matter under conditions of excess moisture, such as in swamps. It is highly compressible
and not suitable for foundations.
(24) Sand-It is a coarse-grained soil, having particle size between 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm. The particles
are visible to naked eye . The soil is cohesionless and pervious.
(25) Silt-It is a fine-grained soil , with panicle size between 0.002 mm and 0.075 mm. The particles are
not visible to naked eyes .
Inorganic silt consists of bulky, equidimenslonnl grains of quartz. It has little or no plasticity, and is
cohes ionless.
Organic silt contains an admixture of organic maucr. ILis a plastic soil and is cohesive.
(26) nil-It is an unstratified deposit formed by melting of a glacier. The deposit consists of particles of
different sizes, ranging from boulders to clay. The soil is generally well-grndcd. It can be easily densified by
compacti on . Till is also known as boulder-clay.
(27) lop soils-Top soils are surfac e soils that support plants . They contain a large quantity of organic
matter and are not suitable for fo undations.
(28) TulT-It is a fine-grained soil composed of very small particles ejected from volcanoes during its
explosion and deposited by wind or water.
(29) Tun dra - It is a mat of peat and shrubby vegetation that covers clayey subsoil in arctic regions. The
deeper laye rs are permanently frozen and are called permafrost. The surface deposit is the active layer which
alternately freezes and thaws .
(30) Varved clays-These are sedimentary deposits consisting of alternate thin layers of sill and clay.
The thickness of each layer seldom exceeds 1 ern. These clays are the results of deposition in lakes during
periods of alternately high and low waters.
[Note . For glossary of technical terms , see APPENDlX A].
1.12. COHESIVE AND COHESIONLESS SOILS
Soils in which the adsorbed water and particle attraction act such that it dcfonns plastically at varying
water contents are known as cohesive soils or clays. This cohesive property is due to presence of clay
minerals in soils. Therefore, the term cohesive soil is used synonymously for clayey soils.
The soils composed of bulky grains are cohesionlcss regardless of the fineness of the particles . The rock
flour is cohesionless even when it has the particle size smaller than 21J. size. Non -plastic silts and coarse-
grained soils are cohcslonlcss.
=
[Note. 1 IJ. 1 micron = =
IO~ m 10-3 mm].
Many soils are mixture of bulky grains and clay minerals and exhibit some degree of plasticity with
varying water content. Such soils are termed cohesive if the plasticity effect is signiflcam; otherwise,
cohesion less.
Obviously, there is no sharp dividing line between cohcsionless and cohesive soils. However, it is
sometimes convenient to divid e the soil into above two groups.
 INTRODUCTION II

The term cohesive-so il is used for clays and plastic silt, and the term ccocsionless-soil, for non-plastic
silts, sa nds and gravel.
1.13. BRIEF IIlSfORY OF SOI L ENGINEERING
Acoording to the autho r, the history of soil engineeri ng can be divided into three periods . as dCSl..TU.oCd
below:
(1) Anci enllo Medieva l pe~Man 's first contact with soil was when he placed his foot on the earth.
In enceru times, soil was used as a construelion material for building huge earth mounds for religious
pcrposes, burial places and dwellings. Caves were built in soil to live in.
Excellent pavements were constructed in Egypt and Ind ia much before the Quistian era. Some eanh
dams have been storing water in India for more than 2{XX) years. Remnants of various underground water
structures, such as aqueducts, tunnels and large drains, foond in the excavation at the sites of early civilisa tion
at Mohenjodaro and l larrap pa in the Ind ian subcontine nt indicate the use of soi l as foundatio n and
construct ion material. Egyptian used caisson s for deep founda tions eve n 20m B.C. l tangfng garden at
Babylon (Iraq ) was also built during that period. The city of Bab ylon was buill on fills above the adjoin ing
flood plains.
During Roman times. heavy structures, such as bridges, aqueducts, harbours and buildings, were built.
Some of these works are in existence even today. After the collapse of the Roman Emp ire, the construction
activities dec lined. However, some heavy city walls and forts were built from the strategic considerntions.
Cathedrals, castles and campaniles (bell towers) were also constructed . The famous tower of Plsa, known as
the leaning tower of Pisa, was also built. The tower bas leaned on one side because of the differential
.~ settle ment of its base.
1be famous Rialto Bridge was constructed in Venice (Italy) in the seventeenth century. Leonardo da Vinci
constructed a number of structures in France during the same period . The famous London Bridge in England
was also built. 1be mausoleum Thj Mahal at Agra (India) was ronslruCIed by the emperor Shah Jehan to
commemorate his favourite wife Mumtaz MahaL It is built on masonry cylindrical wells sunk into the soil at
close intervals.
It is certain that early builders, while constructing such huge structures, encountered and successfully
tackled many challenging problems . However, no record in available about the methods adopted. No scientific
study seems to have been made. The builders were guided by the knowledge and expe rience passed down
from generation to generation.
(2) Period or Early Developments-The eighteenth century can be considered as the real beginning of
soil engineeri ng when early deve lopments in so il engineering too k.place. In In3, a French engineer Coulomb
gave a theory of ea rth pressure o n retaining walls. The theory is used by the geo tec hnica l engineers even
today (chapter 19). Coulomb a tso introduced the concept th.at the shearing resistance of soil cons ists of two
componen ts, namel y, the cohes ion component and the friction component (ch.aplcr 13). Culmann gave a
general graphical soluti on for the earth pressure in 1866. Rankine, in 1857, published II theory on earth
pressure co nsidering the plastic equilibrium of the earth mass. In 1874, Rehbann gave a graphica l method for
computati on of earth pressure based on Coulomb's theory.
Darcy gave the law of the permeab ility of soils in 1856. Darcy's law is used for the computation of
seepage through soils (chapters 8 and 9) . In the same year, Stokes gave the law for the velocity of fall of
solid panic les through fluids. The law is used for de termining the panicl e size, as discussed in chap ter 3.
O·M ohr gave the rupture theory for soils in 1871. He also gave a graphical method of representation of
stresses, popularly known as Mohr 's circle . It is extremely useful fa determination of stresses 00 inclined
planes (chapt er 13).
Boussinesq, in 1885, gave the theory of stress distribution in a semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropic,
elastic medium due to an externally applied load. 1be theory is used for detennination of stresses in soils due
to 103ds, as discussed in chapter 11. .
In 19CB,Marston gave the theory for the load carried by underground conduits (chapter 22).
Auerocrg. in 1911, suggested SOOlC simple tests for charaaerizing coosistency of cohesive soils. 1be
12 ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

limits, comm only known as AHert>crg's limits, are useful for identification and classificat ion of soils, as
discussed in chapters 4 and 5.
Swedish Georectmical Commission of the Slate Railways of Sweden appoi nted a committee headed by
Prof. Fellenius in 19 13 to study the stnbility of s lopes. The commill ce gave the Swedish c ircle method for
checking the stmilily o r s lopes, described in ch.a [ltcr 18. In 191(,. Pcnc rson gave the friction circle met hod for
the stability of slopes .
(3) M odern Era-"rne modem ern of So il Engineeri ng began in 1925. with the publication of the book
Erdbautnechanic by Karl Terzaghi. The contribution made by Tcrzaghi in lhc development of so il engineerin g
is immense . He is fillingly caned the father of soil mechanics. For the first lime, he adopted a scientific
approach in the study of soil mechan ics. I1is theory of consolidation of soils (chapter 12) and the effective
stress principle (chapter 10) gave a new d irection.
Proctor did pio neering work on compact ion of soils in 1933, as d iscussed in chapter 14.
Taylor made major conlributions on consolidation of so ils. shear stren gth of clays and the stability of slopes.
Casagrande made signirlCaOt contributions on classification of soils, seepage through earth masses arxl
consolidation.
Skempton did pioneering work on the pore pressures, effeaive stress, bearing capacity and the: stability
of slopes.
Meyerhof gave the theories for the bearing capacity of sha llow and dee p foundaucos.
Hvorslev did com mendab le work on subsurface exp loration and on shea r strength of remou ldcd clays.
The above list is far from complete . Many other disting uished geo technical engineers have made a mark
on the development of soil eng ineerin g, Because of space limitation, their ment ion could not be made in the
above list.

.'ROULEMS

A. Descriptive
1.1, Define the term ' soi l ', ' soil mechanics' and :-oil engineering. Wha t are limillliions of soi l engineering?
1.2. wbar is geologic cycle '? Explain Ihe phenomena of formation and uansportalion of soils.
1.3 . What are the major soil deposits of India? Explain lhei r charact eriSiics.
1.4. w rite a brlef hlsaoryof sail engineering.

U. M ult iple-Ch oice Qu estions

1. Colluvial soils (la lus) are uansponed by:
(a) warcr (b) Wind
(e) Gravity (d) Ice
Z. water-transported soils are term ed :
(a) Acottn c (b) Alluvial
(e) Co lluv ial (d) TIll
3. Glacier-deposiled soils are cal led:
(a) Talus (b) l..oes:s
(e) Drift (d) None of above
4. Cohesionless soils are fonned due to:
(a) Oxidation (b) lI ydration
(e) PhysiClll disintegratioo (d) OJemical decompositioo
S. When the products of rock. weathe ring are noll~cd bUl remain aI the place cl formatioo, the soi l is called:
(a) Alluvial soil (b) Talus
(e) Residual soil (d) Aeoli an soil
6. The folloo.ving Iype o f soil is nOl g1acler-deposited .:
(a) Drift (b) 1i 1l
(e) Outwash (d ) Bentonite. (Am. 1 (c). 2 (b ), 3 (e), 4 (c), 5 (e), 6 (d)}
 2
Basic Definitions and Simple Tests
.'.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
A soil mass consists of solid particles which form a porous structure. The voids in the soil mass may be
filled with air, with water or partly
with air and partly with water. In A ir
general, a soil mass consists of solid Water
particles, water and air. The three w at er
constituents are blended together to
form a complex material (Fig. 2.1.
a). However, for convenience. all
the solid particles are segregated and So lid
.... placed in the lower layer of the
three-phase diagram (fig. 2.1b).
Likewise, water and air particles are
placed separately, as shown. The
3-phase diagram is also known as (a) ( b)

I
Block diagram.
It may be noted that the three
constituents cannot be actually Fig. 2.1. Constituents of Soil.
segregated, as shown. A 3-pl1ase diagram is an artiflce used for easy understanding and convenience in
calculation.
Although the soil is a three-phase system, it becomes a two-phase system in the following two cases : (1)

:~~~~a:i1d~~~~:lrF~i'~~~
r[ 111
water

~;U:;(ed~~:':cu ':il'i~ p~~ I

(Fig. 2.2b).
th: TT~""r
t tTI t :-:::}:~:~:r:
Is the relative :-:-:-:-:->
:~~:ii~;~:= lV V
v

1" 1v, - - - - - - -
The phase diagram is a simple,
diagrammetic representation of a
real soil. It is extremel y useful for
1
s
1M
s

L
I 11"
:,

studying the various terms used in (a) Dry soil (o lS ot uroted soil
soil engineering and their inter-
relationships.
Fig. 22 . Two-pMSC diagrams.
14 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

2.3 0). The 1,,",I volumeof • giveo soil "'i

In a 3-pha<;e diagram, it is oonventional to write volumes 00 the left side and the mass on the right side (Fig.
io desiptal es V. . L "1"'1 10 the sum of the
t 1volume of solid<; (V,~

f
~,'~~_·:'~,~c ~ T [i _ :''''''_':c f
~=O

m
'0'0 Air Mo=O "4:J Air
'" T •. -. •. . - •• -.-.. T '" T ..---.-.- . T

J ". f111 ""

1'

(0) Fig. 2_'. Tlm:c -pha.<c Wllgr.un.

tb)
Ii
the volume of wate r (Voo) and the volume of air ( V..). The volume of vo ids (V~) is equal to the sum of the
volumes of water and air.
The lotal muss of the so il mass is represen ted as M . 1bc mass of air (M..>is very sma ll and is neg lected .
Therefore, the lotal mass of the so il is equal to the mass of so lids (M,) and the mass of water (M..).
Fig. 2.3b shows the 3-phase diagram in which the weights are written on the right side.
2.2. VOLUMEl1UC RELATIONSHIPS
The following five volumetri c relationships are widely used ip soil engineering.
(1) Void Retlo (e) -Il is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. Thus

e · i ...(2.1)

Tbe void ratio is expressed as a decimal. such as 0.4, 0.5, etc. For coarse- gratoed roils, the void ratio is
generally smaller than that for nne-grained soils. For some soils, it may have a value even greater than unity.
(2) Porosit y (n~It is defined es the ratio of the volume of voids to the tota l volume. Thus

n - ~ . •.(2 .2)

Porosity is generally expressed as percen tage. However, in equat ions, it is used as a ratio. For e xample,
a porosity of 50% will be used as 0.5 in equations . The poeoslty of a soil cannot exceed 100% as it would
mean Vv is grea ter than V, which is absurd . In fact , it will have a much smaller value. Porosity is also known
as percentage voids.
Both porosity and void ratio are measures of the denseness (or looseness) of soils . As the soil becomes
more and more dense, their values dc('T~SC. The term porosity is more comm unly used in other disciplines
such as agric ultura l engineering. In soil engineerin g, the term void ratio L.. more popular. It is more
convenient to use void ratio than porosity. When the volume of a soil mass changes., only the numerator (Lt!.
V..) in the void ratio changes and the denomi nator (Le. V,) remains constant. However, if the term porosity is
used, both the numerator and the denominator change and it becomes inconve nient.
An inter-relationshipcan be found between the vo id ratio and the poros ity as under.
1 V V.. + V,
From Eq. 2.2, ii -V; - ~

~- 1+~-7 ••.(0)

or •• _e_ .. .(23)
1+ e
BASIC DEFINmONS AND SIMPLE TESTS 15

Also, from Eq. (a), ~. ~ _ 1 • 1 ~n

e .. 1 :n .. (2.4)
In Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), the porosity should be expressed as a ratio (and not pcrentagc).
(3) Degree of Sat ura tio n (5)- The degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the
volume of voids.

Th us s=~ .. .(2.5)
V"
The degree of saturation is generally expressed as a percentage. It is equal to zero when the soil is absolutely
dry and 100% when the soil is fully saturated. In expressions, the degree of saturation is used as a decimal.
In some texts, the degree of saturation Ls expressed as S,.
(4) Perce ntage Air voids (n,,)-It is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.
Vo
111us no = V- .. .(2.6)
As the name indicates, it is represented as a percentage .
(5) Air Content (aJ-Air oontent is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids.
Vo
Thus ar • v: .. .(2.7)

Air content is u.sually expressed as a percentage.

Both air content and the percentage air voids are zero when the soil is sa turated (VO := 0).
An inter-relationship between the percentage air voids and the air content can be obtained.
V" v, v,
From Eq. 2.6, n".V ."'iZ" )(V
or n" - n or •.. (2.8)
[Note. In literature, the ratio V" IV is also called air content by some authors. However. in this text, this ratio
wou ld be termed percentage atr voids and not air contcm].
2.3. WATER CONTEN T
The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids.
w_~ ... (2.9)
M,
The water content is also known as the moisture content (m). It is expressed as a percenta ge, but used as
a decimal in computation.
The water content of the fine-grained soils, such as silts and clays, is generally more than that of the
coarse grained soils, such as gravels and sands. The water content of some of the fine-gained soils may be
even more than 100%, which indicates that more than 50% of the total mass is that of water.
The water content of a soil is an important property. The characteristics of a soil, especially a
fine-grained soil, change to a marked degree with a variation of its water content.
In geology and some other disciplines, the water content is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to
the total mass. Some of the instruments, such as moisture tester, also give the water content as a ratio of the
total mass. In this text water content (w) will be taken as given by Eq. 2.9, unless mentioned otherwise.
The symbol m' shall be used in this text for the water content based on the total wet mass. Thus

III ' • ~ )( 100 .. .(2.10)

Note. Certain quantities , as defined above, are expressed as a ratio and certain other quantities, as a
-
16 SOli . MEC IIANICS AND FOlJNDAllON ENGINEERING

percentage. To avo id confusion. it is advisable to cxprc....... all quantities as a ratio (or a decimal) in
compu tntic ns. Th e final result should be expressed :IS a percentage for the quanurtc s whic h arc de fined as a
percentage and as decimal for other quantities .

2.4. UNITS
In Ihis text, SI units arc used. In this system, mass (M). length (L) and lime (I) an: the basic dimens ions.
Th e mass c. expressed in kilogram me (kg) units. the lcnglh in metre (M) units and the time in seco nds (sec
or s) units.
The most important deriv ed unit is the force unit. Th e force is expressed in newton (N). One newton is
2
the force which is required to give an acceleration of 1 rnlsec to a mass of 1 kg. Thus
IN= lkgx lm/scc?
In addition 10 kg mass and N force. the follow ing multiples and submultiples are also frequentl y used .
1 milli gramme (mg) = 10-3 grnm (gm or g)
1 Idlogramme (kg) = 10' gm
1 mcgagmmme (Mg) = 106 gm = 103 kg
Likewise.
1 millincwton (mN) = 10- 3 newton (N)
1 kilonewton (kN) = 1& N
1 mcgaocwton (MN) = 106 N = 1& kN
2.5. VOL UME-MASS 1U::l.AIlONSIIII'S
The volume-mass n.:1:ltinnship arc in terms u f ma.....o; density. The ma.....s of :-ioil per unit volume is known
as rna.ss dens ity. In soil engineering. the fullowing 5 lliITcrcntmass dens ities arc used.
(I ) Bulk Mus.<; Denstty-c-Thc bulk mass density (p) is de fined as the lul;)1 mass (M ) per unit total
volume (Y). Thus. from Fig. 23 (a).
M
P - V ... (2.11)
The bulk mass density is also known as the wet mass density or simply bulk densit y or density. It is
expressed in kg/m 3, gm/ml or Mg/m3.
Obviously, 1 Mglm 3 1000 kglm 3 1 gnvmt
= =
(2) Dry Mass Dens uy -c-Tbe dry mass density (Pol) is defined as the mass of solids per uniltotal volume.
Thus
M.
~- ~ ..~~
As the soil may shrink during drying, the mass density may not be equal to the bulk mass density of the
soil in the dried condition. The total volume is measured before drying.
The dry mass density is atso known as the dry density.
The dry rna.ss density is used to express the denseness of the soil. A high value of dry mass density
indicates that the soil is in a compact condition .
(3) Saturated Mass Density-The saturated mass dens ity (Ps.. ) is the bulk mass density of the soil when
it is fully saturated. Thus
M_
p•• - V ...(2.13)
(4) Subm erged I\IUs.o; Ilen.o;Uy-When lhe soil exisLo; bclo...... water, it is in II submerged condition. When
a volume V of soil is submerged in water, it displaces an equal volume of water. Thus lhe net mass of soil
when submerged is reduced (Fig. 2.4 (o)}.
The submerged mass density (p') of the soil is defined as the submerged mass pq unit of total volume.
Th~ -
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND SIMPLE TaIS 17

The submerged density

~~~~I~C~:y~nt:n:I~:~it~::bt~ J
:. a:~br ~ "':. _:_.:-_:_:. ~
=.:-.:-.: ~~~~4)
Tr --.--- ----- 11 TT ------------1
\_
Fig. 2.4 (a) shows a soil mass I
submerged under water. The soil solids
which have a volume of V. arc buoyed up
by Ihe water, 1be upthrust is equal 10 the
mass of water diplaced by the solids.
Thus U _ V, p",
II Vs

Ys G J;,
I
I

u='lsfw
Ms

111
Vs
~
Y, G'4,
I
U"Vsl w
Ws

1
(o} (b)
Therefore,
Fig. 2.4. Submerged mass.
- V.Gp..,- V,P..

Prom Eq. 2.14. p' _ V,P.~ - I) ... (2.15)

Alternatively. we can also consider the equilibrium of the entire volume M . In this case, the total
downward mass, including the mass of water in the voids, is given by
M'Q/-M, + V~p ..
The total upward thrust, including that on the water in voids. is given by
U _ Vp.
Therefore , the submerged mass is given by
M""h = (M, + V,_ P,,_) - V p".
From Eq. 2.14. P' = (M, + V" ~,,) - V P" = M" " ~ V p".

or
Using Eq. 2.13 p' • rSQ/ - p", .. .(2.16)
The submerged density p' is roughly one-half of the saturated density.
(5) Mass Density of Solids-The mass density of solids (Ps) is equal to the ratio of the mass of sol ids
to the volume of solids . Thus
M,
p, - V, ...(2.17)

2.6. VOLUME-WEIGIIT RELATIONSIIIP

The volume-weight relationships are in terms of unit weights. The weight of soil per unit volume is
known as unit weight (or specific weight). In soil engineering, the following five different unit weights are
used in various computations.
(1) Bulk Unit Weight -The bulk unit weight (y) is defined as the total weight per unit total volume [Fig.
2.3 (b)] . Thus
w •..[2.11(0»)
y - V
The bulk unit weight is also known as the total unit weight ('(/), or the wet unit weight .
In SI units. it is expressed as N/m3 or kN/ ro3•
In some texts. the bulk unit weight is expressed as '(b or '(,.
 SOIL M r£ II ANrcs AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(2) Dr y Unit Wd j.\ht-The dry unit weigh t (Yd) is defined a'> the weigh t of solids per unit total volume.

Thus Yd .. ~ •••[2.12(a»)
(3) Sa turated Unll Weight-The saturated unit weight (y_) is the bulk unit weight when the soil is fully
satura ted.
lV ..
lbus y,~ • Isf ...[2.13(a»)
(..) Subm erg ed Unit Weight-When the soil exists below water. it is in a submerged concnion. A
buoyant force acts on the soil solids. According to Archimedes ' principle. Ihc buoyant force is equal to Ihc
weight of water displaced by the solids. The net mass of the solids is reduced . The reduced mass is known
as tbe submerged mass or the buoyant mass.
The submerged unit weight (y') of thc soil is defined as tbe submerged weight per unit of total volume.
, lVs•
~ Y-7 ..~~
Fig. 2.4 (b) shows a soil mass submerged under water. The soil solids which have a volume of V. are
buoyed up by the water. The buoyant force (U) is equal to the weight of water di<;pl3cedby the solids.
U .. V,,,,,,
The weight of water in the voids has a zero weigh t in water. as the weight of water and Ihc buoyant force
just balance each OIher. When submerged. all voids can be assumed to be filled with water .
Therefore, tv.. .. Ws - U
- V,Gy. - V,y. - V,y.(G - I)
From Eq. 2.14. y' _ v'Y.(~ - 1) ••.[2.15(a»
We can also consider lhe equilibriu m of the entire volu me (\I). The total downward force, including the
wight of wate r in the voids . is give n by
W.... = lV. + V"y...
The tota l upward force. including that on the water in voids, is given by U • VYw
Therefore, the submerged unit weigh t is given by
W.uh = (W, + V,.Y".).- Vy"

From Eq. 2.14, i = (~, + V,.~,,) - Vy". = W",r ~ Vy",

Using Eq. 2.13 y' - y,~ - y. .. .[2.16(a)]

'In c subme rged unit weight is roughly one-half of the saturated unit weight.
In literature, the sub merged unit weight is also Ircqucnny expressed as Ysub' For conv enience . the
submerged unit weigh t will be expressed 3S y' in Ihis text.
(5) Unit weight or 5 011 Sotlds-c-Thc unit weight of solids (Y.) is equa l to the ratio of the weigh t of solids
to the volume of solids. Thus
W,
"t• • V; ...[2.17(a» )

2.7. INTER· RELATION Hl=..lWEE N MASS AND W EI GII T UNITS

In Sect. 2.5. the mass-volume relationships have been developed. The corresponding weight-volume
relationsh ips arc given in Sect. 2.6. The reader should carefully unocrsrand the difference betwee n the two
units and shou ld be able to convert the mass densities to the unit weights and vice-versa:
The mass and weight are related by Newton's second law of motion, vu;
Force '" Mass )( Accelcrcuon
BASIC DEFINI110NS AND SIMPLE TESTS 19

When a force of one newton (N) is app lied to a mass of one kilogrammc (kg), lhe acceleration is 1
m/sec 2• The weight of 1 kj mass of material on the surface of earth is 9.81 N !)CC3llSC the acceleration due
to gravity (g) is 9.81 mzsec. Thus we can con vert the mass in kg into weight in N by multiplying it by g. In
otherwards, W = Mg.
Because the unit weight y is expressed as lV/V and the mass density (p) as M/V, the two quantities can
be related as

y .. ~ .. y . pg
Thus unit weight in N/m l = masss density in kglm J )( 9.81
For example, for water P... is 1000 kglm J •
Therefore , y... _ 1000 )( 9.81 _ 9810 N/m J = 9.81 kN/m J _ 10 kN/m J
Sometimes, the mass density is expressed in Mgfm J or g/ml. The corresponding unit weight in kN/m l is
equal to 9.81 p. For example, for water P... is 1 Mglm 3 or 1 g/ml. The corresponding unit weight is 9.81
kN/m l .
Likewise. mass density of 1600 kglm J correspondsto a unit weight of 1600 x 9.81 N/m 3 = 156% N/m3
= 15.6% kN/m 3. In the reverse order, a unit weight of 18 kN/m 3 corresponds to a mass density of 18000/9.81
3
= 1834.62 kglm .
It will not be out of place to give a passing reference to the MKS units still prelevant in some fields . In
MKS units, the we ight is expressed in knogramme force (kgf). It is equal to lhe force exerted on a mass of
1 kg due to gravity. As the same force is also equal to 9.81 N, we have
1 kgf = 9.81 N

unit ~e~h7~~nw~t~/~s~~g~;/~ra~~f;h~ =~;:~~~::l~~ i~e;:o:i~ ~~;i~~;i~;9~~r :~~~le,

Likewise, 1 kgf/cm 2 _ 10 4 kgfim 2
.. 104 X 9.81 N/m 2 .. 98.1 kN/m 2 .. 98.1 k Pa
The unit kgf is not used in this text.
Mea surement of Mass
The mass of a quantity of matter is determined with a weighing balance. The weights which have
previously been used in MKS units are also used in SI units for measurement of mass. In othe r words, the
weight of 1 kgf is called as the mass of 1 kg. The quantity of matter which weig hs 1 kgf in MKS units will
have a mass of 1 kg in SI units. Of course, the weight of that quantity of matter will be 9.81 N.
Thus the weighing balances and weights which were previously used for determining the weights in kgf
are used 10 determine the mass in kg.
2.8. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS
The specific gravity of solid particles (G) is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of solids
to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C. Thus, the specific gravity is given by

G - ;;: .. .(2.18)

The mass density of wate r P... at 4°C is one gm/ml, 1000 kglm 3 or 1 Mglml.
[Note. In some texts, the specific gravity is represented as Gz. ]
The specific gravity of solids for most natura l soils falls in the general range of 2.65 to 2.80; lhe smaller
values are for the coarse-grained soils. Table 2.1 gives lhe average values far different soils. It may be mentioned
that the specific gravity of different particles in a soil mass may not be the same, Whenever the specifi c
gravity of a soil mass ts indicated, it is the average value of all the so lid particles present in the soil mass.
Specific gravity of solids is an important parameter. It is used for determ ination of void ratio and particle size,
 ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Table 2.1. Typical Values or G

S.Na Soil Type Specific Graviry
Gravel 2.65-2.68
So"" 2.65-2.68
Silly sands 2.66-2.70
Sill 2.66-2.70
Inorgantc Ctays 2.68-280
OrganicSoils Variable, may fall below 2.00

In addition to thc standard term of specific gravity as defined. the following two terms related with the
specific gravity arc also occasionally used.
(1) Muss Specifi c Gravity (G...~1t is defined as the ratio of the mass density of the soil to the mass
density of water.

G• • ff: ...(2.19)

Obviously. the value of the mass specific gravity of a soil is much smaUer than the value of the specific
gravity of solids.
The mass speci fic gravity is also known as the apparent specific gravity or the bulk spec ific gravity.
(2) Absolute Spectnc Gravity (G,,)-The soil solids are not perfect solids but contain voids. Some of
these voids are permeable through which water can enter, whereas others are impermeable. Since the
permeable voids get filled when the soil is wet, these are in reality a part of void space in the total mass and
nor a part of soil solids. If both the permeable and impermeable voids are excluded from the volume of
solids, the remaining volume is the true or absolute volume of the solids.
Th e mass dens ity of the absol ute solids (Ps).. is used for the determination of the absolute speci fic gravity
of solids es under. Thus

G. - (p,). ... (2.20)

p-
The absolute specific gravit y is not of much practical use, as it is difUcult to differen tiate betw een the
permeable and impermeab le voids. In most cases, the impermeable parts are taken as the part of solids. In this
text, the term specific gravity of soil solids (G) is used 10 denote the specific gravity of soil solids inclusive
of the impermeable voids. In Eq. 2.18, the soil solids therefore mean the solids with their impenneable voids.

=~'::;:':
ill
2.9. TIlREE·I'IIASE DIAGRAM IN TERMS OF VOID RATIO

~':-:.:': ~~,::'"un'.':~~ .lowt~"oI~O

::~:~:::~ ::: "'tS~SOPW
..L ill'IWa:O
The relationships developed in the preceding sections are independent of the actual dimensions of the soil

:~~OI~:C ~;:~:~~~ -L

l+o1'wtTso : =. -::.::~::._-=-:: .: . w",t~ OlW

of solids. Fig. 2.5 ( 0 ) '
shows the phase diagram
with volume of solids Vs
11
the volume of solids is I+ e
also equal to the height

1
"'s~GPw 1l' Wsl~Grw
cqU31 to unity. Since the
void ratio is equal to the {a) (b)
ratio of the volume of Fig.2.5.Three-phase diagram in termsof voidratio.
BASIC DEFINITIONS AijD SIMPLE TESTS 21

voids to the volume of so lids, the volume of voids in Fig. 25 (a) becom es equ al 10 e. The total vo lume (\I)
is ob viously equal to \I + e). The volume of air is shown by etJ and the volume of water, by e...
The volumes are shown o n the left side and the corresponding mass o n the right side in Fig. 2.5 (a). The
volumetric re13tiooships developed in Sect. 2.2 can be written directly in terms of void ratio as under:

Porosity, n - ~- ~
Degreeof sauratioo, 5.~. ~
V. e
The volume of water (V",) is sh ow n as Se in Fig. 2.5(a) . Obvious ly, the vo lume of air ( V.J is equal
'0(e - Se) = «1- 5).
The refore. percentage air vo ids, ntJ _ ~ _ e i
1
+- eS)

and air content, a~ - ~ - ¥ - (I - S)

Various mass dens ities discussed in Sect. 2.4 can be expressed in terms of the void ratio from fig. 2.5
(a).

From Eq. 2.11, P _ %_M; : ~'" _GP; : ~ p",

(G + Se)p",
p ' -1-+-e - •••(2.21)

},I, Gp",
From Eq. 2. 12 Pd - V - ~ ••.(222)

M_
From Eq. 2.13, Ps,," - V
As the degree of saturation for a saturated soil is 1.0 (it: . 100%). Bq. 2.21 gives
(G + e) p.
p,,,",,~ ... (2.23)

From Eq. 2.16 p' • P,. - P• • (G 1+:~P. - P.

or p' • (~ ~ ~) P. ... (2.24)

In case the soil is nor fully saturated, the submerged mass density is given by p' - P - P...

From Eq. 2.21 p' _ (0 1+:e~ p", _ p...

(G + Se) p. - (1 + e) p.
1 + e
p' • [(G - 1)~ :(~ - Sl] P. ...(2.25)

Bq. 2.25 reduces to Eq. 2.24 when the soil is fully saturated (5 = 1.0).
Equations In Weight Unlts
Eqs. 2.21 to 2.25 can be expressed in terms of weights. Equations can be deri ved cons idering the
VOlume-weight phase d iagrams (Fig. 25 (b)] or simpl y by multiplying both sides of the equati ons by g and
remembering that 1 - pg. Thus
22 SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Eq. 2.21 becom es y _ (G 1+:~lw [2.21(0» )

Eq. 222 becomes lJ - 1°:""C . ..[222 (0)]

Eq. 2.23 becomes 't... ,. (0 +...("~ y", ••• [2.23 (a)]

1

Eq. 224 becomes y' - (~ ~ :) y. ...12.24 (aH

Bq. 2.25 becomes 'r' _ [(G - 1);:<: - Sl]y. ... [2.25 (a»)
In geotechnica l engineering, unit weights are generally expressed in kN/ml . The unit weight of water
l•
(yOO') is 9.81 kNfm which is sometimes taken as 10 kN/ml • for c onvenien ce.
It may be mentioned once again that mass density in glrol can be converted into unit weight in kN/m l
by multiplyin g it by 9.81.
For water, p", • 1 glm!. 'trw _ 9.81 kN/ml
For soils, if p ,. 2 glrol. y • 19.62 kN/m)
2.10. TIIREE-IJIIA.SE DIAGRAM IN TERMS OF IJQROSfIY
Fig. 2.6(0) shows the three-phase diag ram in which the lola) volume is taken as unity. Acro rding 10 the
defini tion of poros ity n.

(0) (b)
fi g. 2.6. Phase-diagram in terms 0( ponsity.

n .~ _~ -vv
Th erefore, the volume of voids in shown as n.
Obviously, the vol ume of solids is (1 - n).

Void mno. n
e • ~ (same ali Eq. 2.4)

From Eq. 2.11. p _ %- _ M. + :t.. P... _ G p...(1 - ;) + Snp...

From Eq. 2.12, Pol_ *".

p • [G (1 - n) + Sn) P.

GP ...~ l-n)
... (2.26)

PJ - G p...(l- n) . ..(2.27)
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND SI MPLE rssrs 23

From Bq. 2.13 Ps... _ M;", _ G p..(1 - In) + n p..

P,. = [G (l -a) + aJ p. ..(2.28)

From Eq. 2.15 p' . V' P. ~ - I ) • (1 - al P;. (G - I)

p' . (G - I)( I - a)p. ... (229)

It may be mentioned that Eqs. (2.26 ) (0 (2.29) in terms of porosi ty can abo be derived from Eqs. (2.21)
to (2.25) directly by substit uting e - n/ ( l - n ). This is left an exercise for the readers.

Equ at ion.. In term s or Welghl units

Eqs. 2.26 to 2.29 am be written in terms of unit weights as under.
Eq. 2.26 becomes y • [G (1 - a) + 5a11. ••.[2.26(a)1
Eq. 2.27 becomes Yd = G 1.. (1 -n) ... (2.27(a)]
Eq. 2.28 becomes Ys'" = [G (I - n ) + n]y... ...(2.28(a»)
Bq. 2.28 becomes y' • (G - 1)(1 - a) y. ...(2.29(a»)

2.11. RELA1l0NSIIII' BETWEEN 11IE VOID RATIO AND TIl E WATER CONTENT
An extremely useful relationship between the void ratio (e) and the water content (w) can be developed
as under.
Fig. 2.7 (a) shows the three-phase diagram .

.L

10) (b)
Fig. 2.7. Three -phase ddlagram.
M -
From Eq. 2.9 w . M;
w. V.. P..
V,p,
From Eq. 2.5, V... _ SV~

and from Eq. 2.18, ~ .G orp. _ Gp...

5V.
The refore,
w - VsG
But V..I V. = vo id ratio (e). There fore.
Se HG
w _ G or e - S ... (2.30)
 24
SOIL MECIlAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

For a fully saturated soil. S = 1.0, and

e - >«l .. .(2.31)
Alternatively Bqs. (2.30) and (2.31) can be derived using the 3·phasc diagram in terms of the void ra uo
lAg. 2.7 (b)].

From Eq. 2.9, w _~

M. or w • Sep""
G P...

or w - ~ or e . ~ ... (same a; Eq. 2.30)

II may be noted that il is more convenient 10 work w ith 3-ph asc diagram in terms of void ratio. The
reader is adv ised to use 3·ph ase diagram in terms of void ratio as far as poss ible.
2.12. EXI'RESSJONS "'OR MASS DENSllY IN TERMS OF WATEI{ CONTENT
The expressions for mass density can be written in terms of water content by writing the void ratio in
terms of water cont ent using Eq. 2.30.
From Eq. 2.21 p .. (G 1+ :e; P..·

(G + Iol.G) P.. (1 + w) G p",

P ' ~ p .~ ... (23 2)
If the soil is fully saturated, S '" 1.0, and Eq. 232 becomes
(1 + w) Gp",
P... - ~ ...(233)
From Eq. 2.16. the submerged density is gi ven by
(1 + w)Gp",
P - p,... - P... ·~ -p",

P - (~ : ~- .. (2.34)
Eq.2..34can also be obtained directly from Eq. 2.24 by substitutin g e • wG.
From Eq. 2.22, PJ _ lG: :

Gp.
PJ - 1 + (>«lIS) ••.(2.35)

From Bqs. 2.32 and 2.35, Pd - ~ ...(2.36)

Eq. 2.36 is an extremely useful equation for determination of the dry density from the bulk density and
vice versa. _
For a given water content w, a soil becomes saturated when S = t.O in Eq. 2.35. The dry density of the
soil in such a condition can be represented as .

(Po),••
(PJ),.., is called saturated dry density.
1~P:a .. (2-'7)

The reader should carefully note the difference between {p).... and {PJ),,,,.In the first case, the water content
of a partially saturated is increased so thai all the voids are filled with water, whereas in the seco nd case, the
water content is kept constant and the air voids are removed by compaction so Lhal all the remaining voids are
saturated with water. Tbe latter oondition is only hypothe tical as it is not feasible 10 remove all the air voids.
EquatJoll'i In terms or Weight Units
Eqs. 2.32 to 2.37 can be written in terms of unit weights as under.
BASIC DEFlNmONS AND SIMPLE TESTS 25

Eq. 2.32 becomes . . .\2.3 2(0)]

Eq. 2.33 becomes · · ·12.33(0)1

(G - l )y.
Bq. 2.34 becomes l ... ·~ ...(2->4(0)J

Eq. 2.35 becomes

a-; . •.[2.35(0)1
lJ - 1 + (MIlS)

Eq. 2.36 become; Yd-~ ... (2->6(0)1

Bq. 2.37 become; (1d)6.. • 1 ~ l:G ... (2.37(0)J

2.U. REIATIONSIIII) nETW EEN DUV MASS I)ENSITY AND PEUCENTAGE AIU voms
In the study of compaction o f soils (Chapter 14), a relationship between the dry mass density and the
percentage air vo ids is required. The relat ionship can be develope d from the 3 ·phasc diagram show n in
Fig. 2.8 (a) .

r t ~ ~~ Tt~ ~
l1~r H~l ' 0)
Fig. 2.8. Three·phase diagr.un
(1))

Now v _ V, + V... + V"

l _ ~+ ~+~
v.
BUI V - n.. (Eq.2.6)

Therefore I-i+i-+ n..

(I - n,,) . ~+~
(I _ n.J _ M, /~GP..) + M...:P..

P.. (wM,)/p",
- Gp... + - -v-
26 SO IL MECHANICS AND FOU NDATION ENGINEER ING

_ ~ + W Pd_ ( W +.l ).!'!'.

Gp. p. G p.

p, • (I 1- :o~~p. .. .(238 )

When the soil becomes fuDy saturated at a given water contcm. n,," O. and Eq. (2.38) can be wriuen as

(PJ)n" - 0 .. 1~P:o
A li ttle rcflca ion w iU show that (rJ... _ 0 and (P.d_ represent the same condi tion.
In terms of unit weights Eq. 238 becomes [Fig. 2.8 (b) J

Y, _ (1 ~ n:l~Y. ...12.38 (a)]

Table 2.2 g ives a summ ary of the various relationships. The reader should make these equati ons es a pan
of his soil engineering vocabulary .
Ta ble 2.2. llasic Relati onsh ips

S. No. Eq. No. Relationship in Mass DellSity Relationship in Unit weigh/

1. 2.3 n .. e/ ( l + t') n .. cI(! + e)
2. 2.4 e .. nf (l - II) e ... n/ (1- n)
3. 2.8 n" ... n a" n,," /la c
4. 2.21 (G +Sel e... (G +SelI.
p.. l ou ' t » 1 +e
2.22
Pd " ~ Yd -~
5.

.. 2.23
Po"""
1 + e
(G+t') Pw
1+e y_...
1 +e
(GH)y...
1+ e

7. 2.24 . ~ • (G-llY.
p .. 1 -ee y .. 1+e
8. 23 0 e .. W<;/S e .. wGtS
9. 2.36 PJ- p/(l+w) 14 " rl(l + w)
10. 238 (l -n..)G p... (l- nol0·
Pd- l +wG TiI - l+wG

_ 9.81 kN/m J _ 10 kN/m J )

3 2
[Note. p..... llXX) kg/m .. 1.0g/ml. t..." 9810 N /m

2.14. WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

The water content of a soil is an importa nt parameter that controls its behaviour. It is a q uantitative
measu re of tbe wetn ess o f a so il mass. l be water cont ent o f a soil can be de tennined to a high degree of
precision. as it involves o nly mass wbi ch can be det cnnin ed more accu rately than vo lumes. The wate r content
of soil is determined as a routine matter in most of the other tests.
The wate r cement of a soil sam ple can be determined by any ooc of the followi ng methods :
(1) Ov en Drying method (2) Torsioo Balance method (3) Pycnometer method
(4) SandBath method (5) Alcohol method (6) Ca lcium Carb ide method
(7) Radiation method .
(1) Oven Drying method. TIle oven dryin g method is a standard, laboratory method. l b is is a very
accurate method .
BASIC DEFlNmONS AND SIMPLE TESTS rt

The soil sample i'i taken in a small. oon-corridible . ninight container . The mass of lhc sa mple and thai of
the containe r are obtained using an accurate weighi ng balance. Accord ing to IS : 2720 (Pan 1I}-1973. the
mass of the samp le should be taken to an accuracy of 0.04 per cent. The quan tity of the sam ple to be taken
for the lest depends upon the gradation and the maximum size of the panicles and the degree of wetness of
the so il. The drie r the soil. tbc more shall be the quan tity of the specimen . Table 23 gives the minimum
quanti ty of so il spec imen to be taken for the test.
The soil sample in the container is then dried in nn oven at a tempe rature of 110° :i: SoC for 24 hours.
The tempcnuurc range selected is suitable for most of the soils. The tempe rature lower than 110° :t SoC may
not cause complete evaporation of water and a temperatur e higher than this temperature may cause the
breaking down of the crys tal line structure of the so il panicl es and loss o f chemical ly bound. structural water.
However. oven-crying at 110° :t SoC docs not give reliable results for soils containing gypsum o r other
minerals having loosely bound water of hydration. This tcrnperature is also not suitable for soils conta ining
sign ificant amount of organ ic mancr. For all such soils. a temperatureof 60° 10 BOoC is recommended. AI
higher temperatu re, gypsu m loses its water of crystalline and the organic soi ls lend 10 oecomposc and get
ox idized.
Table 2~ . Minimum Quantity of So il fur Wat er Co nte nt Det ennina tlon
S N. SUe of Panicles more than 90% passing Minimum Quantify (gm)
I. 4Z5-micron IS sieve 2.<
2. 2mm IS sieve 50
3. 4.75 mm IS sieve 200
4. tomm IS sieve 300
5. 20 mm IS sieve 500
6. 40 mm IS sieve !OOO

The drying pe riod of 24 hours has been recommended for normal soils, as it has been found tnat this
period is sufficient 10 ca use comple te evapora tion of water. 1be sample is dried till it attains a constant mass.
The so il may be deemed to be dry when lhe difference in successive wcighings of the cooled sample docs
not exceed 000ut 0.1 percent of the original mass. The soils containing gypsum and organic matter may
requ ire d rying for a period longer than 24 tours.
The water con tent of the soil sample is ca lculated from the following equation.
M", M M)
W = M; .. M)2 -_ M )( 100 . ..(2.39)
1
where M t - mass of container, with lid
M 2 - mass of container. lid and wet so il
M) - mass of container. lid and dry soil
The water con tent of the so il is reported to two significant fig ures.
(Refer to Chapte r 30, Sect. 30.1 for the laboratory experim ent)
(2) Torsi on Balance Method. The infra-red lamp and torsion balance moisture meter is used for rapid
arx1 accurate determination of the water content. The equipment has Iwo main parts : (I) the infra-red lamp.
and (u) the torsion balance. The infra-red radiation is provided by a 250 W lamp built in the ta'Sion balance
for use with an alternating current 220---230 Y, 50 cycles, single - pease main supply (IS : 2720 (Pan
I1}-!973].
I\s the mo isture meter is generally caljbrated for 25 gm of so il. the maximum size of partic le in the
specimen sha ll be less than 2 mm. The sam ple is kept in a suitable con tainer so thai its water content is not
affected by ambient cond itions. 111e torque is applied to one end of the tors ion wire by means of a calibrated
drum to balance the loss of weight of the sample as it dries out under infrared lamp. A thermometer is
 28
SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

provided for recording the drying temperature whic h is kept at f t 0 0 :t. SoC. Provision is made to adjust the
input voltage to the infra-red lamp to control the heal for dry ing of the specimen .
The we igh ing mechanism, known as a torsion balan ce, has a built - in magnet ic damper which reduces
pan vibrations for quick dryin g. 1be balance scale (drum) is divided in terms of moisture ce men t (m') based
on we t mass. The wa ter con tent (w). based on the dry mass, can be determi ned from the va lue of m' as under.

From Eq. 2.10, m' - ~- M, J~'"M..

-.!.. _ M. + M", _ 1. + 1
m' M", W

••.[2.4O(a»)
If w and m' are expressed as percentage.
m'
w - ~ x 100 •. . [2.4O(b)J
The time required for the test depends upon the type of the soil and the quan tity o f water present . It takes
about 15 1030 minutes. Since drying and weighing ()(UU' sim ultaneousl y, the me thod is usefu l for soils which
quickly re-absorb moisture after drying.
(3) Pym olDeter me tho d. A pycnomet er is a glass ja r of about I lure capacity and fined with a brass
conicat cap by means of a screw-type cover (Fig. 2.9). The cap has a small hole of 6 mm d iameter at its
apex. A rubber or fibre washer is placed between the cap and
the jar to prevent leakage . 111m: is a mark: 00 the cap and Ho te
also on the jar. The cap is screw ed down to the same mark
such that the vo lume of the pycnometer used in calcul ations -r-Bre s s top
remains constant. The pycno mete r method for the
determi nation of wate r cement am be used only if the
l=~~§L-5crew _lype C.OV l2f

specific gravit y of so lid (G) particles is known .

A samp le of we' soil, abou t 200 10 400 g, is taken in the
pycnometer and we ighed . Water is then added to the soil in
the pycnometer to make it about half full. The contents are
Gtass ja r
thorough ly mixed us ing a glass rod 10 remove the entrapped
air. More a nd more wa ter is added and stirring process
continued till the pycnometer is filled flush with the hole in
the conical cap. The pycnometer is wiped dry and weighed.
The pycnometer is then completely emptied . It is washed
tho roughly and filled with water , flush with the lOp hole. The
pycnometer L~ wiped dry and weighed . Fig. 2.9 Pycnometer,
Let M I .. mass of pycnomqer
M 2 .. mass of pycnometer + wet soil
M) .. massofpycnometer + wet soil + water
M" .. mass of pycnometer filled wit h water only.
Obviously, the mass M" is equal to mass M) minus the mass o f solids M, plus the mass of an equal
volume of wate r (see Fig. 2.10).

Thus M.
M" .. M ) - M, + (G P...) . P...

0' M" .. M)-M, + ~

BASIC DEFINm ONS AND SIMPLE TESTS

Fig. 2.10. Pycnomcter MClhod Dcrivatioa.

- M) - M. ( I - h)
or M. - (Ml - M~) • (G~ I )
Now, mass of wei soil = M2 - Afl

Tberetcee, mass of werer M ", - (M2 - M I) - (M) - M~) (G~I )

From Eq. 2.9. w - ~ )( 100

_ [ (M, - M I )
(M,-M.)
(Q.::.!) _
G
1 ] x 100 . .. (2.4 1)

This method for the detennination of the water content is quite suitable for coarse-grained soils from
which the entrapped air can be easily removed. If a vacuum pump is available; the pyauxneter can be
connected to it for abo ut to to 20 minutes to remove the entrapped air. The rub ber tUbing of the pump should
be held tightly with the pyolOmeter to preve nt leakage.
(Refer to Chapter 30 , Sect . 30.2 fer the laboratory experiment)
(4) Sa nd Bath Method. Sand bat h method is a field method for the defennination of water cont ent. The
method is rapid , but not very accurate. A san d bath is a large, open vessel containing sand filled to a depth
of 3 em or more.
The soi l samp le is take n in a tray. The sample is cru mbled and placed loose ly in the tray. A few pieces
of while paper are also placed on the sa mple. The tray is weighed and the mass of we! sample is obtained .
The tray is then place d on the sa nd-bath. The sa nd bath is heated over a stove. Drying lakes about 20 (0
60 minutes, dependin g upon the type of soil . During heating, the speci men is turned with a palette knife.
Overheating of soil should be avoided . The whit e paper turns brown when overhea ting occurs . The drying
should be continued till the sample attains a cons tant mass. When drying is comple te, the tray is removed
from the sand bath, cooled and weighed. The water con tent is determined using Eq. 2.39.
(5) Alcohol Meth od . The so il sample is taken in an cvapceati ng dish. Large lumps of soil, if any, should be
broken and cru mbled . The mass of the wet samp le is taken. The samp le is then mixed with methylated spirit
(alcoho l). The quantity of methylat ed spirit requ ired is aboul one millilitre for every gram of soil. The
methylated spirit and the soil should be turned severa l times, with a paleue knife, 10 ma ke the mixture uniform.
Thc methylated spirit is then ignited. The mixture is stirred with a spatula or a knife when ignition is
taking place. After the methylated spirit has burnt away com pletely, the dish ·is allowed to be coo led, and the
mass of the dry soil obtained . The rnetbod takes about to minutes .
Methylated spirit is e xtremely volatile. Care sha ll be taken to prevent fire. The method cannot be used if
the soil contains a large propo rtion of clay, organic matter , gypsum er any other calcareous material The
method is quite rapid. but not very accurate.
30 SOIL MECHANICS AND JoUUN DATION ENINEERING

(6) Ca lcium Carbide M eth od, This method of the detcnnination of water content makes use of the faa
that when water I"C3ClS with calcium carbide (Ca Cu.
acetylene gas (y Hi) 1.'\ produced.
Cay .. 21120 - y llz + Ca (Ollh
The water comers of the soil is detenn ined indirectl y from the pm;sure of the acety lene ga." formed . 1be
instrument used is known as mois ture lester.
The wei soil sample is placed in a sea led container containing calciu m carb ide. Tbc samples of sand
require no specia l preparation, The soil sample is ground and pulverised. However, cohesive and plas tic soils
are tested after add ition of steel balls in the pressure vessels. The test requ ires abou t 6 g of soil.
The pressure of the acetylene gas produced acts on the diaphragm of the moisture tester, The quantity 0'(
gas is indicated on a pressuregauge. From the calibratedscale of the pressure gauge, the water content (m') based
on the total mass is det ermined. l hc wate r conte nt (w) based on the dry mass i" dctennined using Eq. 2.40 (a).
As calcium carb ide is highly susceptible to absorpti on of moisture. It should not he exposed 10
atmosphere. 1be lid of the container should be fnm ly fixed.
(1) Radi ation M ethod. Radio-active isotopes are used for the determination of water content of soils. A
device containing a radio-active isotopes material, such as coba lt 60, is placed in a capsule . It is lhcn lowered

- SO,it
S t ,,£'1 casing StcH!1 c<is ing
A 8

Ce pscte Hyd r cqe n a to ms ct. ' Det ec t or

. wa t e r In so il -

Fig.2 .lt .
in a stee l casi ng A, placed in a bore hole as show n in Fig. 2. 11. The steel cas ing has a small ope ning on its
one side through which rays can come out. A detect or is placed inside another steel casing B, which also has
an opening facing that in casing A .
Neutrons are emitted by the radio-active material. The hydrogen atoms in water of the soil cau se
scattering of neutrons. As these neutrons strike with the hydrogen e toms.rbcy lose energy. Th e loss o f energy
is proportional to the qua ntity of water present in the soil. The detector is calibrated to give direct ly the water
con tent
The method is extremely useful for the determination of water COOIent of a soil in the in-situ conditions .
The method should be very caref ully used, as il may lead to radiation problems if proper sh ielding
precautions are not taken.
2.15. SPE CInC GRAVITY DETERMINATION
The specific gravity of solid particles is detcnnined in the laboratory using the following methods:
(1) Density bou le method (2) Pycno meter method (3) Measuring flask method
(4) Gas jar method (5) Sh rinkage limit method.
The last method of determining the specific gravity of solid particles from the shrinkage limit is
discussed in Sect. 4.6.
BASIC DEFINmONS AND SIMPL E TESTS 31

(1) Dens ity Bottle Method. The specific gravity of sol id particles can be
determined in a laboratory using a density bou le fitted wit h a stopper having a hole
(Fig. 2. 12). The density bott le of 50 ml capacity is generally used [IS : 2720 (Part
II) 19801.
The density bottle is cleaned and dried at a temperatureof 105° to ll O°C and
cooled . The mass of the bottle, including thai of stoppel", is taken . About 5-lD g of
oven dry sam ple of soil is taken in the bottle and weighed. If the sampl e contains
particles of large size, it shall be ground to pa'iS a 2-mm sieve before the test.
Distilled water is tben added to cove r the sample . The soil is allowed 10 soak
water for about 2 hours. More water is added until the bottle is half full. Air
entrapped in the soil is expelled by applying a vacuum press ure of abou t 55 em of
me rcury for about one hour in a vac uum cessicator. Alterna tive ly, the entrapped air
can be removed by gentle heating. More water is added to the bottle 10 make it full.
lbe stopper is inserted in the boule and its mass is taken. The temperature is also
recorded.
The bou le is emp tied. washed and then refilled with disti lled water. Th e bot tle Fig. 212 OeMity bojtle.
must be filled to the:sam e mn as in the previouscase. The mass of the botUe filled with water is taken. The
temperature shoclc be the same as before .
lei M 1 .. massofcmptybottle
M 2 .. mass o f boll lc and dry soil
M) .. massofbottlc,soilandwater
M • .. mass of boll le filled with wa ter,
If the mass of solids M. is sub tracted from M) and replaced by the mass o f wa ter equal to the vol ume of
solid, the mass M. is obtain ed.

Thus M. - M) - M. + OM. (p..,)

P.
M. ( 1 - h) . M ) - M.

Bu. M. .. M 2 -M.

lberefore (M 2 - MI >( 1- i;) . M ) - M.

k (M2 - MI) .. (M2 - MI) - (M) - M .)

G. M2 - Ml
. . .(2.42)
(M, - M.) - (M, - M.l

Alternativel y, 0- M. .. .(2.42(a)J
M. + M. M)
Eq. 2.42 gives the specific gravit y of solids at lhe temperature at which the test was cond ucted.
Specific gravity of soli ds is generally reported at 2-rC (IS : 2nD-H) or at 4°C. The specific gravity at
27°C and 4°C can be detcrm lned from the following equa tions.
G _ G )( specific gravity of waler al tOC
. .. (2.43)
21 , specific gravity of water at 27°C
and G. .. G, )( specificgravit y of water atl°C . .. (2.44)
where Gv =sp sr. of particles at 27°, G. =sp. gr. of particles at 4°C, G, =sp. gr. of partic les at t'C
32 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENINEERING

Table 2.4 gives the specific gravity of water at different temperatures.

The specific gravity of solids is reported as the average of the two tests. 10 the nearest 0.01, provided the
difference between the IwOtests docs not differ by 0.03.
Kerosene is a better wetting agent than water and is sometimes used in place of water. If Gk is the
specific gravity of kerosene at the test temperature. Bq. 2.42 becomes
(M2 - M1)Gk

Table 2.4. Specific Gravity of Water

I"C sp. gr. ,·C sp. gr. '·C sp, gr. ,·C sP· 8r.
1 0.9999 11 0.9996 21 0.9980 31 0.9954
2 0.9999 12 0.1)995 22 0.9978 32 0.9951
3 1.0000 13 0.999 4 23 0.9976 33 0.9947
4 1.0000 14 0.9993 24 0.9973 34 0.9944
5 l. O()(KJ 15 0.9991 25 0.9971 35 0.9941
6 1.000() 16 0.9990 ze 0.9968 36 0.9937
7 0.9999 17 0.9988 27 0 .9965 37 0.9934
•
9
0.9999
0.9998
I.
19
0.9986
0.9984
28
29
0.9%3
0.9%Q
3.
39
0.9930
0.9926
10 0.9997 20 0.9982 30 0.9957 40 0.9922

Sometimes. other liquids, such as paraffin, alcohol and benzene. are also used,
Density bottle method is suitable for fine-grained soils. with more than 90% pessing 2 mm-IS sieve.
However the method can also be used for medium and coarse-grained soils if they are pulverised such that
the particles pass 2 mm-IS sieve.
(See Chapter 30, Sect. 30.3 for the laboratory experiment).
(2) Pycnometer Method. The method is similar to the density bottle method. As the capacity of the
pycnometer is larger. about 200-300 g of oven-dry soil is required for the test. The method can be used for
all types of soils, but is more suitable for medium-grained soils, with more than 90% passing a 20 mm IS
sieve and for coarse-grained soils with more than 90% passing a 40 mm IS sieve.
(See Chapte r 30, Sect. 30.4 for the laboratory experiment).
(3) Measuring Flask Method. A measuring flask is of 250 ml (or 500 ml) capacity. with a graduation
mark at that level. It is fitted with an adaptor for connecting it to a vacuum line for removing entrapped air.
The method is similar to the density boule method. About 80---100 g of oven dry soil is required in this case.
The method is suitable for fine-grained and medium gramed'soius.
(4) Gao; J a r Method. In this method. a gas jar of about I litre Rubbe r bung
capacity is used. The jar is fitted with a rubber bung (Fig, 2.13). The
ges jar serves as a pycnometer. The method is similar to the pycnometer
method.
, Litre
2.16. MEASUREMENT OF MASS DENSllY glass jar
The bulk mass density of a soil sample. as per Eq. 2.11, is the-mass
per unit volume. Although the rna...s of a soil sample can be determined Soil
to a high degree of precision, it is ruther difficult to determine the
volume of the sample accurately. The methods discussed below
basically differ in the procedure for the measurement of the volume .
Once the bulk mass density has been determined, the dry mass density
is found using Eq. 2.36. Thus Fig. 2.13. Gas Jar.
BASIC DEFlNrnONS AND SIMPLE Tf:..\1S 33

fl-%- and Pd "~

The volume of the specimen used in various tests e m be com puted from the measur ed dimensions. as
they have regular shapes, such as a cylind er or a cube. Ilowcver, precise measurem ents arc no/. possible. If
the sample is mad e in a con tainer of known d imensions, much mere accura te meas uremen ts arc possible.
The followin g methods arc generally used for the determination of mass density.
(1) wa ter Displace ment Method (2) Submerged mass density Method
(3) Co re Cu tler Method (4) Sand Replacement Method .
(5) water Balloon Method (6) Radiation Method.
Th e method s arc discussed below. The first two methods arc laboratory methods and the rest. field
method s.
(I ) Water Displacem ent M ethod. Th e volume of the
spec imen is de termined in this method by wate r
d isp lacement. A'i the soil mass disintegrates when it comes
in con tact with water, the sample is coated with paraffin

-0
wax to make it impervious. A test specimen is trimmed to
more or less a regular shape and weighed. It is then coaled Valva
with a thin layer of paraffrn wax by dip ping it in molten

;;~re~~ S~t~~enn t~cn~;;~:=~~~sw~~I~~~ Measun ng jar ~

mass of the paruffln.
Th e wax ed spec ime n is then imme rsed in a water-
displacement cont ain er shown in Fig. 2.14. The volume of
the specimen is eq ual \0 the vo lume of WOlter which com es
out o f the outflow tube. Th e actual vol ume of the soil
spec imen is less th311 the volume of the waxed specime n. Fig. 2.14. Wak:r di!'placemtnl comniner.
The volume of the wax is determined from the mass of the wax peeled off from the specim en a lter the test
and the mass density of wax.

Now v; V,- (At,-M) .•. (2.46)

Pp
where V =volume of specimen. =
V, vo lume of waxed specim en.
M, = mass of waxed specimen, =
AI mass of speci men.
Pp = mass de nsity of paraffin (a pproximately 0.998 gm/ml).
A representative sample of the soil is taken from the middle of specimen for the WOlter content determination.
Once the mass , volume and the wa ter content o f the spec imen have bee n determined, the bulk dens ity
and the dry density arc found from Eqs. 2.11 and 2.36 , respectively.
(See Chapter 3D, Sect. 30.7 for the labora tory expe riment).
(2) Submer ged Mess Den..ity method. Th is method is based on Arch imedes ' pri nciple lhat when a body
is submerg ed in water . the red uction in mass 6 equal 10 the mass of the vo lume of water displaced. The
sample is first trimmed aOO weighed and then it is immersed in molten wa x and again weighed. as in the
wate r displacemem metbod.
The specimen is then placed in the cradle of special type balan ce. The cradl e di ps in the water contained
in the buck er. placed just below. The apparent mass of the wa xed speci men in water is detcnnincd.
The vo lume of the specimen is determined as below:
V _ (AI, - AI. ) _ (M, - M)
.. .(2.41)
P..· Pp
where M , = mass orwaxed spec imen, M = mass of specimen,
34 SOIL MEOiANICS AND fUUNDAllON ENINEERING

M I = mass of waxed specimen in wate r, Pp = mass density of wax.

p; = mass density of water.
Eq. 2.47 can be derived. using Archimedes' principle.
M 1 • M, - U - M, - V,P",
V, . M, - M 1
P.
SUbstituting this value V, in Eq. 2.46, we get Eq. 2.47.
This me thod is suitabl e for fine-grained soils.
(3) Cere C utter Method. It is a field method for determination of mass density. A core cutter consists
of an open, cylindrical barrel, w ith a hardened, sharp cutting edge (Fig. 2.15). A dolly is placed over the

ill;' T
cutter and it is rammed into the soil The dolly is req uired to prevent burring of the edges of the cutter . The
cutler containing the soil is taken out of the ground. Any
soil extruding above the edges of the cutler is removed . TIle
mass of the cutler fi lled with so il is take n. A reprcscn rauve i:~
sample is taken for water content determination. 1':'::::==:1::==::5~--oO l\)'
The vo lume of the soil is equa l to the internal volume
of the cutle r, which can be dctcnnincd from the dim ens ions ~ OIXnm--."s
of the cutter or by filling the cutler with water and rIDding
b~cl~ I
Bulk muss density. p .. -Al -V-
2 -Al I
...(2.41) I'
where M, = mass of culler. with soil.
MI ::: mass of empty cutter,
V ::: internal volum e of cut ter;
The method is quite suitable for son, fine grained soils.
It cannot be used for stoney. gra velly soils. The method is
Cut re r
I
I'
1' 0

1
" mrn

r::;:: ::l~ :;t~~ ;;h:i1~ drisu:;:e of the soil I

(Sec Chapter 30 . Sect. 30.5 for the experi ment ). Ag. 2.15. Core.CUlIeI" with dolly.
(4) Sa nd Re p lac eme n t Met hod . Fig. 2.16 shows a sand-pouring cy linder, which has a pouring cone at
its base. TIle cylinder shown is placed wit h its base at the ground level There is a shu tter be tween the
cylinde r and the cone . The cylinder is firs t calibrated to determine the mas.s density of sand. For good results,
the sand used should be uniform, dry and clean, passing a 600 micron sieve and retai ned on a 300 micron
sieve .
(0) Ca libratio n of e p pueut us-c-Th e cy linde r is filled with sand and weighed. A calib rating conta iner is
then placed below the po uring cylinder nnd the snuuer is opened. The sand fills the calibrating co ntainer and
the cone. The shu tter is c losed. and the mass of the cylinder is again taken . The mass of the sand in the
cont ainer and the cone is equal to the difference of the two coscrvancos.
The pouri ng cylinder is again filled 10 the initial mass. The sand is allowed to nm oul of the cylinde r,
equa l to the volume of the ca librati ng contai ner a nd the shutter is closed . The cylinder is then placed ove r a
plain surface and the shutter is opened. 1h e sand runs out o f the cylinder and Fills the cone. The shutter is
closed when no further movement of sand takes place . The cylinder is removed and the sand filling lhe con e
is collected end weighed (M 'll.
The mass density of the sand is determined as under :
All - Al2 - M )
P. • V. ,. ,(2.49)
where M I ::: initial mass of cylinder with sand,
BASIC DEFINI'OONS AND SIMPLE TESrs

M 2 = mass of sand in cone only.

M 3 = mass of cylinder after pouring sand into the co ne
and the container,
Vc = Volume of the container.
Note. Mass of sand in both the container and cone is M I - M3-
(b) Meas urem ent or Volume of lIo~A tray with a central
bole is placed on the prepared ground swface which has bee n
cleaned and proper ly levelled A hole about 100 rom diamet er and
Han dllii
150 mm deep is excavated in the: ground. using the hole in the tray
as a pattern. The soil removed is carefully collected and we ighed.
1bc sand pouring cylinder is then placed over the excavated
hole as shown in Fig. 2.16. The shutter is opened and the sand is
filled in the cone and the hole. When the sand stops running out. the
shutter is closed. The cylinder is removed and weighed. The volume
of the hole is determined from the mass of sand filled in the hole
and the unit mass densit y of sand

Volume of hole .. M1 - MJ, - M2 . . .(2.50)

p,
where Itt I = massof cylinder and sand before pouring into
the hole.
M 2 = mass of sand in cone only.
MJ, : mass of cylinder after pouring sand into the bole,
p, = mass dens ity of sand. as found from calibrati on.
The bulk mass dens ity of the in-situ soil is determined from the
mass of soil excavated and the volume of the ho le. Fig. 2.16. Sand Repbo:menl method.
The method is widely used for soils of various particle sizes, from fine-grained to coarse- gra ined. For
accurate results, the height of &1Od column in the cylinder is kept approximately the same as that in the
calibration test. The depth of the hole should also be equal to the depth of
calibrating container .
(See Chapter 30. Sect. 30.6 for the expe riment).
5. Rubber Balloon Method The volume of the hole in this method is
determined using a rubber balloon' or by filling water in the hole after
covering it with a plastic sheet. The rubber balloon method is explained R~l::I~~
below.
The apparatus consistss of a density plate and a graduated cylinder,
made of lucite, enclosed in an airtight aluminium case (Fig. 2.17). The

~i:~,isw~:lYisf:ie:~~ ;:~j,~~:Il~n::~~nJ~~ : bb~t~~U: ~~ri~sdU

up into the cylinder or may be pus hed down through the bottom. A pump
is attached to the cylinder for this purpose. When the pressure is applied, W<1lliir
balloon
balloon cernes out the aluminium cese through the hole in the density ~ra~:11Y
plate. When a vacuum is applied, the balloon is pulled up into the cy linder. ~~4~~'=!o?,G:.:'lii~nd
For determination of the: volume of the hole, the density plate is
placed on the leve lled ground. The cylinder is then placed over the plate. Holt. in
The pressure is applied to the balloon. The balloon deflates agains t the ground
surface of the soil. The volume: of water in the cylinder is ooserved
The cylinder is ~oved from the base plate. The soil is taken out
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENINEERING

from the hole through the opening in the base plate. All 1(UiC materi al is removed. The soi l removed is
collected and weighe d. The cyli nder is again pl:lCl.x. l over the opening in the plate and rn-,o;ure is applied to
the balloon till it fills the hole . The volume of water in the cyl inder is observed. The volume of the hole is
fOlrld fro m the initial and final observation of wa ter volume.
The method is general and is suitable for all types of soils. However. it is not so accurate, as it is diffiaJ!t
to fit the balloon exactly in an irregular hole.
IS : 2720 (part XXXIV)- I972 describes the method in detail.
(6) Rad ia tion Method. Th e bulk. mass density of in-situ soil can be dctennincd using the radialion
method. The meter consists of two probes. o ne co ntaining a radio isotope sou rce and the other a gamma ray
detec tor. The meter is placed on the surface which had been care fully c leaned and levelled . The probe exte nds
to a maxim um depth o f 200 mm to 300 mm into the groun d, and, therefore . gives an average mass de nsity
for tha t depth. Th e detec tor records the amoun t of radiatio n which passes through the so il from the probe
attac hed to the meter when inserted into the ground. 1 hc denser the soil. the great er is the absorption of
gam ma rays. and the lesser will be the gamma rays energy at tbc detector. The rncrb od is know n as the direct
transmission method:
Th ere is anothe r method . known as the back scalier method. Both the sou rce and the det ector arc
contained in on e probe . Th e detect or records radiations wh ich had been reflected by the soi l. 111e bulk mass
dens ity o f the so il is determi ned from the radi ation cou nt over a fixed time period. The mass dc nshy ob tained
is for the top 40 to 50 mm. Th e method is s impler than the direct trans mission met hod. but it requ ires a
grea ter source stre ngth.
Radiati on methods for determination o f the m~1SS density of soils are quick and conve nient and are
gaining popularit y. However. precactjons must be take n aga inst the rad iation hazard.
2.17. DETERM INATION 01" vom RATIO, I'OI{OS IT Y AND DEGREE 01" SATURATION
The void ratio of a soil sample is a measure of its denseness. It is one of the important parameters of
soils. Engineering properties of soils depend upon void ratio to a large extent. "Thevoid ratio is determined in
the laboratory indirectly from the dry mass density. From Eq. 2.22.

e • Gp. _ 1 ... (2.51)

p,
The methods for detenn inatio n of the specific gravity of solids G and the dry densi ty Pd have been
discussed in the preceding sections.
For a sat urat ed so il, the void ratio is determined using Eq. 2.31, e • Ml. 111is method is a very
conve nient and accurate method, as the water conten t of a soil can be dct erm ined qu ite eas ily and accurat ely.
The speci fic gravity of soil (G) can abo be det ermined in the laboratory .
Once the void ratio has bccn det ermined, othe r volumetric relationships such as porosi ty and degree of
saturation can be dete rm ined using Eqs. 2.3 and 2.30, .respectively.
Percentage air voids arc determi ned indirectl y. using Eq. 2.38,
p, _ (I ; :.l~P.

n• • 1 - : ;. (I • .0) ...(2.52)

..
Eq. 2.52 can be red uced to lhe following fOfTT1
n" _ n - p~: (2.53)

Th is is left as an exercise for the readers.

Table 2.5 gives typical values of voidratio, poros ity. d ry dem ity. and dry unit weight or different soils
in loosest and densest condi tions.
 IlASIC DEFINI'IlONS AND SIMPLE T FSrs 37

Thhl e 2.5. Typk'al Vulues or Void Ratto and Dry ()ell.'.ily a nd Dry Un ILs Wei ghL'i
S.No. Soil ryre Sune of soil Void Porosity Dry dellSiry Dry unit weight
J J
Ratio 1%) (kglm ) (kNlm )
1. Gl'lIvcl Loosest 0 .60 :IS 1600 I.
"',,,,S< 0.30 23 2000 zo
2. Coarsesand. Loosest 0 .75 42 1500 15
Mediwnsa nd Deesest 0-'\5 26 1900 I'
3. unrrorm, fine Loosest 0.8.'i 4. 1400 14
sand Densest 0 .4 29 1900 I'
4. Coarsesill Loosest 1.0 50 1300 13
Dcrscst 0.45 31 1800 I.
5. Fine sill Softest 1.00 50 1300 13
II:mICSl 0.4 29 1900
e. Lean Clay SorteM 1.20 55 1300 "
13
lIardCSl 0.40 29 1900 I'
7. Fa! clay Sones! 2.211 69 1000 10
113NCSt 29

ILL USTRATIVE
0.40

EXAM I)LE.~
2000
'"
1IIu.'ilrotiH~ E xa m p le 2.1. 771f? mass of a chunk of moist soil is 20 kg, and its volume is 0.011 ml • After
drying in an 0''''11, the moss reduces to 16.5 kg. Determine the water content, the density of moist soil. the
dry density, mid ratio, porosity and the degree of saturation. Take G = 2.70.
Solulion. Mass or water. /of... = 20.0 - 16.50 = 3.50 kg

From Eq. 2.9, water content. w - ~6~ - 0.2 121 (2 1.21%)

From Eq. 2. 11, thc wet mass dcnsny p - 0.~1 _ 1818.18 kg/m J

From Eq. 2.12, the dry density, Pd - ~.~~1 _ 1500.0 kg/m 3

From Eq. 2.22, I + e _ Gp...

p,
or e _ 2.701~(X)() _ I _ 0.80

From Eq. 2.3, n - 6 - ~:~ - 0.444 (44.44%)

From Eq. 2.30, S _ 7_ O.21 2~.;' 2.70 _ 0.7158 (71.58 %)

illustrative Example 2.2. A ~l!il specimen has a water content of }O% and a wet unit weight of 20
l.
leN/m If the specific gravity 0/solids is 2.70, determine the dry unit weight, void ratio, and the degree 01
saturation: Take "t... = 10 leN/III•

Solution. From Eq. 2~16 (a). "td - tf-; - I ;00.1 - 18.18 kN/m
l
I)
From Eq. 2.22 (a). 1 + e _ G "t... _ 2.70 )( 10 _ 1.49 or e _ 0.49
"ttl 18.18

From Eq. 2.30. S -7 - 0.1 O~4:·70 - 0.551 (55.1%)

 38
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENINEERIN(

illustrative Example 2.3. A sample of dry soil weighs 68 gm. Find the volame of voids if me toea
volume of the sample is 40 1111 and the specific gravity of solids is 2.65. Al so determine the void ratio.

Solution. From Eq. 2.12, p" - ~ _ ~ _ 1.70 gm/ml

. AI, 68
Volume of soli ds, V. - Gp ... - ~ • 25.66 ml

Volume of voids. V~ .. V -V. _ 40 .00 _ 25.66 • 14.34 ml

From Bq. 2.1, e - ~ _ ~::,: _ 0.56

Illustrative Example 2.4. A moist soil sample weighs 3.52 N. After drying in an oven, its weight is
reduced to 2.9 N. The specific gravity a/ solids and the mass spec ific gravi ty are. Tespccli vely, 2.65 and 1.85.
Deter mine the wa ter con ten t, vo id ratio. poros ity and lire degree of saturation: Tak '(... = 10 kN/mJ.
Solution. Weight of water = 3.52-2.90 = 0.62 N
From Eq. 2.9. water content, w _ ~~ ... 0.2138 (21.38%)

From Eq. 2.19, Y _ G. '('" • 1.85 )( 10 • 18.5 kN/ mJ

From Eq. 2.36 a. 'tJ .. tf-w - 1 +1~~ 138 • 15.24 kN/m 3

From Eq. 2.22 a, I + e _ ~~... _ 2·~.;410 _ 1.74

e .. 0.7"
From Eq. 2.3, n .. ~ .. 1 ~'~74 .. 0.4253 (42:53% )

From Eq. 2.30. S. 7 . 0.2 1~7~ 2.65 • 0.7656(76.56%)

illustrative Example 2.S. A soil has a porosity of 40%, the speclf ic grav ity of solids of 2.65 and a water
content of 12%. Determine the mass of water required to be added to /00 m J of this soil for fu ll saturation.
Solution. Let us take unit volume of solids. i.c. V, .. 1.0 mJ .
Mass of sclfds, M, " G P... .. 2.65 )( 1000 .. 2650 kg
From Eq. 2.9. mass of water, M.,. .. 0.12 x 2650 .. 318 kg
Volume of water .. 13~ .. 0.318 m J

From Eq. 2.4, e .. 1: n .. 1.0 0~4~.40 .. 0.667

From Eq. 2.1, volume of voids, V~ .. e V, .. 0.667 )( 1.0 .. 0.667 m3
Therefore, volume of air, .. 0.667 _ 0.318 .. 0.349 m3
Volume of additional water for full saturation = 0.349 m J
Total volume o f soil, V .. V, + V" .. 1.0 + 0.667 .. 1.667 m3

Volume of water required for 1(1) m3 of soil .. ~~~ )( 100 .. 20.94 m3

Mass o f water requ ired = 20940 kg .

illustrative Example
J
2.6. A samp le of saiurated soil has a water con tent of 25 pe rcent and a bulle unit
weight of 20 kNlm • Determine dry density, void ratio and specific gravity of solid pa rticles.
BASIC DEFlNmONS AND SIMPLE TEStS 39

Wha, would be the bulle unit weigh' of the same sou at the same void ratio "u t at a degree of saturation
of 80% ? Take lw = 10/cN/I,t

Solution. From Eq. 233 (a), 1..... 1 ~ Y~ (1 + w)

20 .. 0 ~ ;OO~ +)( 0(,25) or G _ 2.67

From Eq. 2.30. laking S = 1.0, e .. M; .. 0.25 )( 2.67 .. 0.67

From Eq. 2.22 (a), tc» 1° ;we i6: ~.;~

.. 2 .. 15.99 kN /m 3

In the second case, as e = 0.67 and S = 0.80, Eq. 2.21 (a) gives
y .. (0 '"...S:'rtw .. (2.67 ... ~.~ ~.~:,67) )( 10 .. 19.20 kN / m3
1
lIIu...trat fv e Example 2.7. A samp le of clay was coated with p araffi n wax and its mass, including the
mass of wax, was found to be 697.5 gm. The sampl e was immersed in water and the volume of the water
displaced was fou nd to be 355 IIII. The mass of the samp le without wax was 690 .0 gm, and the wate r content
of the representative specimen was J8%.
Determine the bulk densiry, dry density, void ratio and the deg ree of satur ation. The specific gravity of
the solids was 2.70 and that of the wax was 0.89. . .
Solution. Mass of wax .. (D7 .5 - 690.0 .. 7.5 gm

\blume of wax .. o.~..s: 1.0 .. 8.43 ml

Volume of soil .. 355 .0 - 8.43 .. 346.57 ml

Bulk density .. ~~7 .. 1.99 gm/ml

From Eq. 236, dry den.o;;ity .. 1 ~'~1 8 .. 1.69 gm / ml

From Eq. 2.22, 1 ... e .. 2~ .;' 1.0 .. 1.60 or e .. 0.60

From Eq. 2.30. S _ ~ _ O.l 80.~2.70 .0.81 (81%)

Illustrative Example 2.8. (a) During a l est f or water content determina tion on a soil sampl e by
pycnom.eter, the followin g observations were recorded
(1)Mass of wet soil sample = 1000 gm
(2)Mass of pycn ometer with soil and filled with water • 2001J gm
(3)Mass of py cnome ter filled with water only = 1480 gm
(4)Specific gravity of solids · 2.67
Determine the water content.
(bJ J/ the bulk density of the soil is 2.05 gmfml, determine the degree 0/ saturation.

Solution. (0) From Eq. 2.41, w ..

(M, - M J
[ (M] _ M 4) '
(0-1)
---a- - 1 1 )( 100

1000 (2.67-1.0)]
•
[ (2000 _ 1480) x ~ - 1 x 100 • ZO.28%
40 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENINEERI NG

(b) From Eq. 2.36. Pol - ~- 1 + 20~028 - 1.70 gm/ ml

From Eq. 2.22. 1 + e _ 2.6~.;O 1.0 _ 1.57 or e _ O~'i7

Now S '" 7- . O·20~5; 2.67 • 0.950 • 95.0%

Illustra uve Examp le 2.9. The mass of an empty gas jar was 0.498 kg. H!ht"n co mple tely filled with water,
its mass was 1.528 kg. An oven-dried sample of soil of mass 0.198 *g was placed in the jar and wafer was
added to jill lhe j ar and its moss was f ound to be 1.653 kg. Determine the specific gravity of panicles.
M1 - M t
Solution. From Eq. 2.42. G • (Al M ) _ (At) M..)
2- t

G - 0.198 (~:~~ t 528) - 2.71

ill ustra tive Example 2.10. In a compaction test on a soil; the mass Of h'el soil 'when compacted in the
mould was 1.855 /eg. The water content of the soil was 16%. If the volume of the mould was 0.945 litres,
determine the dry density, m id ratio, degree of satu ration and percentage air voids. Take G = 2.68.

Solution . Dulk density P '"' 0.94~·~51O-3 - 1962.96 kglm)

From Eq. 2.36. Pol '" ~ _ /~~~ _ 1692.21 1qc/ m J

From Eq. 2.22. 1 +e = 2.~69;.~~ _ 1.584 or e _ 05 84

From Eq. 2.30. S '" 7 - O.l~;s:.68 _ 0.7342 _ 73.42%

From Eq. 2.38, Pol .. (I ~ :,,)~. p",

or 1 - n; '" 1692.21 ;~1 1(+ 1~ I( 2.(8 ) •.0.9022

n" - 0.0978 (9 .1~ %)

Itlust ratlve Exam ple 2.11. A compacted cylindrical specimen, 50 mm dia and 100 m/ll length, is to be
prepared from oven-dry soil. If the specimen is required to have a water content of 15% and the percentage
air voids of 20%, calculate the //lass of the soil and water required for the preparat ion of the sample. Take
G = 2.69. .
Solution. Let MJ be the mass of solids in kg.
Mass of water, - wM, - 0.15 M,

\blum e of solids, V _ ~ M
_, ~ m)
, G P.. 2.69 I( 1000 2690

\blumc of water. 11... _ O~l~J • 0.15 I( 10-) M, m)

Total volume of sample. V ., x/4 )( (0.05)1 )( 0.10 . 196.35 )( IO~ m3

From Eq. 2.6, volume of air. Va - 0.20 I( V - 0.2 I( 196.35 I( 1O~ • 39.27 )( 104Sm3
No w V,+V",+ V,, _V
BASIC DEFlNmONS AND SIMPLE TESTS 41

2~ + 0.15 x 10-1 M, + 39.27 x 10-6 • 196.35 x 10-6

At, _ 0.30 1 kg
Mass of water _ 0.15 x 0.301. 0.045 kg
Hlustrunve Example 2.12. A borrow area soil has a natural water content of 10% and a bulk dens ity of
1.80 Mglm J• The soil is used lor an emban kmen t to be compacted at 18% moisture content to a dry density
0/ 1.85 Mglm]. Deter mine the amount of wate r to be added to 1.0 ",J 0/ borrow soil. Jlow mnny cubic metres
0/ excavation is required lo r 1 nl of compacted embankment ?
Solutio n. Borrow area soil. Pot. ~:~ • 1.636g1ml

Unit weight _ 1.636 x 9.81 _ 16.05 kN m.l

1.J us consider I ml of borrow soil.
W, :: Dry weighl/ml = 16.05 kN
Ww '" Weight of wllter/m.l = 1.605 kN
In embankment , W...1 • 0.18 )( 16.05 _ 2.889kN
Water to be added - 2.889 - 1.605 - 1.284 kN
Weight of dry soil in embankmentlrn l _ 1.85 x 9.81 _ 18.15 kN

Volume of soil rcquire dlm l of embankment _ \86~ _1.131 m J

ljlustru tlve Exam ple 2.13. There are two borrow areas A and B which have soils with void ratios 0/0.80
and 0. 70, respec tively. The lnp lace water content is 20%, and 15%, respectively: The fill at the end of
construction will have a total volume 0/ 10,000 m1, bulk dens ity of 2 Mglm 1 and a pla cement wate r content
of 22%. Determine the volume 0/ the so il required to be excav ated fro m both areas. G = 2.65.
If the cost of excavation of soil and transporta tion is Rs. 2001-~r 100 n? for area A and Rs. 2201· ~r
100 ",J for area A, which of the borrow area is more econom ical ?

Solution. Borrow area A. P.I = 2;6~ ~.~oo :; 1.47 glml ( 14.44 kN/m 3)

Le us consider 1 m3 of bocrow soil W, • Dry weighl/m 1 • 14.44 kN

In embankment. Pot - 1 + 2 . - 1.639 glml (- 16.08 kN/m 1

0 22
Weight of dry so il per m3 = 16.08 kN
Volume of so il requ ired • :~:~ • 1.114 m)

Cost of soil • Rs 200/100 x 1.114 _ Rs 2.23 per ml

Borrow area D. Pot.. 2.~.~ 1.0 '" 1.559 glml (15.29kN /m 1

Iv, • dry weight/ ml - 15.29 kN

In emban kment, weight of dry soil = 16.08 kN
Volume of soil required _ ~ • 1.052 ml

Cost of so il - Rs 220/100 x 1.052. Rs 2.31 pcr m' ,

Borrow area A is more econom ical.
42 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENINEERING

PROIlLEMS

A. Num eri cal

l.l. (a) Define the terms void ratio. specific gravity cl particles, degree of saturation and dry density .
(b) Develop a relationshipbetween IDevoid ratio. water ccerem, specific gravity of particles and the degree of
saturation.
2.2:. (a ) Describe oven-crying method for the determina tion of water conte nt of a so il sample in a laboratory.
3
(b) A sampleof wei soil has a volume of 0.0192 m and a massof 32 kg. When the sample is dried OUIin an
ove n, its mass reduces 10 28.5 kg. Determ ine (.) Bulk densit y. (i.) Waler co mer s. (ii,) Dry den sity. (iv)

=t;:~~ deasity, «(~:dl~~6~V;);~i~;;): ~ f~~~~~·_~a~~;s~~~~vi~~~~

3
Z.J. (0 ) A sample of saturated soil bcs a wate r co nten t o f 2.'i percent a rxt a bulk unit weight of ZOk.Ntm • Determine
the dry unit weig hl. vo id ratio and the specific gravh y of sol ids.
(b) What would be the hulk unit weight of the soil ill (0 ) if it is co mpacted 10 the seme void ratio bu t has a
J
degree of satu ration of 90% ? (An s. 16 kNIm'\ 0.667 . 2 .667 19 .60 kNIm )
2.4. A sample o f soil has a volume of 65 ml and weighs 0.96 N. After compree drying. its weigh t reduces 10 0.7&.'1
N. If the specific gravity of solid particles is 2.65 , determine the degree o f satu ration. [Ans. 5 1%)
2.5. A satura ted soil samp le has a water comem of 409(,. 1£the specific gravity of solids is 2.61. dctennine the void
J J
reno, sa turated density, and sub merged density . (Anli. 1.07 ; 1807 kglm i 807 kglm ]
2.6. (a) Define the term" void ratio, dry density. submergcd density and massspecific gravity .
( b) Derive lin express..ion for bulk dCrL<;;ity in tcnns of lts wate r con tent, void ratio. specific gravity o f solids and
densi ty of water.
2.7. A partially satura ted sample of a soil has a density or 1950 kglm3 and a water content o f 21%. If tbe specific
gravity of sollcs is 2.65, calculate the degree o f saturation and void rauo.
3
1£ the sample subseq uently gets sat urated, determin e its satura ted density. R<
(An s.>%; 0 .645 ; 200.1 kg/m 1
2.8. A sampl e of so il has a volum e of 1 litre and a weight of 17.5 N. The specific gravity of the soli ds is 2,68. If
J
the dry unit weight of the soi l is 14.8 kNIm , determine (a) wa ter con tent. ( b) void ratio, (e) porosity, (d)
sat urated unit we ight, (e) submerged densily and (j) degree of satu ration .
3 3
[Ans. 182% : 0.8 11 : 44.8% ; 19 .28 tN/ m , 9.28 kNlm and 6O.2%}
2.9. A fully saturated day sample has a mass o f 1.10gm and has a volume of 64 em 3. 1be sa mple mass is l OS gm
after oven drying. Ao;suming that the volume docs not change du ring drying, determine the following : (I)
specific gravity of soi l solids . (il) void mtin, (iii) porosit y, 0\ ') dry density .
(Ans. 2 69 ; 0 .64 ; 39% and 1.641 gm/Cm3\
2.10 . Prove thai the wate r cootern (w) of a panial ly saturat ed soil can be expressed as
~
w-(G"./S} _ l
=
whe re G", mas... specific gravity, G '" speci fic gravity of solid.s and S '" degree of saturation.
2.11 (a) Prove that the degree of saturation of 8 partially saturated soil can be expressed as
w

No. 1 No.2 No.3

960 970 1000
2080 2050 20 10
BASIC DEH NITIONS AND SIM PLE Tf-sTS 4J

If the mass of pycnome ter whe n filled with wa ter on ly was 1475 gm, determi ne the speci fic gravity o f sol ids.
(b) Also determ ine lhe wate r concnt and void ratio o f sa mples no. 2 and 3. a nd the degree of satcrcnon of
samp le no. 2. IAns. 2.70; 6.3%.0.40; 11.70; 0.32 and 41.85%]
2.13. An undistu rbed specimen of d ay was tested in a labora tOf)' and the followi ng results were CJb(ained.
Wet mass '" 210 gm
Oven dry mass '" 175 gm
Speci fic gravity of solids '" 2.70
What was the 1Ot.aI volume of the rnginal undisturbed specimen as..'>WTling that the specimen was 50% saturared ?
(Ans. l:U.8 mI)
2.14. A soil de posi t ro be used for construction of an ea rth emronkmc nt has an avera ge dry denshy o f 1.62 gm/ml . If
rhe compacted emban kme nt is to have an avem ge d ry density o f 1.72 gmtml. dcrcrmirc me volume o f soi l to
l
be exca vated for 1000 m of embankment. The water cont ent of the soil in the borrow pit is 1()Il(,.
3 3)
[Ans. 1.061 x 10 m
2.15. Determin e the spec ific gravi ty of solids from the followin g obse rvations:
(i) Mass of dry sample '" 0.395 kg
(ii) Mass o f pycnometer full o f wate r '" 1.755 kg
(iii) Muss 01'pycno meter conta ining soil and full of water '" 2.005 kg. [Ans. 2.72J
2.16. A sample of clay having a mass of 675 g m W3.<: coa ted with para ffin wa x. The combi ned mass of the clay and
the wax was found to be 6R2 gm. The vo lume was found by immers ion in water 3." 345 ml. 1lt e sample was
then broken ope n and lhe water co ntent and the speci fic grav ity of solids were found to be 15% and 2.70,
respe ctively. Calc ulate the hulk de nsity of soil , its void ratio, and degree o f satura tion. Take specific gravi ty o f
wax as 0.89. {Ans. 2.002 gmt ml, 0.551 and 735%)
2.11. In ord er to de termine the bulle density of a soil insitu, 4.7 kg o f soi l was extra cted from a hole al the sorfece of

~~:~t~: ::eo0.~irl~~'~~t;'fd=i~? r~~~~~~:~i~~ t~ i:;~CS 6.75 kg of th~A~I:~dk~l:

2.18. A litre capaciry cutle r of mass 1 kg was pushed into tin emba nkme nt under con.<:truction and the mass of the
culler with soil was fou nd to be 2.865 kg. If the sampl e had wate r con tent of 11%. determine tbe void ratio of
the soil in crrbanlune nr. G :: 2.67. IA ns.0591

B. Descrtpnve a nd Obj ecti ve Types

2.19 Wha t is a block diagra m? What is irs use ?
2.20. DiITere nliate betwee n :
(a) Pe rcentage air voids and air conte nr,
(b) Void ratio and fJOf<'ISi lY.
(c ) Specific gravi ty of solids and mass speci fic gravity .
(d) Water co ntent based on solid material and that bascd on total mass .
(e) Satu rated de nsity and bulk de nsity.
2,21. How do you determ ine the "ai d ratio of a soil?
2.22, Discuss various methods for de termination of water co ntent in a laboratory.
2.23, Desc ribe a method for determination of the specific-gravity of solids of fine-grain ed sons.
2.24. How wo uld you determine the bulk densi ty of a soil specimen in a labo ratory ?
2.2.5. Discuss various methods for lhe determination o f bulk dens iry of a soil in field.
2.26. State whether the followin g Slalcme nts are true or false
( a) 11M: wate r con tent of Il soil cen be more lhan llll:)%.
(b) The poros ity of a so il can be more than 1()()%
(c) 1be specific gravity of pan icles of cce rse-gramed is seldo m greater than 2.70.
(d) The submerged densi ty is about one-half of the sat urated density .
(e) For determination of water conte nt of all types of soils, tbe oven temperature is 100· ~ S-C.
(Ans. TNe (a), (c), (d)]
2.27. (a) Which of the follow i:tg rclalion is 001 COrTCC1 ?
44 sou. MECHANICS AND RJU NDATION ENINEERING

(il t' = I ~II (iI) /I oo----!.....-

I -,

(iii)PJ=~ (iv) p' = (G- I)p~­

I u
(Ans.(il)]

(hl Which of the following slal¢rt1efIb is wrong?

til The mid rmio of a saturated soi l can he determined from its water content.
(if) The dry density ic .the bulk density of soil in dried condition.
(i iil lOW*" saluralin n Iinc and zero percent air void lines are identica l. (Afli",(iiH
C. Multiple-C hoice QIl t"Stioll S
I. The water co ntent o f ;I hig hly organi~' soil is dete rmined in an (wen at a tempera ture of:
( u ) 105°C (bl RO"C
(c) 6W C (d127°C
2. Pycnomete r met hod for water conte nt dc rc rrntnauon is mo re suita ble for:
(11) Clay eh) Loess
lc ) S und (d) Sill
J . Th e gas formed by the reaction (If calcium carbide with wutcr is:
(a ) C arh g.o dioxide (b) Sulp hur d iox ide
(("j Ethane Cd)Acetylene
4. The ratio o f the volume "r voids [0 the tota l volume o f soil is:
1/./)Voids ruuo lb) Degree o f sa uranon
(e) Air co ntent (d) Porosity
5. Dry den s ity of soil is equal 10 the;
{cl} Mass of solids 10 Ihe: vol ume of solids.
(h) Mass of solids I.) Ihe to tal volume of so il.
te) Densi ty of soil in the d ried cond ition.
Cd) None of lhe above
6. The mo~ accurate method fur the cetcrnuoauon o f water content in the: labora tory is:
Itl) Sand bath method. (b) Oven-drying method
Ie) Pycnometer me thod. (d) Calc ium carbide melhod .
7. A soil has a hulk densi ly o f 1.80 glem-\ at a water content of 5%. If lhe void ratio remains co nstant then the
bulk densil)" for a wall.... content o f 10 % w ill ~
(a ) 2.00 gA,n~ (h) I. IlK glc m·
1
J
(e ) 1.8 2 iYcm (t!) 1.95 glc m'\
8. In a wei so il mass. air occupies one-six th of its vo lume and water o cc upie s o ne-third of its vo lume . The void
ratio o f the soi l is
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50
k) I.50 1 ~ I, OO
9. A soil sample has a speci fic gravity of 2.60 and a void ratio of 0 .711. The water content requir ed to folly saturate
the soil at that void ratio will be
{Cl)20 % ,. --(-/)(30%
(c) 40% (dI6<J<>
[AIlS. I. (c). 2. (c ). J. (d). 4. (d ). 5. (b). 6. (h ). 7. (b), 8. (d). 9. (b))
 3
Particle Size Analysis

3.1. INTROD UCllON

(a) Engineering Properties-The main engineering properties of soils are permeability. compressibility,
and shea r strength . Permeability indicates the facili ty with which water can flow through so ils. It is required
for es timation of seepage discharge through earth masses. Compressib ility is related with the deformations
produced in soils when they are subjec ted 10 compressive teeds. Compress...ion characteristics are required for
comp utation of the settlements of structures founded on soils . S hear strength of a son is its ability to resi st
shear stresses. The shear strength determines the stability of slopes. bearing ca pacity of soils and the earth
pressu re on reta ining structures . Enginee ring properties of soils are d iscussed in latter ch..apiers.
(b) Index Properties-lbe tests required for determination of engineering properties are generally
elaborate and timc-ronsuming. Somctimcs. the gcotcdmical engineer is interested 10 have some rough
assessment of the engineering properties without ronducting elaborate tests. Thi.s is pcssibjc if index
properties an: de termined. The properties of soils which are 001 of primary interest to the geotechnical
enginee r but which are indicative of the engineeri ng properties are ca lled index properti es. Simple IQ;tS which
arc required to determine the index properties arc known as classifica tion tests. The soils arc classified and
identi fied based on the index properties, as discussed in chapter 5, The main index properties of coarse-
grained soils are particle size and lhe relative density, which are described in this chapter. For fine-grained
soils, the main Index peopcrncs are Ancree rg's limits and the consistency (chapter 4).
Thc index pcoperues are sometimes divided into two categories. ( 1) Properties of individual particles. arxl
(2) Properties of the soil mass, also known as aggregate properties. The properties of individual pa rticles can
be determined from a remoutdcd, disturbed sample. These depend upon the individual grains and are
irxlepcndcnt of the manner of soil formation. The soil aggrega te properties depend upon the mode of soil
form atio n, soil history and soil structure. These propert ies should be determined from undist urbed samples or
preferably from in-situ tests. 111e most important properties of the individual particles of coarse- grained soils
arc the particle size dis tribution and grain shape . The aggregate property of the coarse-grained soils of great
practical importance is its rela tive de nsity.
The index propenics give some information about the engineering properties. It is taciuy assumed that
soils with like index properties have iden tical engineeri ng properties. 1I01Ncv er. the correlation between index
propert ies a nd engineering properties is not perfect . A liberal factor of safety should be: provided if the design
is based only on index propcn ies. Design of large. important strueIures should be done only after
determinatio n of eng ineering properties.
3.2. MECIlANICAL ANALYSIS
The mechanical analysis, atso known as panicle size analysis, is a method of separation of soils into
diff e rent rractloos.. based on the part icle size. It expresses quantitatively the proportion.s, by mass, of various
sizes of pcrnclcs present in a soil . 11 i... shown graphically on a panicle size distribution curve.
46 SOIL MECII ANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEER ING

The mechanical analysis is done in two stages : ( I) Sieve Analysis. (2) Sedimentat ion Analysis. The fim
analysis is meant for coarse-grained soils (particle Si7-C greater than 75 micron) which can easily pass throu gh
a set of sieves. lbc second analysis is used for fine-grained soils (size smaller than 75 microns).
Sed imentation ana lysis is also known as wet analysis. As a soil mass, may co ntain the part icles of both types
of soils, a combined analysis comprising both sieve analysis and sed imenta tion analysis may be required for
such soils.
Particle size smelle r than 0.2 micro n cannot be determi ned by the sedimenta tion method, These can be
determined by an electron mic roscope or by X-ray di ffraction techn iques. However, s uch analysis is of little
practical importance in soil eng ineering.
3.3. SIEVE ANALYSIS
The soil is sieved through a set of sieves. Sieves arc generally made of spun brasss and phosphor bronz
(or stain less steel) s ieve cloth. Acco rding to IS : 1498-1 970. the sieves are designated by the size of square
opening, in mm or microns (I micron = 10-6 m = to~J mm). Sieves of various sizes ranging from 80 mm to
75 microns are available. "{be diameter of the sieve is gcncrally between 15 to 20 an .
As mentioned before . the sieve analysis is done for coa rse-gra ined soils . The coa rse-grained soils can be
furthe r sub-divided into gra vel fraction (size> 4.75 mm) and sand fraction (75~ < size < 4.75 mm), where
Greek letter ~ is used to represent micron. A set of coarse sieves, coosisting of the sieves of size 80 mm, 40
mm, 20 mm, 10 mm and 4.75 mm. is required for the gravel Iracoon, The second set of sieves. consistmg of
the sieves of size 2 mm, 1 mm, 600 f.l. 425 ~. 212 ~. 150 ~ and 75 ~. is used for sievi ng minus 4.75 mm
fraction. However, all the s ieves may not be required for a particular soil. The selection of the requ ired
number of sieves is done to obtain a good particle size distrib ution curve . The sieves arc stacked one over the
other. with decreasing size from the top to the bottom. Thus the sieve of the largest opening is kept at the
top. A lid or co ver is placed at the top of the largest sieve. A receiver. known as pan, which has 00 opening.
is placed at the bottom of the smallest s ieve.
(0) Dry Sieve An alysi<i-Thc so il sa mple is taken in suitable quantity, as given in Table 3.1. The larger
the particle size. the greater is the quantity of soil required.
The soil shou ld be ove n-dry, It should not contai n any lump. If necessa ry. it shou ld be pulverized. If the
soil contains organic matter; it can be taken air-dry instead of oven dry.
The samp le is sieved through a 4.75 mm (S sieve. The portion reta ined on the sieve is the gravel fracti on
or plus 4.75 mm material. The gravel fractio n is sieved through the set of
coarse sieves manually or using a mechanical shaker. Hand s ieving is ,
normally done. The weight of soil retained o n each sieve is obtained . 2·0mm
The minus 4.75 mm fraaion is sieved through the set of flne sieves.
1be sample is placed in the lap sieve and the set of sieves is k.ept on a 1·0mm
mechanical shaker (Fig. 3. 1) and the mach ine is sta rted. Norm ally. 10 6COr-
minutes of shaking is sufficien t for most soils. The mass of soil retained
on each sieve and o n pan is obtai ned to the nearest 0.1 gm. lbc mass of 42S ...
the retained soil is checked against the original mass.
212 I"
Dry sieve ana lysis is suitable for ccoesionless so ils. with link or 00
fines . If the sand is sieved in wet oonditions, the surface tension may 1S0 l'"
cause a slight increase in the size of the partic les and the particles smaller
tha n the aperture size may be retained on the sieve and the results wou ld 75~

be erroneous.
Pan

S.No.
1.
Ta ble 3.1. Qu antity of Soli for Sieve Analysl'i
Maximum Size
80mm
QUQ"'ity (Ig)
00
I 5;." shak"
I
2- 20mrn 6.5
3. 4.75 rom 0.5
Fig. 3.t. Stacki ng of Sieves.
PARTICLE Sl7£ ANALYSlS 47

(b) Wet Sien Analysis-e-lf the soil conains a scbstannnt qcantny (say. more than 5%) o f fine particles.
a wet sieve ana lysis is requi red. All lumps are broken into individual particles. A represe ntative soil sam ple
in lhe required q uantit y is taken , using a ri m er. arxl dried in an oven. The dried sample is taken in a tray and
soaked with water . If dcfloccu lation is requ ired. sodium hcxamcta-pbospoate. at (he rate of 2 g per litre of
water. is added. lbc sample is stirred and len for a soak ing period of at least one hour. lbc slurry is then
sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve . and washed with a jet of water. Tbc material reta ined on the s ieve is the
gravel fraction. It is dried in an oven, and sieved throughset of coarse s ieves.
The material passing Ihrough 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through a 75 ~ sieve . The materi al is was hed until
the wash wa ter becomes clear. The materia l reta ined on the 75 ~ sieve is co llected and dried in an oven. It
is then sieved through the set of fine sieves of the size 2 mm, 1 mm , 6CXJ ~, 425 ft. 212 u, 150 IJ, and 75 ft.
The material retained on each sieve is collected and weighed . The material that would have been retained on
pan is equal to the 101011 mass of soi l minus the sum o f the masseso f material retained on all sieves .
Computalion or Percentage Finer
for determ inetioo of tbc part icle size distribu tion curve. percen tage of particles finer than a par1icular size
is required. Th is can be found as under:
Let us consi der the case when the sieving has been done throo gh seven sieves. no I (coarsest) to no. 7
(fmcst). lei the mass of soil retained on these sieves be respectively, ""1' M 2 • •• ,M7, and the mass of soil
retained on Ihe pan (receiver) be M" . lbc sum of all these masses is, ob viously , equal to Ihe IOt~ 1 mass of
sampJeM.
Expressed as percentage, the materials retained 00 the sieves and pan are
M M
PI .. MI )( 100 P2 - M2 )( 100 , etc.

and P7 .. 0/} .. 100 and Ps .. 0/1 )( 100

The cumulativepercentage(C) of material retained on any sieve ts equal 10 the sum of the percentage of
soil retained on the sie ve and tha t retained on all sieves coarser than lhat sieve. Therefore,
C 1 .. PI
C2 .. PI '+ P2
C7 .. P I '+ P2 + . .. + P7
The percent age finer (N) than any sieve size is obtained by scbuactlng the cumulative percentage
retained on the sieve from 100 %.
1hus, N t - l00-CI ; N2 - l00-C2 • etc.
and N, .. l OO - C7
It may be no ted that the d imension of the soil particle that controls whether a particle sha lt pass through
a sieve opening is the intermediate dimensioo (wid th) of the particle .f or exempt e, a particle with dimensions
3 0101 )( 2 0101 )( I 0101 shall pass throug h a sieve of size 2 mm if it is assumed thai the particle is aligned
such that the largest dimension is normal 10 the plane of sieve opening and is at right angles 10 !.he side of
I.hc square.
(See Chapter 30, Sect. 30 .8 for the laboratory experiment)
3.4. stuKES' LAW
Soil particles finer than 75 ft size cannot be sieved. 1be particle sbe dis tribution o f such soils is
oerermincd by scclmemeuon anal ysis. The ana lysis is based on Stokes' law, which gives !.he terminal velocity
of a small sphere se u hng in a fluid o f infinite ext ent. When a small sphere scujcs in a fluid, its velocity first
increases under the action of gravity, but the drag force comes into action , end retards the velocity. After an
initial adjustme nt per iod, steady cond itions are attained and the velocity becomes consta nt. 1he velocity
48 SOIL MECHA NICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEER ING

attained is known as terminal H:/OC;ty. The expression for terminal velocity can be obtai ned from the
equilibrium of the particle.
100 drag force, F[), experienced by a sphere of radius r when it falls throug h a fluid of viscosity T] is
given by
FD· 6 :t T)rv ...(a)
where v is the velocit y.
Th e other two forces acting on the sphere arc the weight (W) of the sphere and the buoyant Corce (U) .
W _ 4/3 nr y, _ 4/3 :t T3 (p,g) ... (b)
where 'i, is the unit we ight of the materia l of sphere
and U. 4 /3 .,.' Y• • 4/ 3
From eq uilibrium of forces in vert ical directio n.
',.' (P.g) ... (e)

W - U + FD
4/3 :t?.". 4/3:tr.,... + 6 ;'I T)rv

4 /3:trl g p, _ 4/3 J't ,.Jg P... + 6:t Tl'V

V"~·~(p.- P.)g
v • .!.. . g D'(G -l)p.
... (3.1)
18 ~
where D is the diameter of the sphere. G is the specific gravity of the material of sphere , and g is the
acceleration due to gravity .
If a spherica l pa rticle Calls through a height 1I~ cent imeters in I minutes,

II • ~et on/sec ..• (3.2 )

From Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2).

IJ. I gD'(G- I)p.
6Ot"18 --~-- ...(3.3)

D . V O.J'l)( II.,
g(G- I ) p. x I [3.4(a)J

D • M ...[is.
I
[3.4(b) J

whore M is a fac tor, equal to [g(~·= r) P.r

in which T] is the viscos ity in poise (dyne- seclcm1. g • 98t cm/sc2. and p... is in gm/mL D is in
centimeters.
Table 3.2 gives the values of the coefficient of viscosity TJ for water at differen t temperatures.
The values of me factor M can be computed and tabulated for different temperat ures. For example, for G
= 2.67 and T = 20 e, and taking P... :c: 1.0 gm 'rnt, and 11 = 10.09 x 10-) poise. g = 981 cm/sec2,
0

3
0.3 x 10.09 x 10- ]" _,
M = [ 98 1 x 1.67 x 1.0 = 1.36 x 10'
An approximate expression for diameter D of the pan icle can be obtained from Eq. 3.1. '
PARTICLE,SIZE ANALYSIS 49

Table 3.2 Coeffici ent of vbicoslly or water 1")

(Vu l u~ in rnillipoM)

rc l"C l"C rc
0 "
17.94 10 "
13.10 zo "
10.09 so "
8.00

2
• 1132
16.74
11
.2
12.74
1239
21
22
' .84
9 .61
31
32
7.83
7.67
3 16.19 13 12.06 23 .-'8 33 751
4 15.68 14 11.75 24 9.16 34 7.36
5 15.19 15 11045 2< 8.95 35 7.2 .
•
7
14.73
14.29
rs
.7
11.16
10.88
26
27
8.75
855
36
37
7.06
6.92
8 13.87 .8 10.60 28 8.36 38 • .79
• 13.48
••
(Note. 1 millipoise = 0.1 rnN-stm2l
1034 29 8. 18 3. . .66

, v.l... 981 x LY(2 .67 -1.0) x 1.00

18 10.0'1 x 10--)
0'
v _ 9020LY . . .[3.5(0)]
where v is the velocit y in em/sec and D is the diame ter in em.
If v is expressed in mm/sec and D in rom,
v _ 902Ii' ... [3.5(b»)
If v is e xpressed in em/sec and D in mm,
v _ 90.2 Ii' ... [3.5(c)]
Table 3.3 gives the time required for the set tlement of partic les of differe nt sizes thro ugh a height of
100 mm.
Tabl e 3.3 . Ttme of Settleme nt for 100 mm Height
S.No Diameler (mm)
I. 0.075 19.72 sec
2 0 .0 2 4.62 min
3. 0.006 51.36 men
4. 0.002 7 .70 hr
5. 0.00 1 JO.8 1 hr

3.5. PREPARATION OF SUSltENSION FOR SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

About 50 g of oven-dried soil is weighed accurately and transferred to an evaporating dish. 1b have
proper dispersio n of soil, about 100 ml of a dispersion solution is added to the evaporat ing dish to cover the
soil. IS : 272D-Part IV recommends the use of dispersion solution obtained after add ing 33g of sodium
hexameta-phosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate to distilled water to make one lilre of solution. After the
dispersing solution has been added 10 soil, the mixture is wanned gently for about 10 minutes. The contents
of the evaporating dish are then transferred to the cup of a mechanical stirrer. Distilled water is added to
make the cup about three-fourth full. TIle suspension is stirred for about 15 minutes. However. the stirring
period is more for clayey soils.
1be suspension is then washed through a 75 '" sieve. using jets of distilled water. Tbe portion of the
suspension which has passed Ihrough the sieve is used for sedi mentation analysis. 1be specim en is washed
into a 1000 ml jar and enough water is added 10 make 1(0) ml of suspension.
If the soil coorains organic matter and calciu m rompounds. it should be pretreated before adding the
dispersing agent. This is done is two stages.
(1) Tbe soil is taken in a beaker and Ilrst treated with a 20 volume hydrogen peroxide soluron to remove
the organic matter; at the rare of about 100 ml of hydrogen pero xide for 100 gm of soil 1bc mixture is
 OOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

warmed to a temperature nor. exceedi ng 6O"c. Hydrogen peroxide causes oxidation of organic meuer and gas
iii libera ted. When no more gas comes out, the mixture is bo iled to decompose the remainin g hydrogen
pero xide . The mixture is then cooled .
(2) Calcium compounds in the soil are removed by add ing 0.2 N hydrochloric acid at the rate of 100 mt
for every 100 g o f soil. When the reacti on is co mplet e, the mixture is filtered . The filtrate is washe d wi th
dist illed wate r until it is free from the acid. Tbe dam p soil on the filter is placed in a evaporatlng dish and
dried in an ove n to constant mass.
3.6. THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION
At the rom menoeme nt of the scdimeritatioo, the soil particles an: uniform ly dspersed throughout the
suspens ion, and the concen tration of particles of d ifferent sizes is th~ same at all dept hs. Afier a lime period,
at a particular depth, only those part icles remain which have not settled. Because all particles of the same size
have the same velocity , the particles o f a g iven slze, if they exist at any level , are in the same concc ntration
as at the beg inning o f sedimentation. In other words., all particles smal ler than a particula r size D will be
present at a depth II" in the same degree 0/ concentrat ion as at the beginning. All panicles larger than the
size D would have setlled below that depth.
For illustration, let us assume that the soil is composed of panicles of only three sizes, which have
terminal velocities in the ratio of 1:2:3. The three types of panicles. two at each level. are shown in the }eft

Lev e t A A
T h
.~
t
L evet 8 B

h
B ~. 20
t.evet C C 7 2.
t h
00 0

Le v et

Lev er E E
00
+
.L
h
10

13
db

'4
~~

'5
"J ~ )V)

V : 2 V,
2
7 5
00

m.p. %'g~g 6:9~~:S

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.2. Seulemenr of panicles.
column , middle co lumn and the right co lumn in Fig. 3.2 (a). At the begin ning o f the sedimentation, the
conce ntration of particles is the same at a ll levels.
After some time, the particles take the position as show n in fig . 3.2 (b). The particles of the smalJest size
have settled to a depth h, those of the intermediate size and the largest size 10 2h and 3h. respectively. At
lever B-B, only the panicles of the smallest size exist, and the coocentratioc of these particles is the same
as at the beginning, m 2 panicles. At level C-C, the oonoentration o f the particles of the smallest and
intermed iate sizes is the same as at beginning. Likew ise. at level D-D, the particles of all the three sizes
exi st with the same conccntra tion.
If mo is the mass of paniclesper ml or.suspension at depth 1/" after lime t. and m, is the mass of particles
per mt of suspension at the beginning of sedimentation, the percentage Iiner than the size D is given by

N • ~ ~ 100 ... (3.6)

The part icle size D is de termined using Eq. 3.4(a).

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS 51

3.7. PIPETIE METIIOD

In this method, 500 mt of soil suspension is required . The procedure for preparat ion of 100D ml of
suspension has been discussed in Sec t. 3.5. All the quantities required for 10Cl0ml of suspen sion are halved
to get a 500 ml of suspension. The suspension is
taken in a sedimentation tube. Fig. 3.3 shows a 10
ml capacity pipette used for cxtmc uon of the r"_----i---+-- Bul b runner
(d is till ed wa ter)
sample. The pipette is fitted with a suction inlet.
Suc tio n ---,-, -,,~.>U
(a) Calibration or Pipett e Sofe ty bu lb

For determination of the vol ume of pipette. it

is calibrated before usc. For calibration, the nozz le
Wash ou t let
of the pipette is immersed in distilled water. The Stop cock
stop cock S is closed. The three-way stop cock T is
opened, and the water is suc ked up into the pipette Sca le
until it rises in safety bulb. The stop cock T is then Pipett e
closed and the pipette is taken ou t. Th e stop cock T
is now turned the other way round to connect it to - Sli ding carri oge
the wash outle t to dra in thc excess water from the
safety bulb. The stop cock is then turned the other
way round to d ischarge the water con tained in the
pipette into a glass weighing bottle. The mass of
water in the bottle in grams is equal to the volume
of the pipette in mi.
(b) Sedimentati on lest
The sedimen tation lube co ntaining the
suspension is placed in a cons tant-temperature bath
at zr c for about one hour. The lube is then
Se d ime ntation tube

removed from the bath , a rubber bung is placed on

its top to close the mouth . The tube is inverted end -
over-end a numbe r of times to cause thorough
mixing. The bung is removed and the tube is again Fig. 33. Pipette Method
placed in the constant tempemture bath kept just below the tip of the pipette . The instant when the tube is
placed in the constant tempera ture bath is taken as the beginning of the sedimentation. The stop watch is
started to record the time.
The pipette is gradu ally lowered into the suspension in the sedimentation tube. The samples are taken
from a depth of 100 mm below the surface of the suspension. The first sample is taken after 2 minut es of the
start of sedimenta tion. The pipette is lowered slow ly about 20 seconds before the sample is due to be taken.
More samples are taken after 4, 8, 15 and 30 minutes , and I, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours. Exact time at which the
sample is taken is noted from the stop watch.
The procedure for taking samples is as follows. The stop cock T is opened and the suspe nsion is drawn
into the pipeu e until it is full of suspension. The time taken for actual sampling is about 20 seconds. The stop
cock T is then closed , and any surpl us suspension dawn up in the safet y bulb is drained away through the
wash outlet. The safety bulb is flushed out with dis tilled water stored in the bulb funnel. The stop cock: is
again turned and the soil sample in the pipette is transferred to a weighing bottle . Distilled water is used to
transfer any solid particles adhering to the inside . The samples taken are dried in an oven at 105-1 10°C for
24 hours to obtain the mass of solids per ml. As the solids also contain dispersing agent , a correction in the
mass of solids is required . If m is the mass of dispersing agent per ml of suspension , the weight of soil solids
per ml is given by
... (3.7)
52 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUN DATION ENGI NEERING

where "'v' = mass of solids/rot as obtained from the sample.

/liD = actual mass of soil solids/rot.
The percentage finer than an y size D can be obtained using Eq. 3.6.
Merits and Demerits of the PlpeUe Method
The pipette method is a standard laborntory method for the particle size analy sis of flue-grained soils. It
is a very accu rate method . However, the appara tus is quite delicate and expens ive. It requires a very sensitive
~c~;~g~~~c::~tor quick particle size ana lysis, the hydromete r method , desc ribed in the followi ng section ,

3.8. livDROMETER METHOD

A hydrometer is an instrument used for the determ ination of the specific gravity of liquids . As the
specif ic gravity of the soil suspension depends upon the particle size. a hydrometer can be usee for the
particle size analysis. A special type of hydrometer with a long stem (neck) is used. The stem is marked from
lop to bottom , generally in the range of 0.995 to 1.030 (Fig. 3.4) . At the lime of commcne ment of

0· 995 _ -,
1·000=0 Stem
' .00 5 = 5

B -l.."t1
1
- - - B'

I
B B A
T B

H+t H.

L A
L
TlH
1
Bul b h TA
I

(0 )
(b)
FIg. 3.4. Hydrometer Metbod
sedimentation, the specific gravity of suspension is uniform at all depths . Whe n the sedimentation takes place,
thee larger particles settle more deeper than the smaller ones . This results in non-unifo rm specific gravity of
the suspension at different depths . The . lower layers of the suspe nsion have speci fic gravity greater than that
of the upper layers .
Casagrande has shown that the hydromete r measures the specific gravity of suspension at a point
indicated by the centre of the immersed volume. If the volume of the stem is neglected . the centre of the
immersed volume of the hydrometer is the same as the centre of the bulb. Thus. the hydrometer gives the
specific grav ity of the suspension at the centre of the bulb.
 PARTICLE SiZE ANALYSIS
"
(a) Calibra tion or hydrometer
To determine the depth at which the specific gravity is measu red. calibration o f rae hydromet er is done.
The volume of the hydrometer. VH• is first determ ined by immersi ng it in a graduated cylinder partly filled
with wate r and noting down the volume due to the rise in wa ter lev eL Th e volume o f the hydrometer can also
be detennincd indirect ly from its mass. Th e vo lume of hydrometer in mt is appro ximately equal to the mass
of hydrometer in grams. ass uming chat the specinc grav ity of hydrometer is unity.
The depth of any layer A-A from the free surface B-D is the effecti ve depth at whi ch the specifi c grav ity
is measured by the hydrometer ((Fig. 3.4 (b)]. As soo n as the hydrometer is inserted in the ja r. the layer of
suspension which was at level A· A rises to the level A' - A', and that at level B· B rise to the leve l H' - B'.
111C effective depth ll~ is given by

JI~ - (II +~ ) - ~ + ~ ••.(0)

where II = depth from the free surface B' - B' to the lowest mark on the stem.
h = height of bulb.
VH ::: volume of hydrometer.
A = cross-secnonat area of jar.
In Eq. (a). it bas been assumed that the rise in suspension jevct from A - A to A' -A' at the ce ntre of the
bulb is equal 10 half the tolal rise due to the volume of the hydrom eter.

Thus II~ • II + t(
h - ~) ••.(3.8)

The markings on the hydrometer stem give the spe cific gravity o f the surspension at the ce ntre of the
bulb. The hydrom eter readin gs arc recorded after SUbtracting unity from the value of the specifi c gravity and
multiplying the rema ining 1BO
digit by 1000. Thus. a

~
specific gravity of 1.015 is
represented by a hydrom eter
160
reading R. of (1.015 - }.OO) :r
l(XX) 15. The
graduations on the right side ~ 1 t. 0

~~;t;:. ~~~ :;~~~ :~

. depth H~ depe nds upon the
hydrometer reading Rh• a :; 120
calibration chart can be w
obtained between the hydro-
meter readin g Rh and the
10 15 20 25 30
effective depth II~. For deter-
H ydrom~ter rll adi n g ( R h) -
mination of the effective
Fig. 35. Calibnllion Chan.
deplh H, from Eq. (3.8). an
accurate scale is used to determine the height h and the depth II to various graduat ions. Fig. 3.5 shows a
typical calibration chan.
As the sedimemation progresses, the specifi c gravity of the suspension decreases and the hydrom eter goes
deeper and deeper. and the effective depth increases . The hydro meter read ing Rir of course. decreases (Fig. 3 .6).

(b) Test Procedure

Exactly 1000 ml of suspens ion is prepared as explained in Sect. 3.5. After stirrin g. the sus pens ion is
washed. into a 1000 mljar and water is added to it to bring the level to 1000 ml mark . The suspensi on is
 &) IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

mixed thoroughly by placing

a bung (or the palm of a
hand) o n the open end of the
f
jar and turning it upside
dow n and back a few times .

~e~~~ t:C~t:~~I: i:
HCi!

1
T
H. T r
I
H.
1
started .
The hydrometer
inserted in the suspension
is

and the first reading is taken

1
after i minute of the
commencement of the sccl-
mentat ion. Further readings
arc taken after one minute. t ~ 12
two minutes and four (b)
minutcs of the commence- t4>~>7>t1
ment of the sedimentation.
Th e hydrometer is then Fig. 3 .6. Downward movement or hydrom eTer.
removed from the jar and rinsed with distilled water and floated in a compariso n cyli nder co ntaining dist illed
water with the dis persing agent added 10 the sa me concentrati on as in the soil suspension.
Further readings are taken after 8. 15 and 30 minutes and I. 2. 4. 8 and 24 hours reckoned from the
beginning of sed imentation. For each of these readings. the hydrometer is inserted about 20 seconds before
the reading. lbe hydrometer is taken out a fter the reading and floated in the compariso n cy linde r,
(c) Corrections of Hydrometer- Read ing
The hydromete r readings are corrected as under :
(i) Meniscus co rrec t jon-c-Since the suspension is opaque. the observations are taken at the top of the
meniscus, The me niscus correction is equal to the reading between the top of the meniscus and the level of
the suspension. As the marking o n the stem Increases downward. the correct ion is positive.
The meniscus correc tion (em) is determined from the readings at the top and bottom of meniscus in the
compariso n cy linder. The meniscus co rrection is cons tant Cora hydrometer .
If Rio' is the hydromet er reading of the suspe nsion at a particular lime. the corrected hydrometer Rio
reading is given by
Rio - R,,' + C", . .. (3.9)
The corrected hydrometer reading (Riol is required for determining the effective depth from the calibration
chart (Fig. 3.5). .
(u) Tempera ture co rrection-The hydrometer is gene rally calib rated at 27°C. If the temperature of the
suspension is d ifferent from 2rc, a temperature correctio n (C,) is required for the hydrometer reading. If the
temperature i<> more Ulan 2re, the suspensi on is lighter. and the actual reading will be lessthan the corrected
read ing. The temperature correction is pos itive. On the other hand. if the temperatu re is less than 27°C. the
temperatu re correct ion is negative.
The tempera ture correction is obtained from the charts supplied by the manufacturer.
(ii l) Dispersion agen t Correctlon-c-Adcn ion of the dispe rsing agent to the soi l specimen causes and
increase in the specific gravity of the suspension, 'Therefore, the d ispersing agent correcoon is always
negati ve. The dispers ing agent correaion (Cd) can be determined by noting the hydrome ter reading in clear
water and again in the same water after adding the dispersing agent.
Thus. the correc ted reading R can be obtained from the observed reading Rio' as under.
PARTIa..E SiZE ANALYSIS 55

R -RJt '+ C_ ~ C, - Cd .. .(3.10)

Com pos tte Coerectlo n-clnsteed of fmding the correaions individuall y, it is convenient to fmd one
composite correction. The composite ccrrecjon (C) is the algebraic sum of all the corrections. Thus.
R- RJt':tC •. .(3.11)
The composite correction is found d irectly from the readi ngs taken in a comparison cylinder, wh ich has
distilled water and the d ispersin g age nt in the same coocemrauon, and has the same temperature. As the
hydrometer has been calibrated at 27"C to indicate a specific gravity of I.(XlI. the difTerel're bet ween the
reading taken at the top of meniscus and 1.()(X) is in magni tude equal to the composi te corrccnon. 'Inc
negative of the hydromete r rend ing in the comparison" cylinder is equal to the composi te corre ction. The
composite correction can be positive or neg ative . For example. if the hydrometer readi ng is +2 (i .e. 1.002),
the correctio n is - 2. and if the reading is - 3 (Le. 0.997), the correction is +3.
The composite correct ion is found before the start o f the tes t and at every 30 minute inte rval.
.J.9. RELATION BEnVEEN PERCENTAGE FINER A ND IJYDROME'TER REA DI NG
TIle corrected hydrometer reading R C3n be related to the percentage finer N than any size D as under:
Let Ms be the mass of dry soil in a scspeostco of volume V. Althe rommenccmenl of the sedimentation,
the soil-wate r suspension is uniform. and, therefore. the mass of solids per unit volur-re of suspension at any
depth ~ M,IV.
The initial dens ity of suspension is give n by
M, + mass of wa ter in suspe nsio n
p,' V

p,' _ *" + mass ofwater / volumeof suspension. .•.(a)

The mass of wa ter per unit volume of suspe nsion C3n be determin ed from the volu me of wa ter per unit
volume of suspension. as exp lained below.
M,
Massof solids/volume of suspension '1'
M,
\blume of solids/Volume of suspension - V(G P...)

Volume of water/Volume of suspe nsion - 1- V(~~p...)

Mass of wa ter/vol ume of suspens ion - [1 - V(~~p ...) ] p...

From Eq. (a), p, • ~ + [ I - V(~~.) ] p;

-Pw+~(l-h)
Pi _ P... + *- (G~ l) ...(3.12)

If MD is the mass of solids in volume V at that depth aft er time t. Eq. 3.1 2 gives the density of
suspension at tha t depth as
,. SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

From Eq. 3.6. the percernage finer N than any size Is given by
noD
N- - )( 100
no,

where mo » MolV and 111• • M/V

Therefore, Eq. 3 .13 becomes

P_P.,+~:;;(G~l ) ...(3.14)

P -Pw " ~;' (G~l)

N. (--'L)
G -I
(p - p.l x 100
m.
.. .(3.1')

As the hydrometer reading R is equal to (P -P...) x 1000. Eq. 3.15 can be written as
N. (--'L ).--'i.... x .Lm, x
G -I HXXI
100 . . .(3.16)

As m. -M/V, N .. (--'L) --.B..- 1:..

G- I 1000
x
M.
x 100 .. (3.17(0)]

N. (--'L) . !!.-
G- I M.
x 100 ...(3. 17(b)]

where M. is the mass of the solids in a volume V of 1000 ml.

The particle s ize D is determined using Eq. 3.4. tak.ing the value of effective depth He from the
calib ration curv e for the hydrometer reading R,..
(See Chapte r 30 . Sect. 30-9 for the laborntory ex periment)
3. 10. LIMITATION O F SEDIMENTATI ON ANALYSIS
The sedimentatio n analys is docs not give correct val ues of the partic le size and the percen tage finer due
to the follow ing limitations.
(I) The sedimenta tion analysis gives the particle size in terms of equivalent diameter. which is less than
the particle size given by sieve analysis. The soil particles are not spherical. The equivalent diameter
is close to the thickness (smallest dimens ion) rather them the length or width. (The equivalent
diameter is the diamete r of the sphere which falLs with the same velocity as the actua l particle.)
(2) As the specific gravity of solids for different particles is different, the use of an average value of G
in Bq. 3.17 (b) is a source of error. However, as the variation of the values of G is small. the error
is negligible.
(3) Stokes' law is applicable only when the liquid is infinite. 1be presence of walls of the jar affects the
results to some extent.
(4) In Stokes' law. it has been assumed that only one sphere settles. and there is no interference from
other spheres. In the sedimentation analysis. as many panic les settle simultaneously, there is some
interference.
However, the cffca of errors memioned in paras (3) and (4) is negligibly small if the mass of dry
soil used per 1000 ml of suspension is not more than 5Og.
(5) The sedimentation analysis cannot be used for particles larger than 0.2 mm as turbulent conditions
develop and Stokes' law is not applicable.
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS
"
(6) The sedim entation method is not applicable for particles smaller than O.2 ~ because Brownian
movem ent takes place and the particles do not sett le as per Sto kes' law.
(7) The sedimentation method cannot be used for chalky soils, because of the removal of the calcium
carbonate of chalky soils in the pretreatement by hydrochloric acid .
Despite above limitalions,the sedimentation analysis is used for ceterminaoon of the particle size- of
fine-grained soils. 1be particle sizes of such soils is no! of much practical significance and, therefore, even
approximate ana lysis is good eeoogh. The index prope nies of such soils are plasticity characteristics and not
the particle size. The main use of the sedimentation analysis is to detennine the clay content (particles less
than 2 f.l size) in a soi l mass.
3.11. COMBINED SIEVE A ND SEDIMENTATION A NA LYSIS
It the soil mass consists of panicles of bot h coarse-grained and fine-grai ned soils, a combi ned analysis i'i
done. The slurry of the soil is made as mentioned in the wet s ieve anal ysis (Sect. 3.3). The slurry is sieved
through a 4.75 mm IS sie ve. The material retain ed on the sieve is oven-dried and a coarse -sieve analysis is
done.
The material retai ned on a 75 I.l. IS sieve is also oven-dried and the sieve is analys is is do ne using the set
of fine sieves.
The suspens ion pass ing the 75 I.l. sieve is mixed wit h a defloccclaung agent , if not already do ne. The
hydro meter test is perform ed on the sus pension, as exp lained in Sect. 3.8.
The percentage finer than any size can be calcula ted on the basis of the original mass of soi l taken for
the com bined analysis.
3.12. PARTICLE SIZE nISTRIB UnON CURVE
The particle size distribution curve, also known as a gradation cum; rep resents the dislnbulion of
particles of different sizes in the soil mass. The percentage nnee N tha n a given size is plotted as ordinate (00
natural scale) and the panick size as abscissa (on 10g scale). In Fig. 3.7 (0). the panicle size decreases from

~100~
~ 80
~ 60
~ ~O
~ 20
~ 0
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
- - Par tic le size (mm)
( a)

~1O~
•E 80
1;.60
~40
~ 20
ct~.\O
Particle size (mm) -
(b)
Fig. 3.7. P,Inidc Size CW'YC.
58 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

left 10 right, whereas in Fig. 3.7 (b), the particle size increases from left \0 right. Both the methods are
prclcvant. The reader shou ld carefully observe the horizontal scale of the particle size distribution curve. In
this text. the particle s ize distribution is shown as in Fig. 3.7 (b). Le., the particle size increases from left 10
right. which is also the usua l ccove nuoe.
The semi -log plot for the particle size distrib ution. as shown in Fig. 3.7. has the fol k>wing advantages
over natural plots.
(1) The soils of equal uniformity exhibit the same shape, irrespectiv e of the actual particle size.
(2) A<; the range of the particle sizes is very large. fo r better representation , a log scale is required .
Grading of Soils-The distribut ion of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called gndmg. The
grading of soils can be determined from the particle size dislribulion curves . Fig . 3.8 shows the particle size
d istribution cu rves of different soils.
100

90
/ ./ 1/ / I
% .. ...-~1l9~ V I
1Il
£-Fin. rein ed 'y/ I /
60
I "",.0oe ..I
50
ltD) / / I
I (i ap grade
I
'" /o.. . J).6I.~ '/--Coors. graiNd

:
10 ____
tA)/
~'0.004mm ....{,
---+- ~
L uo,v ;,?
°0-001 o-e. 0·\ 1.0 1M
Parl itl t s in 0 (rrvn ) - -
Fig. 3 .8. G rading os Soils .
A curve with a hump . such as curve A. represents the soil in wh ich some of the intermed iate size
particles are missing. Such a soils is called gap-graded or skip-graded
A flat S-curve . such as curve B, represents a soil which contains the particles of different sizes in good
proportion. Such a soil is called a I4'eU-graded (or uniformlygraded) soil
A steep curve. like C. indicates a soil contai ning the particles of almost the same size . Such soils arc:
knownas uniform soils.
The particle size distribution curve also reveals whether a soil is coarse-grained or fine-grained. 10
general. a curve situated higher up and to the left (curve D) indicates a relatively fine-grained soil, whereas
a curve situated to the right (curve £) indicates a coarse-grained so il.
The uniformity of a soil is ex pressed qualitat ively by a term known as uniformity coefficient. C". given
by

... (3.18)

where D 60 = particle size such that 60% of the so il is finer than this size, and
D IO = particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size .
DIo size is also known as the effective size. In Fig. 3.8. Dooand D IO for the soil B are. respectively. 0.08
m.m and 0.004 mm. Therefore,Cu = 0.0810.004 = 20
The larger the numerical value of Cu. themore is the range of particles. Soils with a value of COl less
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS ss

than 2 are uniform soils. sands with a value of ell of 6 or.more , are well-graded. Gravels with a value of
ell of 4 or more are well-graded.
The general shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by another coefficient known as the
coefficient of curvature (Cc) or the coefficient of gradation (Cg ) .
(D.,)'
Cc· D )( D ••• (3.19)
oo IO
where DJ(j is the particle size corresponding to 30% finer.
For a well-graded soil, the value of the coefficient of curvature lies between 1 and 3.
It may be noted that the gap grading of the soil cannot be detected by C" only. The value of C, is also
required to detect it.
For the soil shown by curve B in Fig. 3.9, the particle size ~ is 0.025 rom. Th erefore,

Cc· o.:·~~~~ . 1.95

3.13. USES OF PARTICLE SIZE DlSTR18UTION CURVE

The particle size distribution curve is extremely useful for coarse-grained soils. As the behavior of
fine-grained soils (minus 75 1-') depends upon the plasticity characteristic and not on the particle size, its use
for fine- grained soils is limited.
(1) The particle size distribution curve is used in the classification of coarse-grained soils (see chapter
5).
(2) The coefficient of permeability of a coarse-grained soil depends to a large extent on the size of the
particles. An approximate value of the coefficient of permeability can be determined from the
particle size as discussed in chapter 8.
(3) The particle size is used to know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action.
(4) The particle size distribution curve is required for the design of drainage nlters.
(5) The particle size distribution provides an index to the shear strength of the soil. Generally, a
well-graced , compacted sand has high shear strength.
(6) The compressibility of a soil am also be judged from its particle size distribution curve. A unifonn
soil is more compressible than a well-graded soil.
(7) The particle size distribution curve is useful in soil stabilisation and for the design of pavements.
(8) The particle size distribution curve may indicate the mode of deposition of a soil. For example, a
gap-graded soil indicates deposition by two different agencies.
(9) The particle size distribution curve of a residual soil may indicate the age of the soil deposit. With
increasing age, the average particle size decreases because of weathering. The particle size
distribution curve which is initially wavy becomes smooth and regular with age.
3.14. SHAPE OF PARTICLES
The engineering properties of soils, especially coarse-grained soils, depend upon the shape of particles.
As it is more difficult to measure the shape than the size, the shape of the particles does not get the required
attention.
When the length, width and thickness of the particles are of same order of magnitude, the particles are
known to have a bulky shape. Coheslonless soils have bulky particles. As staled in chapter I, bulky particles
are formed by physical disintegration of rocks. Rock flour, whidt has the size of the particles in the range of
fme-grained soils, behaves like cobcstootcss soils because its particles are bulky. Soils containing bulky grains
behave like a heap of loose bricks or broken stone pieces. Such soils can support heavy, loads in static
conditions. However. when vibration takes place, large settlements can occur.
Cohesive, clayey soils have particles which are thin and flaky, like a sheet:of paper.Soils composed of flaky
60 5DIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

particles arc highly compressible. Tbesc soi ls deform eas ily under static loads. like dry leaves or loose papers in
<Ibasket subjected to a press ure. However, such soils are relativ ely more stable when subj ected 10 vibrations.
The shape of the coarse-grained soils can be described in terms of spherici ty, flatne ss or angula rity.
Sphericity (S) of the particle is defined as
S· V/L
where D~ is equivalent diameter of the particle assuming II to be a sphere. given by De - (6V/;t)Vl, where V
is the volu me of the part icle and L is the length of the part icle.
The partic les with a high value of sphericity (more roundness) are easy 10 manipulate in construction and
their tendency to fracture is low.
Flatness (I-) and elongation (E) are defi ned as
as F -B/T and E.L I D
where L, B and T are , respectively. length . width and thickness.
The higher the value of the flatness or the elongation . the more is the tendency of the soil to fracture .
The angularity (R) of a particl e is defined as
R _ average radiu<> of comers and edges
radius of maximum inscribed circle
Depending upon angularity. the particles are qua litative ly divided into 5 shapes (Fig. 3.9).

00 0 00
Ang Ular Subangular Subroo nded Roun ded Wli!ll r ounded

Fi.g 3.9. Different shapes of particles

1be angu larity o f particles has great influence o n the behavior of coarse-grained sons. lbe particles with
a high value of angularity tend to resist the ctsptacemem. but have more tendency for fracturing . On the other
hand , the particles with low angularity (more roundness) do not crush eas ily under loads, but have low
resistance to disp lacements as they have a tendency to roll . In genera l, the angular particles have good
engineering properties, such as shear stre ngth.
3.15. RElATIVE DENSIlY
The most important index aggregate propert y of a cohesiootess soil is its relative density . The eng ineering
properties of a mass of cohesiontess soil depend to a large ex tent on its relative density (D,), also known as
density index (10), The relative density is defi ned as

D, - ee.::-~:;n )( 100 •••(3.20)

where emu: = maxim um void ratio of the soil in the loosest oondition.
em ;n = minimum void rat io of the soil in the densest condition.
e = void ratio in the natu ral state .
The relative densi ty of a soil gives a more clear idea of the dense ness than docs the void ratio . Two types
of sands having the same void ratio may bave entirely different state of denseness and engineering properties.
However. if the two sands have the same relative density . they usually behave in identical manner •
. 11K relative densi ty of a soil indicates how it would behave under loads . If the deposi t is dense . it can
take heavy loads with very little settleme nts. Depe nding upon the relative density. the soils are gene rally
divided into 5 categories (Table 3.3) .
PARTlCLESIZE ANALYSIS 61

Tahle 3.3. Densenesrs of Soils

De,ISe IlCSS

85 [0 100

3.16. DETERMINATION OF UElATlVE DENSITY

Figs. 3.10 (0). (b) and (c) show the soil in the de nsest. natural and loosest states. As it is difficult to
measure the void ratio d irectly, Eq. 3.20 cannot be used. However. it is con venien t 10 express the void ralio
in terms of dry density (Pot>.

l al lb) Ie )

Fig. 3. 10

e.G p"'_ 1
PJ
Represe nting the dry density in tbc loosest, densest and natural condi tions as Pm... P_ and Pd . Eq. 3.20
becomes

(G P>_I)_(GPdP>_I)
Pm,n

D, - (G P>_ I)_(GP> _I)

Pmm P_

D, - Pm~
Pd
(PIlW<
PrP""- Pmin
) ...
(3.2 1)

Eq. 3.21 is used to dete rmine the relative density of an in-situ deposit. 1bc methods for the determination
of the dry dens ity (p.{) have been discussed in chapter 2. The methods for the de termination of P...... and
Pmi" are described below.
For de lermination of lhe minimum dry density. a representative, ove n d ry sa mple of soil is taken . 1be
sample is then pulverised and sieved through the required sieve. The minimum dry dens ity is found by
pouring the dry so il in a mould using a pouring device (IS : 2720--Pal1 XIV). The spout of the pouring
dev ice is so adjus ted tha t the height of free fall is always 25mm. The mass and the volume of the soil
depos ited are found. and the dry density· of the soil is determined as under.

Pmin _ M~n ... (3.22)

where M min = mass of dry soil .

V", = volu me of soil deposi ted in the mould.
62 SOiLMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The maximum dry density is determined either by the dry melhod or the wei method. In the dry method.
the mould is filled with thoroughly mixed oven-dry soil A surcnarge load is placed o n the soil surface, and
the mould is flxed 10 a vibrator deck. The specimen is vibrated for 8 minutes. The mass and volume of the
soil in the compacted SUiteare found. The maximum dry dens ity is give n by
M_
PlIIM- ---v,:-
where MmJa. = mass o f dry soil and
V... = volume of mould.
The max imum dry density of a soil can be determined also in the satu rated state. In this method , the
mould is filled with wet so il and water is added tiD a small quanti ty of free water accumu lates o n the free
surface of the soil . During and just afte r filling the mou ld, vibra tion is done for a total of six minutes. Water
appearing on the surface of soil is removed. A surcharge mass is placed on the soil and the mould is vibrated
again for 8 minutes. The volume (V..) of the soil is determined. The mass MrIJItlI of the soil is determined after
oven drying the sample.
Note. If the sand is vibrated under more severe conditio ns, it may have a relative dens ity of more than
100%.

ILL USTRATI VE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Example 3.1. The results 0/ a sieve analysis 0/ a soil are given below:
Total mass 0/ sample = 900 gm.

IS Sieve Pan
Mess or soil
retai ned (gin) 75

Draw the panicle size distribution curve and hence determine the uniformity coefficient and the
coeffICient 0/ curvature.
SoluUon. The calcelatiocs for percentage finer N lhan different sizes are shown (Table 3.1).
Table E-J. I
IS M~, Perceruage Cumulative Pereefllag e
Si"'" retained retained pm:CIIQ~ Finer (N)
,, ~x 100 rrt~d = 100 - (4 )

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

20mm 35gm 3.89 3.89 96.11
'0 40 4.44 83 3 91.67
4.75 80 8.89 1722 82.78
2.0 150 16.67 33.89 66.11
1.0 150 16.67 5056 49.44
0.6 140 1556 66.12 33.88
425 • 115 1278 78.90 21.10
212 ~ 55 6. 11 8>.0, 14.99
ISO ~ 35 3.89 88.90 11.10
75. 25 2.78 91.68 8.32
Pan 75 8.32 100.00
I .. 9OO.0gm
The particle size distri bution curve is shown in Fig. E-3.1.
From plot, D6J" 1.55 mm; D3lJ = 0.53 mm; 0 '0 = 0.115 mm
PARllCLE SIZE ANALYSIS 63
I

~
so
, -: -1

70
/
60 ------ - -- ----- --- - /
so 11,
,
'-0

, -----;;/
I
- - -- - -- -- - - ,
I
1O
, - - -- - ,
7 I
I
I
I
I
I O IO ~ O .I I')mm !om.O'1- I0 60: I.,)'5mm
° OJ '0
'"
Fig. E-3.l P!:lrlicle- ~ 'U (mm) - - _

D ro
1.55
From Eq. 3.18 COl · ~ • 0.115 • 13.48

From Eq. 3.19, c- (V",)' ' ~ -1.58

~ Dro)C DIO 1.55 X 0.115
Illast ratlve Exampl e 3.2. The following observations were taken during Q p ipette analysis f or rhe
determination of particl e size distribution of a sod sample.
(a) DqJth below the wa er swfa ce at which the sample wm taken = 100 mm
(b) Capaci!)' of pipett e = 10 ml
(c) Mass of samp le when dried = OJ gm
Cd) Tune of taking sample = 7 minutes after the start
(e) \ill ume of soil suspens ion in the sedimentation tube = 500 mi.
(j) Dry mass of soil used in making suspension = 25 gm.
Determine the c-ordlnate of the point on the particle size distribution curve corresponding to above
oosavauons.
Take G = 2.70 and TJ = 10.09 millipoise. p,. = I gm/mL
• J 0.30 ~H.
Solution. From Eq. 3.4 (0)' D. V g(G -l ) p,. x r

D _ "';030 )( IOm )( U)"") )( 10 . 0.00161 em

98 1 )( (2.70- 1) )( 7
From Eq. 3.6, N_ !!!Q.)( 100 _ 0.3/10 )( 100 - 60%
m, 25/500
The coordinates of the point on the particle-size distribution curve arc (0.0161 mm. 60 %).
IIIustradve Example 3.3 . A dry sample of mass 50 gm is mixed with distilled water to prepare a
64 sou.MEClIAN ICS AND FOUNDAllON ENGINEERING

suspensio n 011000 ml fOT hydrom eter analysis. The reading of the hydrometer taken after 5 minutes was 25
and the depth of the cen tre of the bulb below the warer surface whi!n the hydrome ter was' in the ja r was 150
mm. The volume of the hydrometer was 62 ml and the area o{ cross-section of the jar was 55 c,;,J. Assum ing
G :: 2.68 and " = 9.81 millipo ise, determine the coordinates of the point correspo nding to above observ ation.
Solunon. The depth between levels B' -B' and A' -A ' in Fig. 3.4, is given 10 be 150 mm. The effective
depth between B - B and A - A is given by,
VII VII VII
11,,- 15.0 -T+ U- 15.0 - 2A"

- 15.0-
2
~\5 .. 14.43600

4 D _ ""; 0.3 )( 'fl l/"

From Eq.3. (a), g(G - I) '

• ...;rO-,.3-x- .9,-.S.,-\-X
- llr,.....-
' -x-\-
4."436:-:-
- .. 000 23 .. 002 3
981 )( (2.68- 1.0) )( 5 . em • mm

From Eq. 3.\7 (a), N • (G ~I) x (k) (\~ ) x 100

. (2.68)
1.68
x 1(00)( ~ x tOO .
50 lOX)
or N .. 79.76

The coordinates of the po int on the panicl e-size distnbution curve are (0.023 mm, 79.76%).
Illustratbe Exampl e 3.4. A soil has a dry density of 1.816 gmlml in the natural condition. When 410
8m of the soil was poured in a vessel in a very loose state, its ,volume was 290 mi. The same soil when
vibrated and compacted was found to have a volume of 215 mI. Determine the relative densitv.

Solution . From Eq. 3.22. Pmin _ M~n _ ~~ _ 1.414 g~/ml

From Eq. 3.23. P......_ A~~ • ~:~ • 1.907 gm/ml

From Eq. 3.2\ , D,' P= ( Pr Pm;" ) x 100

Pd Pm.u -P""n

or • 1.907 (1.816-1.414 ) \00

1.816 1.907 - 1414 l(

ill ~ .~~ %
Illustrative Exampl e J.s. A lest for the relative density of soil in place was performed by digging a
small hole in the soiL The volume of the hole was 400 ml and she moist weighJ of the exalvalct! soil was 9
N. After oven drying. the weighl Waf 7.8 N. Of the dried soil, 4 N was poured into a vessel in a \leT)' loose
stale, and its volume was found to be 270 mL The same weight of soil when vibrated and tamped had a
volume of 200 mL Determine the relative density.

Solution. w. 9.07~:O80 • 0. 1538

Yd -~ - O.0195 N/ml. 19.5kN /m

3

(Yd)<llin . ~~ • 0.0148 N/ml • 14.8 kN/m

3
PARTICLE! SIZE ANALYSIS .5

(ydlm u. ~ • 0.02 Nzml - 20.0 kN/m 3

From Eq. 3.21 , substit uting y for p throughout ,

D _ 20.0 ( J95 - 14.8 ) )C 100 _ 92.70%
, 195 20.0- 14.8
Iljustrat lve Exam ple 3.6. A sample of sand has a volum e of 1()(J{) ml in its natural state. Its minimum
volume when compac ted is 840 ml: When gently poure d in a measuring cylinder, its maximum volume is 1370
mL Determin e the relative density.
SoluCion. Let M be the dry mass (in gm) of the sample.

Therefore, P..... - ::a; pmiJ\ - I~O ; P.r - 1~

From Eq. 3.21, D,' P- ( Pr P... )
Pa Paw;-Pmin

M/840 ( M/ICXXl-M/1370)
- M/l00J M /840 M / 1370 )C 100
- 0.6981 )C 100 _ 69.81% .
Illustrative Exa mple 3.7. In order to find the relative density of a sand, a mould of volume 1000 ml was
used: When the sand Waf dynamically compacte d in the mould, its mass was 2.10 kg, whereas when the sand
was poured in loose ly, its mass was 1.635 kg. If the in-situ densily of the soil was 1.50 MglmJ, calculate the
relative density. G = 2.70. Assume that the sand is saturated.

SolutIon. (p_)..... . 2.t~c:nlol _ 2.1 glml

(PIIlin),• • 1.63~~ Jal _ 1.635 g/m l

As Pa _ 15 0 Mg/m 3 .150 g/mt , e _ Gp... _ 1 _ 2.70 _ I _ 0.80

Pa 1.5

Now (Pmu),. - (~ : ;:I~ )p...

2.1 _ ( 2,70 + e min ) )C 1.0 or emin _ 0.545
1 + emin

likewise (Pmin),. - (~ : : : ) P...

1.635 • ( 2.~0+ +e:"mu ) )C 1.0 or emu _ 1.677

From Eq. 3.20

_11.::; ~ ~: )C 100 _ 77.47%

66 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

IIROULEMS

A. Numerica l
3.1. One kg of soi l was sieved through a set o f 8 sieves, with the size 4.75 rom. 2.0 mm, 600 ~ 42.~ I-l, 300~ 2144
lS0~ nnd 75/A . The mass of soil retained on these sieves was found to be 50, 78, 90, 150, 160, 132, 148 and
179 gm, respectively. Determine the percentage finer than the corresponding sizes.
(Ans. 995, 87.5, 78 .2,.63 .2, 47.2,. 34.0, 19.2 and 1-1]
3 .2. Prove thai the panicle diameter and the lenninal velocity of panide are related as
v_9020IY
where I' = velocity in cmzsec,
D = diameter in em
Clearly state the various assumptions made.
3.3. Determine the maximum void ratio fa a sandcomposedof grains of spherical shapes .
(Hint Consider a cubical box of size '2d, when: d is the diameter of sphere. The nurmer of grnill.'l in the box is 8)
[Ans. 0.911
3.4. Th e mini mum and the maximum dry density of a sand were found to be 1.50 and 1.70 gml ml. Calculat e the dry
density c:orrcsponding to relative densities of 50% and 75%. IA ns. 1.594 gnv1; 1.645 gmlmI]
3
J.s. An undisturbed sample of fine sand has a dry unit weight of 18 kN1m • At the maximum density , lhe void ratio
is 0.35 , and that at the minimum den."ily, 0.90. Dclcnnine the relative density of the undistu rbed soil. G = 2.65 .
[Ahs" 77.82%]
3.6. A coa rse-grai ned so il is compacted 10 a wet density of 2Mglm3 Ilt a water cont ent of 15%. Determine the
relative de~ IY of the compacted sand, give n t'1IWI_ 0.85 and t'min _ 0.40 and G • 2.6 7.
IAns. 70%}
3 .7. How long would it lake for a particle of soi l 0.002 an in diameter 10 serue from the surface to the bottom of
5 2.
the pond 15 m deep? Take G = 2.60 and '1 = 1.0 x 10- gmf _seclcm [A IlS. 11.72 hours )
3.8 A sample of soil o f mass 40 gm is dispersed in 1000 ml of water . How long after the co mmencement of
scdlme ruatlon sho uld the hydrometer readin g be taken in orde r to est imate tnc percent age of particles less than
0 .002 mm effectiv e diameter ? 1be ce ntre of the bulb is at an effective depth of 20 em be low the surface of
water . lake G = 2 .70, 'l = 0 .01 poise. (Aos. 14 .99 haulS]
3.9. In a sedimentation test, 25 gm of soil was dispersed in 1000 rnI of water (11 = 0 .01 poise ). One hou r after the
comm enceme nt o f sedi mentation, 25 ml o f the suspension was taken by mea ns of a pipe tte from a depth of 10
em. The mass of so lid panicl es obta ined on drying was 0.09 g. Determin e
(0) The largest size of the partic le rema ining in suspension at a depth of 10 em after one hou r o f the beginnin g
of sedimentation.
(b) The percentage of panides finer than Ihis size in tbe original s~on .
(e) 1be time interval from the w mmenceme nt, a fter which the largest particle remain ing in suspension at 10 an
depth is one -half of this size.
(IIl nl. Volume of suspension = 1009.3 ml) (Ans. 0.0055 mm; 1453%; 4 houlS)
3.10 The results of a sedimentation test of a sample ~ ng 75"" sieve are given be low. Determine the grai n size
2
distri bution . Use approximate farnula v = 9100 0 .

Obse rvtwion Tlmt' Depth MQSS' of soil in

No. 25 ml sample
L Z<ro all depth 25grn
2. 6O~ lOcm l5grn
3. S minutes lOcm IOgrn
4. 10 minutes 5cm 5 gm
5. 5 bo UIS 5cm 0.5 g m
men. 0.0 191 mm 0.0095 mm and 0.00 17 mm,
(Ans. Percentage finer than 0.075 mm., 0.0428
respectively, 100% , 60% , 40%, 20% and NJ.
3. U In a test 10 gm of fine-grained soil o f specific gravity 2.70 was dispersed 10 make 500 mI of suspension. A
PARTIQ.E SIZE ANALYSIS 67

lS Skvc (mm ) P, .
Massm(li,red
(kg) 0.08

Draw the grain size distribution curve and detenni,le the coefficient or curvature and the uniformity coefficient.
(Am. 1.15 ; 2591
3.15. A 1000 mJ suspe nsion ro nlaining 30 gm or dry soil wes prepared ror a hydromccer analysis. Ir the: tcrnperature
is the same as thai at which it was calibrated, what whould be the hydrometer reading al the iFL'ilant or
canmencement or sedimentation? Take G = 2.70. fAns. 1.019)
B. Descrlptlve and Oblectrve Type
3.16. What do you understand about index properties ? What is their impooance?
3.17. How would you determine the percentage finer than d ifferent sieve sizes in the laboratory ?
:U8 . What are the main index properties or a coerse-gremedsoil? How are mese determined ?
3.19. Differentiate between the dry sieve analysis and the wet sieve analysis. Why the wet sieve analysis is required?
3.20. State Stokes' law. What is its use in the sedimentation method or analysis? What are its limitations?
3.21. Compare the plpene method and the hydrometer lTlCthod. Why the hydrometer method is more popular?
3.21:. State the various corrections required rcr a hydrorncter rending. How these corrections lire dctermined?
3.23. What is particle size distribution curve? What is its use in soil engineering?
3.24. Whtll is relative density? How is it determined ? What is its importance ror a coarse-grained soil?
3.25. What do you understa nd by calibration or a hydrometer? How is it done?
3.26. State whether the rollowing statements are true or raise.
«(l) The silt size panicle..s can be seen by unaided (naked) eye.
(b) The sieve analysis gives the largest dimensio n of the soil particle.
(c) The wet sieve analysis gives Slightly larger size than that by the dry sieve analysis.
(d) The readings on a hydrometer increase in upward directioo.
(e) The sedimentation analysis is useful for all soil particles smaller than 75", size.
(j) The rock now even of clay size particles is nee- plastic.
(g) A gap-graded soil is also called a unirorm soil.
(h) A well.groded soil rontains parlicles of one size.
[Am. nu, (0), (J)J
 SO IL MEC ' iA NICS AND FOU,,"'DATION ENG INEaUNG

C. Multiple Cho ice Qu estion s

I. In- Stokes " law. fhc terminal velocity or me particle il>
(a) Pmporticnal til the ra.lllJ~ of the particle.
(b) Propo rtional 10 the square of the radiu~ o f particle.
(e) Inver sely proporuonal to the square of the radius of panicle.
(11) None of lhc above .
2. Stoke's la w dnes nut hold )!ood if the size o f particles is
(u) Greater than 0. 2 mill Ib) less than 0.2 u m
(c) :'\eith cf (a) :'\n r (f» (.II Both (a) and (h)
3. Pretreutcmcm of soil to remove the organic malt a hy oxid.mon is done with
(a) Sodium hexametaphosphate (/» O xyge n
cel Hydrogen perox ide (j{J Hydroc hlor ic acid
4 . T he particle-size dht ri!1ulion curve with n hump is ohtained for a
W) Unifor m suil Chi Well-gr.ldt,."d sci!
Ie) Ga p-graded so il ( ,I) Poorly -graded soil
5. Per a well- graded sand . the cocnt ctcm (If curvature should he
(a) More (him ] till Between I and 3
lei Les s than I (, I) Xonc of above
6. Fo r a den se sa nd. the relat ive density is
(al Betw een ]5 and M (b) Bet ween Q5 and , R5
k) B etw ee n X5 and lOt) (./l Grease r than 100
7. A well-graded saml shou ld have
(tl) Cu ~ 4.()() /111 CII ~ 6.00
(e) CII 2' 1.00 1</) Cu 2' 3
8. In hydro meter analysis fo r a scil mass
(l l ) Rot h mc nisc us co rrec tion and dl ~jlCfsm~ agent correct ion are negative
(h ) Roth meniscus rorrecuou and dispersing agent correction are positive
(e) Meniscus corrccricn is positive while dis persing age nt corre c uon is negative
/til Men iscu s c orrcction is negative while di,persing age nt correction is posi tive
9. Fo r a pa rticle Ill' dia meter 0.075 mrn. the termina l veloci ty will be: about
( a) 0.0 5 cm/s (h) 0.50 e m/s
(cJ 1.0 cnvs {til 1.50 c nss
lAns. I. (hi. 2. (d), 3. (d . 4. (d, 5. (h), 6. {hl, 7. (bl, 8. (c ), 9. (M!
 4
Plasticity Characteristics of Soils

4.l. PLASTICITY OF SOILS

The plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo deformation without cractking or fracturing. A plastic soil
can be moulded into various shapes when it is wet. Plasticity is an important index property of fine-grained
soils, especially clayey soils.
Plasticity in soils is due 10 presence of clay minerals. The clay particles carry a negative charge on their
surfaces, as discussed in chapter 6. The water molecules are dipolar (dipoles) and are attracted towards the
clay surface. The phenomenon is known as adsorption (nol absorption) of water, and the water so attracted to
the clay surface is called adsorbed water. Plasticity of the soil is due to adsorbed water.
The clay particles are separated by layers of adsorbed water which allow them to slip over one another .
When the soil is subjected to deformations, the particles do nor return to their original positions, with the
result that the deformations are plastic (irreversible). As the water content of the soil is reduced, the plasticity
of the soil is reduced . Ultimately, the soil becomes dry when the particles are cemented together as a solid
mass.
The presence of adsorbed water is necessary to impart plasticity characteristics to a soil . Tbe soil does
not become plastic when it is mixed with a non-polarizing liquid, such as kerosene or paraffin oil. These
liquids do not have electromagnetic properties to react with clay minerals.
The soil becomes plastic only when it has clay ' minerals. If the soils contains only non-clay minerals,
such as quartz, it would not become plastic whatever may be the fineness of soil. When such soils are ground
to very fine size, these cannot be rolled into threads. Rock flour, which contains very fine particles of
non-clay particles, does not become plastic .
This chapter deals with plasticity characteristics and consistency of floe-grained soils.
4.2. CONSISTENCY LIMITS
The consistency of a nne -grained soil is the physical state in which it exists. It is used to denote the
degree of firmness of a soil. Consistency of a soil is indicated by such terms as soft, finn or hard.
In 1911, a Swedish agriculture engineer Atterberg mentioned that a fine-grained soil can exist in four
states, namely , liquid, plastic, semi -solid or solid state. The water contents at which the soil changes from one
state to the other are known as consistencylimits or Atterberg:S limits.
. The water content alone is not an adequate index property of a soil. AI the same water content, one soil
may be relatively soft, whereas another soil may be hard . However, the soils with the same consistency limits
behave somewhat in a similar manner. Thus oonsistency limits are very important index properties of fine-
grained soils
A soil containing high water content is in a liquid state. It offers no shearing resistance and can flow like
liquids. II has no resistance 10 shear deformation and, therefore, the shear strength is equal to zero. As the
water content is reduced, the soil becomes stiffer and starts developing res istance to shear defonnation. At
70 SOiL MECHAN ICS A ND FOUNDATION ENGINEER INC

so me part icu lar water con tent. the soil becom es plastic (Fig. 4.1). The water content at which the soil change!
from the liquid state to the plastic sta te is know n as liqu id lim it (U t WI)' In other words. the liquid limit i!
the wate r content al which the soil ceases 10 be liquid.
lbe soil in the plas tic st ale can be moul ded into various shapes. As the water content is reduced, ttIt
plasticity of the soil decreases. Ultimately, the soil passes from the plastic state to Ihe semi-solid state wha
it stops behav ing as a plastic. II cracks when mou lded. 'The water content at wh ich the soil become
semi-solid is known as the plastic limit (PL, wp ) ' In othe r words the plastic limi t is the water content at whid
the soil just fails to behav e plastically.
1be numerical d ifference between the liqu id limit and the plastic lim it is know n as p lasticity inde )
(PI, /p)'
111us Pl - U ,,-PL
The soil remains plastic when the water con tent is betw een the liquid limit and the plastic lim it. Tht
plasticit y index is an im portant index property of fine-grained soils.
When the water con tent is reduced below the plastic limit, the soil att ains a semi-solid slate. The soi
cracks when moulded. In the semi-solid stale, the volume of the soil decreases with a decrease in water
content till a stage is reached when further reduction of the water content docs not cause any redu ction in the
volume of the soil. The so il is
sa id to have reached a solid
state: (In solids, no appreciab le
change in volume is observ ed
with a change in water
con tent). The water ceme nt at
which the soil chan ges from
the serni-so lid stale to the solid
stale is known as the shrinkage >-o~
limitieS;ww~~ shrinkage limit, r---~-""" ,,,
the soil does not remain Solid stat e Semi s olid s ta t e 1 Plas tic st al e Llqui
saturated. Air enters the voids ,, st a h
of the soil However. because
of capilla ry tension developed , :
the volum e of the soil does not w~ Wp'
cha nge. Thus, the shrin kage (S L) ( Pli
limit is the water content at w at er c on t e nt
which the soil stops shri nking Fig. 4.1. Differen t states of Soil.
further and auaincs a cons tant volume. The shrin kage limit may also be defined as the low est water content
at which the soil is fully saturated.
Fig. 4.1 shows sudden chang es in the states of the soil at different cons istency limits . Actually , ,the
transition between differe nt sta tes is gradual. The cons istency limits are determined rather arb itrarily, as
exp lained in the following sect ions .
[Note . In liqu id state, the soil is like soup ; in plastic sta re, like soft better; in semi- so lid state. like cheese;
and in solid state like hard cancy.]
4.3. UQUID LIMIT
As defined eoove, the liquid limit is the water content at wbidl the soil changes from the liqu id stale to
the plastic state. At the liquid limit, the clay is pract ically like a liqu id, but possesses a small shearing
strength. The shea ring strength at that stage is the smallest val ue tha t call be measu red in the laboratory. The
liqu id limit of so il depends upon the c lay minera l presen t. The stronger the surface marge and the thinner the
partic le. the greater will be the amou nt of adsorbed water and, therefore. the higher will be the liquid limit.
G PI..ASTICITY CHARA CTERIsnCS OF SOILS 71 .

The liquid limit is determined in the

is laboratory either by Casagrande's apparatus
or by cone penetration method. The latter is fall
discussed in Sect. 4.4. 111c device used in
Cesagranoe's melhod cons ists of a brass cup
which drops through a height of 1 em on a Sarnpt e
hard base when operated by the handle (Fig.
4.2). The device is operated by turning the
handle which raises the cup and lets it drop
on the rubber base . The height of drop is
adjusted with (he help of adjusting screws. ~~~~:r
About 120 gm of an air-dried sample
passingthrough 425 I.l IS sieve is taken in a . . . ..
dish and mixed with distilled wa ter to form a Fig. 4.2. Liquid IJml1Apparatus.
unifonn paste. A portion of Ihis p<1S1C is placed in the cup of the liquid limit device , and the surface is
smool.hencd and a levelled with a spa tula 10 a max imum depth of 1 em . A groove is cut through the sample
along the symmetrical axis of the cup, preferably in one stroke. using a standard grooving tool. IS :
2720-Part V recommends two types of grooving tools : (1) Casa gran de tool, (2) ASTM tool. The
Casagrande tool cu ts a groov e of width 2 mm at the bottom , 11 mm at the top and 8 mm deep. The ASfM
1001 cuts a groove of width 2 mm at the bouom, 13.6 mm at the top and 10 mm deep (Fig. 4.3). The
Casagrande tool is recommended for norma l fine -grained soils, whereas the ASTM tool is recommended for
sandy, fme grained soils, in which the Casagrand e tool lends to tear the soil in the groove.
After the soil pal has been cut by a proper grooving 1001. the handle is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions
per second until the two parts of the soil sample rome into contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of 12 mm . The groove should close by a now of the soil , and not by slippage between the soil and
the cup. 'When the groov e closes by a now, it indicates the failure of slopes formed on the two sides of the
groove.

Cd) DIVIDED SOIL CAll E B£F'QRE (~J SOIL CAAE AFTER TES T
TEST

Fig. 4.3. Details or Appanltull and Tools.

 7Z
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The so il in the cup is again mixed, and the lest is repealed until two consecut ive tests give the same
number of blows . About 15 gm of soil near the closed groove is taken for water content determination.
The soil in the cup is uaosferrec 10 lhedish containing the soil paste and mixed thoroughly after adding more
water. Th e soil sample is again taken in Lhecup of the liquid lim it device and the: lest is repealed. The liquid limit
:~U:i~~~U~i~~t~ya~:~~ 3S, - - - - - ----.-- -.-.-,--,,--rrn
flow when the device is given
25 blows , As it is difficull to ge l 30 ~
exactly 25 blows for the sample
10 now, the test is con ducted at
different water contents so as to
get blows in the range of 10 10
40. A plot is made between the
water content as ordinate and
I 15
~
zo
:'en:~sc':~ 'o;;;~ ;;o.'~ :: ,, ':!-:c~ __ __ __ ______ __ • ~~ .
approximately a straigh t line. - i ' ">,
The plot is known as flaw ~ 15
C1UVt". The liquid limit is :::
obtained, from the plot.
corresponding 10 25 blows (Fig. ~ 10
4.4). The liquid limit is ~
expressed as the nearest whol e
number.
The rappmgs in the liquid
limit device cause small shear-

~n:u:= c:: :il:;e;a~ °1:---;---t--::<-~.-:-:o+n---;!;--c ~,,\;-,!~clo!,.L!,

2OriJ040506080JOO
as the water content when the
Numbf' ~ 01 b loW 5 (N) _ _
soil has shear streng th just
sufficient to withstand the Fig. 4.4. flO\N Curve.
shearing stresses induced in 25 blows . "P.leshear strength of the soil er liquid limit is about 2 7 .kN/m2.
One-poInt Method
The above procedure for determining the liquid limit requires the test 10 be repealed at least 4-5 times
at different water content and plotting the results . The procedure is inconvenient and time-consuming. It is
possible to obtain an approximate value of the liquid limit by conducting only one test, provided the number
of blows is in the limited range. The method is based on the premise that the flow curve is a straight line.
The liquid limit is given by
WI- wN(N/25)" . .. [4.1(0)]
where wN = water content of the soil when the groove closes in N blows .
n = an index, as given below.
According to IS : 272D-V, for soils with liquid limit less than 50%. the value of n is equal to 0.092 and
for soils with liquid limit greeter than 50%. the value of n = 0.12. The eccepted range for N is 15 to 35 for
soils with liquid limit less tban 50 % and 20 10 30 for soils with liquid limil more than 50% .

Altern atively, w, - 1.3215 _ ~23 h glON •..[4.1(b)J

Eq. 4.1 (0) can be wrillen as

where C is the correcnoe factor.

.••(4.2)
PlASTlCIIT CIiARACf ERlsnCS OF SOILS
"
The value of the factor is approximately 0.98 for N = 20 and 1.02 for N = 30.
(see Chapter 30, Sect. 30.10 for the laboratory experiment)
4.4. CONE PENETROMETER M ETIIOD
Th e liquid limit of a soil can also be detennined by Cone Penetromet er (IS : 2720-V) . It co nsists of a
stainless steel cone having an apex angle of 3D" :t 1° and a length of 35 mm . The cone is fixed at the lower
end of a sliding rOO which is fitted with a disc at its
top (Fig. 4.5). The total mass of the cone, sliding
rod and the disc is 80 g :t 0.05 g.
The soil sample is prepared as in the case of
the Casagrande method . The soil pat is placed in a
cup of 50 mm internal diameter and 50 mm height.
The cup is filled with the sampl e, taking care so as . Clamp
not 10 enlrap air. Excess soil is removed and the
surface of the soil is levelled up.
The cup is placed below the cone , and the cone
is gradually lowered so as to just touch the surface
of the soil in the cup. The graduated scale is
adjusted to zero. The cone is released, and allowed
to penetrate the so il for 30 seconds. The water
content at which the penetration is 25 mm is the
liquid limit. Since it is difficult 10 obta in the
penetration of 25 mm exactly, liquid limit is
determined from the equation given below.
WI _ wy + 0.01 (25 - y) (wy + 15) ...(4.3) fig. 4.5. ConePenetrometer
where y (in mm) is the penetrat ion when the water conten t is wy , and WI = liquid limit.
Bq. 43 is applicable provided the depth of penetration y is between 20 to 30 mm. IT the penetration is not in
this range, the soil in the cup is taken out, and the water content adjusted to get the required penetration.
w,.
A chart can also be drawn for direct. determ ination for the liquid limit from the observed value of y and
The shear strength of soil at liquid limit, as determined by this method, is about 1.76 kN/m 2 which occurs
when the penetration is 25 mm.
The con e penetrom eter method bas several advantages over the Casagrande method .
(1) It is easier to perfonn .
(2) The method is applicable to a wide range of soils.
(3) The results are reliable, and do not depend upon the judgmen t of the operator.
4.5. P1.ASI1C LIMIT
Plastic limit is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material . It begins to
crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3 mm diameter. At this water content , the soil loses its plasticity
and passes to a semi-solid state .
For detennination of the plastic limit of a soil, it is air-dried and sieved through a 425....IS sieve. About
30 gm of soil is taken in an evaporating dish. It is mixed thoroughly with distilled water till it becomes
plast ic and can be eas ily moulded with fingers .
Abou t 10 gm of the plastic soil mass is taken in one hand and a ball is fa nn ed. 1be ball is rolled with
fingers on a glass plate to form a soil thread of unifonn diameter (Fig. 4.6). The rate of rolling is kept about
80 to 90 strokes per minute . If the diameter of thread becomes smaller than 3 mm, without crack format ion,
it shows that the water content is more than the plastic limit. The soil is kneaded further. This results in the
reduction of the water content, as some water is evaporated due to lhe heat of the hand. 'The soil is re-rolled
7. ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINF.ERING

and the procedure repeated till

the thread crum bles. The water
content at which the soil can
be rolled into a thread of
approximately 3 mm in
diameter without crumbling is
known as the plastic limit (PL
or wp ) '
The lest is repeated,
laking a fresh sample each
time . The p~ic limi t is taken
as the average of three values.
The plastic limit is reported 10
the nearest whole number.
The shear strength at the
plastic limi\ is about 100 times
that at the liquid limit
(See Chapter 30. Sect. Fig. 4.6. Oelermination 01.Plastic limit.
30.1 1 for the laboratory experim ent)

4.6. SIIRINKAGE UMrr

Shrinkage limit is the sma llest water content at which the soil is sat urated. It is atso defined as the
maximum water content at which a reduaion of water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of the
soil mass. In other words, at this water content. the shrinkage ceases. An expressio n for the: shrinkage limit
can be obtain ed as given below
Fig. 4.7 (a) shows the block diagram of a soil sample when it is fully saturated and has the water content

n thel
grea"r thTa :~~_~~l
kage limr:~~~:)_~:ws thesample at shrinkage limit. Fig. 4.7 (e) depicts

:=::::-=~:::::~

1%} lill li'~ll'

V\-Vl ' . '

Stage I Stage II Stage m

(e) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.7. Saaga rOf Derivation or Shrinkage Um it.
the ooodilioo when the soil samp le bas been ovendried. The total volume V1 in fig. 4.7 (e) is the sa me as the
total volume V2 in fig. 4.7 (b). The three figures indicat e, respect ively, stage I. II and lll .
Let M, be the mass of solids .
Mass or water in stage t • M 1 - M,
loss of mass of water from stage t to stage II • ( VI - V p... v
Mass of water in stage n • (M 1 - M,) - (VI - V:z) p...
From definiUon, shrinkage limit = water COOIc:nt in stage II
(M, - M,) - (V, - V,)P.
w,. M, .. .(4.5)
PlASTICITY CHARACfER lsnCS OF SOILS 75

(VI - V,)
w• • wI - ~ p... •••(4.6)
where wJ rep resents the water con tent in stage l.
For determinati on of the shrinkag e limit in the laboratory . about 50 gm of soil passing a 425 IJ. sieve is
taken and mixed with distill ed water to make a creamy paste . The water content (wI) of the soil is kepi
greater the n the liquid lim it.
A circular shrinkage dish. made of porcela in or stainless steel and having a diameter 30 10 40 mm and a
height of IS mm, is taken. 1be shrinkage: dish has a flat bottom and has its intc:mal corners well rounded. 1be
capacity of the shrinkage dish is fin;t dete:nnined by Illling it with mercury. The shrinkage dish is placed in
a large: porcelain evaporating dish and filled wi th mercury . Excess mercury is removed by pressing a plain
glass plate fum ly over the lop o f the shrinkage d ish. The mass of meroJ ry is the shrinkage dish is obtained
by transferring the merc ury into a mercury weighin g dis h. The capacity of the shrinkage dish in ml is equa l
to the mass of mercu ry in gm divided by the speci fic grav ity of mercu ry (usua lly. taken as 13.6).
The inside surface of the empt y shrinkage d ish is coaled with a thin layer of vesetine or silicon grease.
The mass of e mpty shrinkage dish is obtained accurately, The soil samp le is placed in the shrinkage dish,
about ooe-third its capacity . 1be dish is tapped on a fum surface 10 ensure thaI no air is entrapped . More soil
is added and lhe tapping continued till rbe dish is conpteeety filled with soil 1be excess soil is removed by
striking off !he lop surface with a straigh t edge. The mass of the shrinkage dish with soil is taken 10 obtain
u
the mass (M of the soil . 1be volume of the soil VI is equal to the capacity of the dish .
The soil in the shrin kage dish is a llowed to dry in air unlil the colour of the soil pat turns light. It is then
dried in a oven . Th e mass of the shrinkage: dish with dry soil is taken to obtain the mass of dry soil M r
For determ ination of the volume o f the dry pat. a glass cup, about 50 mm d iameter and 25 mm heig ht, is
taken and placed in a large d ish. The cup is filled with mercury . 'Theexcess mercury is removed by pressing a
glass plate with three (XOO~ fumly over
the top of the cup. Any mercury
adhering on the side of the cup is wiped
off, and the cup full of mercu ry is
transferred to anoth er large dish.
The dry pal of the soil is remo ved
from the shrinkage d ish, and placed on
the surface of the me rcury in the cup
and submerged into it by pressing it
with the glass plate having prongs (Fig.
4.8). The mercury disp laced by the soil . "
pal is transferred to a mercury we ighing Fig. 4.&. DclerDllnabon d. \'()Iumc of dry pal.
dish and weighed . The volume of the mercury is determined from its mess and specific gravi ty. The volume
of the dry pat VJ is equal to the vo lume o f the mercury displ aced . Of course, the volume V 2 in stage n is
also equal to V.,.
The shrinkage limit of the soi l is detmninc(l, using Eq. 4.5, from the meas ured values of
VI. Vl . M 1 andM•.
(See O>ap<ct 30, Sea. 30.12 (or the laboratory experim ent).
4.7. ALTERNATIVE MEI1IOD FOR DETERMINATION OF SDRINKAGE LIMIT
The shrinkage limit of a so il can be determ ined by an al ternative method if the specific gravity of solid
particles (G) is koown or is det ermined separately. An express ion for shri nkage limit in tams of the specific
gravity of solids can be developed from Fig . 4.7 (b). At that stage, the water content is at the shrinkage limit.
given by,
(V, - V,) p_
w·--- - .- -
M
. •.(4 .7)
where V, is the vol ume of solids.
76 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEER ING

Sq. 4.7 can be written as V, v.

w, - [ M;- Gp...(V,)
1p...
w.[V,p-
, M,
_..L]
G
•.•(4.8)

.. . M.
Now, from the definition of the dry mass density , Pd - y;"

Therefore , w• • ( ~ - ~) .. .(4.9)

Eq. 4.8 can be used for the detenninatioo of the shrinka ge limit, M exp lained below .
A smooth. roond-ecged pal of wet soil is made in a shrinkage dish. It is then dried in an oven and cooled
in a dessicator. Any dust on the sample is brushed off. The dry mass M, of the sample is determined.
The volume V2 of the dry so il JXlI is obtained by placing it in a glass cup and delennining the
disp lacem ent of mercury. as discussed in SCCI. 4.6.
Determination of Speclfic Gravity of Solids trom Shrinkage limit
L Method-The specific gravity of solids (G) can be determined using Eq. 4.8 if the shrinkage limn bas
already been determined.

From Eq. 4.8, G . (V,p./~.) w. ... [4. IO(a )J

Sometimes. Sq. 4.9 is written in terms of mass specific gravity (G. ) in dried Slate. Taking G. - p/p_

G • 1/(G.\ _ w, ...[4. IO(b)J

IL Met hod-Th e observations made in the shri nkage limit test, as described in Section 4.6. can be used
to determine the appro ximate value of G. The volume of solids (V~) is stage III (Fig. 4.7(c)]
M.
V, • G p. ...(a)
Also, the volume of solid can be determined from the volume Vt in Pig. 4.7(a) (stage I) as
V. - VI - volume of water
v • VI _ (M. - M,)
•••(b)
• p•

From Bqs. (a) and (b),

.!!!.-. VI _ (M1- M,)
Gp. P.
~. VIP ... - (Mt -M,)

or G. M. ... (4.11)
VI P... - (M1-M,)
1he methods for determination of VI>M. and M, tieve already been disaJssedin Sect. 4.6.

4.8. SHRINKAGE PARAMITERS

The:: following parametersrelated with shrinkage limit are frequently used in soil engineering.
(!) Shrinkage Index-The shrinIcage index (I,) is lhe numerical difference between the plastic limit
(w,,) and the shrinkage limit (w,),
1, • wI' - w. ... (4.11)
(2) Shrinkage Rati o-The shrikage ratio (SR) is defllled as the ratio of a given volume change,
expressed as 8 percentageof dry volume, to the correspoodmgdtange In water content.
PLASTICITY CHARAcrERlsriCS OF SOILS 77

V,)lV, x 100
SR. - --
(V,-
. .. (4.13)
wl -""2
where VI = volume of so il mass at water content WI
V2 = volum e of soil mass at water cootent w2
V.. = volume of dry soil mess.
Whenthe volume V 2 is at the shrinkage limit.
(V I- V..)/V..
SR . - - - x 100 .. .(4.14)
wl - w.
Another express ion for shrinkage ratio (SR) can be found from Eq. 4.13, by expressing the water come r a

(VJ - V ) Pw
WI- K'2- - -M-.2-
Therefore, SR. ~
VdPw

SR _ ~ .. 0", .. .(4.15)
p.
Thus the shri kage ratio is equa l 10 the mass gravi ty of the soil in dry state (0".).
From Eqs. 4.9 and 4.15 , the shrinkage limit.

w •
•
(...!... _1.)0
S.R.
••.[4.15(a»)

(3) Volumet ric Shri nka ge-The volumetric shrinkage (It.S), or volumeuic change, is defined as the
change in volume expressed as a percentage of the dry volume when the water coorent is reduced from a
given value of the shrinkage limit Thus
V,-V,)
lIS..
(----v;- )( 100 ••.(4.16)

But From Eq. 4.14,

[(VI - V..)/Vd] )( 100 .. SR (Wt - w.)
Therefore, VS - SR (W I - w.) ••.(4.17)
(4) Unear Shrinkage-linear shrinkage (IS) is de fined as the change in k ngth divided by the initial
length when the water content is reduced to the shrin kage limit. II is expressed as a perce ntage, and report ed
to the nearest who le number.
Thus LS .. ( Initiallen~h - final length ) )( 100 . . .(4.18)
1011131 length
The linear shrinkage can be dete nnined in a laboratory (IS : 2720-Part XX). A soil sam ple about ISOgm
in mass and pass ing through a 425J.l sieve is take n in a dish . II is mixed wit h d istilled wa ter 10 fonn a smooth
paste at a water content grea ter than the liquid limit. The sample is placed in a brass mould. 140 mm long
and with a semi-circular section of 2S mm diame ter.
The sample is allowed to dry slowly first in air and then in an oven. The sample is cooled ana its final
lc:ngth measured. Th e linear shrinkage is calcnated using the followin g equa':ioo.

LS . [ 1 - ~~ of OYen-dry~plel )( 100 •••(4.19)

Imtialleogth o f specimen
In Eq. 4.19, it has been assumed lhat the length of the specimen in ovee-cded state is the same as that
at the shrinkage limit .
78 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEER ING

The linear shrinkage may also be obtained from the volumetric shrinkage (VS) as under.

LS - loo [ 1 - ( ~ I~loo 1 r
The linear shrinkage is related 10 the plasticity index (I,). as under.
. . .(4.20)

LS _ 2.13 x (LS) .. .(4.21)

4.9. PlAS11CrIY, UQUIDITY AND CONSISTENCY INDEXES
(1) Plastklty lndex-PIasticity index (lp or PI) is the range: of water content over which the soil rema ins
in the plastic sta le. It is equal to the diITerence between the liquid (w,) and the plaslic limit (wp) ' Thus,
1, • W, -w p •• •(422)
When either W, or wp cannot be determined. the soil is non-p lastic (NP). When the plastic limit is greater
than the liquid limit , the plasticity index is repo rted as zero (and not nega tive).
(2) Liquidity Index-Uquidily index (I, or LI) is defined as

h - T x 100 . . .(4.23)

where w = wate r content of the soil in natural condition .

The liquidity index of a so il indicates the nearness of its water content to its liquid limit. When the soil
is et its liquid limit. its liquidity index is 100% and it behaves as a liquid. wben the soil is at the plastic limit.,
Us liquidity index is zero . Negative values of the liquidity index indicate a waer content smaller than the
plastic limit . The soil is then in a hard (dessicated) state.
Tbe liquidity index is also known as Water-Plasddty ratio .
(3) Consistency lndu-ConsiSiency index (froCI) is defined as

It - W,/: w )( 100 .. .(4.24)

where w = wa ter contents of the soil in natural roodition.

The ronsistency index indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. II shows the nearness of the water
c:mtent of the soil to its plastic limiL A soil with a ronsistency index of zero is at the liquid limit. II is
extremely soft and has neglig ible shear strength . On the other hand. a soil at a water content equal to the
plastic limit has a consistency index of 100%, indica ting that the soil is relatively firm. A consistency index
of greater than 100% shows that the soil is relatively strong, as it is the semi-solid state . A negative value of
consistency index is also possible, which indicates that the water content is greater than the liquid limit.
The consistency index is also known are relative consistency.
It is worth no ting tha t the sum lotal of the liquidity Index and the consistency index is always equal to
100%, indicating that a soil having a high value of liquidity index has a low value of consis tency index and
vice-versa.

4.10. FLOW INDEX

Flow index (II) is the slope of the OO'N curve cblained between the number of blows and the water
<:ootent in Casagrande 's method of detennmalion of the liqu id limit (Fig. 4.4). Thus

If - log:' ~~N,) ••.[4.25(.)J

where Nt = number of blOW'S required at water content of WI '
and N'l = number of blow' required at water content of Wz.
Eq. 4.25 (a) can be writlen in the general fonn
w - -If loglO(N) + C .. .[4.25(b»)
PI..ASl1CITY CHARACTERlsnCS OF SOILS 79

The flow index can be 70

determined frem the flow curve
from any two points. For
convenience. the number of 60
blows N) and HI are taken
correspondin g to one log cycle,
i.e. N)/N1 - 10. In that case , so
If - WI - W, ••• [4.25(c)] ~'- -- - - - - - - -- - - "--
It may be mentiooed tbat the
number of blows actually 40
observed in tests are in a narrow
range, normally in the range of
20 to 30 and the ratio of
- -~ - - - - --- - - - -~---
'0 r
N~NI - 10 can be obtained
only after extrapolation of the
plol.
The flow index is the rare at
which a soil mass loses its shear
slrengthwith an increase in water
content. Fig. 4.9 shows the flow
curves of two soils (1) and (2).
The soil-{2) with a greater value
of flow index has a steeper slope 15 ~'- .!.2!... -- - - - - - - - -r- - - - - ---
and possesses lower shear
strength as compared to soil
(I}-with a flatter slope. In order 10
10 decrease the water content by
the same amount, the soil with a
Sleeper slope takes a smaller
numberof blows, and, therefore,
bas lower shear strength.
4.11.TOUGHNESS INDEX
,">
'0 100
Toughness index (II) of a soil btews (N)
Number 01
is defined as the ratio of the
plasticity index (Ip ) and the flow Fig. 4.9. AOlN Indexes
index (1/.)

Thus I, _ !f. ...(4.26)

If
Toughness index of a soU is a measure of the shearing strmgth of the soil at the plastic limit . This can
be proved es under:
Let us assume that the flow curve is a stnright line between the liquid limit and the plmtic limit. As the
sbearing resistance of the soil is dirc:ctly proportional to tbe number of blows in Cesegraoce's device,
k S, _ N, •••(a)
and k S, _ N, ...(ft)
where N, 30 number of blows at the liquid limit when the shear strength is S,

N, = number of blows at the plastic limit when the shear strength is Sp

Jc = constant.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGI NEERING

From Eq. 4.25 (0)' taking "'2 • w,and N I • 1.0.

wI - W, wI -wI
I,. log IO(N,/I) • legloN,
w, • wI - I, laglO Nt ... (e)
Likewise, for the plastic limit.
... (d)
From Eqs. (e) and (d),
W, -Wp - - 1,loglO(N j I Np )
Substituting the value of (NlNp ) from Eqs. (a) and (b).
w, - wp _ - I, laglO (St/Sp) - 1,log (SplS,) •••(e)
Since the shearing strength of aU soils at the liquid limit is almost ronstant and equal to 2.7 kN/m 2, Eq.
(e) can be written as. taking w/- wI' - I,.
1, - If log (S,J2.7)
1, _ Iog lO(Sp) _ 1og~.7)
lag ,o (Sp) - I, + C ... (4.27)
where C is constan t equal to l~l 7) (::: 0.431).
Eq. (4.27) proves that the shear strength at plastic limit depends upon the toughness index.
The value of the toughn ess index of most soils lies between 0 to 3.0. A value of toughncss index less
than unity indicates that the soil is friable at the ptestic limit.
4.12. MEASUREMENT OF CONSISTENCY
Consistency of a sou. as defined earlier, is its resistance to deformation . Consis tency is conventionally
described as ve ry soft. soft, medium . stiff. very stiff and bard . These terms are relative and may have different
interpretation to differen t geotedmicalengineers. For quantitative measurement of consistency. it is related to
the shear stren gth or compressive strength. ..
The uncooflned compress ive strength (qJ of a soil is equal to the failure load per unit area when a
standard. cylind rical specimen is tested in an uoconfined compression testing machine (chapt er 13). As the
uncootined compressive strength is twice the shear strength (s). it can be obtained from the vane shear test
also.
Table 4.1 gives the unconfined compressive strength of soils of different consistency.
Table 4.1. Consistency In Terms oC Co nsistency Index and Unconfined
Co mpressive Strength (q,,)

S.HO. Consistetu:y Consistency Urwonjined Chtuactenstics

i_ compn:ssivr: o/soi l
(%) S1rength~q,,)
(iNlm
I. ",,>,soCt 0-25 < 2S kN/m FISt can be pressed into soil
2. Sell 25-5. 25-50 Thumb can be: pressed iarc
,,;I
3. Medium (Firm) 50-75 5O-11Kl ThIUM can be pressed witb
P""W"
4.. Stiff 75-100 100--200 Thumb can be pressed witb
great difficul ty
5. stiff

6.
vel}'

Hat<!
> 100

> 100
200--400

>400
The
"" am be readily
indented wilb lbumb nail
The soi l can be indented
with difficulty by thumb nail
pL\Sflcn-v CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS '81

4.13. SENSmVITY
A cohesive soil in its natural state of occurrence has a certain structure (see chapter 6). When the
structure is disturbed. the soil becomes remoulded, and its engineering properties change considerably.
Sensitivity (51)of a soil indicates its weakening due to remoulding. It is defined as the ratio of the undisturbed
strength to the remoulded strength at the same water content.
S • (q,,).
.. .(4.28)
, (q.),
where (q,,)u = unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed clay
(qu). = unconfined compressive strength of remoulded clay.
Depending upon sensitivity. the soils can be classified into six types. as given in Table 4.2.
Ta ble 4.2. Classlflcatlon of Solis based on Sensitivity
S.No. Sensitivity Soil Type
I. < 1.00 Insensi tive
2. 1.0-2.0 Little sensitive
3. 2.0-4.00 Moderat ely sensitive
4. 4.0-8.00 Sensitive
5. 8.0-16.0 Extra sensitive
6. > 16.0 Quick

For most clays. sensitivity lies between 2 and 4. Clays ronsidered sensitive have 5, values between 4 and
8. In case of sensitive clays, remoulding causes a large reduction in strength. Quick clays are unstable. These
tum into slurry when remoulded.
High sensitivity in clays is due to a well-developed flocculent structure which is disturbed when the soil
is remoulded. High sensitivity may also be due to leaching of soft glacial clays deposited in salt water and
subsequently uplifted.
Extra-sensitive clay, such as clays of Mexico city, are generally derived from the decomposition of
volcanic ash.
4.13. mlXOTR OPY
The word Thixotropy is derived from two words : thixis meaning rccch, and tropo; meaning to change.
Therefore, thixotropy means any change that occurs by touch.
The loss of strength' of a soil due to remoulding is partly due to change in the soil structure and partly
due to disturbance caused to water rhplecules in the adsorbed layer. Some of these changes are reversible. U
a remoolded soil is allowed to stand, without loss of water, it may regain some of its lost strength. In soil
engineering, this gain in strength or Ute soil with passage of lime after it bas been remoulded is called
thixotropy. It is mainly due to a gradual reorientation of molecules of water in the adsorbed water layer and
due 10re-establishment of chemical equilibtium.
Thixotropy of soils is of great practical -Jmportence in soil engineering. For example, when a pile is
driven into ground, the loss of strength occurs -due to disturbance caused. Thixotropy indicates how much
shear strength will be regained after the pile has been driven and left in place for some time.
4.14. ACIlVITY OF SOILS
Activity (A) of a soil is the ratio of the plasticity index and !he percentage of clay fraction (minus 21J.
size).Thus
A • f .. (4.29)
= =
where Ip plasticity index. F clay fraction.
The clay fraction F is percentage finer than 21J. size.
The amount of water is a soil mass depends upon.the type of clay mineral present. Activity is a measure
82 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEER ING

of the water-holding capacity of clayey soils. The changes in the volume of a clayey soil during swelling or
shrinkage depend upon the activity.
A number of samples of a particular soil arc taken and their plasticity index and clay fraction determined.
If a plot is obtained between the clay fraction (as abscissa) and the plasticity index (as ordinate). it is
observed that all the points for a particular soil lie on a straight line (Fig. 4.10).

80

1
~ 60

1.0
~

(1) Kao\ in il<2

;;
(2) II I i t e
20
n: {3} Mon\omo r il lon ite

40
Cla y tra c ucn (min us 2 r- )
fig . 4.10 . Activity or Solis .
The slope of the line gives the activity of soil. The steeper the slope, the greate r is the activity . The lines
with different slopes are obtained for different soils.
The soils containing the clay minera l montmorillonite have very high activity (A > 4). The soil containing
the mineral kaolinite are least active (A < I), whereas the soils containing the mineral illite arc moderately
active (A = 1 to 2). Depending upon activity. the soils are classified into three types (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3 Classlflcatlon of Solis Based on Activity
S. No. Activity Soil type
1. A < 0.75 Inactive
2. A :: 0.75 10 1.25 Normal
3. A > 1.25 Active
Activity gives information about the type and effcct of clay mineral in a soil, The following two points
are worth noting:
(1) For a soil of specific origin. the activity is constant. 111e plasticity index increases as .the amount of
clay fraction increases.
(2) Highly active minerals. such as montmorillonite,. can produce a large increase in the plasticity index
even when present in small quantity.
4.15. USES OF CONSISTENCY LIMITS
The consistency limits are determined for remouldcd soils. However the shrinkage limit can also be
obtained for the undisturbed sample. Since the actual behavior of a soil depends upon its natural structure , the
consistency limits do not give complete information about the in-situ soils. They give at best a rough estimate
about the behaviour of in-situ soils.
Although it is not possible to interprete the consistency limits and other plasticity characteristtcs in
fundamental terms. yet these parameters arc of great practical use as index properties of fine-grained soils.
The engineering properties of such soils can be empirically related to these index properties as under.
(1) It has been found that both the liquid and plastic limits depend upon the type and amount of clay in
PL'SIlCnY CHARACTERIsnCS OF SOILS 83

a soil However. the plas ncit y index depends

mainly on the amount of clay, The plasticity
index of a soil is a measure of the amount of
clay in soil
(2) As the part icle size decreases, both
the liquid and plastic limits increase. but the
fooner increases at a greater rate. Tbcrefore,
the plasl:icity index Increases at a rapid rate

~. silt Is added to ctay, it becomes

(Fig. tI
~e:c~tsb~(~~ ~o~c~n: ~I~~it~/i~t~. ~~~ .) o,
net effect is that the plasticity index
cecreeses.
Plasticity index is. therefore a meas ure of
the fineness of the particles. r-
Si t t Cl ay

Pa rt ic le s iZll oecreaS ll _
_

(3) The study of pIasticit y index. in

cmbinatlon with liquid limit. gives
information about the type of clay . Plasticity Fig. 4 .11. Vllrialion of l.l. and PL with pllrticle size
chart. which is a plot between the plasticity index and liquid limit, is extremely useful for classification of
fine-grainedsoils, as discussed in chapter 5.ln fact. the main usc of ccostsrency limits is in classification of soils .
(4) Sand y so ils change from the liquid state to the semi- solid rather abruptly . These so ils do 00. possess
plasticity and are class ified as noo-p lastic (Hi') .
Soils with the liquid limit less than 20% are generall y sands.
(5) The plast ic limit of a soil increases if organic matter is added, without any signif)C8nt increase in the
liquid limit. Therefore, soils with high organ ic content have low plasticity index .
(6)The liquid limit of a soil is an indicator of the compressibility of a soil . The compressibility of a soil
generally increases with an increase in liquid limit (sec chapter 12).
(7) The shrinkage index is directly proportional to the percentage of clay-size fraction present in the soi l.
II can be used as an indicator for the amount of clay.
(8) The toughn ess inde x is a measure of the shearing Slrtngth of the soil at the p~k limit
A high value of lough ness index indicates a high percentage of colloi dal clay con taining mineral
montmorillonite.
(9) When comparing the properti es of two soils with equal values of plasticy index. it is found that es
tbe liquid limit increases , the dry strength and toughness decrease, whereas compressibility and penneabilily
increase.
(10) Whencomparingthe properties of two soils with equal liquid limits, it is found thai as the plasticity
iodex increases, the dry strengt h and toughness increase. whereas the penneability decreases. However, the
rompressibility remains almost the same.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

illustrative Enmple 4.1. A restfor th~ determination for the liquid limit was carriedon a soil sample The
following sets of observations were takelLPlot the flow curve and determine the liquid limit and theflow index.
No. of Blows(N) I'
WlIl'ttrCOtllnll(W) 'J, 53.9

Solution. Fig. E-4.1 shows the plot.

For H = 25. w, = 49'%.
84
,
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

From Eq. 4.25 (a). for N. - w

N2 100
- 10.
I, _ w\ - Wl _ 55.0- 42.0 • 13.0%
Itlust ra t tve Example 4.2. A soil has a liquid limit of 25%
and a flow index of 12.5%. If the plastic limit is 15%,
determine the plasticiry index and the roughness index:
/1the water content of liIe soil in itt natural condition in the .-
field is 10%, find the liquidity index and tJu:relative consistency. ;f!
8? lution. From Eq. 4.22. /1' - W, -
wI' - 25 -15 - 10% ~ so ~~;49.1.-
I 10 -
From Eq. 4.26, I , - ~ - 125 - 0.8 (80%)

From E. 4.23 . t, • T)( 100

e 48

_ O'~~g.15 x 100 _ 50 %

From Eq. 4.24. I( _ W1Z W )( 100

_ 0.25O~lO.20 )( 100 _ 50%

Illustrativ e Exam ple 4.3. A cone penetromete r test was
conducted on a sample of soil for the determination of the 42
liquid limi t, and me following observations were recorded.
COlJe~lIetrQljon
(mm) 263
"'0.. .- - =20 -,=-=-=
)0 zc = ",-- =-
SO 60 100
Water content (w)% 51.5 53.2 55.2 58.1 595 NO 0 1 blows
Det ermine the liquid limit: Fig. E-4.l.
So lu llon. Fig . E-4.3 shows the plot between the cone penetration and the water content . From the plot.
the water content corresponding to cone penetrat ion of 2S rom is 58% .
Thus WI • 58%.

30

I"
~ 2 6 ~ mm .
~ 21,' - - - - - - - - _ . - ---

!? 22

~ 20
~ 1B
~ 16
,
I
~ It. I
:wr 58' O Ofo
53 51, 5S 56 57 sa 59 60
Wa t er Conll!n t _
Fig. E-4.3 .
PLASfICITY CHARAcrFfl5nCS OF SOILS 85

Illust rat ive Example 4.4. A sample of clay has th~ liquid limit and the shrinkng~ limit 0[, respe ctively,
60% and 25%. If the sample has a volume of 10 ml QJ the liquid limit, and a KJ~ of 6.40 ml at tM
shrin1cg~ limit, determine the specific grtn'iry of solids.
Solution. Let M, be lhe mass of solids. in gm.
Tberefoee, mass of water at the liquid limit = 0.6 M,
and mass of water at the shrink age limit = 0 .25 M,
Mass of water lost between the liquid limit
and the shrinkage limit =
(0.6 - 0 .25) M, 0.35 M, =
Reduaion in volume = 0.35 M. mt
BUI actual reduction in vol ume = 10.0 - 6.40 = 3.60 ml
Therefore. 0.35 M. = 3.60 or M, = 10.29 gm
Thus, lhe mass of wa ter er the shrinkage limit
- 0.25 x 10.29 = 2.57 gm
Volume of wa ter at the shrinkage limit = 25 7 mt
Volume of solid part icles. V. = 6.40 - 2,57 = 3.83 m
Th erefore, specific gravity of solids, G = M' _ 10 .29 - 2.69
Pw V, 3 .83
Alternatively , directly from Eq. 4.10 (a).

G - (V2P..l~.)-w. - (6.40 x 1.0)10.29) -0.25 - 2..(1)

IIIustrali ve Exam ple 4.5. In an expe riment for the dele rmbwtion of the shrinknge limit, the following
oosavauons were taken.
(0) Volume of saturated so il = 9.75 ml
(b) Mass of saturated soil = 16.5 gm
(c) W>lwne of dry soil after shrinkage = 5.40 ml
(cf)Mass of dry soil afler shrinkage = 10.9 gm
Compute the shrinkage limit and the specific gravity of solids.
Solution. Given values are VI = 9.75 rot, M 1 = 16 5 gm
V:z = 5.40 ml, and M, = 10.9 gm.
(M, -M,) -(V,- V')P.
From Eq. 4.5, w. - M,
(16.5 -10.9) - (9.75 - 5.40) x l.0
Therefore, w, - 10.9
_ 5.61~.~35 _ 0.1147 (11.47% )

G _ M.
From Bq. 4.11,
V, P. - (M, - M,)
10.9 _ 2.63
9.75 x 1.0 - (16.5 10.9)
Illustrati ve Exampl e 4.6. A soil has liquid limit and plastic limit of 4 7% and 33%. respec tively. If the
volumetric shrinJcages al the liquid limit and plastic limit are 44% and 29%, de term ine the shrinkage limit:
Solution. From Eq. 4.16. \IS _ VI - V" )( 100
V.
V,-V"
At liquid limit, \IS - ----v;- )( 100 - 44
V,
~.0.44+1.0 _1.44
86 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

v" _ 0.694 VI ...(0)

At plastic limit, \IS _ Vp ~" V,,)( 100 _ '19

v
t-O.29 + 1.0-1.29
Vp - 1.29 V" •..(b)
Let the volume at liquid limit, VI. be 1.0 ml.
From Eq. (0), V" = volume at shrinkage limit » 0.694 ml
From Eq. (b), Vp :: volume at plastic lirnit e 0.895 ml

'· 00 ------- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.90 --------- -----

0.80

0.70
Voluml! ,
0.60
:
i
IW:,c
10 20 30 50 so
woter content - . . -

Fig. E4.6
From Fig . E 4.6 by proportion,
W I-W, ~

1.0 - 0.694 - 0.895 - 0.694

0.47 - W, 033 - w,
D:306 - ----o:2Ol
w, _ 0.06 (6.0%)

Illustrative Example 4.7. The following index properties were determined for two soils A and B.
Index. properly A B
Liq uid limit 65 35
Plastic limit 25 20
water content 35 25
Sp. iJ. or solids 2.70 2.65
Degreeor saturatton 100% 100%

Which of he two soils (i) contains more clay parti cles, (ii) has a greater bulk density. (iii» has a greater
dry dens ity, (iv) has a greater void ratio ?
PUSTICITY Cl lARAC fER lsnCS OF SOIL<;

Sol u tion.

S, No. SO/L A SOIL E

I. Plasncity index
PI .. ..../ -wp
65-25 =40% 35-20 = 15%
2. Void ratio
0.35 x 2.7 .. 0.945 0 .25 x 2.65 ~ 0 .663
e- w G
3. Dry density
Pd-~ 2·~ .;4~·0 _ 1.J88 g/ml 2.6i.C:31.0 ... 1.594 g/ ml
1 ..
4. Bulk density
1388 x 1.35 _ 1.874 glmI 1.594 x 1.25 _ 1.992 g/ml
P - pd (1 + w)
As the plastici ty inde x of soi l A is more than that of soil B. it has more clay particles .

1)I~ OnLET\-IS

A. Numeri cal
4.1. The consisten cy limits of a soil sample are:
Uquid limit = 52%
Plastic limit = 32%
Shrinkage lim it = 17%
If the specimen of this soil shrinks from a volume of 10 cm } at liquid limi t to 6.01 em} at the shrinkage limit,
calculate the spcclflc gravity of solids . [Ans . 2.80]
4.2. A cone pcnetralion test wa.<; carried out o n a samp le of soil with the followin g results:

Cone penet ration (mm)

Moisture COI llenl (%)

Determine the liquid limit o f the soil. [Ans, 6O%J

43. In a sh rinkage limit test, a dish with volume o f 10.5 ml W<l S filled with saturated clay. The mass of the satu rated
clay was 18.75 gm. The clay w<IS dried gradua lly first in atmosphere and then in an oven . The mass of Ihe dry
clay was 12.15 gm and its volume 5.95 ml. Determine the shr inkage limi t. (An s. 16 .9% ]
4.4. A sample of day has a void ratio of 0.70 in the undistulbed stale and of 0 .50 in a rernaulded state . If the
specific gravity of solids is 2.65 . determine the shrinkage limit in each case. [Ans. 26.4%, 18.9%)
4.5. A fully saturated day has a water cement of 40% and a mess speci fic gravity of 1.85. Mer oven-drying. the
massspecific gravity reduces10 1.75 . Determi ne the speci fic gravity of solids and the s hrinkage limit .
[Ans. 2.80, 21.4%)
4.6. The Auerberg limits of a clay are : 11. '" 60%, PL :: 45%, and SL '" 2.~% . The specific gravi ty of soi l solids is
2.70 and the natural mois ture cement is 50%.
(I) Wh:n is its state of co nsistc ncy in narure ?
(it) Calculate the volume to be expected in the sample when moisture content is reduced b y evaporation10
3
20%. lIS volume at liquid limil is 10 cm . [Am. consistency index '" 66 .7%, 6.40 an)

B. Descriptive and Objective Type

4.7. Discuss the importance of Anerberg's limits in soil engineering .
4.8. What are the main index prope rties o f a fine-grained soi l 1 110w are these determi ned in a laboratory 1
t9. Whal do you underslan d by consist ency of soil ? How is il de tenn ined ?
4.10. What are the differenl mdhods for determination of the liquid limit of a soil? What are their relative merits and
demerits 1
4.11. Describe the melhod for determi nation of shri nkage limil of a soi l.
4.12. Discuss various sh rinkage parameters. How would yo u determ ine linear shrinkage 1
88 SO IL MEC HA NICS A ND FO UND ATiON ENGIN EERING

4.13 . Wha t arc U5CS of cnnxis tcncy limits'! What arc their limitations '!
4. 14. Different iate between:
(u) Liq uid ity inde x and cunsistency index.
(b) Flow index and toughness index
(c) Plasticity and consistency
(dl Activity and sens itiv ity.
4.15. State whether the followi ng statements are true of false.
ial All the consistency limits :ITt: dete rmined for the so il in d istu rbed cond ition .
( b ) The liquidity index cannot be more than 100 %.
Ic) The consistency index can he negat ive.
cd) Plastic limit is the water content of soil which represents the boundary betwee n the plastic state and the
- semi-solid stare
(e) At shrinkag e limit, the soil is full y saturated .
(f) T hc activity or a day mineral is u cons rum.
(g ) Th e soils with sun consistency have hig h stre ngth,
(11) The soils with a dispersed structure have a high sensitivity . [Ans. True, (e), (d ), (e), (f)J

C. Multip le-Choic e Questions

l. At shrinkage limit, the soi l is
(u ) Dry (h) Partiall y satur;lted
(c) Saumued (d) NUllCof above
2. The shrinkage index is equal to
(a) Liquid limit minus plasuc limit.
(b> Liquid limit minus shrinkage limit
tc j Plast ic limit minus shrm kagc Iimit.
(d) None of above.
3. Toughne ss index of u soil is the ratio of
[a) Plastici ty index to the tlow index.
(b) Liqui dity index to the flow index.
Ie) Co nsiste ncy index to the n nw index.
(d ) Sh rinkage inde x to the 110w index
4. A stiff d ay has a consis tency index of
(a ) 50- - 75 (b) 75- 100
(e) Greater tha n 100 (dl Less than 50
5. T he plasticity inde x ofa highly plastic soil is about
(a) 10-20 (b) 2Q-40
(e) Gra ter than 40 (ef) Less than 10
6. The acti vity of the mine ral monlmorillonitc is
(al Less than 0 .75 (h) Betwee n 0.75 ami 1.25
[e) Between 1.25 and 4 [d) Greater than 4
7. A soil samp le has LL = 45% . PL :: 25% and SL '" 15%.-
Fur a natural water co ntent of 30%, the consis tenc y index will be
(£1)75% (b)50%
(c) 40% (til 25%
K. For the soil with LL = 45%, PL = 25% and SL = 15%; the plas ticity index is
(a) 50% (Ii) 20%
(c) 60% (i fl 40%
 IG

5
Soil Classification

5.1. INTROnUCIlON
Ull Soil classifi cation is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the soi ls in a particula r group
have similar behavio ur. It i s a sort of labelling of soils with different labels . As there is a wid e variety of so ils
covering earth. it is des irable to systematize or classi fy the soils into broad groups of simil ar be haviour. 11 is
more convenient 10 study the behaviour o f groups than that of individual soils. Classificatkm of various
conmociucs and species is also common in many other disciplines. For example. a chemist classifies the
chemicals into various groups . and a zoologist classifie s the species into a num ber of gro ups. Likew ise, a
geotechnical eng ineer classi fies the soils into various groups.
For a soil classification system to be useful (0 the geotechnical engineers, it should have the following
t este requiremen ts:
(1) It should have OJ limited number of gr oups.
(2) It should be based on the eng ineering properties which are most relevant for the purpose for which
the class ifica tioo has been made .
(3) It should be sim ple and shou ld U-'iC the terms which are easily understood.
Most of the class ification systems developed satisfy the above requ ireme nts.
A geotech nical engineer is interested 10 know the suitab ility or otherwise of a soil as a foundation or a
constructioo materia l. f"Or com plete knowledg e, a ll the engineering propert ies are detenn incd after conducting
a large number of tests . However, an appro ximate assessment of the engineerin g properties can be obtained
from the index properties after conducting on ly classification tests, as diSOJssOO in ch apters 3 and 4. A soil is
classified according to index properties. such as panicle size and plasticity cnaractertstics.
If the classification of a soil has been done according to so me standard classification system , us
properties and beha v iou r can be esumared based on the experience gai ned from similar soils elsewhere . A
classification system thus provides a common language between engineers dealin g with so ils. It is useful in
exchange of infonnation and experience between the geo techn ical engineers. For example, if a soil has been
cJassifK:d as SW acrording 10 Unified Soi l O assifJcation system, the geot echnical eng ineer anyw here in the
world would know that lhe soil is well graded sand , is quite pervious, has low compressibility and high shear
strength. All this information is exchanged only in two leners SW.
It may be mentioned that soil classification is no subs titute for exact analysis based on engineering
properties. For final des ign of large structures, the engineering properties should be determined by conducting
elaborate tests 00 urxlisturbed samples.
[Nole. TIle so il classifi cation system can be likened to classification o f human bein gs into 12 zodiac signs
(hll done by an astrologer. Alt hough genera l behaviou r of a human being under a particular zodiac sign can be
estimated from his zod iac sign. for complete predictio n, his deta iled borcscope is required) .
5.2. PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFlCATION
The size of individual particl es has an important influe nce on (he behaviour of so ils. It is not surprising
90 SOIL MECHA NICS AN D FOU NDATION E NGINEERING

that the first classification of soils was basedon the particle size. It is a genera l practice 10 classify the soils
into tour brood groups. namely. gravel, sand, silt size and clay size. While c lassifying the fine grai ned soils
on the bests of particle size. it is a good practice to write silt size and clay size and rot just s ill and c lay. In
genera l usage. the terms sill and clay are used (0 denote the soils that exhibit plast icity and cohes ion over a
wide range of water content. The so il with clay-size particles may not exhibit the propert ies associated with
clays. For example, rockflour has the particles of the size of the clay particles but docs not possess plasticity.
It is class ified as clay-size and not just c lay in the particle size classifi cation systems.
Any syste m of classification based only on particle size may be mislead ing for fme-gra ined soils. The
behavi our of such soils depends on the plasticit y characteristics and not on the pa rticle size. Howev er.
class ification based on particle size is of immense value in the case of coarse -grained soils. since the
behaviour of such so ils depends mainly on the particle size.
Some of the c lassification system based o n particle size alone are discussed below.
(1) Mff System-MIT system of classification of soils was dev eloped by Prof. G. Gilboy at
Massectnseues lnslitute of Technology in USA In this system, the so il is divided into four groolE (Fig. 5.1 a).
(I) Gra vel. particle size greater than 2 mm.
(it) Sand. particle size between 0.06 mm 10 2.0 mm.
(iit) Silt s ize, particle size between 0.002 rom to 0.06 mm.
(iv) Clay size, particle size smaller than 0.002 mm (2~).
Boundaries betwee n different types of soils correspond to limits when important changes occu r in lhc soil
propert ies. 'The particles less than 2 ~ size arc generally co lloidal fraction and behave as clay. The soils with
particle size smaller than 2 ~ are classified us clay size.
The naked eye can sec the the panicl e s ize of abou t 0.06 mm and larger. The so ils with particle size
smaller than 0.06 mm but larger than 4l are c lassified as siU-size. Important changes in the behavi our of soil
occu r if particle size is larger than 0.06 mm when it behaves as cohes ion1ess soi l.
The boundary between gravel and sand is abritrnrily kepi as 2 mm. This is about the size of lead in the pencil.
The soils in sand and silt-size-range are further subdivided into three categories : coarse (C). medium (M)
and fine (F), as shown in the figure. It may be noted thai MIT system uses only two integers 2 aIX! 6, and is
easy to remembe r.
(2) Inte rn atio nal Ct esstnceucn System--The International Classifica tion System was proposed for
general use al the Internat ional So ils Congress held as Washington in 1927. Th is classification system was

~
Sill (size) "' md
(size)

0.002
I
0.006
M I
0.02
e I-
0.06
-c::---.---,--:--.-
I M I -c::-----lE
0.2
e
0.'
2.0 mm
(21t) Legend
F"" Ptne M "" Medium
(a) MIT System C "" CooISC
~r---,;:----,,----"'
Sil::-,-'-'-I
~I F le
a,y
Ie
Mo
I e I I M
"'ulel
'" ve~
r:::-::-
0.2 "" 0.6 I! 0.006 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 mm
VC ",·Very coa rse
(b) Inletnalion31a assificalion

Oay Silt "'md

(size) (size) Grave l
Very fi ne Fi", Medium
0.005 0.05 0.10 0.25
(c) U.S. Bureau of Soils O assificalion
Fig. 5.t. <huirleilli on Sys~ms.
sou, C~ FICATION 91

known as the Swedish classification system before it was adopted as International system. Howeve r, the
system was not adopted by the United States.
In this system [Fig. 5.1 (b)]. in addition to sand, silt. and clay. a term n1Q has been used for soil particles
in the size range between sand and silt.
(3) U.s. Bureau of Soils Classification-This is one of the earliest classification systems developed in
189S by U.S. Bureau of Soils (Fig. 5.1 (e)]. In this system. the soils below the size 0.005 mm are classified
as clay size in contrast to 0.002 mm size in other systems . 1be sells between 0.005 mm and 0.05 mm size
art classified as silt size . Sandy soils between the size 0.05 mm and 1.0 mm are Slbdividcd into four
categories as very fmc. fme, mediwn and coarse sands. Fine gravels are in the size range of 1.0 to 2.0 mm.
5.3. TEXTURAL ClASSIFICATIO N
Texture means visual appearance of the surface of a material suc h as fabric or cloth. The visual
appearance of a soil is called its texture. The texture depends upon the particle size. shape of particles and
gradation of particles. l be textural classificatio n incorporates only the particle size, as it is difficult to
incorporate the other two parameters.
In fact. all the classification systems based on the particle size, as discussed in Sect. 5.2, are textural
classification systems. However. in soil engineering, the term textural classification is used rather in a
restricted sense. 'Ibe triangular classification sys tem suggested by U.s. Bureau of PUJlic Roads in commonly
known as the textural classification system (Fig. 5.2). The term texture is used to express the percentage of
the three constituents of soils. namely, S"IOd, silt and clay.
0100

,, o ~j-C'QY
60 ~
\ , p
\~
Silt

)0-------- --- -
/ Ctov
so

/ t'

'0

1,,0 SO 60 70 80
Silt (- I .)
(Sin 0 .005 to a .os mm)
Fig. ~ .2 Textul1l1 dasifiClltial System.
 ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Accord ing to the textural classi fication system. the percentages of sand (size 0.05 10 2.0 rom), sill (size
0.005 to 0.05 rom) and clay (size less than 0.005 rom) are plotted along the three sides of an equilateral
triangle. The equilatera l triangle is divided into 10 zones, each zo ne indicates a type of so il. The so il can be
classified by determining the zone in which it lies. A key is given thai indica tes the directions in which the
lines are 10 be drawn to jocate the poin t. f-or example if a soil contains 30% sand and 20% sill and 50% clay.
it is shown by point (P) in the figure. The point falls in the zone labelled clay. There fore. the soil is class ified
as clay.
The textural class ification system is useful for classifying soils cons isting of different constit uents. '(b e
system assumes that the soil does JlOI cont ain panicles larger than 2.0 rom size. However. if the soil contains
a certain percentag e of soil particles larger than 2.0 rom, a correctio n is required in which the sum of the
percentages of sand, silt and clay is increased to 100%. r-orexamp le, if a so il contains 20% particles of size
lager than 2 mm size, the actua l sum of the percentages of sand, s ill and clay particles is 80% . Let tbese be
respecti vely 12, 24 a nd 44%. The corrected percentages would be obtained by multiplying with a factor of
100/80. There fore, the corrected percentages are 15, 30 and 55%. Th e textural ctasstncauon of the so il would
be dooe based on Ihcsc corrected percentages.
In this system, the term loom is used to descri be a mixture of sand , silt and clay partic les in various
proportions. The term loam originat ed in agricul tural engineering where the '\uitabili ty of a soil is judged for
crops. The term is not used in so il
engineeri ng. In orde r \0 d im inate the
term loam, the Miss issipi River
Commission (USA) proposed a
modified triangular diagram (Fig. 5.3). SAND
The term loom is replaced by soil CLAY
engineering terms such as silly clay.
The principal component of a so il is
IlT
taken as a noun and the less promi nent KEY
compo nent as an adject ive. For
example, silty clay contains mainly
particles or :a cla y, but some silt
part icles are also present. It must be
noted that the primary soil type with
respect to behaviour is not necessarily
lhe soil type that cccsnn nes the largest
part of the sample . For exampl e, the
general cbaracte r of a mixed so il is
determined by clay fraction ii it
exceed s 3D%,
Right Trian gle Chart. Since the 1000~-;;;,-~,-",-;f:---;-;,L=-...,;;:----;:~::;,,---,
sum of the percentages of sand, silt and
clay size partic les is 100 %, there is no
need to plot all the three percentage.
The percentage of sand particles can be Fig.53 . Modified Triangula r DiagralIl.
found by deduction from 100% the sum of percentages of sill and clay particles. It is possible to determine
the textural classification by locating the point of intersection of lines representing s ilt and clay. as shown in
right-trian gle chart (Fig. 5.4).
"The right-tria ngle cha rt is more convenient than the conventional triangular chart as it involves only
orthogonal arrangement of grid lines.
5.4. AASHTO CLASSWICATION SYSTEM
American Association of State Highway and Transportauon Offidal (AASlnu) Classincation system is
SOIL Cl..ASSlACATION 93

useful for clessttylng soils for highways. The

particle size analysis and the ptesncity 100
characteristics are required to classify a soil. The
classifkatjon system is a co mplete system wh ich
classifies both coarse-grained and fine-g rained
soils. In this syste m. Ihe soi ls are d ivided into 7
types, designa ted as A- I to A-7. Th e so ils A-I
and A-7 are furth er subdivided into two
categories. and the soil A-2. into four
categories, as shown in Table 5.1.
To classi fy a soil , its particle size analysis is
done, and the plastici ty index and liquid limit
are dete rmined. With the values of these
parameters known, one e xamines the flrst
(extreme left) oolumn of Thble 5.1 and
ascertains whether the known parameters satisfy
the limiting values in that colum n. If these
satisfy the requirements. the soil is classified as
A-I-a. If these do nor satis fy, one enters the 80 90 100
second column (from the lefl) and determines
whether these satisfy the limiting va lues in that
Fig. 5.4. Righi Triangle chart,
column. The procedu re is repea ted for the next
column until the column is reached when the known paramet ers satisfy the requirements. The so il is classified
as per nomencl at ure given at the top of that column.
The so il with the lowest number, A-I, is the most suitable as a highw ay mate rial or sub grad c. 1n general .
the lower is the number of soi l. the more suitable is rbe soil. For exampl e, thc soil A -4 is better than the soil
A-5. In Table 5 .1. the column for soil A-3 is 10 the left of the col umn for soil A-2. Th is arrangement is only
to determine the classification of the soil. This docs not indicate that soil A-3 is more suitable for highways
thanA.-2 soil.
Fine-grained soils are further rated for their suitability for highways by the gro up index (Gf). determined
as follows:
G/ - .W -3S)[O.2 + O.OOS (wl-4O» ) + O.01 (F -IS)(/,-IO) ... (S.I)
where F ::: percen tage by mass pass ing American S ieve 00. 200 (size 0.075 mm). expressed as a
whole numb er.
W, ::: liquid limit (%) expressed as a whol e numbe r,
lp ::: plasticity index (%), expressed as a whole number.
Eq. 5.1 is some times expressed as
G/ = 0.2 (F-3 S) + O.ooS (F-3S ) (w, - 40) + 0.01 (F-IS) (/,-10)
While calculating G1 from lhe above equation, if any term in the parentheses becomes negative, it is
dropped. and nOl given a negative value . The maxim um values of (F- 35) and (F- 15) are taken as 40 and that
of (w/- 40) and (1, - 10) as 20 .
The group index is rounded off to the nearest whole number. If the oornputed value is negative, the group
index is reported as zero. The groo p index is appended 10 the soil type determined from Table 5.1. For
example A-6 (15) indicates the soil lype .4.-6. havin g a group index of IS. The sm aller the value of lhe group
index. the better is the soil in that category. A gro up index o f zero indicates 8 good sobgrade,whereas a group
index of 20 or grea ter shows a very JXlOr' subgrade. The group inde x must be men tioned eve n when it is zero
to indicate that the soil bas been classified as per AASI ITU system .
 1!

Table 5.1. AASUTO C la~lDcaUon Syste m

Silt-clayMalerials
Getleral Grtuu4larmalerials More lluvt 35% passing No. 200 Sieve
C/assijiCalion (35% or less passing No. 200 Sievr (0.075 mm) (0.075 mm)

A- l A-' A-7
Group
A- 3 A-5
-
A--4 A--<5 A-7-5
Classi{icmion A-/~ A-/--" A-'--4 A-2-5 A-'--<5 A-'--1 A-7-6
(a) Sieve An alysis:
Percent Passing
(I) 2.00 mm (No. 10) 50 ma
(ii) 0.425 mm(No. 40) 30 ma 50,"", 51 min
(iii) 0.075 mm (No. 200 ) 15 max 25 ma 10 max 35 max 35 max 3S max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
(b}C haracteristicsof
fraction passing
is
0.42S mm (No. 40)
r
(I) Liquid limit 40 ma 4 1 min 40,"", 41 min
40 "'"
41 min 40 max 41 min z
(ii) Plasticity index 6 "'" N,P. 10 max 10 max II miD 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min·
~
(e) Usual types of
signific8m
Sooe Fragment>
Gravel aoo sand Fioe Sand Silty or Ctayey Gravel Sand Silly Soils OayeySoils ~
Cons nnenr materials ~
c
(d) ,Generalrating as
subgrade. Excellent kl Good

• If plasticity index is equal 10or less lhan (liquid urnil-JO), the soil is A-7-5 (i.e. PL> 30%)
If plllS/icity index is greater than (Liquid limil-JO). the soil is A-7---6 (i.e. PL < 30%)
Fair 10 Poor

i
~
S1
~

I
SOiL CI...Ni'ilFiCAll0N ss
55 . UNID ED SOI L CLASS IFICA TION SYSTEM
The Unified Soil Classification System (Usq was fust developed by Casagrande in 1948. and later, in
1952, was modified by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers of the United States of
America. lbc system bas also bee n adopted by American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM). The system
is the most popular system for use in all types of engineering probkms involving soils. The various symbols
usedare given in Table 5.2.
Ta ble 5.2. Symbols used In USC Syste m
Symbols Description
Primary G Grave l
S Sand
M Silt (Symbolh M obtained from (he
Swedis word 'mo')
C os
0 Organic
Peat
Secondary '"
W Well.graded
P
PoOO' """'"
M Non-plastic fines
C Ptasuc fines
L Low Plaslidly
II High plasticity

The system uses both the particle s ize analysis and plasticity chara cteristics of soi ls, like AAS IITO
system. In this syste m, the soils are c lassi fied into 15 groups (Thble 5.3). Th e so ils are first classi fied into two
categories.
(1) Coarse-grained sons-e-lf more than 50% of the soil is retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve. it is
designated as coarse-grained so il. There are 8 groups of coarse-gramed so ils.
(2) Fine-grained soils-If more than 50% o f the soil passes No. 200 sieve, it is called floe-grained soil .
Thereare 6 groupsof fine-grained soils.
I . Coarse-grained Soi ls-The coarse-grained soils an:: designated as gravel (G) if 50% or more of coarse
fraction (plus 0.075 mm) is retained on No. 4 (4.75 mm) sie ve; otherwise il is termed sand (S).
If the coerse-graiocd soils contains less than 5% fines and are well-graded (W), they are given the
symbols GW and SW, and if poorly graded (P). symbols GP and SP. The criteria for weD-grading are given
in Table 53 . If Ihe coarse-grained soils contain mo re than 12% Fines, these are designated as GM. Ge, SM
or SC, as per criteria given. If the percentage of fines is between 5 to 12% dual sy mbols such as GW-GM,
SP·SM, are used .
i . Fine -grained Soils-Fine-g rained soils are further divided into two types; (1) Soils of low
compressibility (L ) if the liquid limit is 50% or less. These are given lhe symbols ML, CL and Ol: (2) So ils
of high com pressibili ty (H) if the liqu id limit is more tha n 50%. These are given the symbols MI l, CII and
011. The exact type of the soil is dete nnined from the plasticity chart (Fig. 5.5). The A-line has the equation
1, = 0.73 (wl-20). It separates the clays from silts. Whe n the plasticity index and the liquid limit plot in the
hatched portion of the ptasucny chart , the soil is give n double symbol CL- ML.
The inorganic soil ML and Mil and the organic soils Or, OH plot in the same zones of the plasticity chart.
Thedistinction between the inorganic and organic soils is made by oven-drying. If oven drying decreasestbe
liquidlimit by 30% or more, Lhesoil is ctasslfled organic(OL or 01l) ~ otherwise, inorganic (ML or MIl)
lll ghly O rg an ic Sol ls-Highly organie soils are idcn tifJCd by visual inSpection. These soils are termed
peat (P,).
5.6. COMPARI SON OF AASIITO AND USC SYSTEMS
AASlnu system is for finding 01.1 1 the suitab ility or otherwise of soils as subgra de for highways only.
96 son, MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Table 5.3. Unified So il Class incation Sysle m

G"", p Typical
MojorDivision Symbo ls nomes Classi/icatiOl1critmtJ
Wen graded COl > 4

~
GW
Coarse-Grained Gravel (50% o r a"," gravels C~_1 Io3
Soils. more of coarse G ravels Poorly graded Not meeting both criteria for
{More than fraction retained GP grovels GW
50% retained on No.4 sieve ;i Attcrberg Limlts Atterberg

~
on No. 200 (4.75 mm)]
below A-line or Limits in
sieve (0.075 GM Silty grovels
plasticity index hate hedarea
mmj]
i);~~
Gravel s less than 4 G M-GC
with Allclberg Limits
fines
GC Oayeygravels ~~~
", lS i:'
above A.(ine
and plasticity
index grealer

Well-graded
~~~ than 7
e.. :> 6
Sand [more than
50% of coarse
a ". SW
" od< ~~] c~ - 1 103

factio n passin g
No.4 sieve
"""'" SP
Poorly graded
sancs ~!~
Not meeting both
SW
criteri a for

(4 .75 mm)] ·~l ~ Allerbe rgLimils AlIerbcrg

~ [".1:'
Silly sands
below A-line or Limitsin
SM
plasticity index hatched area
Sands ,g~~ [ less tban 4 SM--SC

~~!~
with Artcrberg Llmlrs
fines above A-line
SC Oayey sands
p~~ and plasticity
index greater
~ §:~£ <bon7
Inorganic si lls
Fine grained Silts and clays Uquid ML or low
soil s [50% 0< U mil 5O% or less plasticity
more passin g Inorganic
No. 200 sieve days or low
(0 .075 mm)] CL 10 medium
lnlasticitv
Orga nic silts
OL or low
plasticity see Plasticity Chart (Fig . 55)
Inorganlcsilts
Silts and days Liquid Mil o r high
Limil greate r than 50$ plasticity
Inorganic
en days or high
plasticity
Organic d ays
Oil of medium or
high plast icity
Peat. muck
and other
Highty organic Soils PI Visual -manual identificatio n
highly
orgonicsoils
SOIL ClASSlf-l CATI ON 97

CH

.. 30

("'l) »t ,

Fig. 5.5. Plasticity ehart(USC).

USC system is for determining the suitab ility of soils for general usc. Both the systems , however, have the
samebasis. "They class ify the soils accord ing to the particle size analysis and the plasticity cnaractcrstics.
BOOl the systems div ide the soils into two major categories, namely. coa rse-gra ined and fine-grained soils.
The following differences between the two systems are wOI1h mentioni ng.
(1) Accordin g to AASlfIU system. a soil is termed fine-grained if more than 35 % passes No. 200 (0.075
mm) sieve. whereas in the USC system, if more than 50% passes that sieve. In this respect. the
AAS lffO system is somewhat bette r because the soil behaves as fine-grained when the percentage
of fines is 35% , and the limit of 50 % in USC syste m is some what hig her.
(2) In AAS lflU system. sieve No. 10 (2.0 mm size ) is used to divide the so il into grave l and sand.
whereas in USC system. sieve No. 4(4.75 mm size) is used.
(3) In USC system. the grave lly and sandy soi ls are clearly separa ted. whereas in AASI nu system.
clear demarca tion is not done. The soil A-2 in the latter system contains a large variety of soils .
(4) Symbols used in USC system are more descriptive and arc more easily remembered than those in
AASIITO system .
(5) Organic soils are also c lassified as OL and 01/ and as peat (P,) if highly organic in USC system. In
AASl-fro. there is no place for organic soils.
(6) USC system is more con venient to IN: than the AASlfIU system . In the latter, the process of
elimination is required wh ich is time-consumin g.
Thble 5.4. Approximat e Equiv alence Between AASIITO and USC System
MSlITO System USC system (most probable)
As l -a GW,G P
A-I-b SW, SM. GM. SP
A-24 GM, SM:
A -2-S GM, SM
A·2-6 oc.sc
A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC
A-3 SP
A-4 Ml,Ol,MII,OIl
A-S Mil, OIl, Ml,OH
A-6 CL ~

A-7-5 Oil, Mil , Cl, OL

A-7-6 CII,Cl,OIl
'8 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEFJUNG

Toole 5-4 gives approx imate equ ivalen ce in both the SYS(CffiS. If the so il has bee n c lassified according 10
one system. its classification according 10 the othe r can be determined. However, the equivalence is only
approximate. For exact classification. the corres ponding procedure should be used.
5.7. INmAN STANUA IUJ ClASSIFICATI ON SYSTEM
Indian Standard Classification (lSC) system adopted by Burea u of Ind ian Standards is in many respects
similar to the Unified Soil Classification (Usq system. However. there is one basic difference in lhl:
ctasstficauo n of fine-grained so ils. l bc fine- gra ined so ils in ISC syste m are subdivided into three categories
of low, med ium and high compeessibilay instead of two categories of lOW" and high ro rnpress ibility in USC
syste m. A bri ef outline of Classi fication and ldentificalion of So ils for ge nera l e nginee ring purposes (IS :
1498 -1970) is given be low. For complete details . the reader should consult Lhecode.
ISC sys tem classsifics the soils into 18 groups as per Tab les 5.6 and 5 .7.
So ils are divided into three broad divisio ns:
(1) Coarse-grained soils , when 50% or more of the total materia l by weight is retained on 75 micron IS
sieve.
(2) Fine -grained soils, when more than 50% of the total material passes 75 micron IS sieve.
(3) If the soil is highly organic and contain" a large percentage of organic matter and particles ci
deco mposed vege tation. it is kept in a se parate category mar ked as peat (P,).
In all. the re arc 18 groups of soils : 8 gro ups of coa rse- grained. 9 groups o f fine-graine d and one of pea.
Beste so il com ponents are given in Tabl e 5.5. Symbols used are the same as in USC system (fable 5.2).

"le ble 5.5. Bas ic Soil Components in ISC System

Particle stu range and

Soil Soil componenrs S) 7Ilool derrription
Rounded 10 angula r, bulky, hard, rock. panide; avenge
(;)Coo~-
Boulder Non, diameter more than 300 mm
gratred
Rounded 10 angular, bulky, hard, rock panicle; average
componen ts
Cobbl' Non' diameler smaller than 300 mm bUI ratained on 80 nun 15
sieve
Rounded 10 angular, bulky, hard, rock:panicles ; passing ~
mm IS sieve bur retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve
Gravel G
Coarse : 80 mm to 20 mm IS sieve
n ne : 20 mm to 4.75 mm IS sieve
Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle; passing 4.75
mm IS sieve, but retained on 75 micron sieve
Sand S Coarse : 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm IS s ieve
Medium : 2.0 mm [0 42.'i micron IS sieve
Flne : 42.'i micron 10 65 micron IS sieve
Silt M Panicles smaller man 75 miaon IS sieve; identified by
(il) Hoe-gra ined behaviour, lhal is, slightly plastic or non-plastic regardles
compooe nts of molstore and exhibits litlle or no strength when air-dried

a" c Partides smaller than 75 miaoo IS sieve : ideDliflCdby

bebavloe r, thaI is, il can be made 10 exhibit plastic
propenies within a certai n considerable strength when iii
dried.
Organic matter 0 Organic muner
deromposi lion.
in various
"= """ "'go; •
I
NG SOIL CLASSIFlCA:110N 99
SO
; to
nly
40
Cl Cl CH
cts
the ;! 30
ies
SC
S , 20

MH
0'
GH

60 70 eo
liquid limit (vi) 010

fig. 5.6. Plastlciry Ch.·m (lSC)

\. Cee ese-gra jned So ils-Coarse-grained soils are subdivided lnro gravel and sand . 'Ih c soil is termed
gravel (G) whc n more than 50% of coarse fract ion (plus 75 ~) i.s retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve, and termed
sand (S) if mo re than 50% of the coarse fractio n is smalle r than 4.75 mm IS sieve. Coarse -gra ined soils are
further subdivided as given in Table 5.6 into 8 groups_
2. fine-grained Soils-The fine-gra ined soils are further d ivided into three subd ivisions, depending upon
the values of (he liquid limit:
(a) Silts and clays of low com press ibility-Th ese soi ls have a liquid limit less than 35 (represented by
symbo l L) .
(b) Sills and cla ys of med ium rom pressibility-Thcsc so ils have a liquid limit greater than 35 but less
ge than 50 (representedby symbol I).
IS
(c) Silts and c lays of high compressibility-c-These soils have a liquid limit greater Hum 50 (represented
by sym bol I f).
30
Fine-grained soils are further subdivid ed, in 9 groups as given in Table 5 .7.

5.8. nOUNIJAn.v CLASSIFICATIONS

Someumes, it is nor possible to classify a soil into anyone of 18 groups discussed above. A soil may
J5 possess characteristics of two groups. either in particle size distribution or in plasticity . For such cases .
boundary classifications occur and dual symbols arc used.
(a) Houndary classlflcatlon for coarse-grained soils
The following boundary c lassification can occur :
(1) Boundary class ificatio ns within gravel group or sand group can occur . The following classification
'y arc common.
ss
.d. GW-GP, GM-GC, GW-GM, GW-Gc, GP-GM
SW-Sp, SM-SC, SW-SM, SW-SC. SP---..')M
'y
cc While givin g dual symbols. first writ e a coarser soil then a finer soil .
ur 1(2) Boundaryc lassification can occur between the gravel and sand groups such as
GW-Slf, GP--Sp, GM-SM, and GC---SC
The rule for correct; classification is 10 favo ur the non-plastic classification . For e xamplc. a gravel with
10% fines, C.. = 20 and C~ = 2.0 and Jp = 6 will be class ified as GW-GM. and not GW-Gc.
100 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDXl10N ENGINEERING

Ta ble 5.6. Classiflcat jon or Coa rse -grul eed So ils (ISe Syste m)
G=p Typical
D j,;sioll S ubdil';siOtl S)'mbol
LAboratory CrileriQ Remark
names
( I ) Coo n;e · Gravel (G) Clean (l)GW Well c.. grater than 4 When fines
grained (more Ihan gravels grod<d C~ between 1 and 3 are between
soils (More half of coarse (Fines less grovels 5% 10 12%,
lhan half af Iracncn is than 5% ) border line
ma teria l is Inrger than (2) OP Pood, Not meeting all gradaticn cases
larger than 4.75 mm IS graded requirements for O W requiring
75-mii::ron sieve) gravels .~I
_ as
IS sieve Gravels (3)GM Sihy Anetberg Atterberg symbols
size) with gravels limits Limits plOCting
a pp reci a ble be low above A -line GP-GM,
amount of A-line or I" wi th /" berwen SW - 5C,
fines (I'lnes less than a 4 and 7 are etc.
more than bordec-tine
12% ) (4) GC Cl a yey Alt erberg cases requiring
gravels limits above use of dual
A -line a nd
" mbol
Jp gnll cr GM-<;C
than 7

Send (5) Cteen sands (5)SW wsr- e..greeater than 6

(M ore than (Flnes jess graded C~ between 1 and 3
haifoCcoarse lIIan 5%) sands
fraction is
(6) SP Poorly- Not meeting all gradation
smaller man
4.75 mm IS graded requiremen ts for SW
sieve) sands

Sands with (7)SM silty Atterberg Aueraerg 's

appreciable sands LimilS Limits plotting
amout of below above A-line
fines A-lineot Jp with Jp
(Fines more Icss rhan a between 4 and
than 12%) 7 are border-
( 8) SC Claycy Ancrbcrg line cases
sands limits above requirin g use
A line with of double
Ip greater symbols
than 7 SM-SC

(b) Doundary classlfj cat lcn fOI" rlne -gralned soils .

(1) Within the same compressibi lity subd ivision, such as
ML-CL, ML-OL, CL-OL; CI--MI, MI -OI, CI-OI; MII -CH, MH-OII; CII-OII.
First write a coarser so il when there is a choice and then a finer soil.
(2) Between low and medium compressibility, such as
ML-MI, CL-CI, OL-DJ
(3) Betwee n med ium and high comp ressibility
ML-MH, CI-CH, OJ-DJJ
(c) Boundary CI:..ssificalion betwee n coerse-gratned a nd flne-gra tned soi ls.
Boundary classification can OCCUJ" be tween a coarse-grained soil and a fine-grained soil such as
SM-ML. SC-CL
SOIl. C lASSIFICATIO N '01

Ta ble 5.7. Classification or Ftne -gra fned Soils (lSC System)

Group LtJboratory Crite ria (5« Fig

Division Subdivisiotl Symbols Typic'l l names Rem'lrh
5.6)

2) Fine- Low- (l )ML Inorgani c silts Attcrbcrg Ancrberg ( 1) Orga nic and
grained soils compcessiblllty with none 10 limi ts plot limits pioting inor gani c soils
(more than (L) (Liquid low plasticity below A-line abov e A-line pla ned in the same
50% pass Limi t less or /pless wilh II' zone in plastici ty
75~ IS sieve) than 35%) than 7 berween a m chart are distin gu is.
7 boo by odour and
(2)CL Inorganic
d3)""S of low
Attcrberg
limits p101
"",,',OO
zone) ML-CL """"'
limit '"
ies
liquid
after
plastici ty above A -line
and /p greater
than 7
oven-drying.
A reduction
liq uid limi l after
,.
ove n- drying to •
(3) 01. Organic silts Atterbcrg limits plot below value less man
of low A -line three - fourlh of the
plasticity liquid limit before
oven- dry ing
Interme d iate (4)MI Inorga nic s ills Alterberg limits p101be low positive "
compressibility of medium A-line identification
(I) plasticity of organic soils.
(uquid limit
greater than
35% but less (5)CI Inorgani c Atlerbc rg limi ts plO! above (2) Black conce
tha n 50% days of A-line soi ls of India lie
medium along a band partly
plasticity above Ib, A-line
and portly below tha
(6) 01 Orgaic silts Alterbcr g limi ts plot below A line
of medi um A-line
plasticilY

High (7)MH Inorganic silts Allerbe tg lirnits p101 below

cornpressibiliy of high A-line
(H) (Liquid compressibility
tim lt gree tee
tha n 50%) (8)CH Inorganic Atterberg limi ts pial above
clays o f high A -line
plasticity See. plltSlicily
chart (Fig. 5.6)
(9) OH Orga nic clays Atterberg limits plot below
of med ium 10 A-line
high plasticity

(3) Highly PI Peal and Readily identified by roIour.

organic5Cli1 other highly odour . spongy feel and fibrous
organic soils texture

5.9. FIELD IDENTIFI CATION OF SOILS

The soils can be id entified in the field by conducting the following simple tests.
Th e sample is fi rs t . s prea d on a fla t sur face. If more tban 50% of the particles are visible 10 the naked
eye (una ided e ye) , th e soil is coarse-grained; otherwise, it is fi ne grained. The fine- grain ed part icles are
102 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

smaller lhan 75 j.1 size and are not visible 10 unaided eye . 1bc fraction of soil smaller (han 7511- size, lhal i.s,
the clay and sill fract ion. is referred 10 as fin es.
(I ) Coa rs e-gra ined Sells-e-lf the soi l is coarse-g rained. it is further identified by estimating the
percen tage o f (a) gra vel size particle s (4.75 mm to 80 mm) , (b) sand size parti cles, (751l-to 4.7 5 mm) nod (c)
silt s and cla y size panicl es (sma ller them 75 J.1 size). Gravel parti cles are larger than 4 .75 mm size and can be
iden tified visua lly.
If the percentage of gravel is greater Ulan that of sand. the soil is a gravel: otherwise. it is sand.
Gravels and sands are further classified as clean if the y contain fines less than 5% and as dirty if lhey
contain fioes more than 12%. Gravels and sands containing 5 to 12% floes are given boundary classificahon.
The fme fraction of the coarse-grained soils is identified using the procedure give n be low for fine- grained
soils 10 determine whclher it is silty or clayey.
10 differentiate fine sand from sill, dispers ion test is adopted. When a spoo nful o f so il is poured in a jar
full of water, fine sa nd se ttles in a m inute or so, whereas silt takes 15 minutes or more.
(2) .Ffne -gralned soi ls-If the so il is fine-gra ined, the following tes ts are conducted for iden tification 00
the fraction of the so il fine r than the 425 -m icro n IS sieve to d ifferentiate silt from clay .
(a) Dilatanc y (reaction to shaklng) test- A small pat of moist soil of abou t 5 ml in volume is prepared
Water is added to make the soil soft but not stick y. The pat is placed in the open palm of one -hand and
shaken horizontally, striking agai nst the o ther ha nd several times during shaking. If the soi l gives a positive
reaction, the wate r appears on its su rface whic h changes to a lively consistency and appears glossy . When the
pat is sq ueezed betwee n thc nngcrs, thc water an d gloss d isappear from the su rface. It becom es st iff and
ultimat ely crumbles.
Th e rapidit y w ith whi ch w ater appears on the surface during sha king and d isa ppears durin g squeezing i'i
used in the idcnt ifica tion of flnc-graiocd soils (Hable..s 5.8). 1be large r the size o f the particles, the q uicker is
the reaction. The reaction is called quick if water appears and disappears quickly. The reaction is termed slow
if water appears and disappears slowly. For no reocuoe, the water does oot appear at the surface.
(b ) Toughness test-The pat used in the d ilatancy test is dried by work ing and remou ld ing until it has
the consistency of putty, The time requ ired to dry the pat depe nds upon the plasti city of the so il.
The pat is rolled on a sm oo th su rface or bet ween the palm s into a thre ads of about 3 rom in diameter.
Th e thread is folded and re- rolled to redu ce the water is soil , due to evaporation by heat of hand, until the
3 mm d iame ter thread ju st cru mbles. Tbe wat er con tent at thai stage is eq ua l to the plas tic limit and the
resistance to mou ld ing at that ..rage is cal led the toughness.
Afte r the thread crumbles, the p ieces of the sample are lumped together and slbjected 10 kneading until
the lump also crumbles. The tougher the thread at rbe plastic limit and the stiffer the kneaocd lump just
before it crumbles, the higher is the toug hness of the soil. The toughness is low if the thread is weak and the
soil mass cannot be lumped toge ther when drier than plasti c limi t. The toughness is high whe n the lump can
be mou lded drie r than plast ic lim it and high pressu re is required 10 roll the threa d.
The toughness depends upon the potency of the colloidal clay.
TlI.ble5.8. Field Identification Tests

T'" ML CL 01. " I CI 01 Mil CII 011

Quic k None to Slow Quick Noo' Slow Slow 10 Noo' NooelO

(D) DiIOltancy
very slow 10 slow none very slow

None M edium l.ow None M edium !.ow Low 10 High Low "
(b) 'Io ughness
medium medium

(c) Dry slrength

None M edium Low Lo w Medium Low 10 Lo w 10 H igh to Medium
of low to high medium medium very high to high

(c) Dry st rength lest-The pat of the soil is completely dried by air drying , sun drying or oven-drying.
SOIL CU.~lFICATION '03

The dry stren gth is determ ined by break ing the dried pat and crumbling it between Fingers. Th e dry strength
is a measure of plasti cit y o f the soil . The dry strength depends upon the colloidal Fraction of th e soil .
The stren gth is termed high if Ihe dried pat can not be powdered at all; medium, if considerable pressure
is required ; and low, if the dry per can be easily powdered .
Table 5 .8 can be used fo r the field identificat ion o f different soils .
5.10. GENERAL CJIARAC'fERIsnCS OF SOILS OF DIFFERENT GROUPS
General cnaracreris ncs of Ihe so ils o f various groups as class ified by ISC system and USC system are
given in Tab le 5.9. The inform ation given in Ihe tab le sh ould be considered as a rough gu idance abou l the
engineeri ng propenies o f so ils. For compl ete information, !he tests shou ld be ro nd uetcd an d the eng ineering
properties determi ned .
Table 5.9. General Propetles of' SoIls

Soil Group Pf!rmf!Qbiliry Compressibi/iry SNar SJre"gth Workability

(II) Gravels
GW Pervious Negligible Excellent Excellent
GP Very pervious Negligible Good Good
GM Semi-pervious
impervious
'0 Negligible Good Good

GC Imp'. .r viocs very low Good 10 fair Good

(b)""""
SW Pervious Negligible Excetlem Excellent
SP Pervious Very low Good Fair
SM Semi-pervious 10 Low Good f air
impervious
SC Impervious Low Good 10 fair Good
(c)l.ow&. medium
P1l1Sticily silt &
clays
ML,MI Semi-pervious 10 Medium Fair Fair
impervious
CL,C1 Impervious Medium fair Good 10 fair
GL,m Semi-pervious 10 Medium fa ir f air
impervious
(d)High- pl8Sticity
sills &. clays
'III Semi-pervious 10 High fair to poor Poc<
impervious
CII Impervious High Poor Poc<
011 Impervious High Poor Poc<
Note.Highlyorganic SOlIs [Peats] are nor used In engmeenngworks.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Iltustreuve Example S.l. A sample of soil was tested in a lsbora tory, and the following observations
were recorded:
LiquidLimit = 45%. Plastic Limit = 16%
104 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDA1l0N ENGINEERING

U.S. Sieve No. No. 200

(0.075 m m)
Percentage P:l£';ing 60.0

Classify the soil according to AASl nV system.

Solution. Plasticity Index = 45 - 16 = 29%
Refe rring to Table 5.1, and proceeding from the ext reme left column to right. the first column in whidr
the properties fit is A-7 .
10 ascertain whether the so il is A-7-5 or A-7-6 , the val ue of ( w J - 30) is requ ired. In this case,
WI - 30 = 45 - 30 = 15%
As Ip > (WI - 30) , the soil A-7-6.
From Eq. 5.1. taking F = 60,
Group Index = (F - 35) [0.2 + 0.005 (W I - 40) ] + 0 .01 (F - 15)(/1'-to)
GI = (60 - 35 )[0.2 + tl.00 5 x 5)] + 0.01 (40 )(19)
= 13.3, say 13.
Th e soil is class ified as A-7·6 (13).
Illustrative Example 5.2, Classify tile soils A and IJ, with the prope rties as sho wn below, according w
USC sys tem.
Soil % passing
No. 2lJOsit'Ve'
59
B 85

Solution. (a) Soil A. As more than 50% pa...."CS No. 200 sieve. lhe soil is fine-grained.
A5 WI is less than 50 %. the soil is of low plasticity . The Aucrbcrg limits plot above the A-line in Fig.55.
The soi l is classified as CL.
(b) Soil B. The soi l is fine-grained. As the liquid limit is greater than 50%. the so il is of high
com pressi bility. Th e Allerberg limits plot belo w A-line. It can be either M1I or 0 11. If the soil is Oil, irs
liquid lim it will decrease considerably on oven-drying.
Illustrative Example 5.3. Classify the soil with the follo wing properties according to ISC system.
Liquid Limit Plassicity illdex % passing % passing
4. 75 mm sieve 75JA sieve
40% 10% 60% 45%

Solut ion, As more than 50% is retain ed on 75f.l IS stev e, the soil is coarse-grained.
Coarse fraction = 55% ; Gravel fraction = 40%; Sand traction = 15%
A5 more than half the coarse -fracti on is larger than 4,75 mm IS sieve. lhe soil is grave l.
Th e soi l has mo re than 12% fines, it can be e ither GM or GC.
As the Ane rterg limits plot below A- line (Fig. 5.6), the so il L.. GM.
Illustrative Exampl e 5.4 , Fig E 5.4 shows the grain size distribution curves for two soils A and B. 1IIt
plas ticity charocteristic s of the soils are given below.
Soil A Liquid Limit = 40%; Plastic ity Index = 10%;
So il B Liquid Limit = 28%; Plasticity Index = 12%
Classify the soils according to IS ctassiflcation and comme nt on their shear strength.
SOIL CU\~I ACATION 10'
100

0
A~ :i/
0
t
/ 55'.
I ~,.-
I By :
0
,I
0
:IA I
,,
-ro~ 1 4
8.0, 4 6 ~5 01 4'15 1·0
PARTICLE SIZE (mm)
Fig. E·S.4.
Solution. (a) Soil A. A s more than 50 % pa"SCS 75 ~ sieve. !he soil is fine-grained . The Altcrberg limits
plot below Avline (Fig. 5 .6) in the zone of imcrmcdiate co mpress ibility, It can be ei ther Ml or 01. If the liquid
limit reduces to three-fourth of the original value or more on ove n dry ing, it is IS; otherwise MI .
(b) Soil B. As more than 50% of the lotal material is larger than 75 f.l. sieve. the soil is coarse- grained.
Coarse fraction = 87%,
Grav el fraction = 37%;
Sand frau ion = 50 %.
As more than half of coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm sieve. the soil is sand. As fines are more
than 12%. the soil can be SAt or Sc. As the Anerterg limits plot above A· line (Fig . 5.6), the soil is Sc.

PROBLEMS

A. Numerica l
5.1 Alterbcrg limit tests were carried out on a soi l sample, with the following results:
Liquid limit '" 40% ; Plastic limit " 2.'i%.
Oassify the soil accord ing 10Unified Classification system and the Indian Standard classi fication system .
lADs. CL; CJ]
5.2. The followi ng results were obtained from the cressrncauon tests of a soi l.
Percentage passing 75... sieve = 40%
Liquid limit = 35%; Plastic Um il = 15%
Calculat e the group index of the soil and c1as..sHy it according to AASlnu syste m. {A n.s . 4; A-6(4)]
5.3. The sieve analysis of a soi l gave me following results :
% passing 75J.lsicve e 4; % retained on 4.75 mm sieve = 50
Coe fficient o f curva ture = 2; Uniformil y coe fficient = 5
Classif y the soil acco rding to lSI::syste m. [An s. G W)
5.4. The sieve analysis 0( a soi l gave the following results:
%passi ng 75... sieve = 8; % retained on 4.75 mm sieve = 35
Coe fficient o f curvature = 25 ; Uniformity coe tn o em ,. 7
The fine fraction gave the followi ng results :
Plasrlciry index = 3; Liq uid Limit = I S.
Class ify the soil according 10 lse syste m. lADs.SW--SM]
5.5. A soi l hes tbe following characteristics :
% passing 751! sieve" 58%; Uquirl Limit = 40%
Plasticity Index = 10%; uq uid Limit o r oven-dricd sam ple = 25%
aassify the soil according 10 1St::system. (Ans.OJ]
106 SO IL MEC HAN ICS AND FOUNDAT ION ENGINEERING

n . Descri ptive and O bjec tive Type

5.6. What is the use o f ctassiricmon o f soih ? Discuss Indian Starn:b rd Classificat io n syste m.
5.7. What is the d ifference between the classulca uon based on particle size and the tex tural classification ? Discuss
the limitations of the lWO s)'slc ms.
5.8. Compare the AAS HTO ChM ili ca tjllO syste m and Unified soil classific ation system. Wh y the latter system is
more commonly used ?
5.9. Give the step-by- step procedure for classificat ion of a soil by Indian sta ndard clas sification system.
5.10. Discuss field idcnlilicatilln methods for SOlIs.
5.11. G ive the general cIII:inec ring propert ies of different types of soils classified according 10 Indian stand ard
classification syste m.
5.12. State whether the following st;"lleme nls are true or false :
(u) According 10 all d,, ~~ i liC";lt i{l n syste ms. the Mlils bclo ..... 2~ srze are classified a, clay size.
(h) Accor ding to MIT sys tem. the soih with particle size larger than 4.75 mm are classi fied as grave l.
(c ) The texture vf a soi! depends only o n tbe particle size.
(d) In AASIITO system. the so il A-2 is better than the soil A-3 .
(r) T he group index of zero indicates a soil of very po or quality
(j) Th e gro up index o f a soil can be negativ e.
(g) According to USC syste m. the fine-grai ned soi ls arc of l.) types.
(h) TIle soil with particles stzc less rhan 21-1 are claye y soils .
(i) A coarse-gramed sand is well-graded if C t , = I to 3 and C~ is greater than 6.
IJ) O ven -dryin g reduces the liq uid limit of an ino rganic so il co nsiderably.
Ik) Th e fine-grained soils with a high percentage o f colloidal rrocno n have high dry strength.
[Ans, True. (d). (i),(k))
C. ~Iul ti pl e- C hojce Qu est ions
I. IS c1assificat iun of soil is in ma ny respects similar to
(II ) AA SIITO dassiticalinn (b) Textu ral crasstrtcauon
h") Unified soil c1a~ilkalion (tl) MIT classification
2. The maxim um size o f pan icles tI! s;lt is
(0 ) 75 11 (b) 60 11
(e ) 2 11 (J) 0. 2 11
3. The maximum »ze o f particle s of clay is
(a) 0 .2 mm (b) 0.02 mm
(c) 0.002 mm (d) 0 .0002 mm
4. Accord ing to IS class itica 'ion system. the soils can be clas sified into
(u ) 15 groups (b ) 18 groups
(d 3 groups (d) 7 groups
5. The soils which plot above the A line in the plasticity cha rt arc
(1I)c1a ys {/J)silts
(c ) sa nds (tl) organic soils
6. A silty soi l gives a positive reaction in
(1I) Toughness tes t (b) Dila tancy lest
(c) Dry strength lest (tI) None of abo ve
7. A so il has the liquid limit o f 30. TIle corresponding plasticity inde x give n by the A- line is
(tl) 7.3 (b) 7.5
(c) 9.0 (d) 9.5
8. The maximum value o f the term IF-IS ) in the group indeJO is taken as
(0) 20 ( b) 30
(c)olO (d) 60
 6
Clay Mineralogy and Soil Structure

6.1. INTROD UCTION

The coarse-grained so ils genera lly co ntain the mine rals quartz and feldspar. These minerals are strong and
electrically inert. TIle behaviour o f such soils does not depend upon the natun: o f the min eral present . The
behavior of fine-gr ained soils, on the other hand . depends 10 a large extent on the nature and characteristics
of the miner als present . The most significant propenies of clay depend upon the type of minera l. The
crystalline mineral s whose surface activity is high are clay mineral s. These clay minerals impart co hesion and
plasticity. The study of clay minera ls is esse ntial for understanding the behaviour of clayey soils. Clay
mineralogy is the the science dealing with the structure of clay minerals on microscopic, molecular and
atomic scale . II als o includes the study of the mineralogi cal composition and electrical properti es of the clay
particles. The st udy of clay minerals is importan t for particles smalle r than about 2 micron size.
Soil stm ctllre means the geometrical arrangem ent of soil particle s in a soil mas s. It is concerned with
the shape. size and ori entat ion o f particl es. If the individ ual particle s are packed very close to one another,
the void ratio is low and the soi l is dense and strong . If the part icle s are so arranged thai there are more
voids. the soil is loose and wea k. Engineer ing properties and behaviour of both coarse-grai ned and
fine-grained depend upon the structure.
This chapter is mainly devoted to clay mineral ogy. The soil struct ure is considered in the la s t sec tion. In
fact. clay min eralogy also discusses the struct ure of clayey soils not as a whole mass but at a part icle level.
U GRAVITATIONAL AND SURFACE FORCES
The gra vitation al force in a so il particl es is proportional to its mass. As the specific grav ity of particles
is approximately co nstant. the gra vitational force is proportional to the volume o f the particle. The volume
depends upon the particle size . Thu s. the gravitational force on a particle is related to the particle size. In
other words. the larger the particle size. the greater wou ld be the gra vitati onal force. '
Bonding or surface forces betwee n particles dep end upon the surface urea of the particle s and not upon
the volume. The surface area also depend s upo n the part icle size.. However. the surface forces become more
important only when the patlcle size is small. As the particle size decreases. the effect of surface forces on
a particle becom es more predominant than the gravitationa l force.
The relative magnitude of volume and the surface area can be j udged if we conside r. say. a cube whose
1
each side is 10 mm (volume = 10-mm\ When the cube is subd ivided into smaller cubes. the ratio of the
surface area to the volume Increases. as show n in Table 6.1. The ratio increases ten thousand limes when the
side of the sm aller cube becom es I micron . The magnitude of the surface area per unit volume (or mass) is
known as specific surface.
The particle s o f coarse-grained soils are larger than 0 .075 mm size. For such soils . the ratio o f surface area
10 lhe volume is rel atively small. The se so ils do not possess plasticity and co hesion which are predom inant only
when the surface force s .are large. In fine-grained soils. the gravity forces are relatively insignili canl co mpared
108 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Ta ble 6.1. Ratio or Surface area to Volume

Surface area
Sid< Number of volume
S.N. Surfoce area Volume
Lengfh "'b'" (mm1/mnl)

I. tu em , 600 mm' IO"mm

1
0.60
2- Imm 10)
6 x l ol )( I
.. 6.0

3. 0.1 mrn 10' 6 x 106 x 0.01

. 60.0

4. O.oI mm 10' 6 x 109 x (0.01)2

.. 600.0

5. 0.001 mm 10 12 6 )( 10 12 x (0.00 1)2

.. 6000 .0
(I.)

with the surface forces. The fine-grained soils possess Ihe ptasuc n y charact erist ics depe nd ing upon the surf ace
area, the type of minerals and the nature of environment presen t around the so il particle.
A material in which the surface forces are predominant is know n as a colloid. TIle term colJoid has been
derived from Greek words kolla and oidos. mean ing a gluey material and alike . For colloids, the rat io of the
surface area to the volum e is very large. It vanes between 6(l) to l oS mm 2hnm3.11le clayey soils with
partic les smalle r than 2 micron size are generall y colloi dal in nature. The colloids have very large specific
surface.
6.3. PRIMARY VALEN CE DONDS
Primary valence bonds hold togethe r the ato ms of a molecule -These an:: o f two types:
(1) Ionic bond. (2) Cova lent bond .
I. Ionic bond-In an atom, the electrons carrying a negative charge revolve about the nucleus. Sane
elemen ts have an excess or a deficiency of the electrons in the outer shell One atom jo ins another atom by
adding some of the electrons 10 its outer shell or by losing some of electrons from its outer shell For
exa mple, an atom of sod ium has an excess electron in its outer shell and an atom of chlorine has one
deficient elect ron in its outer shell . A molecule o f sodium chloride is fonned by ionic bond when an atom of
sodium combin es with an atom of chlorine. TIle atom which loses an ion becomes a positive ion (cation) and
that which gains an ion beco mes a negative ion (anion). In ionic bonds. the forces bind the positive ioos and
negativeions.
Na + CI = Nal + CII-
The numberof electronsrequiredto complete the first six shells individually are respectively, 2. 8, 8, i ~
18 and 32. The total number of electrons required to complete are , therefore , 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86. The
deficiency or excess of electrons in a particular shell of an element is determined from the number of
electrons ava ilable and that required to complete the outershell. For exa mple,
aluminium has 13 electrons. It has an excess of 3 electrons ove r the second 1
shell (total 10 electrons). Likewi se, oxygen which has 8 elect rons., lack 2 elec- ~ 0
trons in the secon d shell (total 10 electrons). An atom of hydrogen has equal A1) :;:::::----
excess and deficiency. It has only one electron which can be considered. either ~
as one deficient in the first shell or one excess electron. Likewise, the atom of +) ~~ 02
silicon has 14 e lect rons wh ich has equal excess and deficiency of 4 each . It has
an excess of 4 over the seco nd shell or a deficiency of 4 in the third shell (total
18 electrons ). See 'Iable 6 .2 for ion ic structure of various elements. Al ~
The atoms of two differen t elements combine to satisfy their individual ~
de ficiency or excess. For exemple, when aluminium and oxygen combine two ~ 1l
atoms o f alum inium (excess 6) combin e with 3 atoms of oxygen (deficiency 6)
10 Conn aluminium oxide (Fig. 6. 1). Fig. 6. 1. Aluminium o.i dc
CLAYMINERALOGY AND SOIL SfR UCJ1JRE 109

Table 6.2. Ionic Strodul"e of Various Atoms

NumMrof lkffl.C~nry in Excess in

s s« E kmelfl Symbol Electron outer shell ouer shell Remorl<

Hydrogen Ca n e ilhcr lose

-I .1
I.
" 1
or gain one ion
2.
3.
,.
Ox ygen

Silicon
0

Si
AJ
8
I'
-2
-,
-
.-, Ca n either lose
or gain 4 ions

5.
Aluminium
Ferrous F,
13
26 - ". 8
6. calci um Ca 2lJ - .z
7. Sodium N, 11 - . 1
8- Pom.~ um K 19 - . 1
9. Magn esi um Mg 12 - .2
10. O1Iocine a 17 -I -
2. Covalent 8ond-Covalenl bond deve lops between two atoms by shari ng of electrons in their outer
sheU.l\vo atoms, each lacking one electron. may combine by sharing of a pair of electrons . Li kewise, two
atoms. each lacking two electrons, may combine by sbadng four electrons. For e xample, the bond between
two atoms of oxygen in a oxygen molecule is a covalent bond. Each atom lacks 2 electrons in the outer shell.
The two atoms bond by sharing 4 electrons in their outer shells . In other words, a covalent bo nd occurs when
there is sharing of electrons by atoms of like valence. The covalent bond occurs generally in elements of
negative valences or in non-electrolytes, such as carton. (A non-electrolyte docs not form ions).
Primary vale nce bo nds are very strong. These do not break in normal soi l engineering applications.
Therefore, primary valence bonds are nol. of much relevance in soil engineering. However. the study of ion ic
structure is useful in understanding the behaviours of various atoms.
6.4. HYDROGEN DONO
The hydrogen atom has ooly one electron. The number of electrons required to fill the fm;t shell is 2.
The atom can be cons idered either as a cation (with one excess electron) or an anion (with one electron
deficiency). The bond between the hydrogen +
cation (If} and anions of two atoms of ~H
another element is called the hydrogen bond .
The hydroge n atom is attracted by two atoms
instead of only one atom as suggested by its
ionic structure. The hydrogen atom cannot • ~~~~DGEN
decide to which of the two atoms it should ,O'=>
bond itself, and, therefore, it sha res its bond -2
with both, atoms . The most common example H+ 0 H
of the hydrogen bond is the bond between the
hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms in a water Fig. 6.2. HydrogenBond.
molecule. The hydrogen atom links one molecule or water 10 the other (FIg. 6.2) .
A hydrogen atom can bond only two atoms of oxygen. as it is smaU in size and can fil in only two
anions wbich are of large size (Fig . 6 .3). In otber wcecs, only two anions can approach the hydrog en cation
close enough 10 form a hydro gen bond .
Only the strong electro-negative atoms , such as oxygen and chlorine, can join with hydrogen to fonn a
hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is considerably weaker than primary valence bonds . However, it is fairly
strong and cannot be broken during normal soil engineering problems.
tl O SOlI. MECIIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

6.5. SECONDARY VALEN CE BONDS

®.
CQ' ''O H>
Secondary valence bon ds are intermolecular bonds which develop
between atoms in one molecule 10 atoms in another molecule. A molecule is o--2 -2
0
-
electrically neutral, Le., it has no charge. However. Ihe construction of the
molecule may be such that the centres of the negative and positive charges do
A,..Ion.....l"
not exactly coincide. The molecule may behave like a small bar magnet. with
two electrical poles. Consequently, an electr ical m oment is devel oped ins ide Fig. 6.3. A caatloe joining
the molecule. A molecule wilh such a structure is ca lled a dipole. In nature, two amoes,
two dipolar molecules orient themselves in such a way tha i net euractlon occurs. The attractive forces so
developed are known as Vander WaaJ Forces, after 'hnder Waal who posrulared the existence of a rom moo
attractive forces between molecules of all matters in 1873.
Vander Waa! forces develop due to any one of the following three effects.
(1) Ori entation effed-This effect

~
occurs between the oppositely charged
ends of permanent dipoles, as shown in
Fig. 6.4.
(2) Ind uction e rred-Even in a
non-polar molecule, a pole can be I + -I
induced . When a non-polar molecule ts ~====~
placed in an electric field. it gets
polarised and starts behaving as a
r----+-,I
dipole . Induction effect OCOJrs between (a) ( b)
an induced pole and anothe r d ipole.
(3) Dispersf on effect- As all
electrons oscilla te, the centre of
1-
negative charges goes on chang ing
period ically. lois results in the
fonnatio n of a temporary. fluctuating Fig. 6.4. O lienllliio n Effect.
pole. Dispersion effect occurs between a fluctuating pole and ano ther dipole.
As all molecules behave as permanent or induced or fluctuating dipoles . Vander Waal forces are always
present in molecules . These exist in all matters. TIle relative magnitude of orientation . induction and
dis persi on effects in II water molecu le are 77% , 4 % and 19%
respecti vely. Thus the orientation effect is the most
predominant e ffect.
A common example of secondary valence bond is the
G
attractive force between molecu les of water! 'The water
molecul es _act as a bar magnet becaus e the positive and
negati ve charg es are not centrally loca ted. It may be noted
that all liquids are not dipoles. Some of the liquids, such as
=~:din~ ;~.rachIOride, are non-polar, as shown by <±> --<.- ®
Vander Waal forces also develop between the surfaces of
two parallel particles of clay mineral, separated by water. The
magnitude of the forces depe nd upon the distance between
the clay particles. struct ure of the mine rals and the
cha ract eristics of water.
The secondaryvalence bonds are relatively weak and are G
easil y brok en. The Vander Waal forces play an important part
in the behaviour of clayey soils. Fig. 6.5. NocI-poi. Sys tem
ClAY MINERALOGY AND SOIL SfRUCI1JRE 111

6.6. BASIC ST RUC I11RAL UNITS OF CLAY MIN ERA LS

Clay minerals are composed of two basic structural units: (1) 'Icuabedral unit, (2) Octahedral unit.
1. 'Thtra hed rul Unil-A tetrahedral unit consists of a siliron atom (Sj'~.) surrounded by four oxygen
atoms (Oz..). forming the shape of a tetrahedron. Oxygen atoms arc at the tips of the tetrahedron, wberccs the
silicon atom is at its centre (Fig. 6.6). There is a net negative charge of 4. An individual terahedron unit
cannot exist in nature.

~
. '''o
Silicon
] :::~~:".~'
0,",0 --_0 0.,,,"
~"(-2)'_6 ~
OaY9E'n
(0) Silico tE'trohed ron

' XC-ll. -.

AJvUy 5,

tc l Sil ico se eer

4 X( . 4 ).,. 16

s n -n , _12
(d) su tcc

Fig. 6.6. Tetrahedral Unit.

A number of tetrahedral unit combine to form a sheet, with oxygen atoms at the base of all tetrahedra in
a oommon plane, and all the lips pointing in the same direction. Each oxygen atom at the base is shared by
two tetrahedra. A silica sheet is formed by terchcdral units. The three oxyge n atoms at the base being
common to two tetrahedra get their negative charge shared and the tip oxygen atom has two negative charges.
Thus, there arc 5 negative charges and 4 positive charges, leaving a net negative charge of one per
tetrahedron. Fig. 6.6 (c) shows 4 tetrahedra units combined and
having a net negative charge of 4. Fig. 6.6
(d) gives a simple representation of silica sheet, commonly used in clay minerals.
2. Octahedral Unit-An octahedral unit consists of six hydroxyls (OIr I) forming a configuration of an

3XI-' I. -3
• HYDROXYL
e ALUMIN...... )K • 1X(H )=+3
3X(- I)= - 3
NET = - 3
(a) OCTAI-lE DRAL lHT (b) SIMPlIFIE D REPRESENTAT!Ct'I

~
6 X (-' h - 6

• • •• 4XI+3kf-'2 c::==J
(d) GIBBSITE
6 X( -I ) =- 6
~
(cJ GIBBSITE SHEET
Fig. 6.7.Oi::tahcdnll Unit.
112 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEI'Rl NG

octahedron and having one aluminium atom at the centre (Fig. 6.7). As the aluminium (AI·") has three
positive charges, an octahedra l unit has 3 negative charges. Because of net nega tive charge. an octahedral unit
cannot exist in isolation.
Several octahedral units combine to form a gibbsite sheet. Fig. 6.7 (c) snows a gibbsit~ sheet formed by
four octahedral units. Tbe sheet is electrically neutral. Fig. 6.7 (d) shows a simple representation.
6.7. ISOMORPHOUS suusrrnrnos
It is possible thai one atom in a basic unit may be replaced by another atom. The process is known ss
iscrnorphous substitution (isomorphous means same rorm). For example. one silicon atom in a tetrahedral unit
may be subslituted by aluminium atom. This would occur if aluminium ato ms are more reocny available in
water. As an alum inium atom has 3 positive charges whereas a silicon arom has 4 positive charges. there
would be a net unit charge deficiency of one positive charge per substitution. Likewise. magnesium (Mg·,
moms may replace alum inium atoms in an octahedral unit and cause a reduction of one positive charge.
Isomorphous substitution generally increases the negative charge on the particle , owing to reduction of
positive charges . A slight distortion of the crystal lattice also usually occurs due to isomorphous substitution.
6.8. KAOLINITE MINEUA L
Kaolinite is the most comm on mineral of the kaolinite group of minerals. Its basic structura l unit consists
of an alumina sheet (gibbsite) (0) combined with a silica sheet (S). lips of the silica sheet and one base of
the alumina sheet form a common interface. TIle
total thickness of the struc tural unit is cbou t 7
Angstonn (A 0). where one Angstorm A ° is equal
to 10- 10 m or 10-7 mm. l b e kaolinite mineral is
fonned by stackin g, one over the other, several
sud! basic structura l units. Fig. 6.8 shows two
such units.
The structural units join together by hydrogen KAOLINITE
bond. which develops between the oxygen of
Fig. 6.8. Kaolinite Miocnll.
silica sheet and the hydroxyls of alumina sheet. As
the bond is fairly strong. the mineral is stab le. Moreover, water cannot easily e nter between the structeal
units and cause expa nsion.
The kaolinite mineral is electrically neutral. However, in the presence of water. some hydroxyle ions
dissociate and lose hydrogen and leave the crystal with a small residual negative charge. lbe flat surfaces of
the mineral attract positive ions (cations) and water. A thick layer of adsorbed water is formed on the surface.
The kaolinite minerals generall y have a hexagonal shape in plun, with the side of the hexagon between
0.5 to 1.0 micron. The thickness of the mineral is about 0.05 micron. The specific surface is about 15 m2/g.
The most common example of the kaolinite mineral is China clay.
Halloyslee is a clay mineral which has the same basic structure as Kaolinite. but in which the successive
structural units are more randomly packed, and are separa ted by a single molecular layer of water. The
properties of balloyshe depend upon Ihis water layer. If the water layer is removed by drying. the propentes
of the mineral drastically change.
Halloysite particles arc tubular in shape. in contrast to the platy shape of kaolinite particles. The soils
con taining halloysite have a very low mass density.
6.9. MO NTMORILLONIT E MI NERAL
Montmorillon ite is the most COOlman mineral of the montmorillonite group of minerals. 1be basic structural
unit consists of an alumina sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets. Successive structural units are stad;ed
one over anothe r, like leaves of a book. Fig. 6.9 shows two such structural units. The thickness of each struct ural
unit is about 10 AO.
'Thetwo success ive structural units are joined together by a link between oxyge n ions of the two silica
Cu\Y MINERAlOOY AND SOiL SfRUcruRE 113

sheets. 1bc link is due to natural auract ion for

the cations in the intervening space and due to
Vander waat forces. The negatively cha rged
surfaces of the silica sheet attract wate r in the
spacebetween two structural units. 111is res ults
in an' expans ion of the mineral., It may a lso
cause dissociat ion of the mine ral into individual
structural units of thickness 10 A"'. The soil
containing a large amount of the mineral
montmorillonite exhibits high shrinkage and
high swelling characteristics. 111c watcr in the ~ N TMOR'LLON rT E
inlcrventing space can be removed by healing at
200 '" to J(X) "'C . Fig. 6 .9. Moo lmOfil1o nite mi neral.
Monunoollonitc minerals have lateral dimensions of 0.1 1! to 05 1! and the thickness of D.CK)] 1! to o.oos 1!.
The specific surface is about 800 m2/gm.
The gibbsite sheet in a montmorillon ite mine ral may contai n iron or magnesium instead of aluminium.
Some of the silicon atoms in the silica sheet may also have isomorphous substit ution. This results in givi ng
the mineral a residua l negative charge. It attracts the soil water to form an adsorbed layer, which gives
plasticity characteristics to the so il.
6.10. fLUTE MINERAL
Illite is the main mineral of .the illite group . The baste structural unit is sim ilar to that of the mineral
montmorillonite. However , the minera l has properties different from montmorillo nite due to following
reasons.
(I) There is always a sub stantial amount of isomorphous substitu tion of silicon by aluminium in silica
sneer. Conseq uently. the mine ral bas a larger negative charge than that in montmorilloni te.
(2) The link between differe nl struct ural units is through ron - exchan geable potassium (Kj and not
through water. This boom the units more firmly than in montm orillon ite (Fig. 6.10).
(3) The lattice of illite is strong er than that
of mon tmorilloni te, and is, therefore. less
suscepti ble to cleavage.
(4) Illite swells less than montmorillonite.
However, swe lling is more than in
kaolinite.

(r) ~~s s~e ~~:~n s~~~~nt ~~n:tu~

montmorillonite, as the potesstcm ions
ILLITE
just fit in between the silica sheet
Fig. 6.10. Illite Mineral.
surfaces .
The propert ies of the mine ral illite are somew hat intermed iate between that of kaoli nite and
montmorillonite. The bond between the non-exchangeable K'" ions. though stronger than that in
montmorillonite. is co nsiderably weaker than hydrogen bond of kaolinite. The swelling of mne is more than
that of kaolinite, but less than that of montmorillonite.
The lateral di mensioos of the mineral illite are the same as that of the mineral montmorilloni te. equal to
0.1 f.1 to 05 f.1. However, the thickness is much greater than that of montmorillon ite and is between 0.005 1!
and 0.05 1!. The specific surf ace is about 80 m 2/g m.
6.11. ELEcrRlCAL CIIARGES ON ClAY MINERALS
As mentioned before, the pan icles of clay carry an electric charge. This
fad can be proved by Inserting
two electrodes in a beaker containing clay mIxed with water. When the electrodes are connected to an
114 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

electrical circuit containing a battery and an ammeter, there is a deflection of the needle of the ammeter. This
proves that there is a flow of current through the medium. Theoretically, a soil particle am carry either a
negative charge or positive charge. However, in actual tests. only negative charges have been measured.
The net negative charge may be due 10 one or more of the following reasons.
( I) Isomorpho us substitution of one atom by ano ther of lower valency.
(2) Dissocia tion of hydroxyle ion (011) into hydrogen ions.
(3) Adsorption of anions (negative ions) on clay surface.
(4) Absence of canons (positive ions) in the lattice of the crysta l.
(5) Presence of organic matter,
The magn itude of the electrical charge depends on the surface area of the particle. It is very hig h in small
particles . such as colloids, which have very large surface area. A soil part icle attracts the catio ns in the
env ironment to neutralise the negative charge. 'Ih c phenomenon is known as odsorption. ;

6.12. BASE EXCHANGE CAPACITY

The catio ns attracted to the negatively charged surface of the soil particle s are not strongly attached.
These ca lions can he replaced by other ions and are, therefore, know n as exchangeable ions. TIle soil panicle
and the exchangeable ions make the sys tem neutra l.
The phenomenon of replacement of cartons is called calion exchange or baseexchange. The net negative
cha rge on the mine ral wh ich can be satisfied by exchangeable cations is termed cation-exchange capacity Of
base-exchange capacity: In other words. base-exchangecapacity is the capacity of the clay panicles to cha nge
the cation adso rbed on the surface,
Base -exchange capacity is expressed in terms of the torat number of positive cha rges adsorbed per 100
gm of soil. It is measured in milliequivalent (mcq). which is equal to 6 x lOw electron ic charges, Thus, one
20
meq per 100 gm means that 100 gm of material can exc hange 6 x 10 electronic cha rges if the exchangeable
ions arc univalent , suc h as Na· . Howe ver. if the exchangeable ions are divalen t. such as r...a 2+, 100 gm of
20
materia l will rep lace 3 x 10 calcium ions.
Accordi ng to anot her defi nition, one milliequivalent (meq) is also equal to one milligram of hydrogen ((
its equivalent other material which will replace one milligram of hydrogen . For example. calcium has a
molecular weight of 40, whereas that of hydrogen is unity. However. calcium is diva lent in contrast to
hyd roge n which is univalent. Therefore. one mg of hydrogen is equivalent to 20 mg of calcium in base
exchange capacity. If 100 gm of a dry material adsorbs 60 mg of calc ium , lhe base exchange capacity of the
material is 60/20 i.e. 3 meg/1OO gm.
The base-exchange capacity of clay depends upon the I'll value of the wate r in the env ironmen t. If the
wate r is acidic (PH < 7), the base-exchange capacity is reduced .
Some cations are more strongly adsorbed than others, The adsorbed catio ns commonly found in soils.
arranged in a series in terms of their affi nity for attraction are as follows:
A13+ > ea2• > Mg· 2 > NH4" > I-r > Na· > U·
For example, AI3+cations are more strongly attracted than Ca'" cations, Thus Al3+ ions can replace c;a2.
ions. Likewise, ea2+ ions can replace Na· ions,
The base formula of the clay mineral is a ltered by base exchange, For example. if ca lcium ch loride is
added to a soil contain ing sodi um chloride . there wo uld be an exchange of ea7.· ions for Na" ions, and the
sodium clay would tum into the calcium clay. Thus
Sodium clay + Cl 2 = Calciu m clay + NOlet.
The properties of tile clay therefore change due to base exchange.
The base exchange capacity of the montmorillonite minera l is about 70--100 mcq per 100 gm, However,
that of kaolinite and illite fire respectively 4,0 and 40.0 meq per 100 g,
6.13. DIFFUSE DOUB LE LAYER
The faces of clay minerals carry a net negative charge. The edges of the mineral may have either positive
CLAYMINERALOOYAND son, srnucruae lI5

charges or negative charges. The charges in clay minerals are due to molecular grouping and arrangement of
ions. The electrical charges in the minerals are responsible for their behaviour when they come in contact
with other particles and with water present in the soil. Clay deposits, because of their sedimentary nature,
always exist in the presence of water.
Because of the net negative charge on the surface, the clay particles attract cations, such as potassium,
calcium and sodium, from moisture present in the soil to reach an electrically balanced equilibrium. These
cations, in tum, attract particles with negative charges and water dipoles.
(The engineering behaviour of coarse particles is not affected by surface electrical charges, because of
their low ratio of surface area to volume. In such soils, the gravitational forces are more important).
The plasticity characteristics of clays are because of the unusual molecular structure of water in soil
deposits. Experiments conducted with clays using nonpolar liquid, such as kerosene, in place of water, has
shown that plasticity docs not occur, and the soil behaves as a coarse-grained sands soil.
The water molecule is a dipole, since the hydrogen atoms are not symmetrically oriented around the
oxygen atoms. The molecule acts as a bar magnet (Fig. 6.11). As the faces of clay panicles carry a negative

HYD~N ~ HY:~
~EN r OXYGEN

0
(a) MODEL (b) RELATIVE LOCATIQ'Il (el DIPOLE
"I'ATER MOLECULE
Fig. 6.11. Structure of a water molecule . (a ) Model, (b) Relative location, ( e) Dipole water molecul e
charge, there is attraction between the negatively charged faces and the positive ends of dipoles [Fig. 6.12
(a)]. The second mode of attraction between the water dipoles and the clay surface is through cations [Fig.
6.12(b)]. Cations are attracted to the soil surface and water dipoles are attached to these cations through their

o00
=000 Cal
~
(b) (e)

CATION
o
(j)

DIPOLE
Fig. 6.12. Altnlction of water molecules 10 soil swf ace.
negative charged ends. The third possible mode by which the attraction between the water and the clay
surfaceoccurs is by sharing of the hydrogen atom in the water molecule by hydrogen bonding between the
oxygenatoms in the clay particles and the oxygen atoms in the water molecules [Fig. 6.12 (e)J.
The cations attracted to a clay mineral surface also try to move away from the surface because of their
thennal energy. The net effect of the forces due to attraction and that due to repulsion is that the forces of
attraction decrease exponentially with an increase in distance from the clay particles surface. The layer
extending from the clay particle surface to the limit of attraction is known as the diffuse double layer (Fig. 6.13).
It is believed thai immediately surrounding the particle, there is a thin, very tightly held layer of water
about 10 A0 thick. Beyond this thickness there is a second layer, in which water is more mobile. This second
layer extends to the limit of attraction, and is known as diffuse-double layer (Fig. 6.13). The water held in
the diffuse-double layer. is known as adsorbed water or oriented water. Outside the diffuse double layer the
water is normal, non-oriented. The total thickne.c;s of the diffuse-double layer is about 400 A".
 116 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

For a given soil particle, the thickness of the

cation layer depends mainly on the valency and
concentration of cations . The mono-va lent cat ions.
such as Na+, lead to <I thicker layer co mpared to
~~~r-?~~se~
I
that by divalent cations. such as al'. The number e I ED e ED
of monoval ent cut ions required is twice the number 41) I ED e <tI s Cat ion
of diva lent catio ns. Increas ing the conccntratior, of
ED:. $G Et 9 Anion
cations close to the surface, reduces the thickness
• I e e _
of the cation layer required to neu tralise the
negative charge. •I e 41)& a
Repulsion occurs between the like charges of
the two doubl e layers of two panic les. 1be forces
,
• I . 5 <J

.~ !~---
- -----
of repulsion between the two pan icles depe nd upon
the characteristics of the do uble layers. An increase
_.2
in cation valency or concentratio n resul ts in <I iiitj
decrease of repulsive forces. Howeve r, Vander $g
Waal forces of attraction do not depend upon thc .f:7ii
cbaracrerisncs of the doub le layer. These forces Distance __
decrease rap idly with an increasing distance

J
<;cDoubte Layer.
Fig. 6.13. DifTu.
between particles. The net force between pani cles
will depend upon the relative magnitudes of repulsive forces and attractive forces. Depending upoo
relative magnit udes, the soil will take eithe r as a dispe rsed structure or a flocculent suucture, as discussed in
Sectio n 6.15.
6.14. ADSORB ED WATER
111e water held by electro-chemical forces existing on the soil surface is adsorbed water. As the a ,
water is unde r the influence of electrical forces. its properties are different from that of normal water. It lS
much more viscous, and its surface tension is also grea ter. It is heav ier than normal water . The boili ng point
is hig her, but the freezing poim is lowe r than that of the normal water.
The thickness of the adsorbed water layer is about 10 to 15 AO for collo ids but may be upto 200 AO ~
sills. The anractive forces between the adsorbed wate r and the: soil surface oecreese exponen tially with
distance until the double layer merges into normal water. The adsorbed water exists in an almost solidi
state. The pressure required to pull away the adsorbed water layer from the so il surface is very high; it
be as high as IO,O<XJ atmospheres.
Adso rbed water imparts plasticity characteristics to soi ls. The adso rbed water depends upon the cJat
minerals present in the soil. The presence of highly active clay mine rals is neccssary to give the so il pI3sticity:
. The fine-grai ned soils without clay minerals mllYdevelop cohes ion if the parti cle size is very small, but these
soil" cannot be mou lded into small threads as these are not plastic.
6.15. S O IL srsucrunss
1bc geometrical arrangement of soil panicles with respect to one anothe r is known as soil structure.
soils in nature have different structures depending upon the particle size and the mode of formation.
following types of structures are lL<;U,1I1y found. The first two types are for coarse-grained soils and types (3
and (4) for clays. Types (5) and (6) are for mixed so ils.
(1) Slngl e-gratned Strncture-Cohes ionlcss so ils, suc h as gravel and sand, are composed of DIll
grains in which the gravitationa l forces are more predominant than surface forces . When deposition of these
sons occurs. the particles settle under gravitationa l forces and take an equilibrium position as shown in Ag,
6.14 (a). Each particle is in contact with those surrounding it. The soil struct ure so formed is known as single;
gra ined structure. The arrangeme nt is somew hat sim ilar to the stacking of ora nges o n a grocer 's coun ter arlO
that of marble pieces at a toys' shop.
CLAYMINERALOGY AND SOIL STRUCTURE 111

em
(a) Single- Grained S tructure (b) Ho ne y - comb St ructure

Fig. 6.14. Soil structure ill sands and silts. (a) Sing le Grained Structure, (b) Honey-comb Slructure
Depending upon the relative position of the particles, the soil may have a loose structure or a dense
structure. Fig. 6.15 shows spherical particles in the looses t and those in the densest condition. It ca n be
proved that for the loosest condition , the void ratio is ~
0.90 and that for Ihe densest state, is 0.35. In actual
sand deposits, as the particles are not exact ly spherical.
the void ratio between the looses t and densest
conditions varies between 0.90 and 0.35.
As mentioned in chapt er 3, the engineering
properties of sands impro ve considerab ly with a

1n~~ra~ ~~ds:~~e~r ~~ i~=~t:~, ~~~ti~~g~~~s:~~ Ca) LOOSE • (b) DE NSE

shear strength, and the lower me compressibility and Fig . 6.15. Spheres i ll loosest and densest states.
permeability. Loose sands are inherently more unstable. When SUbjected 10 shocks and vibrations, the
particles move into a more dense state . Den se sands are quite stab le, as they arc not affected by shock
and vibrations.
(2) Hone y-Comb Structure-It is poss ible for fine sandsor silts to get deposited such that me particles
when settling develop a particle-to -particle contact that bridges over large voids in the soil mass (Fig.
6.l4(b)]. The particles wedge between one another into a sta ble cond ition and form a ske leton like an arch to
carrythe weigh t of the overlying mater ial. The structure so formed is known 3S honey-comb struct ure. The
honey-comb structure usually develops when the particle size is between 0.002 rom and 0.02 mm.
Honey-comb struc ture occurs in soils having small granu lar particles which have cohesion because of
their fineness. The particles are held in position by mutual attraction due to co hesion. The particles, however,
do not ~ss plasticity characteris tics associated with Clayey soils.
Soils in honey-comb structure arc loose . They can support loads only under static conditions. Under
vibrations and shocks , the structure collapses and large deformations take place . In nature, honey -comb
structure usually occurs in small pockets, and can be easily detected.
Honey-comb structure can also develop when fine sand is dumped into a filling withou t densification of
or when water is added to dry fine sand. The phenom enon is known as bulking of sand (sec chap. 7).
(3) Flocculated Structure-Flocculated ~
structure occurs in clays. The clay particles ~~
have large surface area and, therefore , the ~ -=-
electrical forces are important in such soils. =,o:::=::="'~
The clay particles have a negative charge o n
the surface and a pos itive charge on the edges .

::i:~~cl~ha~~ac~d:ee;e~~~s lh':t;::~iV~~; (a ) Ftoccu teted St r uc t ure (b) ~tS~~:e~

charged faces. This res ults in a flocculated
Fig. 6.16. Soil struct ure in clay (a) Plocc ulated Structure,
structure [Fig. 6.16(0)]. (b) Dispersed Structur e
118 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Flocculent structure is formed when there is a net attractive force between panic les.
When clay pan icles settle in water, depos its formed have a flocculated structure. 1be degree of
floccu lation o f a clay de posi t depend.s upon the type and concentration of clay particles . and the presence of
salts in water. Clays settling out in a sail water solution have a more OOCOJlenl structure than those settling
out in a fresh water solution. Salt water acts as an electro lyte and reduces the repulsive forces betwee n the
part icles.
Soils with a flocculent struc ture are ligh t in weight and have a high void ratio and water content.
However. these soils are quite strong and am resist external forces because of a strong bond due to attraction
between particles. The soils are insens itive 10 vibrations. In general. the soils in a flocculated structure have
a towcompressibttuy, a high.penneability and <I high shear strength.
(4) Dispersed Sirocture-c- Dtspersed structure develops in clays that have been reworked or remoulded.
The particles develop more or less a parallel orientation [Fig. 6.16 (b)]. Clay deposits with a f10caJknt
structure when transported to other places by nature or man get remoulded. Remould ing converts the
edge-to-face orientat ion to face-to-face orientation. The dispersed structure is fanned in nature when there is
a net repulsive force betwee n particles.
111.e soils in dispersed structure generally have a low shear strength. high compressibility and low
permeability. Remoulding causes a loss of strength in a cohesive soil. With the passage of time, however. the
soil may regain some of its lost strength. Due to remoulding, the chemical equilibrium of the particles and
associated adso rbed ions and water molecules within the double layer is disturbed. The soil regains strength
as a result of re- est.<bli'ihing a degree of d1cmicd equilibrium. This phenomenon of regain of strength with the
passage of lime, with no change in water content. ts known as thixotropy. as already dsccssed in chapter 4.
(5) Coa rse- gra ined Ske lecon-A coarse-grained skeletotJ'is a composite structure which is formed when
the so il contains panicles of different types. When the amount of bulky. cooesion jess part icles is large
compared with that of fine-grained clayey
particles. the bulky grains are in
particle-to-particle contact. These particles ~ CLA.Y-"" COARSE GRA.JNE':7

.:::"" .' ·:· ;e.· :;:.·,'~.~·;.~:~.·.·.:-·,;:,;~~·.:.~..:~.:_~.'i

r CLAY
fonn a framework or skeleton [Fig. 6.17 (a)] . " _. ~.. PARTICLES ~'~ , ~ .

~~:i:CI:Y:~~~~1~~~~~I£Y :=~
deposited first during sedimentation and the ......... "'-J. ~ _ '-
binder is subsequently deposited. COl) ( b)
As long as the soil structure is not Fig. 6.17. Composite Seucrure (a) coarse Graind Skclhon,
disturbed. a coarse-grai ned skeleton can take (b) Clay Matrix
heavy loads without much deformations. However. when the struct ure is disturbed , the load is transferred
from the coarse-grained particles to clayey particles, and the supporting power and the stability of the soil is
considerably red uced.
(6) Clay-Matri x St rnc t ure-c-Clay-matrtx structure is also a composite structure formed by soils of
different types. However. in this case, the amount of clay particles is very large as compared with bulky,
coarse- grained particles (Fig. 6.17 (b)J. The clay forms a matrix in which bulky grains appear floating
without touching one another.
Th e soils with a Clay-matrix structure have almost the same prope rties as clay. Tbeir beh av iour is similar
to that of an ordinary clay ocposn, However. they are more sta ble, as disturbance has very little effect on the
soil formation with a clay-ma trix structure.

PRO BLEMS

A . Num erica l
6.1. A dry mineral has a mass of tOO gm and adsorbs 50 mg of calcium . Determine its base exchange capocilY.
IAns. 2.5 meg per 100 mgJ
CLAY MI NERAL OGY AND SO IL STRUCTURE 119

B. Descriptive and Obj ective type

6.2. Diffe re ntial" betwe en gra vita tional forces and surface forces. What is the etfcc t of increased surf ace area on the
propc u ics Il f ~Illl~
63 , Whitt arc primary valence bond s '! What is their importance in soil engineering '!
li .4. What do you unde rstand by hydrogen bond '! G ive exam ples.
65. What arc secondary valence bonds '! Write a shun note nn Vander w aat forces.
6.6. Describe the consutunon of the two basic snuciurat un its required in the rorm enon of day minerals. Are these
elect rical ly ncu ual ?
6.7. Discuss the eh,uilClcrist1l-~ and the construction of Kaolinite . ~1 j)nt m()rilltJni t e and Illite minera l gro ups.
6JI. Write chon nnl.., on:
(j) S a...e exc hange capacuy. (ii) Isomorphous substitution.
( i i i) Elec trica l double layer Ii ...) Adsorbed water
6.9. What arc dutc rcnr l y pe ~ 01 soil structures wh ich can occur in nature '! Describe is brief.
n.lO. State whether the fullnwing ~alemelllS arc true or false.
la) The r nme ml l./uaru is electrically active.
Ib) The day rnmcrab, are responsible for plastic ty characteristics of ~tIlh .
Ie'] The hydrogen bond il>stronger than secondary vale nce bonds.
(Ii) I StIIl\O rp ~lU ' subsutunon docs nut chung e the electrical charge .
If') The soih contaming th~ rmneral halloysue nave a high unit weight.
I/I'~ rmncral mommorillonue causes excessive s w clhng and shrinkage.
l..11l The ad .....rbcd wurer imparts plasticity to soils.
{hI Honey-co mb structure occ urs in clayey soils.
(il Rcr noulded fine-grained soils have a tlocculared structure. [Ans. True. (ht Ie). (j) , (g)]

C. ~1u ltipl e.C hoice Questions .

I. The I;Iehilvjour of d ay h governed by
(a) M J~ s e lkorg.y (11) Surfac e energy
(c) BUlh lu ) Jlkl (h) (,I) Neither (u) and (h)
2. Hcnc y-cmube cl structure i~ foun d in
(ell Gravel s (M Coars e sand~
(e) Fine "H1d~ and silts 1,1)day
3. The weakest hn llJ ill SOils i ~
(II ) luuic bond { h) Cov alen t bend
le) Hydrogen bond (d ) Secondary valanc e bond
4. An octahedral unit h a~
ta) Four ncg.urvc charges ( h ) Three negutive .:lmrgc'
(d One negativ e (II) No negativ e char ge
5, In illite mineral. Ihc borut between struc tural units is
(11) Hydrog en bond (b) Potasvium ion bond
(e) Water mole cule s bond ttl) Covalent bond
6, The plasticity chnracrc ristics of d ays arc due tu
{ (I) Adsorbed wate r (h ) Free water
(el Caprllar y w.uc r (d ) None of above
7. In lin.. sand, and silts, the most common type structure is
(u) Single grained (bI Huney comb
(el Flocculated ( ,I ) Dispe rsed
II. The base exchange rnpacuy of tnc mineral monuuc rrttlonuc is ;.lhtlUl
(tl) 70 nK'lI/U K) g (h) 700 met.t!100 ~ .
(e) 7 mCljll flfl s (tf) ·to meql lOO I!
[ A ~ ,I.(h)'2.lrl.l.~),4. ( h). S.l h '6. ~). 7 ( ~, 8 ~) 1
 7
Capillary Water

7.1. TYPES OF SO IL WATEU.

The soil water is broadly classified into two categories: (1) Free water, and (2) Held water. Free water
moves in the pores of the soil under the intlucncc of gravity. The held water is retain ed in the pores of the
soil. and it canno t move under the influence of gravttationul force.
Free water flows from one point 10 the other wherever there is a difference of total head . The rate at
which the head is lost along the now passage is equal 10 the hydraulic gradient. The now of free water in
soils is just like laminar now in pipes. Because of very small now passages in the soil. the velocity head is
genera lly neglecte d. and the total head is taken equal 10 the sum of the eleva tion head and the press ure head.
Free water is discussed in chapter 8.
Held water is further divid ed into three types: (1) St ructu ra l water. (2) Adsorbed water , and (3) Capillary
water. The structu ral water is chemically combined water in the crysta l structure of the mineral of the soil
'Ibis wate r cannot be removed without breakin g the structure of the mineral A temperature of more than 300
°C i5 required for removing the struct ural water. In soil engineering. the structural water is considered as an
integral part o f the soil solid .
The water held by electrochemical forces existing on the soil surface i5 know n as adsorbed water, as
d iscussed in chapt er 6. 1be quant ity of adsorbed water depends upon the colloidal fractio n in the soil the
che mical compoenion of the clay mineral and the environm ent surround ing the particle. The adsorbed water
is important o nly fo r clayey soils. For coarse- grai ned soils, its amo unt is negligi ble or zero.
Th e adso rbed water is also sometimes called hygroscopic water. 1be amou nl.o f water in an ai r-dried soil
is defined as hygroscopic wa ter. Since air drying removes capillary water and free water, the remai ning water
is approximately equal to the adsorbed water. Hygroscopi c water depends upon the hum idit y and temperat ure
of a ir. It is as.s umed thai oven drying removes all the hygroscopic water . The amount of water in a n air-dried
sample, expressed as a percent age of the dry mass. is known as hygroscopic water content.
The water held in the interstices of soils due to capillary forces is called capillary water; This chapter
d iscusses mainly the capilla ry water and its effect. on soils.

7.2. SURFACE TENSION

To understand surface tension . let us cons ider a
molecu le of water surrounded by other molecules in
the body of water. as sho wn in Fig. 7.1 (a). The
forces due to molecu lar attraction act all around. and
the molecul e is in equ ilibrium. However. at the free
surface. as shown in Fig. 7.1 (b). the pull from the (a) (b)
air above is smaller than the pull from the water (II) (b)
molecu les belo w and the equilibrium is disturbed . Ag. 7.1. Effea eXSurf~ ft'm.ioo.
 CAPIliARY WATER 121

The forces tend to reduce the surface area of the ai r-liq uid surface to a minim um. The surface assum es a
curved shape to ma intain equilibriu m. The interf ace behaves like a stretched membrane or a skin. The surface
tension exists at the interface . Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length of a line drawn OIl the
surface. It acts in the direction normal to that line. The surface tens ion of water at no rmal temperature is
about 0 .013 NIm at 20 °C. II occreeses with an increase in tempe rature.
It is because of surface tension that a small needle can float on water. and insects can walk on it.
7 Capillary water exists in soils so long as mere is 311 air-water interface. As soon as the soi l is sub merged
under water . the interface is destroyed, and the ca pillary water becom es norm al, free water. 1be ca pillary
water is a lways under tension (negative pressure). However. the properties of the c apillary water are the same
r us that of normal, free water.
7.3. CAPILlARY IUSE IN Sf\<lALL DIAMETER TUBES
Water rises in small diamete r. capillary tubes , because of adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion occurs
because water adheres or sticks to the solid walls of the tube . Cohesion is due to mutual eurection of water
molecules. If the effec t of cohesi on is less significa nt than thc effect of adhesi on. the liquid wets the surface
"e and the liq uid rises at the point of conta ct. However, if the effect of cohesion is more predomin ant than
adhesion. the liquid level is depr essed at the po int of conta ct. as in the case of mercury.
If a glass tube of small dia me ter, ope n at bot h e nds, is lowe red into water. the wa ter level rises in
the tube . as the water wets the tube . Let 8 be the ang le of con tact betw een the wate r and the wall of the
tube [Fig. 7.2 (a)J .

1--, ,,;
bl 'bl ,0'
Fig. 7.2. Capillary Rise
F. = Upward pull due to su rface tension = (T. cos 8) xd
where T, = surface tension and d dia meter of the uee.
F" = Downward force due to mass of werer in the tube
• y. (. /4 d') x h.
where h~ = height of capillary rise.
For equilibrium. Fu - FJ
(T,rose) xd _ y.(";4 d') h.
4T,ros 8 4 T,cos 9
h• • ~. gp.d . ..(7.1)
For a clean glass tube and pure water, the men iscus is approx imately hemisp herical. Le. 8 = O. 'Ibererore,
122 SOIL M ECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN EERING

h _ 4 Ts
... (1.2)
r "fwd
Taking T, - 0.073 N/m. Y... - 9810 N /m) .

hr • 4 9~1~~3 • 3 x dlO-'~ metres

where d is in metres .
3
If d is in centimeters. hr _ 3 x )0- metres

If h r and d both are in em, hr • ¥ em . .. (/.3)

Capillary rise in tubes of non-uniform diameter depends upon the direction of flow of water; If a lube
with a large bulb is dipped in wate r, the water is lined due 10 capiUary action. bUI it may not rise past the
bulb where the diameter is d 2 [Fig. 7,2 (b)J. The capillary rise is limited to a height of (hell because water
cannot maintain equilibrium at a large diameter d2•
If the same tube, with a large bulb is filled by pouring wate r from above or by lowering the tube below
the water level and then raising when filled. an equilibrium is mainta ined at a height (hth [Fig. 7.2 (e)l . The
water is able 10 maintain equilibrium at the diameter d. above the bulb .
Thus the cap illary rise in tubes of non-uniform diameter is more if the now is downward than when it is
upward . Tbe capi llary rise does nOf. depend upon the shape and the diameter of the lube be low the meniscus
when the now is downward. In upward flow, the cap illary rise is terminated if the diameter of the lube is
greater than that required for equilibriwn .
The height of capillary rise does nOI depend upon the inclination of the tube . Even if the capillary tube
is inclined, the vertica l risc of water remains the same, equal 10 hf •
In a capillary tube of uniform
dia mete r, no water can be retained
when lifted . The upwa rd forces (F..)
due 10 surface tension are balanced by
downward forces (F d ) at the lower end
[fig. 7.3 (a» . However. if the tube is
necked. with smaller d iameter at top,
the upward force (F..) is grea ter than
the downward force (F d), and some
T2
water can be retained in the lube (Fig.
7.3 (b) ]. ,..:",
, !-o,-i T2""'"
7.4. CA I'ILLARY TENSION Tl"'
The water in a capillary tube is Cal
under a negat ive pressure, commonly
called tension. The pressure variation in Fig. 73 . C.1Ipillary Tube wlw::n lificd
the capillary tube of Fig. 7,4 (a) can be detennincd as follows. The pressure at point D at the free surface is
atmospheric Le., equal to zero gauge prc:s..o;ure. (In soil engineering. generally gauge pressures are used) . The
press ure er point C. which is at the same level as point D, is abo zero. From Jaws of hydrostatic. the pressure
at poinl B, which is at a height of hf above the free surface , is given by
PIl • - y..,hf .. . (7.4)

The press ure is negative because it is less than atmosp heric pressure . In other words, the water at point
B is under tension.
The capillary rise at any point E is h, and therefore the pressure is give n by
CAPILlARY WATER 123

~ 1<
~;~ F-
Ca) Cb)

Rg. 7.4. Pressure Variation.

PE • - ywh
The capillary tension, therefore, varies linearly with the height of point above the water surface, as shown
in Fig. 7.4 (b). The pressure at point F below the water surface is, of course, positive (hydrostatic).
As the capillary tube is open 10 atmosphere, the pressure at point A above the meniscu s is atmospher ic,
i.e. zero . Therefore, the pressure difference across the two sides of the meniscus is equal to ywhe' The
pressure difference is also known as pressure deficiency (P").
Thus p" • ywhe
Substituting the value of he from Bq. 7 .2,

P
" • r. (4T,)
r. d • d4T, ...(7.5)
If the meniscus is not hemi-spherical and it has diameters d J and ~ in two orthogonal directions, it can
be shown that

p" - T, ( i f,)
+ ... (7.6)

Capillary water can be likened to hanging of a weight 10 the inside walls of a chimney. The walls of the
chimney support the load and transfer it as reaction to the base. The weight causes compressive stresses in
the walls of the chimney. In a similar manner , the capillary water causes compression in the walls of the glass
tube. The compressive force (F) is equal to the weight of suspended column of water.

F - ( ~.Ph, ) t; .. .(7.7}

The compressive stress in the wall of the tube can be determined from the contact area and the
compressive force. The compressive stress is constant in the entire height he of the tube.

7.S. CAPILlARY RISE IN SOILS

The water which falls on the ground as rain flows under gravity and passes through the soil and reaches
a surface known as ground water table , The soil is saturated below the ground water table. The level to which
underground water rises in an observation well is called ground water table or simply water table . The ground
water table is also called as the ground phreatic surface, a term derived . from the Greek word phreos,
meaning a well . Ground water, which is a fonn of free water , is not static . It is a moving stream which flows
under gravitational force . The water table is not horizontal. It takes the shape: according to the topography.
The water is drawn above the water table (abbreviated at W.T.) due to capillary action.
A soil mass consists of 8 number of interconnected interstices which act as capillary tubes of varying
diameters. Al!.hough the channels fonned by interconnected interstices are not circular in cross-section, the
124 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

results of capillary rise in circular lubes are useful for understand ing the phenomeno n of capillary rise in soils.
The cha nnels formed in the soil arc a sort of capillary lubes of varying d iameter but not necessarily vertical.
These capillary tubes may be inclined in any direction.
Capillary rise in soils depends upon the size and grading of the particles . 111e diamete r (d) of the
cha nnels in pore passage depe nds upoo the diameter of the particle. It is generally taken a'> one-fifth of the
effective diameter (D 10) in case of coarse-grai ned soils. PkS((k..w;x...v.::r;;;«;vx&.r
~~V
Thus. d = 0.2 D lo
As the capillary rise is inversely proportional 10 the ZONE OF AERATION
diameter of the lube. the capillary rise is small in

=;:i~~i:i~~ ~eilve~Yrm~~~~ l~:s. ~ ZONE OF CAPILLARY SATURATION

may be even more I.han 30 m.
The space above the water table can be divided )lW.T.
into two regions: (1) Zone of capillary saturation . in
Fig. 7..5. Capillary zone.
which the soil is fully saturated. (2) Zone of aeration,
in which the soil is 001 saturated (Fig. 7.5). The height 10 which capillary water rises in soils is known es
capillary fringe. It includes the zone of capillary saturation and a part of tbe zone of aeration in which the:
capillary water exists in tmercoonccted channels .

~ ~TURE
The soil above lhe capillary fringe may contain water
in the form of oontaet water (Fig. 7.6). In this form, wate r
forms a meniscus around the point of contact. Surface
tension holds the water in contact with soil. Because of
the tc:nsioo in the capillary water. there is an equal and

~
opposite force induced at Ihe points of ccorecss wh ich
presses the particles together . The contact pressure
depends upon the water content. particle size, angle of
contact and density of packing. The contact pressure .
decreases a" the wate r content increases because of an Flg.7.fJ.
increase of radius of meniscus. Eventua lly. a stage is reached when the contact pressure becomes zero as sooo
as lhe soil becomes fully sa turated .
Terzagni and Peck (1948) gave a relationship be tween the maximum heigh t of capillary fringe and the
e ffective size. as

~~ -~ ..~
where C = constant, depending upon the shape of the grai n and impuriti es.
e = void ratio.
D lO = effective diameter. the size corresponding to 10% percentage finer.
If D IO is in mm, the value of C varies between 10 to 50 mm 2, and the height (h)mllll is also given in mm.
If D lO and « hf )1l1AJl are in cen timeters, C = 0.1 to OS an 2•
Table 7.1 gives representa tive heights of capilla ry rise in differenl so ils.
Table 7.1. Representative lIelghts or Capillary R1~

s' No. SoU Type Capillary rise (m)

1. Fine gravel 0.02 to 0.10
2. Coarse sand 0.10 to 0.t5
3. fiDe 5300 030 10 1.00
4. Silt 1.010 10.0
~ ~ IM ~ ~
6. Colloid morc than 30.0
CAPIUARY WATER 125

7.6. SOIL SUcrION

As in lhe caw of a capilla ry tube. lhe water in the soil above the wa ter lable has a negative pressure. The
soil is in a state of reduced pressure, known as soil suctio n. 1bc soi l suct ion is measured in tClJD of the height
of water column suspended in soil. Generally, it is expressed in terms of the common logarithm of the height
in centimeters, and is known as PF value. For example . a soil suction of 100 em of water column can be
represented as PF eq ual to 2, because,
100 = 102cm and log lg> =2
A PF value of zero corresponds 10 a soils suction of J an. as loglo = O.
Although the soil suction represents a negative pressure. it is CUSlomary10 omil the negative sign.
The so il suctioo ca n also be represe nted in pressure unit, using the relation,
1 an of water column = 0.009 8 N/an 2

7.7. CAPIL LARY POTENTIAL

The tenacity w ith which the soi l holds the capi llary wat er is meas ured in terms of the capillary potential
or matrix potential. The capillary potential (1p) is defmed as the work done to lake away a unit mass of water
from a unit mass of so il. It is numerically equal 10 the tension (negative pressure) in the so il wate r but it is
of opposit e sig n. Th ere fore.
'i' = -p ...(7.9)
where p is lension in soil .
[Note. Some authors express capillary potential as energy per unit mass in kJ/kg .
2
For examp le . if p = I bar = 100 kN/m •

height of water column - ~~ - 10.2 m and '¥ - 10.2 )( 9 .81 - 100 kJ/ kg]

11 is worth noting that the capilla ry potential is always negative. The maximum possib le value of 'V is
equal 10 zero when the soil tension is zero, which OCOJI'S when the water is at atmospheric pm>5ure. As the
water content in the soil decreases, the tension increases. Th is causes a decrease in capilla ry potential . 1be
capillary potenti al is minimum when the water content is minimum .
Water in the capil lary fringe is seldom under equilibrium. II moves from a region of high potential (more
water con tent) 10 a region of low potential (less wa ter con tent). The water sta rts movin g as soon as the
suction equ ilibrium is dist urbed either due to evaporation of wate r or due to an increase in water content . The
velocity of the capillary wate r is give n by
v - k,. • i. ...(7.10)
where k.. = coefficient o f unsa turated permeability .
i, = sucti on gradient, which is equal to the potenlial difference per unit leng th.
7.8. CAPIU..ARY TENSION DURING DRYING AND WETIlNG OF SOILS
Capillary tension develops not only in the soi ls ebove the wate r table but also in a soil when its water
content is reduced. Whe n the water con tent of a sat urated so il is reduced by drying, the water recedes into
the interstices of the soil and forms menisci . As Ihe water conte nt is reduced further. the menisci recede . The
radii of curvature decrease. and there is a corresponding increase in soil suction .
Fig. 7.7 shows the relalionshi p between lhe so il suction and the water content of a so il. The suction at a
particular water content is more when lhe soil is dryi ng than whe n the: soil is wetting, and a hysteris is loop
is formed. The reason for the difference in soil suction is that during drying the release of wate r fran the
larger pens is contro lled by the surrou nding smal ler pores, whereas during welting it is not cont rolled b y the
smaller pores . The phenomenon is som ewh at s imIlar 10 the: flow of capillary water in tubes of non - uniform
diameter discussed in Sect 7.3 . The process of drying is analogous 10 Ihe flow of water in the downward
direct ion. in whic h lhe cap illary rise does not depend upon the larger d iameter of the bulb .
126 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The increase in soil suction with

decreasin g water content is continuous over
(he enure range of water content. Its value
is zero whe n the soil is saturated and is very
high when the soil is oven dry. When a dry
soil is suomesged under water, the meniscus I ~ ying
I
is destroyed and the soil suction is reduced I
to zero. The capillary water changes to free u I
water. ~ - ----- --- j'-OO:
7.9. FAcroRS AFFECTIN G SOIL : W~ tt;ng
SUcnON
The suction in soils depends mainly o n I
the following factors: w
(1) Particle size-In general the Water contenl-"
smaller the particle size, the greater
is the soil suction. 1be soils with Fig. 7.7. Drying .OO WellingCycle.
fme particles have a large number of small pores w ith smaU radii of men isci. It results in 8 large
capillary rise and hence greater suction.
(2) Water content-As the water content of a soil decreases. the soil sud ion increases and it attains the
maximum value when the so il is dry. As discussed above. with a decrease in water con tent, water
recedes into smaller pores resulting in the decrease of the radius of cu rvature of the men iscus.
(3) nlstory or dl')'lng 01'" wetting cyde-As discussed in the preceding section, for the same water
content, the soil suction is greater during the drying cycle than in the wetting cycle.
(4) Soli Structure-The soil structure governs the size of interstices in the soils. As the soil suction
depends upon the size of interstices. a change in the soil structure affects the soil suction.
(5) Temperature-A rise in temperature causes a redooioo in surface tension (T,) of the water.
Consequently. the soil suctio n decreases as the temperature increases.
(6) Denseness of soil- As the denseness of a soil increases, generally soil suction increases . When the
soil is loose, with a low density. (he pores are of large rndius and the soil suction is low.
(7) Angle of contact-The angle of contact between water and soil particles depends upon the
mineralo gical composition of soils. As .
tbe angie of contact (8) increases, the
soil suctioo oecreeses. The soil socoon
is maximum w hen the angle of co ntact
is zero.
(8) Dissolved salts-The surface tension of
water increases with an increase in
impurities. such as salt. Therefore, the
dissolved salts cause an increase in soil
t
h
suction.
1
7.10. MFASUREMENT OF SOIL SUcnON
Suction in a soil mass can be measured
using the following methods:
(1) Teestometer Melhod-A tensiometer
consists of a porous pol filled with water. The
-,l y

top of the porous pot is co nnected to a U- tube

containing mercury. The pot is placed in the soil Flg. 7.8. Tcml omc1er..
CAPILlARY WATER 127

whose suction is to be determined (Fig . 7.8).

111e soil draws water from the porous pot. The process continues tit! an equilibrium is attained. when the
suct ion inside and that outside the pot arc equat. The suction (P") inside the porous pot can be calculated .
using the manometer cqceuon (see any text on Fluid Mech anics). as
0 - 13.6h )( 9.81 + (h + y ) )( 9.81 .. p"
or p" - - (12.6 h + y) )( 9 .8 1 . . .(7.11)
where II = oenectton of mercury in manomet er in metres.
y = vert ical interce pt betwee n the mercury level in the right limb of the manometer and the
centre of the pot.
The soil suction (PU) am be calcul ated ursing Eq. 7.11 o nce the values of hand y have been determined.
1bis method is suitab le for determinalion of soil suction uplo 0.8 bar or 80 kN/m 2 or 8(() em of water.
(2) Suction Plat e Method-In this me thod . the soil sam ple is placed over a porccs plate known as
suction plate. 1be suction pla te is in
SOIL SAMPLE
contact with water in the reservo ir (Fig .
7.9). The water reservoir is connected
r-I ''-----, POROUS PLATE
TO VAC UM P MP
to a pipe. A mercury manometer is
attached to the pipe as sho wn. '(be
other end of the pipe is connec ted to a
vacuum pump.
The so il sam ple takes water from
the reservoir throu gh the porous plate .
The meniscus in the pipe has a
tendency 10 move towards left. which MERCURY
indicates that the water is being drawn Fig. 7.9. Sudi on Plare.
into the soil. 1be wa ter meniscus is kept stationary b y means of the vacu um pump. 111e soil suction is equa l
to the red uct ion in lhe pressure as show n by the de flection (h) of me rcury in the manometer.
This method of measure men t is suitable fo r a suction upto 1 bar or 100 kN fm 2 or 10 m of water.
(3) Centrifuge Met hod-In this
method, the centrifuging action occurs
on the soil due to its rotation . The soil
sample is placed on a po rous pol. as
shown in Fig. 7.10 . The pot is enc losed
BRASS CASE
"\ -W
CENTRE OF
ROTATiON
T
I
1
in a brass case which can be rotated
about the centre o f rotation. rh~LE
As the rotation occurs. water from ~US -----..
the soil comes out and travels through
the walls of the poro us pot to the water ESCAPE
reservoir in the brass case marlcee: with HOLE <, r---.. I
water leve l as the water tabJc (W.T.).
1be level o f the wate r tabl e is kept
h0-
i ~ - WATER LEVEl
constant. as the excess water passe s ! -I
RUBBER PAD
through the escape hole provided at
that level. The mlgrnuon of the water /"/- ///V//-////-
from the so il to the water table
continues till the suction of the wa ter Fig. 7.10. Centriluge Melhod
left in the so il is jus t equal to that requ ired for equil ibrium. The soil suct ion can he dete rm ined as

h . ~
28
(r~ -r~ ... (7.12)
128 SO IL MEC HANICS AND FOUNDA110 N ENGINEERING

where h = soil suctio n. expressed in terms of the height of water colum n (log h • Pf ) .
lI) '" rotational speed (radians per secon d)

r l = radial distance from the centre of rotation 10 the water table

r 2 = radial distance from the cen tre of rotation 10 the midd le of the soil sample.

The test is conducted at various speeds to obtain a relationship between the water co ntent and the soil
suction.
The centrifuge method can be used for determination of very high suctions, of the order of several
thousands o f kN1m 2• For accurate rcsuns, thin samples sha ll be used. If the sample is relatively thick, it is
subjected to an additiona l overburde n pressuredue to its own weight and erroneous results are obtained.
7.11. FROST II EAVE
The water which migrates upward from the water lable to the capillary fringe may freeze if the
atmospheric temperature ralls 10 the freezing point. and the ice is formed. This results in an tocreese in the
volume of soil. because when water is convened into icc. there is about 9% increase: in its volume. If the
porosity of the soil is 45% and the soil is saturated. the expansion of the soil would be (0.09 x 45) = 4.05%.
In other words, there would be a heave of abou t 4 an in every one metre thickness of the soil deposit Due
to frost heave, the soil at the ground surface is lifted. This may cause the lifting of light structures built on
the: ground.
The frost heave observed in most of the soils is much more than a heave of about 4 em per metre. This
is due to the fact that when the ice lenses arc formed in the soil due to freezing of wate r. the water film from
lhe adjace nt soil particles is also removed. This disturbs soil suction equilibrium and more water is drawn up
from the water table by capillary action to replenish the water deprived by the ice lenses from the soil
particles (Fig. 7.11). This process may cause a frost heave of 20 to 30% of the soil depth .
G.';

~ -c;«: LENSES

~
_____L
1I11~
L L~.:t' L
fi g. 7.11. Ice Lenses.
The soils which are prone to frost action are mainly silts and fine sands. These soils have large capillary
rise due to relatively fine particles . Moreover. water can easily (low through these soils because of fairly good
permeability. In coa rse-grained soils and clayey soils, the frost heave is relatively small. In coarse -grained
soils, the frost heave is limited to about 4%, as there is very little capillary rise. Clayey soils, on the other
hand, have very large capillary rise, but their permeability L" very low. 111e water cannot move easily through
these soils and, therefore. the frost heave is limited . However, if the clayey depos ited have fissures and
cracks, water moves easily and a large frost heave may occur in such so ils.
If the temperature persists below the freezing point for a long period. frost penetrates the so il further, and
the depth of the affecte d so il increases . The depLh upto which the water may freeze is known as the frOSl line.
The basic condition for the fonn ation of the frost heave may be summa rised as under :
(1) The temperature in the soil is below freezing point and persists for a long period.
(2) A reservoir of the ground water is availab le sufficiently close to the Ircst line to feed the growing
ice lenses by capillary action.
(3) The so il is sa turated at the beginning and during the freezing period.
(4) The so il has sufficient ly high cap illary potential to lift the water above the ground water table.
(5) The so il has good permeability so that water moves quickly through it.
CAPIUARY WATER 129

The cracks and fissure also permit rapid movement of water .

(6) The soil particl es of size about 0 .02 mm are most prone to frost heave .
If a uniform soil contains more than 10% particles of the size 0.02 mm or if a we ll-graded so il contains
more Ulan 3% particles of this size. the soil is prone to fros,t heave.
The foundations of structures shwld be carried below the frost depth to avoid possible frost heave after
the completion of the structure. However. highways and runways have limited dCplh below -the ground surface
and cannot be constructed below the frost line. In suc h cases, olhe r measures an: tak.en to reduce frost heave.
as discussed in Sect. 7.13.
7.12. FROST BOIL
After the occu rrence of frost heave, if the temperature rises. the frozen soi l thaws and free wate r is
libcr.tlcd. Thawing process starts from the upper layer and moves downwards. The liberated water is trapped
in the upper layer while the lower layers are still frozen. The strength of the soil in the upper layer is reduced
due to its softening caused by an increases in water content. The process of soft ening of soil due 10 Iibcrntion
of water during thawing is know n as frost boi/.
Frost boil affe cts the struct ures resting on the grou nd surface. The effcct is mo re pronou nced on highway
pavements. A hole is generally formed in the pavement due to extrus ion o f son soil and water UOOcr the
action of wheel loads. In extreme cases. the pavement breaks under tratflc, and there is ejection of subgradc
soil in a soft and soapy condition.
1 Coarse-grained soils are not affected much by frost boil. as the quantity of liberated water is small. and
that too is drained away quickly. The soils most prone to the softening effect are sluy so ils. These so ils have
low plasticity index and beco me ve ry son with a small increase in water cor uem. Cla ye y soils are not affect ed
as much as silty soi ls since tile quantity of libera ted water is small and the plasti city index is high .
7.13. PREVENTION OF m OST AcnON
The Irost heave and frost boil cause great difficu lties in the main tenance of highways and runways, as
discussed above . TIle following meas ures an:: usually taken to mitiga te the ill effects of the frost action.
(I ) Th e most e ffective method of prev ention of frost action is to replacethe frost-susce ptib le soil by coarse-
grained soils such as gravels or coa rse sands. In
most cases , the method is not econ om ically feasibl e
GROUND SURFACE
owing to large quan tities of so ils invo lved .
(2) Th e frost action can be prevent ed by
providing an insulating blanket between the water
tli>!e and the ground surface. .The insulati "l;
blanket consists of gra vel. and has a thick ness of
15 to 30 em. The blank et reduces the capil lary W.T \7
action and hence the migration of water end the
form ation of ice lenses (Fig. 7.12).
(3) A good drainage sys tem preven ts the frost Fig. 7.12.. Insulating Blankel.
aaion in two ways: (,) It lowers the water tab le and thus increases the dist.ance between the ground su rface and
the water table, (il) The wa ter liberated during thawing is drained away quic kly by the drainage syst em.
(4) Some times additives are used to reduce frost action. Dispersion agents. such as sodi um poly-
phosphate, when mixed with soil. decrease the permeability of the soil .
(5) Water proofi ng materials and other chemicals are also used to change the adsorbed cations on the clay
minerals to reduce the tendency of soi ls to attract the water d ipole.
7.14. SHRINKAGE AND SWELUNG OF SOILS
Shri nka ge A clayey soil shrinks when water evaporates fro m it. IT water is add ed to such soils, swelling
takes place. Shrinka ge and swelling are charac teristics o f c layey soil. The coarse- gra ined soils na-e very little
shrinkage and swelling.
130 SOIL MEC HANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Shrinkage is due to tension in soil water. When tension (negative pressure) develops in water,
compressive forces act on the solid particle. The compeessive forces induced in the solid particles are similar
10 those induced in the walls of the capillary lube dL"CU.'i..~ in Sect. 7.4. when the water content of a soil
mass reduces due (0 eva poration. the meniscus
retrea ts. 111i.'i causes rompress ion of the .soli~
part icles and hence a reduction in the vo lume
of tbe soil mass .
The stresses in pore water during
shrinkage can be studied from the capil lary
tube analogy (Sect. 7.4). Let us consider a soil
mass cons isting of spherical. solid particles,
shown in Fig. 7.13. When the capillary spaces . .
be tw ee n the part icl es a rc co m p le te ly filled Fig . 7.13. Retreetieg of MeniSCUS.
with water, the meniscus forms a plane surface. as ind icated by 1· 1. The tens ion in water is zero. A<;.
evaporat ion lakes place. water is removed from the free surfa ce and the me niscus retreats 10 the positio n 2-2.
ThL<; process causes tension in the water and corresponding compressive forces on (he solid grains. The
tension developed depends upon the radius of the meniscus.
With further evaporation. the meniscus retreats 10 posi tion 3-3 and the rndius decreases. Th is increases
the compressive forces acting on the solid particles. Eventually, when the meniscus attains the minim um
radius. shown by position 44. it is fully developed and the compressive forces induc ed are maximum. Further
recessi on of the me niscus docs no t increase the com press ive forces. as there are no JXlres of smaller radius.
The lower limit of the volu me occurs lit the shrin kage limit. At the shrinkage limit. the soil is still
saturated . but there is no free water at the soil sur face . Further drying docs nOI cause a reduc tio n in its
volume as the soil resistance exceed s the compressive forces . As soon as the shrinkage limit is reached, the
surface becom ess dry. It is indicat ed by a change in the co lour of the so il surface to a lighter shad e.
There may be a small addit ional shrinkage after the shrinkage limit, but this is usuall y ignored.
Swelling When wa ter is added to a clayey soil which had shru nk by eva pora tion of the pore water, the
menisc i arc destroy ed. The tens ion in soil water becomes zero. 1be compressive forces betwee n the solid
particles reduce considerably, and elastic expansio n of the soil mass occurs and this QlUSCS some swelling.
Howev er swelling main ly occurs duc (0 auracnoo of dipola r molecules of wa ter to the negatively charged soi l
part icles. Th e swe lling also depe nds upon a number of olhe r factors. such as mutua l repulsion of clay
particles and their adsorbed layers and the expansion of entrapped air. The mechanism of swelling is much
more comp lex than that o f shrinkage.
Elfects or Shrinkage and Swelnng of Sotts
Shrinkage and swelling crea te man y problem s. roo dL"CU'iSCd below.
(1) Shrinkage and swelling cause the deformations and stresses in the structures resting on or in the soil.
(2) High swelling pressures develop if the soil has an access to water, but is prevented from swelling.
The light structures may be lifted if the swelling pressure is exce ss ive.
(3) In semi-a rid regions. the cla y near the ground surface is subject ed to shrinkage durin g dry periods
and the crac ks are formed. During wet periods. the clay swells and the cracks are closed. Th is
process of the formation and closing o f the cracks may cause the developme nt of Ilsss ures in so ils.
(4) If silt particles drop into the shrinkage cracks formed behind the retaining wall, panicles later sweU
and force the reta ining wall out of the plumb. It may cause the failure of the wall if it had nOl been
proper ty designed to resist the press ure so developed.
(5) If the soil below the pave ments has high shrinkage and swelli ng propert ies, it creates the problems
in the main tenance of hig hways and runways.
7.15. SlAKING OF ClAY
When a clay thai had been dried well below the shrinkage limit is suddenly imm ersed in water, it
 CAPIllARY WATER BI

disintegrates into a soft. wet mass.. The process is known

as slaking o f c lay, Slak ing can be explained as below .

~
Whc n the soi l dries (0 a water content lower than
thc shrinkage limit. some of the voids get filled wit h air
\{)IDS FlLLED
WITH AIR
(Fig. 7.14). Water enters these ai r-filled vo ids when the
'soil is imme rsed in water . This C311<;CS an explosion of SAlURATED '<)105
the voids . and therefore disinteg ration of soil occurs.
Accor ding to ano ther interp retatio n. when water Fig. 7.14 . Slaking of C lay.
enters the pores, it forms menisci which react agai nst the air in the void . Tbe ent rapped air is subjected to
very high pressure and the so il mass disintegrates.
7.16. BULKING OF SAND
If a damp sand is Iooscly deposited. its volume is much more than that whe n the same sand is deposited
in a loose. dry slate. Th e phenomenon of increase in volume of sand due to dampness is known as bulking
of sand.
In damped state, cohesion develo ps between the particles due to capillary water . The cohesion prevents
the particle s from tak ing a stabl e position. A sort of honey-com b struct ure is formed. The effect is
predominant whe n the water conte nt is between 4 to 5%. The increase in volume due to bulking is between
20 to 30% for mo.st sands.
If the damp sand is saturated by adding more water. the effect o f capillary action is eliminated and the
vo lume of tbe sand mass is decreased.
7.13. CAP ILlARY S IP HON ING
In an earth dam with an impervious core. capillary s iphoning may occur (Fig . 7.15). Th e water rises in
the outer shell due to capillary action . If the crest (top leve l) of the impervious core is in the reach of

CAPILLARY SIPHONING
(WATER SPILLS OVER CORE)

I-ig. 7. 15. Capillllry Siphoning.

capillary rise. water flow s from rhesrorage reservoir to the oownsueem over the co re. Considerable quantity
t of stored water may be los t due to capillary siphoning. To prevent this. the crest of the impervious core
should be kept sufficient ly hig h. In other wo rds. the difference of top level of the core and water level in the
reservoir shou ld be more than the capillary rise in soil of the shell.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM PLES

Illustrauve Exam ple 7.1. What is the negative pressure in the water JUSt below rite meniscus in a
capillary tube of diameter 0.1 mm filled with water. The surface tension. is 0.075 Nlm and welling angle is 10
degrees. •
Solution. From Eq. 7.1.
h _ 4 T. cos e _ 4 l( 0.075 x 0.9848 • 0.301 m
r g p".d 9.81 l( 1000 x 0.1 )( 10-3
Negative pressu re - Y",h r _ 9.81 l( 1000 l( 030 1
_ 2952.8 1 N/ m 2 _ 2.953 kN/ m 2
132 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Illustrative Example 7.2. Estimate the capillary rise in a soil with a void ratio 01 0.60 and an effec tive
size of O.OJ mm. Talce C = 15 mm2,
Solutio n. From Eq. 7.8,

h~ .. e;IO" 0.6 ~50.01 .. 2500 mm .. 205m

illustrative Example 7.3. The PE of a soil is 2.50. Determ ine the cap illary po tential of the soil
Solution . SoI1suction .. (lOf · s .. 3 16.23 an .. 3.1623 m
Capillary potential .. - 3.1623 )( 9.81 )( tal N/ m2
.. - 31.02 kN/ m2
llIuslrntive Exa mple 7.4. The capillary rise in a soil A with an efJectiW! size of 0.02 mm W as' 60 em..
Estimate the capilla ry rise in a similar soil B with an effectivt! size of 0.04 min.
(h,lt (D,,,),
Solution. From Eq. 7.8 ,
{h,n ' (D,o),

(~ .. ~:~ .. 2 or (h(n " JOan

illustrative Example 7.5. The capillary rise in siu is 50 em and that in [me sand is 30 an. Whal is tM
difference in the pore size of the two soils ?

Solution. From Eq. 7.3. h( .. 0 : an

For silt. (h()• .. 50 .. °d~ or d l .. 6.0 x 10-) an

For nne sand, (hth .. 30 .. °d~ or d,. .. 10.0 x 10-1 an

Difference in pore size .. (10.00 - 6.0) x 10-3

• 4.00 )( 10-3em

PROBLEMS

A. Numeri cal
7.1 ~~~~ ~~.~~~d",r~1 ~~. sandy soil which has a void ratio or 0.65 and the effective si[~~ ~~~~l~i

7.2. The effective size or a soil Is 0.015 mm. Estimate the heig ht or capil lary rise . Take surface tension as
0.074 N/rn. [Ans. 10 rn]
7.3. ;.~~f~~~~e maximum capillary tension Ior a capillary tube 'of 0.1 mm diameter . Take s[1::S~;~n~~m~

7.4. The glass vessel shown in Fig. P 7.4 is filled with water, It has rwo holes or dialTlCter 0.01 cm and 0.03 em lIS
shown. Ir a rully- developed meniscus is formed in the upper hole, dctermine the height h or the wall or the
vessel. [Ans. 20.27an]
7.5. In Prob. 7.4, Ir both the holes are of the same diameter, equal to 0.01 em, determine the contact angle in lhe
lower hole ir that in the upper hole is zero and h '" 2O.n an. (Ans. 70.54'1

D. Descriptive and O~edlve Type

7.6. What are diffemll categories of soil water? Descr ibe in brief.
7.7. Discuss the phenomenon of ar.pillary rise in soils. wh at ere the factOlS that effect the height of capillary zone1
7.8. What is soil $ua ioo ? HOW" is it measured ? What are the factors that affect soil suction ?
CAPILLA RY WATE R 133

Th

Fig. P.7.4
7.9. Differenti ate between frost heave and frost hoil. What is their effect on soils ? How frost action can be
prevented ?
7.10. Write a notc on shrinkage and swel ling of soils.
7.J). Discuss the pheno mena of slaking lind hulking.
C. Multiple Ch oice Ques lions
1. Capillary rise ill a small tub e is due to
((I)Cohcsitln (h}Adhcsion
(c) Roth co hesio n and adhes ion (ff) Neither (ll ) nor ( b )
2. The surface tension of water at normal tem perat ures is about
(a ) 0.73 dy neSI'm (I1l 0.73 N/ m
(e) 0.073 N/ m (J) 0.07) kNl m
3. The cap illary rise in clay is. usually between
(a ) 0 .10 and 0.15 m (h) 0.3 and 1.0 m
(e) 1.0 and 10.0 m (f!) greater than 10 m
4. A pF value of zero co rresponds 10 a soil section uf
(0) I m ( b) zero metr e
(e) I em (d) 10em
S. The fro~1 hea ve in the fo llowing type of soils is gcnera lly high
(o l Coarse sands (bl clays
(c) Fine sands aml sills (d) grav els
6. Bulking of sands is usua lly
(a) Less than to% (h) Between 20 to )O'Jf,
(e) Greater than 30% (e!) Between 10 to 20%
7. The frost heave depth ;IS percrentage o f the soil de pth in fine sands and silts is abou t
(0 ) 4 to 5% ( b) 5 to 1O'k-
(clIO to 15" . ( tI) 20 to 30%
2
8. A te nsion of IkN/m corresponds to a capillary potentia l of
(0 ) 1 kJlkg (b) 10 kJlk g
(c) 100 kJlkg (,I) 1000 kJlkg
IA~I . ~ 2 . ~1 ~ ~ ( ~5 . ~~ ~ ~ 7 . ~ L ~ "
 8
Premeability of Soils

8.1. INTRODUcnON
A material is porous if it contains interstices. The porous material is permeable if the interstices are
interconnected or continuous. A liquid can now lhrough a permeable material. Electron photomicrographs of
even very fine clays indicate thai the interstices are interconnected. Ho wever, the size, cross- section , and
orientation of the interst ices in different soils are highl y variab le. In general. all the soils are permeable.
The property of a soil which permits flow of water (or any other liquid) through it. is called the
penneability•. In other words, the permeability is the ease with which water can flow through it. A soil is
highly pervious when water can now through it easily. In an impervious soil. the permeability is very low and
water cannot easily now through it. A completely impervious soil does nor permi t the wa ter to flow through
it. However, such completely impervious soils do not exist in nature, as all the soils arc pervious to some
degree . A soil is termed impervi ous whe n the permeabilit y is extremely low.
Penn eability is a very importan t engineering prope rty of soils. A know ledge of perm eab il ity is essential
in a Dumber of soil enginee ring proble ms, such as set tleme nt of buildings. yield of wells. seepage through and
below the earth struct ures. It co ntrols the hydra ulic stability of soi l masses. The permeability of soils is also
r-q uired in the design of filters used to prevent piping in hydra ulic structures.
A5 mentioned in chapter 7, free: water or gravitational water flows through soils under the influence of
gravity. Flow of free wa ter depends upon the penneability of the soil and Ihc head caustng flow. This chapter
deals with Darcy's law for flow of wate r. the methods for the determlnat jon of permeability and the faaors
affect ing the permeabil ity o f soils. Furthe r details of flow of water and seepage problem s are d iscussed in the
next chapter.
8.2. HYDRAULIC HEAD
'The total head at any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the sum of the elevation (or datum) head, the
pressure head and the velocit y head. Th e elevation head (z) is equal to the vertical distance o f the point above
the datum . The pressure head (plyw) is equal to the head indica ted by a piezo me ter with its lip at thm point.
Tbe veloci ty head is eq ual to v'll2g. However . for flow of water through soils. as the velocity (v) is ext remely
small, the velocity head is neglected. Therefore. the tota l head of wa ter in soil engineering problems is equal
to the sum of the elevation head and the pressure head . For flow probl ems in soils, the downstream water
level is generally taken as datum. lbe piezometric level is the water level shown by a piezometer insertedat
that poin t. The line joining the piezometric levels at various points is called a ptezcncrrtc surface. 1be
piezometric surface also represents the hydraulic gradient line (IIGL). The sum of the pressure head and the
elevat ion head is known as the piezometric head .
Fig. 8. 1 shows two vessels A and B containing water at different levels and connected by a small tube
con taining soil sam ple. Let the length of the tube be L. lbe flow takes place from the vessel A with a high
head to the vesse l B with a low head through the tube. With datum et the water level in the vesse l B, the
 PERMEABJurY OF SOILS 13S

Poin t Ele vot ion hea d Pre~~u r(> he od Totol heod

I
-', h, h
e , -', h'
,r
d
, -',
h,

h, 0

Fig. 8.1. Variom Il ta1h.

e elevation head, the press ure head and the total head at three points I , 2 and 3 are also shown in the figure .

"
~
d
The total head at poin t I is h and that at point 3 is zero. The head h is know n as the hydraulic head. It is
equal to the differen ce in the elevat ions of water levels at the entry and exit po ints in a soil mass. Obvious ly,
it is equal to the loss o f head through the soil. The hydrauli c head is etso known as the effec tive head.
The loss o f head per unit length of now thro u,:h the soil is equal to the hydra ulic gra dient (I),
,1 i • h/L ••.(8.1)
where h hydraulic head, and L = lengt h of the soil specimen.
'" The variation of head at various points is represent ed by the line CD, known as the hydrauli c gradie nt
line (H.G.L.) o r press ure grad ient line. If a piezo meter is inserted at any interm ediate point 2, the water will
of rise upto the level of the hydrauli c gradient line at that point , The line CD. therefore, represents a piezometr ic
or surface. It is gene rally assumed that the loss o f head over the length o f the so il samp le is un ifonn and,
rs therefore, the variation of head is linear.
1e
8J. DARCY ' S LAW
The flow of free wa ter throug h soil is gove rned by Darcy' s law. In 1856. Darcy demonstrated
experimentally that for laminar now in a homoge neous soil, the velocit y of flow (v) is give n by
he v _ ki ...(8.2)

11.
where k =coe fficie nt of pe rmeability, i =hydra ulic grad ient.
The veloci ty of flow is also known as the discharge velocity or the superficial velocity.
:ly
Eq. 8.2 is known as Darcy 's law, which is one of the corner stones of soil engineering. The discharge q
", 1
is obtained by multiplying the velocity of now (v) by the t0l31 cross- sectional area of soi l (A) normal to the
.er direa ion o f n ow. Th us
at
q - vA - ki A .. .(8.3)
he
he The area A inclu des both the solids and the voids .
The coetficient of permeab ility can be defined using Eq. 82. If the hydra ulic gradien t is unity, the
coefficient of permeability is equal to the velocity of flow. In othe r words, the coefficient of permeability is
defined as the veloci ty of flow which would occu r under unil hydraulic grad ient. The coefficient of
permeability has the d imensions of velocity [Lnl . It is measured in mmzsec, cm eec, mzsec, m/day or other
velocity units. The coefficient or permeability depends upon the part icle size and upon many other factors as
136 SJI L MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

explained later. Table 8.1 gives the typical values of the coe fficient of permeability of d ifferent soils.
Thble 8.1. 1y plcal Villues of the Coefficient of PermeablUty

Coeffici~nI of
Drair:a~
s. No. Soi l Type permeabi lity
properti es
(mmlsee)
I. Cteen grevel 10+1 to 10+2 Very good
10- 2 10 10.. 1
..
2 Coarse and medi um sands
fioe sands, loose srn 10- to 10- 2
Good
Fair
4. Dense sill, clayey silts 10- 5 10 10--' Poce
5. Silty clay, d ay l r to 10-5 Very poor

Acco rding 10 USBR, the soils having the coe fficient of permeability greater than 10-3 mm/sec arc
classified as pervious and those with a value less than 10- 5 mmlsec es impervious. 100 soils with the
coefficient of permeabi lity between 10- 5 to 10-3 mmlsec are designated as semi -pervious.
8.4. VA LI DITY OF DAU,CY 'S LAW
Darcy 's law is valid if the flow through soils is laminar. 'In c now of water through so ils depe nds upon
the dimension of interstices. which. in tum , depend upon the particle size. In fine-grained so ils. the dim ens ions o f
the interstices are very small and the now is necessarily laminar. In coa rse-grained soils, the flow is also
generally laminar. Howev er, in very coarse-grained soils, sud1 as coarse gravels. the flow may be turbuknt.
For n o w of water th rough pipes, the now is lamina r when the Reynolds number is less tha n 2000 .
For now through soils , it has been found that the now is laminar if the Reyno lds num ber is less tha n
unity. For no w throug h soils , the cha racte ristic length in the Reynolds number is taken as the ave rage
particl e d iamet e r (D) .
Thus .e..!..Q s 1
~
where p ". is the mass density and TI is the coe fficie nt of viscos ity.
Using Allen Hazen's equation (Eq. 8.30) for velocity, it can be shown that lhe maximum d iameter of the
particle for the now lo be laminar is about 0.50 mm.
lbe value of the cri tical Reynolds number of unity is, however, conservetlve . ,II has bee n demons trated
that the now remai ns laminar even upto the Reynolds numbe r of 75. It has been observed that Darcy's law
is valid for now in c lays. silts and fmc sands. In coarse sands, gravels and bccloers, the now may be
turbu lent and Darcy's law may not be applicable. It is difficult to pred ict the exact range of the valid ity of
Darcy's law. The best method to ascertain the range is to conduct experim ents and determine the actual
relationship between the ve locity v and the hydraulic grad ient. For Darcy's law lo be valid, thi.s relationsh ip
should be approximately linear.
For flow through coarse sands , gravels and ~lders. the actual relationshi p between the velocity and the
hydraulic grad ient is non-linear. Hough gave lhe follow ing equation for the velocit y when the now is
turbulent.
v · kUr .. .(8.4)
where n = exponent, with a value of 0.65
In extremely fine-grained soils. such as a colloidal clay, the Intersnces are very smal l 1be velocity is
there fore very small In such soils also. the Darcy law is not valid.
8.5. DhTERMINATION OF COEfoTiCIENT OF PERMEABILITY
The coefficient of permeabili ty of a soil can be determined using the following methods.
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS 137

(0) Laboratory Me th ods. 1bc coeffic ient of permeab ility of a soil sample can be determined by the
following methods :
(I) Constant-head permeability test.
(if) Variable -head permeability test.
'Ibe instruments used are known as per meame ters: The former tcst is suitable for relatively more pervious
soils, and the latter for less pervious soils.
(b) Field Methods. The coeffici ent of permeab ility o f a soil depos it in-situ cooditions can be determined
by the following fields methods :
(i) Pumping-out tests.
(i l) Pumping-in tests.
1be pumping-out rests influence a large area around the pum ping well and give an overall value of the
coefflclera of pecmeabilily of the soil deposi t. The pumping -in test inffuences a small area around the bole
and therefore gives a value of the coefficient of permeability of the soil surrounding the bole .
(e) Indirect Methods. The coefficient of permeabilit y of I.he soil can also be determined indirectly from
tbe soil parameters by
(i) Computation from the particle size or its specific surface.
(ii) Computation from the coosolidatioo test data.
The first method is used if the particle size is known. The second method is used when the coefflcient
of volume change has been determined from the consolidation test on the soil.
(d) Capillurl ty- Pe nneab llity test. Tbe coefficient of permeab ility of an unsaturated soil can be
determined by the capillarity--permeability test (Sect. 8 .16).
8.6. CONSTANT \l EAD PEIlMEABILrIY TEST
The coefficie nt of permeability o f a relatively
more permeable soil can be detcnn ined in a
laboratory by the consta nt-heed perm eability test.
The test is cond ucted in an ins lrument Icnown as
coostant-heac permeameter; It consists of a metallic
mould, 100 mm internal dia meter, 1273 mm
effective he ight and 1000 ml capacity according to
IS : 2nO (part XVII). The mould is provided with
a detachable extension collar. 100 mm diameter and
60 mm high, requ ired durin g compaction of soil. T
The mou ld is provided wit h a drainage base plate I
: :: : ::~a:~r:roh~~~;n:~ ~~tm:a~~~ ~:~u:
air release valve . The drainage base and cap have
fittings for clamp ing to the mould .
1
h

Fig. 8.2 shows a schematic sketch . The soil

sample is placed ins ide the moold between two
porous discs. The porous d iscs should be at least
len limes more permeab le tha n the soil. The porous
discs should be deaircd befo re these are placed in
the mould. The water tubes shou ld also be dcaircd.
The sample can also be prepared in the
permeameter by pouring the soil into it and
tamping it to obtain the requi red density. Th e base
is provided with a dum my plate, 12 mm thi ck and
108 mm in diameter. whic h is used when the
sample is compacted in the mould.
138 roll . MECHAN ICS AN D FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

It is essential that the sample is fully saturated. This is done by one of the following three methods.
(,) By pouring the soil in the penneameter fiUed with water and thus deposi ting the soil under water.
(iI) By allowing water to flow upward from the base 10 the top after the soil has been placed in the
mould. This is done by attaching the coosrant-heed reservoir 10 the drainage base. 1be upward flow
is maintained for sufficient time till all the air has been expelled out.
(iii) By applying a vacuum pressure of about 700 mm of mercury through the drainage cap for about 15
minutes after closing the drainage valve. Then the soil is saturated by allowing dcain:d water 10 enter
from the drainage base. 1be air-release valve is kepi open during satu ration procc:ss.
After the so il samp le has been saturated. the constara-beed reservoir is connected to the drainage cap.
water is allowed to flow oul from the drainage base (or so me lime: till a steady -slate is established . The water
level in the constant-head chamber in which the mou ld is placed is kept cons tant. Th e cha mbe r is filled to the
brim at the sta n of the experiment . 111e wate r wbich en ters the chamber afte r flowing through the sample
spills ove r the chamber and is collected in a graduated ja r for a conv enient pe riod. The head causing now (h)
is equ al 10 the difference in water levels between the constam-bcec reservoir and the constant-head chamber.
If the cross-sect ional area of the spec imen is A. the discharge is given by (Eq. 8.3)
q .. kiA

q- k~A
k . ~ . .. (8~)
where L '" lengt h of specime n. h = head causing now.
The discharge q is equal to the volume of weter collected divided by time.
The finer particles of the soil specimen have a tendency 10 migrate towards the end faces when water
flows lhrough it. This results in the formation of a filter skin at the ends. 1be coenicicnr of permeability of
these end portions is quite different from thai of the middle portion . For more accurate results, it would be
preferable to measure the loss of bead h' ove r a lengtb L' in the middle to determine the hydraulic gradient
(I)' Thus i .. h'l L'.
TIle temperature of the permeating water should be preferably somewhat higher than thai of the soil
sample . This will preven t release of the air during the test. It also helps in remov ing the entrapped air in the
poresof the soil As the water cools, it has a tendency to absorb air.
To reduce the chances of formation of large voids at points where the partic les of the soil touch the
permearneter walls . the diameter of the permeameter is kept at least 15 to 20 times the particles size.
To increase the rate of now for tbe soils of low permeab ility. a gas under pressure is applied to the
surface of water in the cons tant-head reservoir. The total head caus ing now in that case increases to
(h + plr ",), where p is pressure applied.
The bulk density of the so li in the mould may be de termined from the mass of the so il in the mould and
its volume. The bulk de nsity should be equal to that in the field. The undisturbed sampl e can also be used
instead of the compacted sample. For accu rate resul ts, the specimen should have the same structure as in
natura l conditions.
(See Chapter 30, Sect. 30. 13 for the laboratory experi men t).
The constan t had pe rmeability test is suitable for clean sand and gravel with k > 10-2 mmzsec.
8.7. VARlABLE-IlEAD PERMEABIUTY TEST
For relatively _less permeable sons, the quantity of water co llected in the graduated jar of the
cccsrent-beed permeability test is very small and canox be measured accurately. for such soils, the
varioole -head permeability test is used. The permeameter mould is the same as that used in the coostant-beed
permeability test. A vertical. graduated sta nd pipe of know n diameter is fitted to the top of
penneameter.-The
sam ple is placed between two porous discs. The whole assembly is placed in a constant head chamber filled
with water to the brim at the start of the test. I:ig. 8.3 shows a schematic sketch. The porocsdiscs and w~
PERMEABILITYOF SOILS 139

tubes should be de-aired befo re the samp le is placed. If ln-suu,

undisturbed sam ple is available, the same am be used; otherwise
~~ns~~ is taken in the mo uld and compacted to the required ~
The valve at the drai nage base (nol shown in figure) is closed
and a vacuu m pressure is applied slowly through the drainage cap
to remove air from the soil. The vacu um pressure is increased to
700 mm of mercury and maintained for about 15 minutes. The
sample is sa turated by allowing deaired water to flow upward
from the drainage base when under vacuum. When the soil is
1I hi
STANO PIPE

saturated, both the top and bottom outlets are closed. TIle

S~~t~tfi::;~h~ma~o~~~ = = r ~i~~. stand pipe to

flow through the sample to the constant-head chamber from which
it oved1ows and spills out. As the water flows through the soil.
11
h

':'2
SAMPLl

the water level in the standpipe falls. The time required for the
water level 10 fall from a known initial head (htl to a known flO31
bead (h,) is determined. The head is measured with reference to
the level of water in the constant - head chamber.
Let us consider the instant when the head is h. For the
infinitesimal small time as;the head falls by dh. Let the dtscnarge
through the sample be q. From continuily of flow,
adh - -qdJ
where a is cross-sccnceal area of the standpipe. Ag. 8.3. Variable UClId Pemlell.meler.
adh _ -(A )( k )( I) )( dJ

a dh --A k)( ~ )( dt
A ledl -dh
--;L - h
f: hdh
*
Imegraung, A
-;;[kj' tit - -
I /oj
j

(12 - ll) - log, (hl /h 21

k - ¥i log. (h,lh,) .•.(8.6)

where 1 _ (/ 2 -Il). the time interval during which the head reduces from hi to h2•
Bq. 8.6 is so metimes written as
k _ 2~~ L Iog,,(h,lh,j ...(8.7)
The rate of fall of water level in the stand pipe and the rate of flow can be adjus ted by cha nging the area
of the cross-sectio n of the standpipe. The smaller diameter pipes are required for tess pervious soils.
The coefficien t of penneability is reported at 27<1C as per IS : 2720 (Part XVII). The void ratio of the
soil is also generally dele nn ined.
The variable head pcrmeameter is suitab le for very fine sand and silt with k: = 10- 2 10 10--5 mm/seC.
(See Chapter 30. Sect. 30. 14 for the laboratory experi ment) .
Sometimes, the penneabilily rest is conducted using (he roosolidome ler instead of the permeameter
140 SOIL MECHANICS AND fOUNDATION ENGINEERING

mould (see chapt er 12). The fixed-ring cooso lidometcr is used as a veriabje -beed permcameter by attaching a
stand pipe to its base.
8.8. SEEPAGE VELOCITY
The discharge velocity v in Eq. 8.2 is not the actual velocity through the interstices of the soil. It is a
fictitious velocity ob tained by dividing thc total discharge (q) by the total cross-secnonal area (A). The total
cross- sectiona l area consists of not ooly the voids but also the solids. As the flow can take place only
through vo ids, the actua l velocity through the voids is much greater than the discharge velocity . TIle actual
veloci ty on a macroscopic scale is known as the seepage velocity (v,).

I' 1
~T~r
~ l~ l
!---A - . . j
(.) ( b)
fig. 8.4. Seepage Velocity
Fig. 8.4 (a) shows the longitudinal section through a soil sample in which the voids and the solid
particles are segrega ted. However. it must be clearly understood lhat the voids and solids in actual soils form
a complex system and it is not possible to segregate them. From the conti nuity of flow.
q - vA - v,A.. .. .(a)
where A.. is the ami of now through votes and v, is the actual seepage velocity .
From Eq. (a). v, - v x (A/A ..)
Multiplying the numerator and denom inator by the length (L) of the specimen.

v. - v x ( :, : ~) . ..(b)

The product (A x L) is equal 10 the lotal volume V and the product (.4.. x L), equal to the volume of
voids (V,) [Fig. 8.4 (b)].
v
Therefore, v, - v x Y:" ...(0)
A<; the ratio V.lV is equal to the porosity,
v
v• . -
n
In other words, tlie seepa ge velocity is equal to the discharge veIocity divided by porosity.
Using Eq. 8.2, v, - !f
or v, - k,. xi .. .(8.9)
where k,. - Jc/n •••(8.10)
The coefficient k,. is known as the a>effu::ienl of percoladon. Its value is always greater than the
coeff'iCient of penneability (1).
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS 141

Strictly speaking, the seepage velocity is not be absolut e velocity through the interstices. The interstices
are tortuous and irregular in cross-section and cannot be represented as shown in Fig. 8.4 (a). The abso lute
velocity varies from point to point. Its direction may also change and. at times. it ma y be directly opposite to
the general direction of flow. In fact, the problem is so comple x lhat an analy sis based on the abso lute
velocity is nor possibl e. Although on the microscopi c scal e, the flow path is tortuous , on a macroscopicscale,
it can be considered as a straightlioe. The seepa ge velocit y can be taken as the macrosco pic veloc ity at which
the line of wetting progresses in the direction of flow. Ob viously. it is not equal to the absolute velocity as
the water flows not in a straight line but it detours around solid particles. Fortun ately, the abso lute velocity is
not of much practi cal use in soil engineering. The geotechnical engineer is interested in the macroscopic
behaviour of the soil and not in its microscopi c behaviour.
The total discharge can be comp uted using either the disch arge veloc ity (v) or the seepage velocity (VI)'
The discharge velocit y is more convenien t and is com monly used in soil eng ineering. In this text, when the
term veloc ity is used without any qu alification . it means discha rge velocity .
8.9. GENERAL EXP RESSION FOR lAMINAR FWW
For understanding the flow of water through soils . let us first coosidcr the lamina r flow through pipes.
Fig. 8.5 shows a horizont al pipe of circular cross-sect ion of radius R. Let us take a small cyli ndrical flu id
element of radius r and length I, as shown in figure . The shear srress "t on the surface of the fluid element is
given by Newt on 's law of viscosi ty as

Fig. 8.5. Laminar now in a pipe.

, • -~ (;i; ) ...(a)

where I.l. =coefficient of v iscos ity and ~ =velocity gradient.

For steady flow. the net force acting on the element in the horiz ontal direct ion is zero . Therefore .
2
(Pt -P21w - (2<trf)"t' . 0
Substituting the value ore from Bq. (a), and simplifying,
<Iv -dp, -J>i)
d; -~
The pressu re Pl and P2 can be expressed in terms of piezometri c heads hJ and hz. as
pi » l ...h t and 1'2. l ... h 2
<Iv - r y.(h, -h,)
Thus d; - --2-~-1-

Representing (hi - hi)11 by the hydraulic gradient (,).

dv -ry...i
d; - --z;;-
Integrating, v • -2l~i ( t) + C

The constan t o f integration C can be obtained from the condition of no slip (Le., v = 0) at the bo unda ry
142 SOILMECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(r e , r = R). Thus
C .. "twiRl
4.
Therefore v .. -'(...i ? + y...i!i2
4 J.l 4J.l

v_ h!(R' _r') ... (8.11)

4.
Bq. 8.11 indicates that Lhevelocity distributK>n in a pipe is of the shape of paraboloid of revolution, with
the maximum velocity at its centre. The equation is known as I/agen-Poiueuille equation for laminar flow
through pipes. The equation can be used to detcnnine the discharge: q in the pipe as unde r.
Discharge through a small circula r ring of radius r and thickness dr is given by
yoi .., .A
dq - (2xrdr) v - 2wdr 4; (Jr-r I
Inregraneg, (Yoi).."
q .. JI' 2w 4; (Jr-r)dr .. XYoill'
--s;-
o
Writing the radius R in terms of the hydraulic radius RH (i.e RH .. D/4 .. RI2) and the area A
for x R 2,

q .. ! ~ R1, )C A ...(8.12)
2 •
Likewise, it can be shown that the discharge through two parallel plates of width B and placed at distance
d apart is given by (see any text on Fluid Mechanics).

q_ lh!(2Bd,)
3 •
Substituting A = 2 Bd and RH .. ; n: . d.

q .. .!. Y...j Ri, )C A ••.(8.13)

3 •
Comparing Eqs. 8.12 and 8.13, it is observed that the general form of the equation for laminar flow
through passages of different shapes is the same . Tbe difference is only in the numerical value of the
constants. The general equation for discharge in a conduit of any shape can be wriUenas

q - c, (¥) If" A ... (8.14)

where C. is a constant which depends an the shape of the cond uit.

Eq. 8.14 is sometimes called the generalized Hagen- Poisseuille equaion. This equation can be used in
a modified form for the flow through soils as explained in the next section.
8.10. lAMINAR FLOW TIIROUGD POROUS MEDIA
Since the Dow through porous media is laminar.Eq. 8.14 can be used. However. the area of Dow pessage
in the case of porous media is equal to the porosity times the total cross-sectional area and. therefore, Bq.
8.14 becomes

q - c, (¥) If" (M) .. .(0)

whee n is the porosity of soil, represented as ratio.

The hydraulic radius RH for a JXlfUUS medium can be wriuea as
PERMEABIUTY OF SOILS 143

R _ areaofnow _~
H wel ted perimeter Pv
Mulli plying the numerator aOO lhe denominator by the length of the passage (L).
R Av x L volume of now ehanne l
#I - Pv x L - surface area of now channel
100 volum e of flow channel may be take n as the volu me of voids (V..). which is equa l to e Vs , where e
is the void rat io and Vs is the volume of solids, The surface area of lhe flow cha nnel may be worked out on
the bas is of a hypo thetical sphe rical grai n o f diamet er D and having the same volume/area ratio as the entire
mass. Thus
Vv ~ Vs «irre en
RII - A; - A:'" - e --;[j2 - (;
Substi tuting lhe above value of R II in Eq. (a) and taking n _ ell + e;

q • C (~)
I.l «D)'
s 6 (-<)
1 + e A

a S.
36
» (J".) (--L)
I.l 1 e+
ri'iA
Replaci ng C/36 by anot her coe fficient C,

q - C(~) (I ~ e)ri'iA
:f.C( ~) ( I~<)ri'i
Using Eqs.. (8.2 ) and (8.3), the above equation can be written as

v.C(~)(1 ~e)ri'i-ki
where k-C(~)( I:<)ri' •••(8.15)

Eq. 8 .15 g ives a general expression for the coefficie nt of permeability of soil .
8.11. FAcroRS AFf"ECIlNG PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
The follow ing factors affect the permeabilit y o f soils .
(1) Pa rticle siz e. As it is evident from Eq. 8.15, the coefficient of permeability of a so il is proportional
to the square o f the particle size (D). 111e permeability of coarse -grained soils is very large as compared to
lhat of fine- gra ined soils. The permeabi lity o f coarse san d may be more tha n one million times es much thai
ofeJay.
(2) Structure or soli mass. The coefficient C in Eq. 8 .15 takes into account the shape of the flow
p:N>3ge. The size of the flow passage dependsupon the structural arrangement r-or the same void ratio, the
pemle<:bility is more in the case of flocculated struct ure as compared to that in the dispersed structure.
Sr.rntifted soil deposits have grea ter penneability parallel to the plane of srratiflC3tion lhan that
perpendicular to this plane. Permeability of a soil deposit also depends upoo ~nkage cracks, joints, flssures
and shear zones . I...ocss deposits have greate r penneability in the vertical direction than in the horizontal
direction .
The permeability of a natu ral soil deposit should be determined in und isturbed rond ition. 'Thedisturbance
caused during sampling may destroy the original structure and affect the permeability. lbe effect of
disturbance is more pronounced in the case of Ilne- grained soils than in the case of coa rse-grained soils .
144 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(3) Shape of Particles. The pcnnea bility of

a so il depe nds upon the shape of particles.
Angular particles have greate r speci fic surface
t
area as compared with the rounded particles. For
tbe same void ratio, the soils w ith angular (~2• ...!?~ )
particles are less permceble than those w ith HI!' HI!'
1
1+0
vS k

rounded particles, as the perme3bilily is

inversely proportional to the specific surface.
However. in a nalural deposit, the void ratio for
a soil with angular particlesmay be greater than
tha t for rounded particles, and the soil with
angular particles may be aaually more
permesete, PERMEABILI TY (k) ~
(4) Void Ratio. Eq. 8.15 indicates that the
coefficient of permeability varies as ; /(1 + e). Fig. 8.6. veteuco r£ k with;, 1t':t' and 1~t'
For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the
higher is the value of the coefficient of perm eability.
Based on other concepts, it has been established that tbe permeability of a soil varies as t? ex
e 2/(1 + e) (fig. 8.6). Whatever may be the exact relationship. all soils have e versus k>g. plot as a straight
line (Fig. 8.7) .
It must be noted that each plot in Fig . 8.7 is for a given soil The permeabilily of a soil at a given void
ratio may not have any rela tionship w ith that of anot her soil at the same void ratio. Paradoxically, the soil'>
with the largest void ratio {Le. clays} 1.0 , - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - ,
are the least pervious. This is due to
the fact that the individua l void O.g
passages in clays are extreme ly small
::~: which wate r cannot flow 0.8

If the permeability of a soil at a

void ratio of 0.85 is known, its value
at another void ratio of e can be
determi ned using the following
t 0·7

0·6
equation give n by Casagrand e :
k - 1.4 10.85 e' ...(8.16) 0.5
where ~.85 = permeability at a void S
ratio of 0.85, k = permeability at a ~ 0'4
void ratio of e. §
(5) Propert ies of water. As ::> 0·3
ind icated in Eq. 8.15, the coefficient
of permeability is directly proportio nal
to the unit weight of water (Y...) and is 0·2
inversely proportional to its viscosi ty
(~) . The unit weight of water does oot Q.l
vary much over the range of
tempera ture ordinarily encou ntered in O.()IL,-- - " - -- - - ' , , . . . - - - - - - - '
soU engineering problems. However, 104 ,-
there is a large variation in the value COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABllIt ·Y (k) mm / ~ c---.
of the coefficient of viscosity (1 ). The Fig. 8.7 . V,rilltloo c:J101 A: with to.
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS 14>

coefficient o f penneability increases wilh an increase in temperature d ue to redccrio I in the viscosity.

It is usual practice OS : 2711) Part XVII) 10 report the coefficient of perme3bilit J at 27°C The following
equation can be used for conversion of the penneability to 27°C.

tv • t, ~ ...(8.17)
where kz7 = ooefficient of permeability at 27°C when viscosity is I!n .
and k, '" coefficient o f permeability of t °C when viscosi ty is I!,.
Eq. 8.17 can be written as
t v • C, k, ...(8.18)
where C, is the correction factor. equal 10 (Jl,/ l!n) .
The correction factor C, can be determ ined fro m the values o f the coe fficien l of viscosity given in
Table 3.2.
(6) Degree of Saturation. If the soil is not fully satura ted, it conta ins air pockets formed due to
entrapped air or due to air libera ted from percolatin g water. Whatev er ma y be the cause of Ule prC)Cnce of
air in soils, the perm eab ility is reduced due to presence of air which causes b locka ge of passage.
Consequently, the perm eability of a pa rtially satura ted soil is considerably smalle r tha n tha t of a fully
saturated so il. In fact, Darcy's law is nol strictly applicab le to such soils.
The penneability of a partially saturated soil is measured in the laboratory by the capilJari ty-
pc:qneability test (Sect . 8.16).
(7) Adsorbed water. 1be fine-grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly attached to their
surfac:e. Th is adsorbedwater layer is not free to move unde r gravity . It causes an obstroction to flow of water
in the poresaod hence reduces the penneability of soils.
It is d im w it to estimate the voids occupied by the adsorbed wate r. According to one estimate. the void
I'3l.io occupied by adslxbed water is about 0 .10. The effeaive void ratio avaiIa>k for now of water is thus
about (e - 0 .1) and not e. In som e cases, at very low hydraulic gradients. the coefficient of permeabilit y or
fine-grained soils beoomcs negligibly small due to presence of adsabed water .
(8) Impurities in wa ter. Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the flow passageand reduce
the effectivevoids and hence the permeebility of soils.
8.1l . COE FFI C IENT O F ABS OLUTE PE RMEABILITY
As discussed above. the coefficie nt of permeabili ty of a so il depends no t only on the propenics of soil
but also on the properties of penneant (wa ter). Attempts have been made to se parate the effect of properties
of permeant from the e ffect of the properties of soil. Anot her coemctem, known as the coefficie nt of abso lute
permeability (K), has been introduced . It is related to the coefficient of penneability (k) as under:
K - t(~/y.) .. .(8.19)

Using Bq, 8.15, K . C (...£.-) Ii'

1+ e
Therefore, the coefficient of abso lute permeability (K) is independent o f the prope rties of water. It
depends only o n the characteristics of soils.
The dimens ions of the coetficiern of abso lute permeabilit y can be determined from Eq. 8. 19 as

[Al - [~ l [¥.] [ ~ l · [L' ]

It has: the dimension of area .
The units of K are mm2, an 2• m 2 a darcy.
1 darcy z 0 .987 l( 10-' an 2
146 SOILMECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The coefficient of absolu te permeability for a so il wilh a given void ratio and structure is oonstant. It has
the same value whatever may be the fluid.

8. 13. P UMPING· O UT TESTS

The Laboratory methods for the determinerioe of the coefficient of permeability, as discussed before, 00
not give correct results. The samples used are generally disturbed and do not represents the true in-situ
structure. For more accurate, representativ e values. the field tests are rondue:tcd . The field tests may be in tbe
form of pumping oct test wherein the water is pumped out from the wells drilled for this purpose. The Olhcf
type of the field tests are pomping-ln tests, wherein the water is pumped into the drilled holes, as discussed
in the. followi ng art icle.
For large engineering projects. it is the usual practice: to measure the permeabiluy of soils by
pumping-o ut tests. The method is extre mely usef ul for a ho mogeneous. coarse grained deposit s for which it
is diffiOJIt to obtain undisturbed sa mples . In a pump ing out test. the soil deposi t ove r a large area is
influe nced, and therefore the results represen t an overa ll coefficient of permeability of a large mass o f soil.
However, the tests are very cos tly and can be justified only for large projects.
Ground water occu rs in pervio us soil deposi ts known us aquife rs. The aquifers are reserv oirs of ground
wa ter thai can be eas ily drained or pumped out. An aqu iclude is a soil deposit which is impervious. If an
aquife r does not have an aq uiclude at its top and thc watc r table is in the acquife r itself , it is called an
uncon fined aquifer. If the acq uifcr is co nfined betwee n two aq uicludes, one at its top and the other at its
bo ttom, it is known as ronfined aqui fer. The coefficient of permeabilit y of the soi l can be fou nd usin g the
equations developed below separately for unconfmed aquifer and confi ned aquifer.
(a) Un confined Aq uif er In an unconfined aquifer , a tube well is drilled as shown in Fig. 8.8. 1be well
readies lhe under lying impervious stratu m. 1be h.be csec for the well is perforered so that water can enter
the welL The tube is sunounded by a screen called strainer to check the flow of soil particles into the well.
Water is pumped out of the tube well till a steady state is reached. At that stage, the discharge becomes

Fig. 8.8. Unconfined Aquifer

constant and the water level in the well does nor change. 'Thewater table , which was orig inally horizontal
before the pumping was started, is depressed near the well . The water table near the well forms an inverted
cone , know n as the cone of depression. The maximum depression of the water table is known as the draw-
down (d) .
1be express ion for the coefficient of penneability can be derived making the following assumptions,
known es Dup uit's assumption.
 PERMEABIUfY OF SOILS 147

(1) The flow is lamin ar and Darcy' s law is valid .

(2) The soil mass is isotro pic and homogeneous.
(3) The well pene trates the ent ire thickness o f aqu ifer.
(4) The flow is steady.
(5) The coe ffIcient of penn eabili ty remains constant throughou t.
(6) The flow towards Ihe well is radial and horizonta L
(1) Na tural grwnd water reg ime remains constant.
(8) The slope of the hydrau lic gradient line is small. and can be taken as the tangen t of the angle in
place of the sine of angle. i.e.
y
it t ; ~ ••. (8.20)

"
1.
Let us cons ider the now through a cylindrical surface of height z at
of the well . From Darcy's law,
a radia l distance o f r from the cent re

d
q - k i A.
n Substitu ting the value of i from Eq. (8.20) and taking A equal to 2.v z,

(~)
c

..
Is

or
q . k

~ . 2nkzdz
(2x n)

n r q

"B. Integrating, ! <E:. 2ok !

1 r q I
ufz

Iog.(, ,;,,) • ~ (1,- 1,)

q 2

k =~ leg, (r2irl ) .. .(8.21)

Jt( Z2 - :j)

or ~
k • • (1, _ z1J log" ('';,,) ... (8.22)

Near the lest well, there is a rapid drop 'in head and the slope of the hydraulic gradient is steep. and
assumption (8) is not satisfied. The observation wells 1 and 2 should be drilled at considerable distance from
thewell for accurat e measurements: The radial distance '1
of the well should be at least equal to the thickness
of aquifer (D). The observation wells are usually arranged in two orthogonal lines, one along the general
direction of flow of the ground water and the other at right angle 10 this direction.
An approximate valu e of the coefficient of penneabilily can be detennined if the radius of influence (R)
is known or is estimated. The circle of influence, over whidJ the effect of pumping is observed, extends to a
very large area. In fact, it gradually merges asymptotically 10 the water table . The radius of influence varies
between 150 to 300 m. According to Sichardt , il can be found using the relation
R • 3<XXJdoff
=
where R radius of influence (m), =
d drawdown (m)
tal and k '" coeffici ent of penneability (mlsee)
ed Accord ing to Kozen y (1933), the radius of influence.
I R • ((12 lIn) (qkln )I.I2]lI'2
where I is lhe time required to esta blish steady condi tions, and n is lhe porosity .
Eq. 8.21 can be writte n as
'48 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

. ..(8.23)

where rad ius of test well,

T w :: R :: radius of influence.
D :: deplh of aquifer measured below the water table. h:: depth of water in the well
Eq. 8.23 gives an approximate

r
value of the rocfficicnt of penn eab ility, P.S . = PIEZOMETRIC
beca use the slope of the water surface SURFACE
near the well is steep and Dupuit's G.S .
assumption is not justified . Further, the
value 'of the radius of influence (R) is
also approx imate:.
(b) Conn ned Aquifer. Fig. 8.9 CONE
--o;J-"
shows a confined aquifer of thickness b DEPRESSION
and lying between the two aquicludes .
The: piezometric surface is above the
top of the: aquifer . In confined aquifer,
tbe water pressure is indicated by the
piezometric surface (ps).
11
0

b
T.L«.LL<====<..j
CONFIN ED
AQUIFER

Thus the piezo metric surface is the ;r,==='7777''7f.~~:M~';'',.hJr",77777

water table equivalent for a confined
aquife r.
Initially, the piezometric surface is
Fig. 8.9. Confined Aq uifer.
horizontal. Whcn the pumping is
started from the well, it is depressed and a cone-of depression is fonned . The expression for the rocffi cient
of penneab ility can be derived making the same assumptions as in the: case of uncoofined aqui fer. Let us
consider the disdlarge through a cyli ndrical swface at a radial distance r from lhe centre- and of height z.
From Darcy's law,
q. iiA

q - k (~) (hTb) . ..(aJ

Integrating , [log. (TIl . h qk b [z II

k • q log.. (rzlrl)
...(8.24)
2nb(z2- zl)
k • 2.30 q 10810 (r-zlTt)
or ••.(8.25)
2nb (z2- zl)
where heig ht of water level in observa tion well ( I) at a radial distance of r1 and
2 1 ::
Z2 :: heig ht of water level in coserveuon well (2) at a radial distance of T"l-
As in the case of an unconfined aquifer, an approxima te value of A:- can be detennined if the radius of
influence R is known or esti mated. In this esse .
k • q log. (Rlr.)
...(8.26)
2nb(D-h)
8.14. PUMPIN G-IN TESTS
Pumping-in tests are conducted 10 detenn ine the coefficient of permeability of an individual stratum
through which a hole is drilled . These tests are more econom ical than the pumping-ou t test. However, the
PERMEABILITY OF SOILs 149

pwnping-out tests give more reliable values than that given by pumping-in tests . The pumping-in tests give
the: value of the coefficient of permeability of stratum just close to the hole, whereas the pumping-out tests
give the value for a large-area around the hole.
There are basically two types of pumping-in tests : (1) Open -end tests. (2) Packer tests. In an open-end
tests, the water flows out of the lest hole through its bottom end, whereas in peeker tests, the water flows out
through the sides of the section of a hole enc losed between packers . The value of the coefficien t of
penneability is obtai ned from the quan tity of water accepted by the hole. The water pumped- in shou ld be
clean, as the impurities, such as silt, clay or any other foreign matter, may cause plugging of the flow
pa'iS3ges. If the water ava ilable is turbid, it should be c larified in a se ttling tank or by using a filter. The
temperature of the water pumped in should be slightly higher than the temperature of the grou nd water to
preclude the formation of air bubbles in stra tum.
(1) Open-end 'Jests. A pipe cas ing is inserted into the bore hole to the desired dept h and it is cleaned .
out. The hole is kept filled with water during cleaning if it extends below the water table . This is necessary
10 avoid squeezin g of the soil into the bottom of the pipe casing when the driving tool is withdrawn .

TH

10,

~, rJ-'-l
,0,-

~,
t--"-I
iA-i
1
vW.T.

la) (0) loJ

Fig. 8.10. Open-end Wits.

After the hole has been cleaned out, water is added to the hole through a metring system . The constant
rate of flow (q) is determined at which the steady cond itions are esta blished. The coefficient of permeability
is determined by the following equat ion (USBR, 1961).

k • s1rH ...(8.2?)
where r = inside radius of the casi ng.
H = difference of levels between the inlet to the casing arxl.the water table (Fig. 8.10 (a)],
q • discharge
If required.the:discharge can be increasedby pcmping-mwerer mder 8 pressurep {Fig. 8.10 (b)]. In this
case, the value of H becomes equa l to (H + ply...).
For accurate results, the lower end of the pipe should be at 8 dista nce of not less than 10 r from the top
as well as from the bottom of the stratum.
The open-end test can also be conducted above the water table [Fig. 8.10 (e)]. In this case, how ever, u
150 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

is d ifficult 10 mainta in a constant water level in the casi ng and some surgi ng of this level has to be tolerated.
Eq. 8.27 can also be used in this case. Howeve r, in Ibis case H is equal 10 the difference of inlet leve l and
the bottom end of the pipe . If required, the rate of flow (q) can be increased by pumping-in water under 8
pressure p, with a total head of (H + pll..,) '
(2) Packer Tests . The packer tests are performed in an encased portion of the pipe casing. The packer
tests are more co mmonly used for testing of rocks . The tests are occasio nally used for tes ting of soils if the
bore hole can stay open without any casing.
(a) Single packer tes ts. If the hole cannot stand without a casing, stogle-pecker lest is used . The pack er
is p~ es showrJ in Ftg. 8.11 (a). Water is pumped into the hole. It comes out of the sides of uncased
portion of the hole below the packer. If the cas ing is used for the full depth, it sho uld have perforat ions in
the portion of the stratum being tested. The lower end of the casing is plugged.

(.)
(b )
fig . 8.11. Packer tests .
Whe n the stead y co nditions are attained, the constan t rate of now (q) is determined. The va lue of the
coefficient of permeability is found by Ihe following equation (USBR. 1961) .

if L Ot. lOr ••.(8.28)

k: • ~ sinh- 1 (LI2r ) if lOr > L :It r ...(8.29)

where r = inside radius of hole. L =length of the bole tested,
H = difference of water levels at the entry and the ground wate r table for Ihe hole tes ted below
the wa ter table.
sinh- 1 = arc hyperbo lic sine .
For the holes tested above the water table, H is equal to the diffettnee of levels of water at !he entry and
the middle of the test section (Fig. 8.11 (b)].
If the water is applied under pressure (P), the value of II becomes (II + p l "tw). as in the case: of
open-end tests.
Afte r the lest is co mplete , Ihe packer is removed . If required. the hole is made deeper and again a packer
is placed and the lest repea ted for that portion.
PERMFABII..l'rXOF SOILS

stant~i~:~~~-:~:d:~le~~~erh~:t ~~ T
~::C::i:~~:riS~:: r::~:edde::
TWo packers are fined to a small diameter
t
pipe, as show n in Fig. 8.12. The bottom of the
pipe nuec with packers is plugged. Fig. 8.12
(a) shows the co nditions when the test section
is below the ground water tabk and Fig. 8.12
(b). when above me ground water table. The
valce of the coefficient of permeability is
derermined using Eq. 8.28 or Eq. 8.29.
depending upon the value of 1. and r as
specified. SZW.T.
(. )
The doub le -pi cker test is conducted first (0)
in the lowest portion ncar the bottom of the
Fig. 8.12. Ooublc -prdu Ic:sI.
hole and later repeated for the uppe r layers.
The packer tests give better results when cond ucted below the water tab le than when above the water table.
For reliable results. the thick ness of the strat um should be at least five times the lengt h (L) of the hole tested.
8.15. COEFFIC IENT OF PERMEABILITY BY INDIRECT METHODS
The value of the coefficient of pcnneabilily of a soil can be estimated by using indired methods, without
cmdooing laboratory tests or field tests. The following methods are com monly used .
(1) ADen Hazen's formula. Allen Hazen conducted a large numbe r of tests on mt er sands of particle size
between 0.1 mm and 3.0 mm, havi ng a coefficient of uniformity of less than S. and gave the following
relation :
«- c vi, ...
(8.30)
where k = coefficient of permeability (cmlscc). 0 10 :::: effective size (em).
C = consrem, with a value between 100 and ISO
If k and D lo a re ta ke n in m m/s ec and mm, respec tive ly, the valu e of the const ant C lies be twee n
10 and IS.
Although Allen Hazen formula was derived for uniform sands in a loose stale of compaction, it is
frequently used used for other soils. However, the computed values may be in e rror by 1: 100'%.
(2) Kozen y-Carmlln equauon, The coefficient of the pameab ility of a soil can be estimated using the
Kozeny-Cannan equatio n:

« _ ~ . ....i:...- ... (831)

(C,J.lS) 1:}. 1+ e
wbere k = coe fficient of pcnneability (anJsec). pw:::: mass density of water (gm/ml),
C, = shape factor, which can be taken as 2.5 for granular sons,
=
J.l coefficie nt of viscosity (poise). =
e void ratio. =
g 981 an W ,
T = tortuosi ty, with a value of V2 for granular soils and
S = surface area per unit volume of soil solids , known as specific surface (an2/an~.
The Kozeny-Carman equation gives good results for coarse-grained soils such as sands and some silts.
However, when the equation is used for clayey soils, serious discrepancies are observed. The eccerecy for
coarse-grained soils is abou t 20%.
For computation of k from Eq. 8.31, the: val ue of specific surface S is required. The specifi c surface (5)
of a particle is equal to. the surface area of the particle per unit volume of the particle . It depends upon the
shape and size of the particle. For a spherica l pan icle of diamete r D , spec ific surface (5) is given by
152 son, MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

S _ (.10') _ ~
•. .(8 .32)
(.0'16) D
The specific surface of spheres unifoonly distributed in size between lhc mesh size a and b, is given by
S • 6hiali .. .(8.33)
For accura te results, the ratio alb should not be greate r than 2.
If the particles are of irregular shape. the specific s urface can be determined indirectly from 8
comparison with the specifi c s urface of uniform sphere of the same size. and using a factor known as
angularity (actor (j).

f .. :=~s:~:::s~c:u;::~~~~~~
The val ue of f depends upo n the angularity of the particles. Its value is usuall y take n as 1.1 for rounded
sands. 1.25 for sands of medium angulari ty and 1.4 for angular sands.
If MI. M 2 •• • Mil are the percentage of the total soil sample retained on differe nt sieves. the overall
specific surface of the total sample is given by
S -JIM,S, + M, S, + ...••• M. S.) ••.(8.34)
where S"S2 Sit are the specinc surface: of speeres unifonn ly distributd within the:corresponding
sieves.
(3) Loudon', Form ula. Loudon gave the following e mpirica l formu la.
108" (k s')- a + b. ...(8.35)
2
where k :=coeffICient of permeability (an/sec) , S '" specific surface (an /cm\
11 = porosity, expressed as a ratio, a = constant, with an average value of 1.36.5 at lO°e.
b =: constaor, with an average value of 5.15 at lO°e.
The Loudo n formula is muc h more coovenient 10 use than the Kceeny-Carman equation and gives
approximately the same accurac.. 'Y.
(4) Consolida tion tesl da ta . Tbe coefficient of permeabilit y of fine-grained soils can be de tennined
:nd i.rectly from the data ootained from 8 ronso lidation test conducted on the sample (see chapter 12). It is
given by
k . c,s; m". C~p",gm~ •..(8.36)
2/sec),
= =
where k: coeffi cie nt o f permeability (mlsec) . C~ roefficient of oonso lidation (m
pw= dens ity of water (kglm'), g = 9.81 mts«?
m. = coefficient of volume rompn::ssibility (an 2/N), 1w = unit weight of water (N/m\
This method is suitable for very fine-grained soils (k < 1~ mmzsec) for which permeab ility test cannot
be easil y conducted in the laborat ory.
8.16. CAPILLAR1TY-PERMEABILny TEST
The coefficient of permeability of soil in unsaturated condition can be detennined from the
captllarny-permeeottny test. The apparatus consists of a transpare nt hOe made o f lucite or glass, about 35 em
long and 4 an diameter (Fig. 8.13). The sample o f the dry soil in powdered fonn is placed in the tube and
screen s are fixed at both ends. One end of the transpa rent tube is oonnected 10high leve l wat er rese rvoirs and
the ocher end is ope n 10ermospberethrough an air-vent pipe. The air-ven t pipe is connected to the screenat
tha t end with a spring.
Th e valve D connecting to the higher reservo ir is initially closed. When the valve C ronnecting to me
lower reservo ir is ope ned, capillary ectlon in so il occurs and it draws water into it. The wet ted surface starts
adv ancing towards the open end . Let us cons ider the sta ge when the welted surface has advanced by a
distance of x. Let the negati ve capiUary head be hro as show n by an imaginary manometer in figure. (The
ma nomet er is imaginary and in aaual tests, no manometer is used. It has been shown in the figure j~ to
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS 113

indicate the negative head) . The

total head causing flow is increased
because of the neg ative head (he)
and is given by
h • h i + he
Assum ing a uni fcnn hydrauli c
gradient over the entire length % • the
velocity is given by Darcy 's law,

v . k i • k (hi ; he) .•.(a)

The wet ted surface mov es (on a

macroscopic scal e) with a seepage
veloci ty (v,), g iven by Eq. 8.8 as fiS . S.13. Capillarity-Penneability leSt.

v/n
V, •
Therefore. the seepa ge velocit y is given by
V • ! . (hi + he)
' . %
For partially sat urated soils, the above equation is modified taking adua1 saturated porosity as Sxn . Thus
v.!...(hl+h.)
I Sn .x
where .t. coeffident of permeability in unsaturated ooodition
:II"

S = degreeof saturation, expressed as a ratio.

Substituting v, • dx/ dt, we have
dx k.. (hi + h t )
di·5;;--%-
%dx. k.(h~: ht } dt

Integrating, ! x dx » k.(h l + h,) f' d1

1 Sn 1

or
xl-xl
-2- •
k.(h, +11.) (
--S-.- '2 - tl
)

xl - xl H. (hI + h.)
or (t2- t l) - --S-.-- ...(8.37)
Eq. 8.37 can be used to determine the coefficient of permeabili ty (.t..) if aU other variables are given. As
the capillary head (he) is also not known, there are two unkoowns (.1:.. and htl on the right-hand side of the
equation. Therefore, one more equation is required.
The second equation can be derived if the head is changed from hi to ~ when the water surfaoe hmi
advanced 10 about half the length o f the transparent tube by closing the val ve C and opening the valve
D. Let .%2and .%.l by lhe distances measured from the left end at the time tiZ and tl. Eq. 8 .37 becomes, for
this case , as
.tl-xl 2k. (h,+ h.)
(t) -tv • --S-.-- . .. (8.38)

The values of the unknown k" and he can be ootained analytically from Eqs. 8.37 aDd 8.38. A plot Is
154 s:>IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

made between:2 and s;as shown in Fig. 8. 14. x2

The slopes m l and mz of the lines give the
;~~~~~ft.hand sides of Eqs. 8.37 and ~

mi . 2 A:"(~ln+ h~) ... (8.39) x? ---------

m, • 2k . (~': h,) ... (8.40)

The values of k.. and h~ are detenn ined -.,2

from Eqs. 8.39 and 8.40 a fter substituting the
values of ml and mz obtained from the plot.
lbe porosity n of the soil sam ple is 11 12
determined from its dry density , es discussed
in chapter 2. Fig. 8.14. Plee of t and~.
Itt, Gpw
p. - V - I;"";
e.GPw _ I
Pd

and n . ~
Th e degre e of saturation (S) ' is ob tained from the water content of the soli detennined afte r the test, using
the equat ions developed in chapter 2.
S • k-G/e
For accu rate results, the capillary head (h~) should be main tained constant alon g lhe vertical wet ting
surface. It is done by slowly revo lving the tube about its axis.
8.17. PERMFABILITY OF 1IT1lATlnED SOIL DEPOSITS
A stra.1ificdsoil deposit consists of a number of soi l layers hav ing different permeectljues. The average
permeability of the deposit as a whole parallel to the planes of stratificalioo and tha t oormal of the planes of
strauflcenon can be de tennined as explained
belo w.
I
(a) Flow Pa rall el to Planes of
StratlfialotlOiL Let us consider a deposit
consisting of two horizontal layers of soil of 1
thickn ess HI and Hz as shown in Fig. 8. 15.
For flow paralle l to the planes of
If - "J LAVER 0)
--q

is the same for both the layers. Therefore, the

hydraulic gradient (,) for each laye r is equal to
the hydra ulic gradient of the entire deposit. The
11
stratification, the loss of head (h) ove r a lengt h L
Hz
1.-..--
-"2 LAVER(2)
-"

system is analogous to the two resistances in

parallel in an electrical circult , wherei n the I·
potential drop is the same in both the resistances. F'I . 8.15
From the con tinuity equa tion, the tota l discha rge (q) pet unit width is eq ual to the sum of the discharges
in the individual layers. i.e.,
. ..(a)
PERMRABIUTY OF SOILS tss

n
Let (k..h and (k.. be the permeab ility of the layers 1 and 2 respecnvety, parallel to the plane of
stratification and (1..) be the overa ll permeability in !hat direction. From Eq. (a). using Darcy's law.
~ I( i I( (H t + H2J - (1..)1 I( i x HI + (.tAh I( i I( 112
k (1")1 I( H. + (k m I( 112
.. - H. + 112
If there are n layers instead of two .
k, _ (k,,>r I( H. + (k"h I( 112 + ... + (k..)" I( II"
Jl I + 112 + ••• + JI" ... (8.41)
(b) Flow normal to the plane or stren llcauon. Let us consider a soil deposit consisting of two layers
of thickness HI and 112 in which the now occurs norma l to the plane of stratification (Fig . 8 .16).

~q I In, T
T h

LOyt'r m tq 1'" 1
Lo y. r ( 2)
Iq

Ag. 8.)6 . flO'N nonna l 10 plane of slr3tification.

Let (~)I and (i..h be the ooefficientof permeability of the layers 1 and 2 in the direction pecpendiatlar
to the plane of stratification. and k.. be the averag e coefflciera of permeability of the ent ire deposit in thai
direction. In this case, the discharge per unit width is the same for each layer and is equal to the discharge
in the entire depos it. 1be case is analogous to the resistances in series in an e1eclrical circui t, where in the
current is the sam e for all resistances.
Therefore. q - q l - q2 .. .(a)
Using Darcy's law, coosioenng unit area perpendicular to Dow,
hw I( ill I( I - (.t,.)1 I( (i,,)1 I( 1 - (k"n I( (iwn I( 1 .. .(b)
= =
where iw overall hydraulic gradient, (;w)1 hydraulic gradient in layer I,
(iwn = hydraulic grad ient in lay~,i
From Bq. (b), (i,,), • ((k,,)/(k,,), I x i" (e)
and (i"h - ((k. )/(k,,)' I x i" (d)
As the lOlai loss of head (h) O'I Cf the entire deposit is equal 10 the sum of the loss of heads in the
individual layers,
h - hi + h 2
Writing in terms of hydrauli c grandient (I) and the distance of flow, remembering II _ i I( L,
i" I( II - (iw)' X III + (i..h I( 112
Using Eqs. (c) and (d),
• H (k.) • II (k,,) . H
'wI( -(kwh l(lwl( 1+(kJ;X I"X 2
". SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

k. [(~;1 + (~~]- H - H, + H,

k..-~
HI Hz
(k.), + (k.h
10 general, when there are n such layers,
1;. • HI + H 2 + ••- + H II •• • (8.42)
HI . Hz H.
(k.h + (k.h + ••• + (k.).
Evan (1962) provedthat for isolropic (k. • k,) and homogeneouslayers, the average permeabilityof the
entire deposit parallel to the plane of stratification is always greater than lhat noonal to this plane. For
illustration, let us consider a deposit consisting of two layers of thickness 1 m and 2 m, having the coefficient
of penneabJlily of 1 x ur2 em/sec and 1 x 10-4 an/sec. respectively.
2
From 0 c. 8.41. k I x 10- X 100 + 1 )( 10.... x 200
"""l 1< ., 100 + 200
• 0.34 x Icr ern/sec

From &j. 8.42, k.. I~OO + 200

200
~ + 'i'7i'ii"
• 1.49 l( 10"" an /sec
Thus kIt > Ie..
It may be noted that the average permeabilityparallel to the plane of stratificationdepends mainly on the
penneability of the most permeablelayer and its value is close to the permeabilityof that layer. On the other
hand, the average permeability ncemet 10 the plane of stratification is close to thai for the most impenncable
layer. In other words, the average flow parallel to the plane of stratiftcation is governed by the most
permeable layer and that perpendicular to the plane of stratifica tioo-by the least penneable layer.

ILLUlITRATIVE EXAMPLES

D1ustntlve Example 8.1. In a ccostant bead permeamerertest, the following observatkms were taken.
1)istanu between piezometer toppings IE 100 mm

Difference of water levels in piezometers "" 60 mm

Diamete r of the tesr sample ". 100 mm
Quantity of water collected = 350 ml
Duradon. of the test = 170 seconds
Determin e the coelflCicu of permellbility of the soiL

Solution. From &j. 8.5. k =~

In lhis case. q • 3501270 • 1.296 mVsec
Therefore, A: • 1.296 x 10.0 • 0.0275 au/sec.
(0/4) x (10)' x 6.0
D1ustratlve Example 8.2. The failing-head permeability test was conducted on a soil sample of 4 em
~:;;,a;~1S::/:~h.:~:::":d!:l!::ffic:::at:J~~40~/:ly.20 minutes. 1/the cross- sectional amJ of
PERMEABlurY OF SOILS 151

Solution. From Eq. B.6. k • 0/;- tog, (hi/ hi)

• 1.0 x 18.0 log, (1.0/0.40)
(71:/4) x (4.0)2 x 20 x 60
• 1.09 x 10-3 em/sec.
Illustrative Example 8.3. A soil has ,ht" coefficien t of pt'nllt'abilit)' of 4.75 x i fTl mm/ sec ar Jrrc.
Determine its value at 2r c. Take the coefficie nt of viscosity at 3(J'>C and 2'?C as 8.0 milli poise and 8,5
milJi paise, rt'spuri," !.':

Solution. From Eq. 8.17, kxt· 1, !;;

• 4.75 x 10-2 )( B.0/ 8.5 _ 4.48 )( 102 mm/sec.
Ittustratbe Example 8.4. Estinuu e the value of the coeffICient of permeability of a soil with an effective
diameter of 0.2 mm. .
Solution. From Eq. 8.30. k • cDto
Taking C • 125. k • 125 x (0.02)2 • 0.05 em/sec.
illustrative Example 8.5. The coeffici ent of perme ability of a soil at a void raw of 0.7 is 4 x ur'
em/sec. Estimat e its value. at a void ratio of 0.50.

Solution. From Eq. B.15,

As all the parameters remain constant, except e.

ko., (0.70)' (1 + 0.50)
I;:; • (1 + 0.70) x (050)'
or 4 x 10-' • 2.421
ko.'
to.5 - 1.65 x 10..... em/sec .

A1tel"RBtlve Method
From Eq. 8.16, .t • 1.4 ko.as e2
4 • 10-' • 1.4 to... • (0.7)'
or ko... . 5.83 • 10-'
For e • 0.50, k • 1.40 )( 5.83 )( 10...04 (0.5)2
- 2.04 x 10.... em/sec
D1uslratlve Example 8.6. A sandy toyer 10 m thick overlies an impervious StTatum. The water table is
in the sandy layer at a depth of 1.5 m below the gTOUJld surface. Water is pwnped our from a MIdi at the rale
of 100 litres pe r second and the drawdown of the water table at radial distances of 3.0 m and 25.0 m is 3.0
and 0.50 m, respectively. Det ermine the coeffICient of permeability.

Solulloo. From Eq. 8.21. k • ~ log, (,,1, ,)

In this case, z2. d.50 - 0.50 • 8.0 m and ZI _ 8.50 - 3.0 _ 5.50 m
3
Therefore, k _ 100 x 10- log. (25/3)
• ( 8)' _ (5.50)')
• O.om m/sec • .2mm/sec.
 SQIL MECHAN.lCS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
'"
Illustrative Exam ple 8.7. Determine the coeffi cient of pe rmeabili ty of a confi ned aq uifer 5 m thick which
gi ves II stead y ,1i.H'!ICI1Xe of 20 lures/sec lh rrmgh a well of 0.3 m radius. Th e heig ht of wat er in the well which
WO.I" 10 '" ohOl'(' the ha st' before pumping dropped to 8 m. Take the radi us of influence as 300 m.

Sol ution . From Eq. R.26,

k = q log r (Rlr)
2.b(D -h)

k = ~.~ 2~ I;~( :~/O.~~ = 0.0022 mzsec.

Illust rati ve Exa mple 8.8. Dr-ten" ine the average coeffic ient of permeability in the horizontal and
vertical directions fo r II deposit consisting of three layers oj thiclr.nt'u 5 m. I m and 2.5 m and havi ng 1M
co(1ficit'1I1.~ of permeahility of 3 X J{J ) mm/ sec, 3 X ia' mm/sec . and 4 x 1fT} mm/sec. respecttvety: Assume
the layers an: i.mlmpic.
So lution . From Eq. K.4 1. laking n = 3.

kj, = (kll) , X H I + (kj,h

X H 2 + (kith x H)
H, + H2 + H I
3 X 10- 2 X 5 x 10-' + 3 x 10- 5 X I x loJ + 4 x 10- 2 x 2.5 x let
(5 + I + 2.5) x 10.1
0. 15 + O.OOCXB + 0.10
0.0294 m m/see.
K.50
HI + H ! + H.,
From Eq. R.42.
k,. = .!!.J... +!!3... +!!l..
(k,.), (k,-h (k,·h

k: - 5 + I + 2.5 10-' = 2.5 x 10.... mm /s

'· -( 5 X IO"~ IXIO"~ 2.5xlO~
;\ x 10- 2 + 3 x IO-~ + 4 X 10- 2

Iucstra tive Exam ple 8.9. Fig. E 8.9 ~

shows all aqllil'/'/' inciinrd C1l UP to the ---'-;-m
horiZOll1al. TIll' ditfl'l"(!IIce of water levels in ~
two obs ervation 11'l'!1.\· at a hori zolltal dis tanc e ....:"" ~ -', : . .
of 60 11/ is 5 III . Determine the disc ha rge ~ • •. . •• •. : ••• • ..
through the aquifer (I.1'r II/I i l width if k = 0.7 ••• . • .: : .:. : ":.,», ' . v- •
nun/sec. The tlefJf fl 01' tll/ Illfer no rmal to the . •• : ' : .: : : .:....~.:. ' : :
d irection offiow is 2.95/ III. 1 .. .
Solution. Leng th o f aquifer between two ' I. 60 m -,
observation we lls FiS. E--8.9

= flO/cos 10° = 60.926 m

Hydraulic gradie nt = hl L = ~9026 = 0.082

From Darcy's law. di sc ha~gc I;lCr uni t width .

q = ki A
1
= n.? x 10-. x 0.082 x (2.95 x I) = 0.169 X 10- 3 m3/sec
= 0.169 lit/sec.
PERMEABILITYOF SOILS ISO

J
lIIustmtlve Exa mple 8.10. Fig. £-8.10 shows an
experimental set- up. If 30% of the effective head is lost T
Q.4m
in the soil A. determine the total head and the
piezometric head at poinu 1 and 1. .L
Deter mine the coefficien t of per meability of the soil Q·3m SOIL B
B if thai of the sou A is 0.5 mmtsec.
Solution. a -3m
Piezometrichead at (1) = 0.3 + 0.3 + 0.4 = 1.0 m
Datum head at (1) = - 0.60 m
Thta l head at (I) = 1.0 - 0.6 = 0.4 m
Head lost in So il A = 0.3 x 0.4 = 0.12 m
=
ThLaI bead at (2) 0.40 - 0 .12 0.28 m = Fig. E..s.IO.
Datum head at (2) = -0.30 m
=
Piezometric head at (2) 0 .28 - (-0.30) 0.58 m =
Loss of head in soil B = 0.7 )l 0.4 = 0.28 m
Let kB be the coef ficient of permeebtllt y of soil B.
Since the discharge and area are the same in both the soils,
kB_;. ·kAx;A
kB x 0.28/0.30 • 0.5 x 0.12/0.30
kB • 0.214 m m/sec.
Ittust renve Example 8.11. Determine the
discharge per unit width of 1M slot in Fig. £-8
11 if the drawdo'Wn is 2.3 m. The coefficient of
permeability of the soil is 1 x 10-2 mmtsec.
1 _ _
------ ::==.::-
A lso determine the elevation of the water
sur/ace at a distance of 30 m from the centre o{
1M slot.
f 2·3m

So lution. Let us conside r flow at a distance

of x from the centre or the slot. Using Darcy's
law, discharge per unit width _ _.LJ. ---..JLL .LJ.-l _

q • k ( ;j;) x (z x 1)

q dx » hdz Fig. E..s.H.

Integrating, d dr.!I I
k zds

k (zl- zlJ ••.(0)

« » 2(xz - xI)
Substituting the valu es given,
• 1 x 10-' x 10-' (13.5' - 11.2') '/ . 0 001775 1It1
q 2 (160 _ 0) m sec. sec
The water surface z at x = 30 m can be determ ined using Eq. (a).
2 2
O. 1
775 )l ' 0 .5 • 1 - 10- )l 10-3 (l - 11.2 )
• 2 (30 - 0)
160 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUND/JlON ENOINEERING

.; - 125.44 - 2 x 30 x 0.1775 • 10.65

or z • 11.666 m.
Illcstranve Example 8.12. A capillarily---pt!rmeability test was conducted in two Stages under a head of
50 em and 200 em Ql 1M end of entry of water. In. the first stoge, the wetted surface advanced from itt initial
position. of 2 em 10 8 em in 6 minutes. In the second stage il advanced from 8 em 10 20 em ill 20 minutes. If
the degree of salUTatiQrl at the end of the test was found to be 90'% and ,lie porosity wm 30%, determine 1M
capiUariry head and the coelJicientof permeability.

So lution. From Bq. 8.37, ~ - xf 21:.. (hi + he)

r;-:t;" - ----s;-;;-
~ 2k.(50 + h,)
6x6O· 0.9)(0.30
k. (SO + h,) - 0.0225 .. •(1)
~ - xi 2 k,, (h 2 + he)
From E<j. 8.38,
t3-t2-~
(20)' _ (8)' 2 k.(2oo + h,)
20)(60 - 0.9)(0.3
k,.(200 + h,) - 0.0378 . •.(2)
From Eqs.(1) and (2),

~++~t_~:~_l.~
II, - 170.59 em
From E<j. (1~ k,. (SO + 17059) - 0.0225
k.. - 1.01 x l o-t em /sec.

PROBLEMS

A Numerkals
2
8.1. (a) A constln l·head permeability test was run on a sand sample 30 an in length and 20 cm in area. When a
loss of bead was 60 em, the quantity of water collectedin 2 minutes was 250 mi. Determinethe ooefficient
~ of permeability of the soil.
(b) If the specific gravity of grains was 2.6.'i, and dry mass of the sample, 1.1 kg, find the void ratio of the
sample. [Ans. 0.052 cmIsec; 0.445]

8.1. torr:~~~~:~":~~I~I:1 f=~S::=~ ~ ~~m~l~ ~f ':~ f:::~~_:i:i. ;a:he~

was 4 an in diameter and 30 an long. calculale the coefficiemof permeobililYof the sand. (Ans. 0.0275 anIsec]
8.3. During a pumping test. a well was sunk throughI stratum oC dense sand 10 m deep overlyingoln impervious
II
snarem. Observationholes were drilled 15 m and 6.75 m from the well. Initially,ibe water level in the well
was 2.50 m below me groundsurface. Afterpumpingunlit sreadycondilionshad been achieVed, the water levels
~:U~~fli::=1 ~;:::i~~ m and O.som.respeaivdy. If the Sleadyr~~~l~Ji=

I I
under constant head8t • rate eX 191 mllminute, me loss of head between rwo
nun. calculate tile oocflicicnl of permeabililY.
poinlS 250 span
SA. A penncameterd diameter82.5 mm containsa coI.wnn of fine sand 460 mm long. When waler flows mrough
mm is 3lK)

If falling head lest is made on the same sample using a stand pipe rI. diamelef30 rom, in ....hal time will
the water level in stand pipe fall from 1560 mm Ie 1066 mm above outflowlevel.
(ADS, 3.92 )( 10- 1 mn:Vsec; 59.1 sec)
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS 161

8.5. Calcula te the ccc m clcnt o f permcabiln y of a soil sample H em in height and cress-section al area 60 cm 2. It is
observed thai in 12 minutes. 600 ml of water passed down under an e ffective constant head of 50 em.
On oven d rying . the t es~ specimen weigh s 750 grn. Taking 2.70 as specific g ra vi l~ o f soil, calc ulate the
seepa ge velocity o f wate r during the t~ t. IAns. 2.22 )( 10- ' em/s ec ; 0.33 em/sec .}
8,6. Fig. P-8.6 sho ws a cross-section through the stra ta underlying a sire. Calculate the equivalent permeabili ty o f !he
layered system in the vertical and horizomal directio n. Assume thaI eac h layer is isotropic .
[Ans, 1.4 1 )( 10-6 em/sec: 0.0 81 em/sec]

k = 0·2 em/ sec

k =JXIO ' em1sec
k=0·06 em/ see
k=5X 10' em/ sec

Fig. P-8.6
8.7. A glacia l clay deposit contai ns a series of silt partings in il at an average vertical spacing o f 2 rn. If the silt
layers are abou t 5 mm in thickness and have a permcabiluy o f 00 1" hundred limes tbat o f the day, determi ne (he
ratio o f lhe horizontal and vertical pcnne abi hrics. [Ans, 1.244)
)l.8. In a falling -head permcumcter if the time intervals for drop in le vels from III to /'2 and 112 10 " :1 arc equal, prove
thai
11 2 = ~
8.9. If the e ffective grain size of the sni t is 0.3 rum, est imate the coe fficien t of permeabili ty. Take Hazen 's C = 10.
(Ans , 0.9 mm/secl
8.10. A soi l has a coetflcie nr of permeability of 0.5 x 10-4 em/sec at 20"C. Determ ine us va lue when the temperature
rises to 35"C. (1120" '" 1O.()t) x 10- .1poise and ~ll.~ = 7.21 x 10- .1poise) . IAn s. 0 .7 x 10-4 em/secl
!tll. A drainag e pipe bc nc. uh a dar n has bec ome clogged with s" n ~ whose cn<,·ffiden.l.of pcrrncnbiliry is 10 m/day. It
has been oh scrvcd tha t lh ~ n nw throug h th e pipe .IS 0.15 rrr'Alay when the dlt fe ren ~e ot water levels on !he
up stream and d ownstream IS 20 m. If the cro ss sccuon al area of the pspe was 200 em". what length o f lhe prpe
was filled with sand ? (Ans. 26.67 m)
8.12. A soil has the coe fficient o f perrneabihry of 0.4 x 10--' em/sec at a void rauc o f 0.65 and a temperature of
30"C. Determine the coeffic ient o f permeability at the same void ratio and a temperatu re o f 20"C. At 20"C.
p.., = 0 .998 gmfml and Il = O.O]()I poise un d at ] W'c. PI' = 0.9% g m/ml and I-l = 0.008 poise.
What wo uld be the coe fficient o r perrncubility at a void ratio of 0.75 and 11 temper ature of 2()OC ?
(Ans, 0.3 17 x 10-4 em/sec; 0.422 x 10-4 em/sec ]

B. Descriptive and Objective 1,)'1)('

8.13. What is Darcy 's law ? what arc its limitation s ?
8. 14. w ha t are di fferent methods for dcrcrrninarion of the coc fficiem of permea bility in a laboratory ? Discuss their
Iimit.nio ns.
H.l5. De scribe pumping -our method s fur the determi nation o f the coctflcie nr of permeability in the field, Wh at are
their advantages and disad vantag es? what arc Dupuit' s assumptions '!
8.16. Discuss open -end and packe rs mobods for the determi nation of the coefficient of permcabihry, Comp are these
methods with the pumping-{)U t methods.
H.l7 . What is Allen t tazen's formula for tbe coefficien t of permcabihty ? What is its use ? Compa re this with
Kozcny-c-Carman equa tion and Loudon 's formula,
8.18. Describe in brief the ca pillarity-permeability Icst ? Why the values of the eOfmdent o f perme ability ob tained
from thi s te st differ Inun those obta ined from other tes ts ?
162 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

11.19. How would you determine the ave rage permea bility of a !>oil depo sit consisting o f a number of layers ? What
is nsuse in soi l engineering 1
t1.20. Write whe ther the following r.(ah:mcnls are true or false .
la) The coe fficient of permeability of ~ soil increases with an tocrease in temperature.
Ib ) The soils with a higher void ratio have always greeter permeability than soils with a sma ller v oid ratio.
(e) The coetficiem of permeability decreases with an increase in the specific surf ace.
(f!) For a given soil , the coefficient of permeability increases with an increase in void ratio .
Ie) For a soil deposil consisnng of isotropic layers, the coeff icient of permea bility par allel to the plane of
suuuncauon is alway s grea ter Ihan Ihat norm al 10 this plane.
(j) 1be variable-head permeability lesl is used for line- gra ined soils.
(g) The line jo ining the piezometric l>urfac:es is also know n as the hydraulic gradie nt line.
[An s. True la). (e) . (tI), Ie), Cj),(g»)
C. Mu ltip le-Cho ice Q uestions
I . The permeabili ty of soil varies
(n ) inversel y as squar e of grai n size ( b ) as squar e of grain size
(e) as gra in size (d) inversely as void ratio.
2. The maximum particl e size for whic:h Darcy's law is upphcnhle is
(e1) 0.2 mm I b) O.S mm
(Cl l.O mm IJl2.0mm
3. Acco rd ing to U.S.B.R.. i\ soil with a coeffici en t o f pcrmcebility of 10-4 mnv sec will be classified as
(a) Pervi o us ( b) Impe rviou s
(e ) Semi-pervious Ie) Highly pervtoes
4. 1be coefficient uf pe rmea biluy of clay is generall y.
fa) Between 10-' and 10-2 mm/s (b) Between IO-~ and 10-10 mmls
tel Between IO-~ and 10-11 mmls (rf) Less then 10-8 mrnls
S. A constant-bead perrneamcter is used for
tal Coarse-grained soils (b) Silty ~ils
Id Clay ey soils (d}Organic soils
6. The coefficient o f permeability o f a soil
(a) increases with a il\l.·rea., e in h:mper..ture.
(h) increases with a decrease in tempen nu re.
Ce) increases with a dec rease in unit weighl of water.
(J) decreases with an Increase in ...oid rat o.
1. A soil has a discharg e ve!ocity of 6 )( 10- 1 nvs and a void ratio o f 0.5 0. Its seepage veloci ty is
(a ) IK x 10- 7 mls ( h) 12 )( 10-1 mls
(c ) 24 X 10- 1 m/s (tll 36 x 10- 1 m/s
8. In a pumping-our test. t he drawdown is Sm. If the coefficient Ill' pcrmeuhiluy of the soil is 1O-4m1s, the radi us
ofinl1uence will bc abuur
(a ) 250 m (h) 300 111
Ie) ISO m (d) 200 m
9. For a sphere of 0.5 mm diamet er. the spec ific surface is
(a ) 12 mm- l (b ) 6 mm- 1
(e) 8 mm- I Id) 9 mm- 1
I A ~I .I M.2~~3 .~4.Cd,5.~~6 .lal,7 .~~8 .(4~~
 9
Seepage Analysis

I. I NTROD UcnON
Seepage is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium. Flow of water takes
place from a point of high head to a point of low head. The flow is generally laminar.
The path taken by a wate r particle is represented by a now line. Although an infinite number of flow
lines am be drawn. for coovenience, only a few arc drawn . At certain points on different flow lines. the total
head will be the same . The lines connecting points of equal total head can be drawn. lhese lines arc known
as cquipocentiallines. As flow always takes place along the steepes t hydraulic gradient, the equi potentia l lines
CrQS..'l flow lines at right angl es. TIle now lines and equi potential lines togeth er form a flow net. The now net
gives a pictorial representation of the path taken by water partic les and the head variation along that path .
Fig. 9.1 (a) shows a gl3SS cylinder containing a soil sample of length L. A steady flow occurs vertically
downward thrwgh the soil sample under a bead of h. The elevation head, the pressure headand lhe total heed

Point EleYCItion Pressure Totol

beod (~) heod (I'p) heod (H )

A L H, Lf HI"'"
n B O·'H 0.SL"'H1-O .Sh L+Hl-0.S.,
O·2Sh
,,().St'I-O.')L ,,0·;"

C 0 0 0 Flow net
id)
'<)
Fig. 9.1. Vertical flow through soil.
164 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN EERING

at points. A, B and C can be worked out as show n in Fig. 9. 1 (b) and 9.1 (e).1be point B is at 8 height of
0.$ L above the datum. As the rate of loss of head is linear, the loss of head uplo point lJ is h(l.. The refore,
the total head at point B is h(l . Fig. 9.1 (d) shows a simple flow net, in which five flow lines and an equal
number of equipotcntiallincs are drawn. The equipotential lines are horizontal nod the now lines are vertical
in this C3Se. If a dye is inserted at a few points on the top of the soil sample, the paths taken by the dye
represent the flow lines. 1be flow nets in actual soil engineering problems are not as simple as shown in the
figure.
In this chapter, the methods for construction of flow net and their uses are discussed. The forces
associated with seepage and their effect on the stresses are deall in the following ch3plcc.
9.2, I:APIACE 'S EQUATION
The simple method of construction of flow net as explained above cannot be used for soil engineering
problems in which the flow is generally two-dimensional The Laplace equation is used in the construction
of the flow net in such cases.
The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the Laplace equation:
(1) The flow is two-dimensional,
(2) Water and soil are incompressible.
(3) Soil is isotropic and homogeneous.
(4) The soil is fully saturat ed.
(5) The flow is steady, Le., flow conditions do not change with time.
(6) Darcy 's law is valid.
Let us consider an element of soil of size dx by dz
through whidl flow is taking place (Fig. 9.2). The
third dimension along y-axis is large. For cceveni eoce, it is taken a'> unity. Let the velocity at the inlet and
outlet faces be V.I and ( V. + ~: . d:c) in x~iredion and Vz and ( V z + ~ . dz) in z-direction.

v,
-.... D ~Y, J
- - . V.. + ....,.d..

1
t",

AI . 9.2. 'fwo.diIDC Dsionai Row.

As the flow is steady and the soil is incompressible, the discharge entering the element is equal 10 thai
leaving the element.

Thus v.ldz + Vz dx • (V.l + ~ . aX) dz + ( V

z + ~ . dz) d.:
(t' t') dxdz .
+ 0
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 165

or (~ + ~) • 0 .. .(9.1)

Eq. 9.1 is the con tinuity equation for two-di mensiona l Dow.
Let h be the total head at any point . 'The horizontal and venical compo nents of the hydraulic gradient are,
respectively,

ie• • -~, and ~ . _~

The minus indicates that the head decreases in the d iredion o f flow.

From Darcy's law, Vz • - Icr ~ , v~ • - Icz ~

Substituting in &J. 9.1, _ k. a' h _ k. a' h _ 0

ax' a?
a'h a'h
k~ ax2 Icz al . 0
+
As the soil is isotropic, 1z • k:. Therefore,
2h.
ih +a o .. .(9.2)
ax' a?
Eq. 9.2 is lhe Laplace equation in term s of head h.
Sometimes,the Laplace equation is represented in terms o f veloci ty pote ntial., given by
, _ _ kh

Therefore, ~ • v.. • -le ~

and '* .
Substituting the val ues of v.. and v: in Eq. 9.1,
Vz • - Ie 2j;
D. f1 0
ax> +a?- ••.(93)

Eq. 9_' is the La place equa tion in term s of veloci ty potential.

Laplace 's equation ca n be solv ed if the boundary conditions at the inlet and exit are known . The equation
represents two families of curv es which are orthogonal to each othe r. One family represe nts the flow lines
along which the flow takes place. Th e other family represents the equ ipotential lines alo ng whic h the potential
@ or total head (h) is consta nt. The graph ical representa tion of the laplace equations is , therefore, a flow
net.
9J . STREAM AND POTE NTIAL FUNCTIONS
Stream functi on N) is a sca lar function of tne coordina tes 1; Z such that its partial derivatives satisfy the
following equatio ns:

~ . -v~ ..[9.4(a)]

and ~. V.. ...[9.4(b)]

As a strea m function is a continuous function, its total differential is given by

il>j> .~ .dx+~' dz
166 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Substituting the va lues of ~ and ~ from Eq. 9.4,

dtp • - V, dx + \I dz.
If the str eam function is constant along a curve, dtp O. Therefore , - Vz dx + ".0: dz ... a
01
(E!) . "
dx 'II> \I..,
- :
••.(95)

lbe tangent at any poin t 00 the q-curve gives the directions

~
. i-, f ....,.
of the resultant veloci ty (v) (Fig. 9.3). Hence, the 'P-curvc
represents the now line. The curves with constant values
'VI. 'i'2...• 'PII are the flow lines. I d.l /'
Velocity potential ($) L<; a scala r function of x and z such , 7; / /\

that it derivatives sa tisfy the following equations (Refer Sect . J '1-.J 1-"~

-t*
9.2). / I '
I j 't'

~ - v, _ [9.6(a)]

and ~- v. - -k*
Integra ting, Eqs . (a) and (b), " (x, z] ... - kh:(x, z) + fe z)
[9.6{b)J

lind <p (x, z) ... -kh(x, z) + g(x) <b)

Since x and z can be varied independently, fig. 9.3. Flow Curves.

j(z) g (x)... constant, say C

Therefore, ,(x, z) -J:h.(x, z) ... C
If the total head h is taken as a constant, it represents a curve for which, has a cons tan t value. This is
an equipot ential line. Assigni ng different values to h such as hi • h z I . . . h", we get a number o f equ ipoten tial
lines $I '~ ' ... $".
The slope along an equ ipotenti al line cpcan be determined as under . Th e total differential is g iven by

d' ''~' dr+~ 'dz

If 4'is a constant along a curve. dcp .. 0
lIence, O"~'dx. +~dz
dz ) ~ v.
(d; ... - acp/ oz .. -~ ...(9.7)
From Eqs. (9 5) and (9.7),

(E!) x(E!) __"x "__

dx 'I' dx.. v", v,:
1

Thus. the strea m funct ion and the poten tial function are o rthogonal to each other.
From Eqs . (9.4) and (9.6) , ~ • ~
ti ~
araz" alz
and
-~-~
SEEPAGE ANALYSlS 167

-~-~
drill ac?
Therefore,
i..'l'. • i..'l'. __Lt. • Lt. _0
ac? ail draz draz
Thus., the stream function (1.jI) also satisfies the Laplace equation.
"Determ ina tion of Discharge
The discharge 6q betwee n two adjacent flow lines", and (tV + .6.",) can be determined us follows
[Fig. 9.3 (a)].
The discharge is equal to the resultant velocity v multiplied by the nonnal dista nce (.6.n) between '" and
(1p + dl.jI), Obviously,
discharge. - Vz de + Vz dz
:lI'+ A "
Therefore, .6.q - f. (-v.tdr + v.dz)

Substituting the value of v. and Vz from Eq. 9.4,

Aq . I.... (~ . dr. ~. dz) -;:-•• d>j> • A'l' . ..(9.8)

10 other words, the flow between two adjacent flow lines is constant and is equal to the difference of
stream functions of the two lines.
9.4. CHARACfEIUSTICS OF \'LOW NET
Fig. 9.4 shows a flow field fonned between two adjacent flow lines and equipoten tial lines. If Vz is the
velocity along the stream line represented by'!'.

Fig. 9.4. Flow field.

v. _ v, (X)Sa ...[9.9(a»)
and Vz - -v,sioa .. .[9.9(b»)
The potential functioo lp can be written as

~ . ~. ~ . ~ . ~
Using Eqs. 9.6, ~. v. cos a + V z (- sin a)
Substituting the values of v. and Vz from Eqs. 9.9,
a"
ai-V,alS2 . 2 a.-v
a+v,Sln z . . .(9.10)
168 SOIL Mf£ IIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Like w ise, ~-~. !!!: +~ .!£.

an ar an dz dn

~. -Vz sin a + Vz ccs c

~. VI sin2 a + VICl)S2 a _ VI . .. (9.11)

From Eqs.. 9.10 and 9.11, ~. ~

¥,- ¥n' ... (9.12)
The flow net must satisfy Eq. 9.12.
It is convenient to construct the flow net such that the change in stream function (A\j.l) between two
adjacent flow lines and lhe change in potential function (A~) between two adjacent equipotential lines are
constant.
Therefore .60,/.60 "i' • constant
From Eq. 9.12, As/A n • constant
Although any fixed ratio of As/6n can be used. for convenience, As/An is kept unity. 'Therefore. in
actual practice. the flow net consists of approximate squares,
As _ On .. .(9.13)
Thus the distance between two adjacent flow lines is equal to the distance between two adjacent
equipotential lines.
lbc characteristics of flow ncr can be swnmarised as under:
( I) The fundamental condition that is to be satisfied is that every intersection between a flow line and
an equ ipote ntial line should be at right angles.
(2) The second condition to be satisfied is that the discharge (Aq) between any two adjacent flow lines
is constant and the drop of head (M) between the two adjacent equipotential lines is constant.
(3) The ratio of the length and width of each field (lis/A n) is constant. The ratio is generally taken as
unity for convenience. In other words, the flow net consists of approximate squares.
The flow net am be obtained by any one of the following methods. as discussed in the following
sections.
(1) Graphical method, (2) Electrical analogy method.
(3) Soil Models, (4) Plastic models,
(5) Solution of Laplace's equation.
It will be assumed that the flow is two-dimensional. In many of soil engineering problems, such as flow
through a long earth dam. seepage under a long sheet pile and seepage below long gravity darns, the flow is
actually two-dimensional. In all such cases, vertical sections at different points along the length are identical.
The velocity has components only in two orthogonal directions (x, z), the component in the third direction
(y-dtrccnon) is zero. However, if the length of the soil mass in the third direction (y-directlon) is small. the
end effects are important and the now is not truly two-dimensional and Laplace's equation, 3S derived above,
docs not apply.
9.5. GRAPm CA L MI:.71l0n
Th e graphical method of flow net construction is the most commonly used method. The hydraulic
boundary conditions which define the limiting flow lines and equipotential lines should be Ilrst identified and
established. A reasonably good now net can be drawn by the graphical method even by a novice with some
practice. However, for getting a good flow net, a lot of practice and patience is required. Fortunately, the
accuracy of the computation of hydraulic quantities. such as discharge and pore water pressure, does not
SEEPAGE AN ALY SIS 169

depend much on the exactn ess of the now net. A reasonabl y good estimate of hydraulic quantities can be
made even from a rough flow net.
The following points should be kepi. in mind while sketching the flow net.
(1) Too many flow channels distract the attention from the essential features . Normally. three to five
fiow chan nels are sufficient. (The space between two flow lines is called a flow channel) .
(2) The ap pearance of the entire flow net should be watched and not that of a part of it. Small details
can be adjusted after the entire flow net has been roughly draw n.
(3) The curv es should be roughly elliptical or parabolic in shape.
(4) All transitions should be smooth.
(5) The flow lines and equipotentia l lines should be orthogonal and fonn approximate squares.
(6) The size of the square in a flow channel should change gradua lly from the upstream to the
downstream .
The procedure for drawing the flow net can be d ivided into the following steps:
(1) First identify the hydraulic boWKIary conditions. In Fig. 9.5. the upstream bed level GDAK represents
100% potential line and the downstream bed level CFJ .O% potential line. The first flow line KLM hugs the

fig. 9.5. Flow NcL

hydraulic structure and is fonned by the flow of water on the upstream of the shee t pile. the downstream of
the sheet pile and at the interface of the base of the dam and the soil surface . 111e last flow line is indicated
by the impervious strat um NP.
(2) Draw a trial flow line AB C adjacent to the boundary line. The line must be a t right angles to the
upstream and downstream beds.
The location of the first trial line is determin ed from experience. An exper ienced person will make a
good estimate of Ihe first trial line and subseq uent work: would be reduced.
(3) Starting from the upstream end. divide the first flow channel into approx imate squares by
equipotential lines. The size of the square should change gradually.
Some of the squares may. however. be quite irregular. Such squares are callcd singu lar squares .
(4) Extend downward the equipotential lines forming thc sides of the squares. These extensions point out
approximate width of the squares. such as squares marked (1) and (2).
Other sides of the squares are set equal to the widths as detennined above . Irregularities are smoothened
out, and the next flow line DF is drawn join ing these bases . While sketching the flow line. care should be
taken to make flow fields as approximate squares lhroJghoot.
(5) The cqulporemia l lines are further extended downward. and one more flow line G/V is drawn.
repeating the step (4).
(6) If the flow fields in the last flow channel are inconsistent with the actual boundary conditions . the
whole procedure is repeated after taking a new trial flow line.
170 SO IL MEC HANICS AND FOUNDAllON ENGiNEER !NG

It is not necessary thai the last flow chan nel shou ld ma ke complete squares. t h e flow fields in the last
channel may be approximate reaangles with the same length 10 width ratio. In this case, the number of flow
channels would not be full integer. In Iact, the flow channels will be an integer only by chance.
9.6. ELECTRICAL Ai~ALOG Y ME1lIOD
According to Darcy's law, the discharge in a soil mass is propo rtional 10 the hydra ulic head (h).
According to Ohm's law, the current in an electrical ronduetor is propo rtional to the voltage (E). An analogy
exists between the two types of flow. The analogous quantities in the two systems are given in Table 9 .1.
Thble 9.1 Anal ogous Quan tities

S.Na Flow of water FJowofCUTrenJ

I.
Law :q -k f A LaW:I_K'¥'A
2. Discharge. q Current, J
3. IIc:ld,h VoItage, E
4. Length, L Length. L
5. N ea, A Area, A
6. Permeability, k Conductivity, K

An electrical model is, made whose boundary conditions are similar to those of the so il mode l. The
equ ipotential lines are drawn by joining Ule po ints of equal voltage. The flow penem obtained from the
electrical model are used in lhe construction of now net in jhe model.
The following lhree types of electrical analogy models are used.
(1) Electrical Ana logy Tray. A shallow tray. wilh a nat bottom , made of an insulating material is taken
The tray is filled with water. A small quantity of san or hydroch loric acid or coppersulphate solution is added
to water to make it a good conductor of electricity.
TIle hydraulic boundaries are simulated on the tray. For lhe flow below a sheet pile shown in Fig. 9.6
(a). the boundary now lines arc ABC and FG. An insulating material, such as ebonite or perspcx, is used to
simulate the bou ndary flow lines. The insulating material is fixed to the tray by means of some
non-cond ucting adhesive, such as ptasdcene or bee wax.
The boundary equipotentia l lines DA and CE are simulated by some good cond uctor of electricity sudl
~ coppe r bars.
For obt.aining the flow pattern. an electrical potential difference of 20 V is a pplied to lhe two electrodes
VA and CEo A voltage dividing variable resistor, known as potential divider. is connected in parallel to the
alternating current source to vary the voltage in the range of 0 10 20 V. A galvanometer (or any other null
indicator) and a probe arc connected to the variable potential ann (Fig. 9.6 (b)].
The position of the equipot ential lines is determined by loca ting the points of constant potential (VOltage).
To trace the equipo tential lin e corres ponding to a given percentage of to131 potential (say lO%). the voltage
divider is set at that potential (2V). Th e 'probe is moved in the tray till the galvanometer sho ws no current
now . That position of the probe gives the point cocrespondin g to 2V poten tial. By moving the probe, other
points corresponding to that potentia l are ob tained. A graph sheet is generally placed below the transparent
plate to determine the coordinates of the points. A line join ing all these points gives the equ ipotential line
corresponding to 10% of the total head. likewise, the equiporcn dal line corres pond ing to 20% of the lOlaI
head is ootaincd by changing the setting on the voltage divider to 4V and repea ting the procedure . Other
equipotential lines can be drawn in the same manner.
After the equipotential lines have been drawn, flow lines can be sketched manually. 1be flow lines
should be orthogooal to the equ ipotential lines and R1tJSl satisfy the actual hydraulic boundary cooditioos.
Alternatively. the flow lines can be drawn electrically by interchanging lhe boundaries. 1bc:copperstrips are
used for impermeable boundaries ABC and FG and insulating strips for DA and CEo The voltage difference
 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 171

is applied across the new positions of

copper strips. The new equipotential
lines, which are actually flow lines. are
traced by locating the points with the
help of probe.
(2) Conducting Paper Method. A
conducting paper is made by
introducing graphite during its
manufacture. One side of the graphite
paper is coated with a non-conducting
material and the other side with a
positive aluminum coating. The paper
is cut to the shape of the hydraulic
structure for which the flow net is F G
» ) ' ) ) ' ) ) ' ) ) ) ) ))'~) ; ) ; ) ) ' ) ' J ) ) ) J
required. The boundary equipotential
lines. such 3S DA and CE in Fig. 9.6
(a), nrc given a coating of silver paint.
When tile paint bas dried, lhe
connecting wires are spaced out along
GAlVAH:lMETE~
the boundary strips in individual
strands and are stapled in position.
Direct current (D.c.) supply can be
used as there are no polarization TRAVFlllEO
effects. A 2-V accumulator is used for WITH WATER

fceding the circuit. The lines of equal

potential arc traced. as in the electrical
analogy tray.
POTENT IAl.D!VIOER
The conducting paper method is
quicker and more convenient than the
tray method. However. the accuracy is (b)
low. As the transverse resistance of the
paper is generally greater than lhe
Fig. 9.6. Electrical Analogy Tray.
longitudinal resistance, it causes error.
The scales of the model in the longitudinal and transverse directions are sometimes kept different to account
for difference in resistances. This makes the method more complex.
•< (3) Potential Analyser Method , A potential analyser is made in the form of a mesh of resistances
(usually. of 100 ohms), separated at each node by pins of negligible resisranee. The mesh is cut to the
required shape. It is well insulated against temperature and humidity.
A direct current with a voltage difference of 1 V is applied to the appropriate boundaries of the model.
The potential at any nodal point can be read with a high degree of accuracy. '[be equipotential lines are then
drawn through the points of equal potential..
The method is quite convenient and gives fairly accurate results.
9.7. SOIL MODELS
Row net can be obtained from a small scale soil model of the hydraulic structure. The soil model is
placed between two transparent plates, about 100 mm apart. Fig 9.7 shows a Soil model of an earth dam. with
a horizontal filter at its toe.
The flow lines are traced directly by introducing a dye at suitable points on the upstream face of the dam.
The equipotential lines can be drawn by connecting the points with the same piezometric levels. For this
purpose, tiny piezometers are installed in the model at suitable points (not shown in figure). However, it is
 son,MECHANlCS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
more convenient 10 draw equipot entia l
lines manually afte r the flow lines have
been drawn .
The accuracy of the flow net
obtained from soil models is not good
because of scale effects and capillary
effects. Sometimes, viscous fluids are
used in place of water to reduce
capillary effects.
The main use of soil models is 10
demonstrate the fundament als of flow
net and seepage in a laboratory. In
practical problems, their use is rather
limited, because of the time and effort Fig.9.7.SoiI~1.
requ ired in the ccostrexlon of these models.
9.8. PLASTIC MOD E LS
A seepage flume of widt h of a few centimeters is used in this method . A model made o f plas tic is
fastened to one side wall of the flume, leaving a small space of 2.5 mm or less between the mood and the

.
othe r side wall (Fig. 9 .8).

Fig. 9.8. Plastic modcl.

rt.
SIDE
:.

VIE W
GLYCERJNE
PLASTIC
MODEL

A highly viscous fluid. such as glycerine, is made 10 seep through the small space between the model and
the side wall. The flow is laminar. As the fluid flows, it gives an accurate repre sentation of seepage through
soil. Th e flow lines can be observed directly by injecting a dye at suitable poin ts.
Plastic mode ls can be constructed more quickly than soil models . Th e flow lines in such models are also
better defmed. Consequently, the flow net obtained is more accu rate than that obta ined from soil models.
Differen t penn eabilit ies o f the soil can be accounted for by vary ing the space betw een the model and the
wall. Anisotropic soils can be represented by 8 zig-zag face.
9.9. FLOW Nt.-r BY SOLUTION OF LAPLACE'S EQUATION
Laplace 's equation can be solved by nwneri cal techni ques, such as finit e difference metbod . Relaxation
method is generally used to find the potentials at various points. Once the poten tials have been determined at
different nodal points, the equipo tential lines are drawn by joining the points of equal potentials. Poten tials
can be obtained very quickly if a high -Speed digital compute r is available.
Th e Laplaceequation CEq. 9 3 ) can be written in finite difference form, as
+1 + +:z + tl + +, -4+0 • 0 .. .(9.14)
where +1' tz, 'h and " are ~ potentials at the four adjoining points around the central point 0 w ith the
potential 4'0 (Fig. 9.9).
The cress-section o f the earth structure. for which lbc flow net is requ ired, is covered with a square grid
with a number of nodes . Th e values of the potentia l (+) at various noda l points arc assumed . satisfying the
 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 173

hydraulic boundary conditions. As the assu med values are not

correct. there woul d be a residual Ro a t point 0 , given by the
equation,
'1 + +z + .3 + $.. -4$0 • RrJ •••(9. 15)
Each node is considered as a centra l nod e in lum and the
residual determined. The object of the relaxauce method is to
I 3 ., I
reduce these residua ls 10 zero. It must be borne in mind that the
I I
potentials at diITerent nodes are inter-related and any change in I I
potential at one node has an cffect on the resid uals at the adjacent
I :
nodes. The process is. therefore. quite ledius and time-
consuming . How ever. special relaxation techniques have been
L. +.!1 J
devised to reduce the effort. •
The final correct value of • give the true picture of the GRID .ARO\Nl ·0 ·
variation of potential. The equipotential lines are drawn through
Flg. 9.9. Flnije Difference Grid
the points of equal potentials. The flow lines are then drawn
orthogonal to equipotential lines.
9,10. ....LOW NET IN EARTII DAMS wrrn A HORIZO NTAL nLTER
lbe methods of drawing a flow net d iscussed in the: preceding sections are used when lhe boundary flow
lines and equipxenual lines are given. Seepage through an earth dam is a case of unconfined seepage in
which the upper boundary of flow net
is not bl own. In such cases, it becomes
necessary 10 Iirsa loca le the upper
boundary before a n ow net can be
drown.
lei us conside r the case of a
homogencous eanh dam on an impervi - FILTER
ous foundation and having a horizont al
filter at the downstream end (Fig. 9.10) .
Fig. 9.10. Earth Dam with a horizonl:ll fitter
The horizontal filter starts at point C.
is
The imperm eable bound ary CD a flow line which forms the.lo wer boundary o f the flow net. The upstream
face AD is an equipotential line as the total head at every point on this faa: is equal to h. The discharge face
CB is the equipotential line of zero potential. Thus .threc hvdrauhc houndnrv con ditions are known
The fourth boun dary of the flow net is

l the top flow line AB, which is not known in

the beginning. Below the line AD, the soil is
saturated and the pressur e every where on the
AD is atmospheric. The line AD is known as
phreati c line or seepage line. As the pressure
A

~:~ isis7~~U':: ~: P::ati~I~~~he ~~~~ -t.DIfn7T7"T\.'ii;,tr.2n7rn>;fl~b::¢;F~IL

::;'TE:
PERVIOJ5

0-'-1
Consequ ently, there are equal vertical
intercepts between the points of intersection
of success ive equipotential lines and the
phreatic line. Once the phreatic line has been
located, the n ow net can be drawn by the
usual meth ods . Ag. 9.11. Kozcny'sSolution.
Koze ny studies the prob lem using the met hod of con form al trenstormeuon. 1be bo undary ronditions fa
tbe now region ABeD are as under (Fig. 9 .11).
174 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERm G

Equ ipotenti al line . AD , has 4'. - kh

Equipo tential line , RC, has , . a
R ow line, DC, has 'P - 0
flow line, AB, has '" • q
Kozcny's solution represents a family of confocal parabolas of now lines and equipotential lines. The
equation of Koacny's basic parabola AD, with C as focus as well as origin, is
.r • 1.
2
('l _! z')
k q
... (9.16)

Kozeny 's condi tions arc DOt entirely fulfilled by any pract ical earth dam . However. an earth dam with a
horizontal drainage approximates the conditions at exit. An inconsistency occurs due to the faa tha t the
upstream equ ipoten tial line in an actua l earth dam is a plane surface and not a parabo la as assu med by
Kozcny. Ccsa grance (1940) recom mended that the see page line in act ual dams can a lso be taken as basic
parabol a, provided the starting point for the parabo la is taken at point E. such thai AE = 03 AF (Fig. 9.10).
The distance AF is the projection of the upstream slope on the water surface. The coordinates of the phreatic
line can be dete rmined using Bq. 9.16. Th e origin is at C, which is also the foc us.
Substituting z = 0 in Eq. 9.16, the val ue of .r is given by

xo - ~ (i) -11 or q - 2k.ro

The d istance 2:co betwee n the focus and the directrix is known as focal distan ce (s). Thus
q. k s ... (9.17)
Substituting the value o f q from Eq. 9.17 in Eq. 9 .16,

x·t(¥ -tz')·~ -t
or i-2:cs -:? _ 0 .• .(9.18)
Bq. 9.18 can also be derived directly using the property o f the parabola tha t the dista nce of <lny poin t P
on the parabola from the focus is equal to the dis tance from the directrix. (Fig. 9.12) . Thus
FP· PO
~.s-x
By squaring, :2 + :? _ i + x 2 - 2u
or s2 _ 2:cs _:?_ O
If x is taken positive towards left of F, tbe above
equation becomes
i + 2:cs -l _ 0 ... (9 .19)
The valu e of s can be determined using the
coordinates of the starting point E (1-1g. 9.10).
Substitu ting x _ d and z _ h in Eq. 9.19. PARABOL A~

i + 2ds_h 2 _ 0

-2d",~
2
Fig. 9.t2. Propertie s of Parabola .
Taking positive sign , S _ V(Jl + h2 ) --d ... (9.20 )
Once the va lue of s has been determ ined, Eq. 9.19 can be used to determine the coo rdinates of the
various points on the phreatic line. For different value of.r, the corresponding z coo rdinates are com puted and
plo tted,
SEEPAGEANALYSIS 175

An entrance correction is required for the phreatic

line obtained by the above procedure . The actual flow
line must start at point A and not poin t E. Furthe r, the
flow line must be normal to the upstream face which
PHREAJK:
is an equipotential line. The entry correct ion is made LI NE
by eye j udgment as shown in Fig. 9.10 . The actua l
phreatic line is shown in solid line. Fig. 9.13 shows
the entry correcnon when there is pervious gravel on
the upstrea m. The phreatic ' line in this case is
horizontal at the entry, as it C3M0t rise above for
being normal to the inclined dis face of gravel,
Once the phreatic line has been drawn, the flow Fig. 9.13. Entry Conectionfor an W$ face with gravel.
net can be completed using the methods already discussed. Fig. 9.14 shows a typical flow net.

1 5
l~"m~~

Fig. 9.14. Flow Net in an Earth dam .

Discharge through the bod y or the dam
To determine the discharge through the body o f the earth dam , let us consider the now passing through
the section PQ (Fig. 9.10). From Darcy's law, discharge per unit length is given by
q • kiA
q _ k · ~ . (z x 1) ... (0)

From Eq. 9.19, z - (2,u . s1!'l:

dz s
dX - (2xs • i )Y1.

There fore, Eq. (0) gives, q • k (20 : i )Y1. (2l's . s2)1'.z

or q _ k:s .. . (9.21)
Eq. 9.21 is a simple equationwhich gives approximate dischar ge through the body of the darn.
The discharge o m also be obtai ned from the now net, as explained later (Sed. 9 .14).
9.1I. SEEI)AGE '1l IROUGIl EARTH UAM WITII SLOPIN G DISCHARGE FACE
Fig. 9.15 shows an earth dam
without any filter on the downstream ~
side. The downstream face through
which water escapes is inclined to the
horizontal, In this case, the phrea tic
line cuts the downs tream face. It is ~
normally not permiued in earth dams as
it may cause the failure of downstream
Slope due to slough ing actio n. The Fig. 9.1S. Row Hel for caM dam withoul filler.
176 SOIL MECHANICS AND fOUN IJAllON ENGINEERING

down stream face of lhc dam acts as the discharge face.

Fig. 9.16 (a) shows the downstream face when Ute phrea tic line C\JIS (he downstream face. The
dowestrcarn face makes an angle p with the horizontal Th e angle is measured clockwise from the horizontal.
In this case , the phreatic line can be drawn as in the case of the dam with a horizontal filter (Sea. 9.10),

~<~.
AA"OU7 ~''' '''''1
~
____
:-v -,f~
A-t'IU.JIC
W£
PHREATIC
LINE
I

.'. ......
~tt- HORllOHT4L ROCK TOE
C mT£ R \ ~Jr~
.1/ (b J ~\
c.)

Cd)

Fig. 9. 16.
laking the poin t C as the focus and also the origin. The phreatic line is given the entry correction as before.
An additiona l correction at exit is required in this case. as the basic parabola goes outside the
downstream face, wbich is impassible. 'The actual seepage line meets the discharge face tangentially for
p -c 90°. The seepage line has been shown by full line. whereas the theoretical basic parabola is shown
by dotted line.
In the case of borizontal filter, the angl e p is 180° (Fig. 9 .16 (b)J. For a rock toe [Fig. 9 .16 (e)I, the angle
Ii is greater than 90°. The phreatic line drops vertically in this case.
Casagrande gave the charts for the exi t 4
correct ion. The basic parabola is shifted by
distance M 10 locale the point where the actual
seepage line cuts the discharge face. The value o-3
r--....
<,
of An is ob tained from the value of
Aa/(a + M ) sue- the distance (a + Aa) is r-,
I
~ O·2
obtained from the basic parabola. The value of
l1al( a + &1) depends upon the angle p, given in
Fig. 9 .16 (d). The value is also available in the
. +
<1 .
6 ., -.
form of a curve (Fig. 9.17). It is worth noting
that the correction is zero when the angle ~ is
180. That is the reason why exit correction was o.0
r-,
not applied in the case of horizontal filter; The 30 60 90 )2($ )5($
cha rt is app licab le for ~ :t 30° . /3 - -
Fig. 9.11. Casagrnnd'sChart.
Obvious ly, sa » C (a + AD)
where C is the correction facta cbtained from the chart (Fig. 9.17)
9.12. SEEPAGE THROUGH EARTII DAM wrrn DISCHARG E ANGLE LESS TIIAN 30 °
If tbe angle ~ is less than 30 ° (Fig. 9 .18). poin t S at where the seepage line becomes tangential to
downstrea m face can be obta ined using Scha ffemack:'s melhod. It is ass umed that pan CS of the seepage line
is a straighI line. A tangen t at point S co incides over the length CS wilh the see page line.
 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 117

FII·9.)8

The discharge is given by, q - lz.;j; . . .(9.22)

But ~. i.tanp
and z :: distance SP :: 0 sin p, where SC :: 0

The refore, q = k(a sin P) tan P ... (9.23)

From Eqs. 9.22 and 9 .23,

lz;j; _kasinptanp
z dx » osinptan~dr
Integrating between x • 0 cos P to x - d, and between z - 0 sin p to h,

j lUin ~
z dz = a ~"Jn ~ / lI C<»~
dx

t(h2-a2Sin2~) _ osin~tan~(d-acosp)

or h2 _a'l sin' p. 2a ~ (d - a cos P)

""p
or h'."',"P _ a'"" p • 2ad_ 2a'",,'p
sm p
02 cos P_ 2 ad + h2~ P _ 0
sm ~

+ 2d. V4d' _4(h' '''' p/Sin'P )oos P

o - z cos p
a . -!L _ Y...!L_...!l...- . ..(9.24)
cos p cos2 P sin2 p
Once the value of a has been determined from Eq. 9 .24, the discharge can be found using Eq. 9.23 .
9.13. SEEPAGE TIIROUGII EARm DAM WITII DISCHARGE ANGLE GREATER TIIA N 30·
BUT LESS THAN 60·.
o Eq. 9.24 was obtained on the basis of Dupuit's assumption that the hydraulic gradient is equal to dz/dx,
ic Casagrande suggestedthat the actual hydraulic gradient for discharge angle greater than 30 0 js given by
178 SOIL MEC HA NICS AND FOU NDATI ON ENGINEERING

t; ~
where d istance s is measured along the 0JJVe.
Based on this assumption, the discharge expressioo can be written a<>

q_k (~) Z ...(925)

Referring to Fig. 9.19, z = distance SP .. a sin P

Th

1
I.
R.g 9.19. EMh Dam with discharge~ ngle greater than 30".

and ~ .SinP
Therefore, Eq. (9.25) becom es q .. k a sinl p ...(9.26)

From Eqs. 9.25 and 9.26. k ~z .. k a sin 2 p

z dx _ aSin 2 pds

Integrating, f....... ~
z dz .. a!" (sin 2 Il) ds

t<h 2 - a2 sin2 p) .. asin 2 p (5-0)

h 2 _ 02 sin2 p .. 2a S Sin 2 p _ 2a2sin2 13
2 h'
a _ 2 aS + sin2 p - 0
+25:t" 4S _ 4h2/ sin2 @
2
a .. S_VS_h2/ sin2 f3 ... (9.27)
The approxi mate length S of lhe straight li ne CE can be determined as

S-Vd'+h' •••(9.2Jl)
Therefore, a .. ~ - ~ .. .(9.29)
Once the value of a bas been determined, the discharge can be obtained from Eq. 9.26.
For angle P > 60 ·, the error introduced due to approximation in Eq. 9.28 becomes large and this method
is not nonnall y used.
9.14. USES OF FLOW NET
The flow net can be used for a number of purposes as explained below :
( I) Discharge. Th e space between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel. Let.Nt be the number
SEEPAGB ANALYSIS 179

of flow channels . Th e difference between two adjacent equipotential lines is called equipotential drop . Le t
Nd be the number of equipotential drops. In Fig. 9.20, there are 5 flow channels and 10 equipotential drops.

n:l/ /
I " 2/
I 31 " lI \ \ \8\ \\
! ! 'I 5 6\ '1
/ 1 ~
777;;;);;;}; 77 77 7; 7 J 7 71l!..J117 7 7
l""ERVlOJS

fig. 9.20. Uses of Row Net.

Let US consider the flow through the flow field shown hatched. From Darcy's law, the discharge through
the flow field per unit length,

IJ. q - k . (*1 (IJ.n x 1) ••. (a)

where lih is equipotential drop in the flow field,
and lis and 6n. are dimens ions of the flow field.

Substituting l!i.h - -k in Eg. (a).

IJ.q - k . .!:.-. (~)

Nd l!i.s

Total discharge, q _ NI 6q _ k.h.!!J. ·

Nd
(!Y!.)
l!i. s
N,
Taking lis /6n = unity, q - k.h. Fi'; ...(930)

In Fig. 9.20, q -kxhx1o -0.5kh

The ratio (NIN d ) is a characteristic of the flow net. It is known as shape factor (p). It is independent
of the permeability (k) of the soil . It depends only on the config uration or the shape of the soil mass.
It is not necessarythat HI and Nd be always full integer. The last flow channel may consist of rectangles,
However, in the last flow cha nnel, the lengthzbreadth (lis /6n) ratio should be approximately the same for all
flow fields.
(2) 'Ictal head. The loss of head (6h) from one equipotential line to the next is hiNd' The total head at
any point (P) can be detennined as under.
h, _ h - n x (hiNd) ...(9.31)
where n is the number of the equipotential drops uplO point P.
In Fig. 9.20, n = 8 for point P. Therefore. total head at P is
I'" SO IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING

hI''' h-8 x (hllO) '" O.2h

II may be noted than if piezometers were placed at different points on the same equipotential line, water
wo uld rise in these piezometers 10 the same elev ation.
(3) P ressure he ad . The pressure at any point is equal to the tota l head minus the elevation head. As
mentioned above, the downstream water level is generally taken as datum.
For example , for point P, the pressure head is given by
(hplp . hp-(-(he)p). hp + (he)p ... (932)
where (hp)p = pressure head at P and (he)p = elevation bead at P and hp is the total head.
Obviously, the pressure bead at P is equal to the height of water column in the piezometers at P, as
shown in the figure.
(4) Hydraulic gradient. The average value of hydraulic gradient for any flow field is given by
i • Oh/6s .. .(9.3 3)
where lis is the length of the flow field and Ah is the loss of head.
The hydraulic gradient is generally maximum at the exit ncar point B where the length lis is a minimum.
As the velocity depends upon the hyd raulic gradient, it is also maximum at the exit.

9.15. FLOW NET FOn ANIS011{OIII C SOIL

The coefficient of permeabili ty of stratified soil deposits parallel to the plane of stratification is generally
greater than that nonnal to this plane. Such soils are anisotropic in penneability. Let us take the axes .r - .r
and z - z parallel and perpendicular to the plane of stratification, respectively. Therefore K" > Icr From
Darcy's 13w.

v.., - k"i.., - -k,,~ .. .(a)

Md ~ -~4 - -~* .. .(b)

Substituting the valu es of v.. and Vz in the continuity equation (Bq. 9.1),
_ k a' h _. a' h 0
'aX' "oz'·
k,a' h +k,a' h. O ...(9.34)
aX' oz'
AsEq. 9.34 is not Laplace's equation. the principles of now net coestrucnoe, as descnbed in the
preceding sections, are not applicable to anisotrop ic soils.
Eq. 9.34 can however be converted to Laplace's equation by transformation. Let the x coordinate be
trans formed to the new coordinate XI by the transform ation (Fig . 9 .21) .
x, • xV;;;;;: .. .(935)

C,' COl

Fig. 9.21. Tmnsromlll lion of Coordinates.

SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 181

.. .(9.36)

Eq. 9.36 is the Laplace equation in X, and z. Th erefore, the princip les of flow net construction can be
used for anisotropic soils alter transformation.
The cross-section of the soil mass wbose flow net is required is red rawn keeping the z-scete unchanged
but reducing the or- scale by the ratio Vf;if; . The flow net is constructedfor the transformedsection by usual
methods [Ag. 922 (b)]. 'The Dow net for the actual section is obtained by transfe rring back the flow net to
the natural section by increas ing the .r-scate in the ratio ..rr;7f;. Obviously, the flow net for the natural section
docs not have the flow lines and the equipotential lines orthogonal to each other [Fig. 9.22 (a)].

~ (oa)NATURAL SECTION FILTER

(b) TRANSFORMED SECTION

Fig. 9.22. AownecCoranisotropic soils.

The d ischarge through all anisotropic soil mass can be obtained from an eq uation similar to Eq. 930 ,
q » It h·(NINd ) ... (9.37)
where k' is the modified coeffici ent of permeabili ty as determined below .
Discharge through a flow channel on the transformed sca le per unit width is given by
ALi - It (M/Ill,) Az ...(a)
Discharge through the same flow channe l 00 the natural scale per unit widt h is given by
• ALi-A,(M/Ill)Az ... (b)
Since the discharge is the same in both the channels,
It (M/6x,). Az • k.· (M/Ill)· Az
0' It - k.·(IllIIll)
Using Eq. 9.35, It - k. · V(X7[J
or k' - ..;r;r; ... (9.38)
The discharge q is determined usi ng Eq. 937 with a value of k' ob tained from Eq. 9 .38.
182 SOIL MECHANICS AND f OUNDATION ENGINEERING

9.16. COEFFICIENT OF IJERMEABlUfY IN AN INCLIN ED nrnsc n os

Let ~ and k" be the coefficients of pc:nneability along x and z d irectio ns respecti vely and Je, be the
coe fficient of permeability in inclined s-d irectioo (Fig. 9 .23).
By partial differen tiation.
E!! . E!! . ~+ E!! . ~ ...(a)
as ax as az as
Using the relations ,

-lex~, - kz ~ j ••-'
~.
vx• v, .

and v, - - Je. E£ ' Eq. (a) becom es

v, v" ax v" az
- k," • - i; . a;- 1;. a; ...(b)
Fig. 9.23. Permeability in an indined direction
Now v" . v , cos c and v" _ v, sin a

;r-:~'~
and ~ .cos a and~.sina

Eq. (b) can be written as

L;
Ie,
ros
2a
Ie"
+ sin
Ie"
2a
•••(9.39)
L
. . 0(
.s
•

s x' ;
k;"k;"+k;
...(9.40)
Eq. 9.40 is equation of an ellipse with Vf; and vr;
as semi-m ajor
and semi-mmor axes. respect ively. TIle directi onal variation of
~~
perm eab ility em be cerermmed from the elli pse (Fig. 9.24). A line Fig. 9.24. Din:d ion.11 vari:l.ion of
making an angle Q with a-ax is gives the intercept Vf; as show n in figure. permeability.
Thus k, can be fou nd.

9.17. FLOW NET IN A NON·HOMOGENEOUS SOIL MASS

Sometimes, two different soils are used in a soil mass. thus making it ooe- boqiogeoeocs. Th e Dow lines
and equipotential lines get deflect ed at the interface. 1bc flow net thus gets modified .
Let the coefficients of the permeability of the two soils be lei and 1e2 . We sha ll co nside r se parately the two
cases when (1) k] > le2 and (2) lei < k2•
Case 1. k 1 > k 2• Fig . 9.25 (a) shows the case when the soil- l has perme ability mor e than the soil-2.
The flow lines get deflected towards the normal alter cross ing the interface. Th e phenomenon of deflection of
the flow lines is somewhat sim ilar to refract ion of light rays from a sparse medi um to a dense medium.
Let at be the angle which the flow line makes with the norm al in soil-l and a2 be the ang le, in so il-2.
+1
l....ct and b be the two equipotential lines. The discharge through the flow chann el between lhc two flow
lines in two sotls is given by
&I . = 1. (o;\hl&l ) Art.
aod &12 = k 2 • (.:VII &v.An2
For continuity of flow lICI'OOi the interface, the discharge through the flow chan nel remains the same.
Therefore.
Aql • Aq2
k1 • (Ah IAs I ) • Ani· k2 • (Ahlsv . An 2
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 183

' %r
... ,'Z'~..
.. F low lin e O(~ ..

" ~~~~
F low line .. ~,

(0 ) (b)
Rg . 9.1.'i. Flownct in a non-homogeneous soil.
k l ' (t.n 1/ 65 1) • k z ' (dnz/As z) . . .(9 .41) •
k1 kz
tan Ut - tan Uz
kt tan ul
...(9.42)
k; - lanaz
Eq. 9.41 must be satisfied at the interface by every flow line crossing it.
Case (2) k l < k l, Fig. 9.25 (b) shows the case when the Dow takes place (rom a soil of low permea bility
to that of high permeability. At the interface, the flow line is deflected away from the normal. Using a
procedure similar to that for the first case. it can be sho wn that
kl k2
tan ul - tan u z
kl lanut
(same as Eq. 9.42)
k; • tanuz
As kz > k t , the angle Uz is grea ter than angle a l an d the flow line de flects away from the normal.

Flow Net for Non-Homog eneo us Secti on

Fig. 9.26 shows the flow net for an earth dam cons isting of two soils of different perm ea bility. The now
net is drawn using the followi ng concepts .
(1) The flow net consists of squares in sell-c-t .
(2) The flow lines deflect at the interface, accordin g ot Eq. 9.42.

k1 < ~

Fig. 926. Noa -homogeneoos !CCIi~ .

184 son. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(3) The flow net in soils-2 consists of rectangles. The ratio of the sides of the rectangle can be
determi ned as under : From Eq. 9.4 1,

k1 ,,"1)
(~ - k2
(<\"'
dS2
)
6.n2 _~. (~ )
A S2 kz As!
An t tt. n2kl
Ti - l, 4 $2- 1;
I1s 2 ~
or 61%2 • ~

In Fig. 9.26, as kz :> k l • <\"

6. 2 :> 1.0
n
If the ratio of permeability is greater than 10. flow ne t in the soil of higher permeability need not be
drawn. The 100.<; of head in the soil of higher permeability is neglected. For example, in Fig. 9.26. if
k t :> lOk:z.the flow net in soil-l is neglected and it is assumed that the Oow lines in soil - l are horizontal.
The flow net will be constructed only for soil-2, taking the interface as the upstream face. On the other
hnnd, if k 2 :> 10 k b the flow net will be drawn only for soil-I . In this latter case. the interface will act as
11 discharge face.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Example 9.1. Determine 1M coordinates of the phreatic line fo r the ear th damsho wn in Fig.
9.14, Find the discha rge lhrough the earth dam from the flo w net and also analytically. Talce k = 4.5 x to:
em/se c.
Solution. From Eq. 9.20, taking d = 12.5 m and h = 30 m,
s _ V(d' + h') - d
.~ - 72.5 -5.96m
The coordinates of the phreatic line are determined from Bq. 9.19.
i +2xs-i .o
(5.96)' + 2 x (5.96) - " - 0
or 35 .52 + 11.92x - ? - 0
The a-coo rdinates are determin ed for d ifferent values of x as unde r.

From Eq. 930. q - k h (NrN.) • 4.5 x 1tr x 30 x (4/19)

or q _ 2.84 x 10-5cumecsl m
Analytically, from Eq. 9.2 1, q • k,s
or q _ (~.5 x 1O"~)(5.96). 2.68 x 10-5 cumecs/m
Illustrat ive Example 9.2. Determine the uplift pressure on the impervious concrete floor of the weir
sho wn in Fig. 9.1. Also determine the exit gradient:
Solution. H ow net in COllSlructed as shown in Fig. E 9 .2. Each equipotential drop 6h is 7.5/15 = 0.5 m,
as 11.1 = IS.
SEEPAGEANALYS1S
I"

Fig. E·92
The total head at the two extremnles of the floor are 7.0 m and 05 m, "These are also equal to the
pressure beads, as the undcrface of the floor is at the datum (dis level).
Total uplift force U • t (hI + h2J'tw x area

- t(7.0 .. 0.50) )( 9.81 )( (285 )( I)

or U - 1048.4 kN
The length (As) of the last flow field ncar toe is 1.0 m.
Therefore. exi t gradient (l) _ M Itis _ 0511.00 _ 0.50

PRO BLEMS

9.1. Determine the seepuge disch arge through the foundation of an earth dam if the flow net has 10 equipotential
drops and 35 flow cha nnels. The length of the dam is 300 m and the coefficient of permeability of the soi l is
25)( 10~ cmIsec.'Ihe level of water above the base of the dam is 12 m on upstream lind 4 m on downsJream.
[An:i. 66.23 l( 103'ml, yearJ
9.2. In the experimeolll1 set up shown in Fig. P 9.2, flow takes place: under a constant head through the soi ls A
and B.

Fia. P9.2.
186 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNIJATlON ENGINEERING

(I) Determine the piezom etric head at point C.

(u) If 40% of the excess hydrostatic pressure is 10Sl in Oowing through son B. what are the hydraulic head and
piezometric head III point D.
(iii) If the coefficient of permeability of soil B is 0.05 crezsec, determine lbe same for soil A.
(i v) What is the discharge per unit area ?
[Ans.<,) 120 em, (iJ) 24 em, 64 an, (ii.) 0.033 cmlsec (iv) 0.02 m11scc.
9.3. A homogeneousearth dam is provided with a horizorual tiller drain 30 m long 81 lu toe, as shown in Fig. P 93.
Determine the fOClI length.

Fig. P 9.3 .
Also determine the seepage discharge per unit length if the coefficicm of permeability is 40 m1day.
3
(A ns . s " 3.99 m, q = 159.6 m /dayj
9.4. A Sllndy srraum S m thick has a slope of 1 in 10 and lies between IwO impervious Sirota (Fig. P 9.4). If the
piezometClS inserted III two points 20 m apart indicate a pressure difference of 35m and the coefficient of
permeability is 1.9 1 x 10"'" antsec.dete rmine the seepage discha rge. (Ans. 5 .96 litrcsr1:lour)

Fig. P 9.4.
9.5. Water percolates across II rectangular silly earth fill 30 m long and 15 m wide. The fiJI is founded on lin
impervious stratum and the depth of water on one side is 5.0. Computc the seepage discharge. k = 0.15
em/minutc.. [Ans, 108 m3/dIlY]
9.6. A homogeneous dam is 215 m high and has p free board of 1.5 m. A now net was constructed and the
fotlcwlng results were observed.
No. of potential drops = 12
No. of flow chancls =3
The dam has ll. horizontal filler of 15 m length
CPlculate uie dischargeJm length of the dam if the coefficient of permeability of the dnm material is 2.7 J(
10.6 mzsec. . [An s. 1-"\5 )( 10- 5 cumccsjm]

9.7. ~~Z;:: ~:~tt~ ~~~e~l~f~=b~ li:Y;~ ~~~~:c~O'Nn in FifA::·i.~~u~~~3 :1/~:;1

D. Descriptive and Objedlve Type
9.8. What is a flow net ? Describe its pro~r1ics and applial tions. Describe different methods used to construct the
flow net.
93. Explain the eses of a flow net.
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS 187

...... .

I 4m
:~
· ~
CLAY

Fig. P9.7.
' .10. Describe lhe electrical analogy metbod of flow net coosrccuoe.
9.11. Prove IhIll. lhe disch:ltge per unit widlb of an earth dam with 8 horizmtal filler at its roe is equal to the
coefficlem of penneability limes the focal length.
,.n. Prove Ibal the discharge lbrough an earth mass is given by
q - k '~ 'NI
where lr '" coefficient of penneability, h = head, NI = number of flow channels,
Nfl ., number of eqclporenuei drops.
U3. How would you draw lhe flow net fer a homogeneous earth dam wilhoul any filler?
,.14. Whal is enrry correction of the flow nel ? How is lr done ?
Us. How would you coo.strueI the flow net when the soil is llnisouopic ?
' .16. Explain the mclbod of oonstrueting the flow nel in an earth dam ronsisling of two differenl zones.
' .17. Menrion whether the follO\Wing statements are true or false.
(a) The flow lines and eqeipotcnrlal lines are orthogonal for an isotropic soil.
(b) The number of equipotential Hoes and flow lines is always a full integer.
(e) In lwo-dimensional flow, the velocily in the third direction is zero.
(d) The velocity potential is equal to jbe toUlI head.
(e) The flow eer for anisotrqJic soil can be ob13inedfrom Laplace's equalion.
if) "The electrical analogy metba! can be used to ob13indirec1ly flow lines.
(g) Rd axatioo methcd is used 10determine lhe potentials at varlocs painls.
(h) The upstream face of an earth dam is an equipotential line.
(I) The shape factor depends upon the type of soil.
(J) When Ihe flow passes from a soil of high permeability to that of low permeability, the flow lines are
deflected aWlJY from the normnl. ~
(A:) The equipotential lines make equal vertlcat intercepts on the phreatic line.
(I) The phreatic line rI. a homogeneous scceloo always cuts Ihe downstream face.
(M) The phreatic line at Ihe enrrencemay rise upward.
(n) For an ean h dam with a horizontal filter et its downsIream toe, the Casagrande exit cceectoe is zero.
(Ans. True, (a), (e), fJ), (g ), (h), (.1:),(/), (n) ]
C. Multiple-Choice Qu estions
I . The phreatic line in a homogeneous dam is
(a) Circular (b) Ellipticnl
(e) Hypclbolic (d) Parnbolic
2. If there is now from a soil of pclTIlC:ilbilily 11 to that of k2. the angles 91 and 02 which the now line makes with
the nocmallO the interface arc rda led as
'88 SOIL MEC HAN ICS AND FO UND ATION ENGI NEERING

sin 6t kl

*
(tI) sil)92 = k2
(c) ~~::~ ,.
3. The pressure on a phrea tic line is
lo j equ al to atmosp hen c pressure.
Ib) greater than 3lmosphenc pressure .
Ie) less than atmos pheric pressure.
(d ) not re latcdrc the atmo sph eric pressure.
4. A now net ha... 4 tlow channels and 20 equipotential drops. the shape factor is
(a ) 1/5 (h ) 5
( 0 ) 1\0 (d) Nooe of above
5. For an Isotopic soil, 1,lk= := 9. Pee the transposed section. the horizontal scale should be-
(a) 119 (h ) 1/3
(e) Three limes ( d) Nine times
6. The starting point of the horizontal drainage is usually taken as ... . of parabola
(a) Focus (11) Ori gin
Ie) vertex Ie/) Bot h Ca) and (b l
7. If the flow net of a cofferdam foundation has
h = em . HI = 6 and N,I = lit k = 4 x I O-~ mlmin . then the seepage discharge {in m)/dl per m length is
(a) 0 .2304 (b) 0.1152
(cl 1.0368 (t!) 2.304
K. A n ow net can be used to determine
(a ) Seep age . coefficie nt of permeability and uplift pressure
(b) Seepage . coeffi ciem o f permeabil ity and e xit gradient
(c ) Seepage. exit grad ient and uplift pressure
(J) Seepage a00 exit gradient on l)'
9. For an anisotropi c soil with kx = a kz, the value of the mod ilied coefficie nt of permeability k' is
~2 kx W4 kx
(c10.5 kx (d) 0.25 kx
10. For a tlow net with Nf = 5 lind N,I = 20 , the shape factor is
(a) 0.25 (b) 4.0
(cJ 100 {J} 1.0
I A~I . ~. 2 . ( ~. 3 . ~ ~~ ~ ) ~ ~~ ~~ ~8 . ~ 9 . { ~IQ~
 10
Effective Stress Principle

10.1. INTROD UcnON

The effective SU'eSS principle enunciated by Kar l Terzaghi in 1936 forms an extremely useful basis of the
most impo rtant theo ries in soil engi neering . The effect ive stress principle consists of two parts :
1. Definition of the effeaive stress.
2. Importance of lhe effectivestress in engineering behaviourof soiL
This chapter is devoted main ly to the Brst part. 1be second part dealing with the import ance of effective
stress is discussed briefly in the followingarticle. The role of effective stress on compression -naractertsucs
and shear strength is dealt in detail in chapters 12 and 13, respectively.
The methods for determination of effective stress in soils for hydrostatic conditions and for steady
seepage oondilionsare discussed separately. The effect of seepage pressureon the stab ility of the soil masses
in described. Piping failures and the methods foc its prevcnlKxt are also disaJssod.
10.2. EFTECTIVE STRESS PRI NCIPLE
(1) Defi ni Uon of EfTectlve Stress
Fig. 10.1 shows a soil mass which is fully saturated. Let us considera prism of soil with a aoss-sectknal
area A. The weight P of the soil in the prism is given by
p. y_ hA ...(a)
what: YI(II is the saturated weight of the soil. and h is the height of the prism .
Tot.alstress (0) on the base of the prism is equal to the foroe per unit area. Thus

o • ~ • y,. h .•.(10.1)
While dealing with stresses, it is more convenie nt to work in terms of unit weights rather than density .
As discussed in cha pter 2,
y • P . g
3
3
where y is in N/m and p is in kglm • g 9.81 = mW
Thus, 1,,,, • p_ x g • 9.81 P...
3 3
Generally, the unn weights are expressed in kN/m and the mass density in kglm . In lhal case,

Y.... - P7~ g • 3
9.81 x 10- P,.. . •.(a)
For example, if p_ _ 2000 kglm3 ,
Y_ • 9.81 x 10- 3 • 2CXJ() _ 19.62 kN/m 3
Sometimes, Eq. (a) is approximaled as
190 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

U [J
y- - 0.01 p_ ...(b)
In thai case T SQf .. 0.01 )( 2000 .. 20.00 ItN/ m
1
For convenience, Sq. (b) is sometimes used.
Pore water pressure (u) IS the prcs.sure due to pore water
filling the VOIds of tbe soli. Thus T
" _ y. h ...(10.2) I . .' .
Pore water pressure 15 also known as neutral pressure or
neutral stress. because It cannot resist shear stresses.
Pore water pressure IS taken as zero when II IS equal to
h
1 5o,\

'----~~__.J
p •

.
..
aunospbcrk: pressure. because in soil engineeri ng the pressures
used are genenilly gauge pressureand flO! abso lute pressures. fig. 10.1. Saturated soil mass.
1be effective stress @) at a point in the soil mass i s equal 10 Ihe tota l stress minus the pore water
pressure. Thus
'0-0- 11 . .. (10.3)
For sa turated soils, it is obtained as
(j - 'fUll h - T",h
9t O - (y,... -y",)h
a .. y' h
where T' is the submerged unit weight .
The effeajve stress is also represented by 0' in some texts.
It may be noted that Ihe effect ive stress is an abstrad quantity, as it cannot be measu red direcl ly in tbe
labora tory. II is deduced from two physical. measurable quan tities CJ and IL Thus the effective stress is a
mathemati cal co ncept and not a physical quantity.
(2) Importance or Effective Stress
The effective stress controls the engineeri ng properties of soils . Comp ression and shea r stre ngth of a soil
are depe ndent on the effective stress. 1111.1'>
compression - I( a)
and shear strength .. 'P( a)
where I
and ll' represent some functions.
As lhe effective stress in a so il increases, the compression of the so il occors. This causes settleme nt of
structures buill on soils.
The shear strength of a soil depends on its effe ctive stress . As the effect ive stress is changed , the shear
strength chan ges. The stability of slopes, the earth press ures against retaining struct ure and the bearing
capacity of soils depe nd upon the shear strength of the so il and hence. the effective stress. The importance of
shear strengt h in so il engineering problem cannot be over-empbasised. II is one of the most important
prope rties of soils.
As disaJssed in cteprer 8. the pcnneability of a so il de pends upon the void ratio. With a change in
effective stress. the void ratio of lhe soil changes. Tberefcee,to some extent. the penneability of a soil is also
g?vemed by tbe effective stress.
10.3. NATURE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS
Let us consider a physical model of a so il mass, fully saturated . as shown in Fig. l O.2(a). Let us lake a
wavy plane X· X passing through the points of contact of solid particle.s. On the macroscopic sca le. the wavy
plane cannot be dist inguished from a true horizon tal plane as the individual particles are of relatively small
size. Tbe retore, for all practica l purposes. the plane X·X can be assumed as horizon tal
ER'EC1lVE SfRESS PRINCIPLE 191

The tota l normal force P acting on the soil model is resisted partly by the interparticle forces at lhe points
o f cont act (P.. ) and partly by lhe pen: wate r pressure force (P w) [Fig. 10.2 (b)J.
Th us P - P,. -+ P; ...(1OS)
At every point of contact . the interparticle force F can be resolved into the normal component (N) and
the tangential component (T) to the plane X-X [Fig . 10.2 (e»). The interparticle forces are random in bolh

o
x--~-_x
Pm l?¥
(b)

(el

Fig. 10.2. Pllyslcat model or II soil mass.

magnitude and d irectio n throughout the soil mass. The tange ntial components, however, neutralise one another
and the resu ltant of all the nonnal components is downward.
The effect ive stress is the nominal stress transmitted through the solid particles, and is given by

o _ suma::~ ~::mpTanr:~
". I: .. .(10.6)
Let the area of cross-secuco occupied by the solid particles (minerills) be.4.. and that occcp ed by water
be A_ [Fig. 10.2 (<I»).
Therefore, A - A", -+ A...
or A .... A - A", . . .(10.7)
Let u be the pore water pressure. From Eq. to.5.
P - P» -+ p.. - TN -+ IV

CJ A - 0- A... + uA w .• .(10.8)
where 0- is the actual normal stress transmitted al the points of oontaa of the solid particles, and CJ is the
total stress (Eq. 10.1).
Bq. 10.8 can be written as
a • l', (A,.IA) + u (A.lA)

Using Eq. IO.7. CJ _ a CA / A ) + u (1 -.4...,IA)

or CJ - 0' a + u (I-a",) ... (10.9)

where alii .. Am/A .
192 SOIL MECIIANICS AND FOU NDATION E NGINEERING

The geotechnica l engineer is interested in the effective stress (cj) not in the actua l co ntact stress (O). Let
us again conside r the equilibrium in the vertical direction [Fig. 10.2 (d)}. We have
P _ rN +u A...
oA • IN + uA...
or 0 _ I:.N/ A + u (A..IA) •••(10.10)
In Eq. 10.7. as the area occupied by the interpa rticle coraect (mineral to minerai) A. is very small (about
3% for granular soils). the area A.. be taken approximately equal 10 the 10la 1 area A . In other w<1rds.
A... ....A .
Therefore, Eq. 10.10 becomes a . IN/A + u
Designating EN/A by (he oominal e ffective stress, a,
o_ o + u
or a- o- u (same es Eq. 10.3)
It must be noted that the effective stress @) depends upoo the normal force (IN) transmitted at the points
of contact , but it is not equal to the contact stress ~). It is equa l 10 the total normal force N transmitt ed at
the points of cco tecr divided by the total area A. including tha i occupied by weree, It hes no phys ical meaning
and. therefore . cannot be directly measured . It is much sma ller than the actual contact stress 'tJ.
1be pore water pressure due to water in voids acts equally in all dimchons (Pascal's law). It docs not
resist any shear stress . and, meretcee , is also called lhe neutral stress. However, it is very important as the
effective stress depends upon the pore water pressure.
In clayey soils, there: may not be direct cont act between the minerals due to the surrounding adsorbed
water layers. However, it has bee n established by actual experim ents that the interparticle contact forces C8I'I
be transmitted even through the highly viscous adso rbed water. The above equa tions wh ich have been
developcd assuming the soil as coarse -grained may be used for clayey soils as well,
For surface active minerals, Eq. 103 is mod ified as
;; • 0 - u + (A' - R) .. .[ 10.3 <all
where A ' and R' are respectively the attractive and repulsive forces per unit area.

I DA. En'ECT OF WATER TABLE FLUcrlJATIONS ON EFFECTIVE STRESS

Let us cons ider a soil mass shown in Fig. 103 . The depth of the water table (W.T.) is H I below the
ground surface. The soil above the water table is assumed to be wet, with a bulle unit weight of y. The soil
below the water table is sat urated, with a saturated weight of y_
Tblal down ward force (P) at section X-X is equal to
the we ight (W) of the soil. Thus.
p • W • 1 HI A + 11021 l/zA
where A is the area of crose-secuon of the soil mass.
Dividing by A throughout,

~ • y III + y,Ql I/ z
The left-hand side is equal to the total stress CEq. 10.1).
t t t t tu
There fore, 0 • y III + y,,,,I/Z
The pee water pressure (u) is given by Eq. 10.2 as W. 1Afl,+ Yoa' HzA
u - y..,Hz Fig. tO.J

From Eq. 103 , (j - a - u • (yl/t + y_ Hz) - y..,l /l

or (j - y Ht + (y_ -y..,) llz
 EFFEcnVE SfRFSC;; PRINCIPLE 193

or o-y JI 1 +y' 1f2 . . .(10.11)

Eq. 10.11 gives the effective stress at section X-X. Fig , 10.3 also show s lh~ d irectio ns o f a and u at
X-X.
(a) If the water table rises to the gro und surface, the whole of the soil is saturated, and
(; . 1 ' (H , + H,) . t ' /I ... (10.12)
As y ' < ." the effect ive stress is reduced due to rise of water tab le.
(b) If the wa ter table is depressed below the secti on X-X;
a _ ., 11 . . .(10.13)
In this case, the effcaive stress is increased .
Thus. it is observed that the n uctuaHnns in water table level cause changes in the: pore water press ure and
the corresponding changes in the e ffective stress.

10.5. EFFECTI VE SllU.XS IN A SOIL MASS UNDER IlYD ROSTATI C CONnrnONS

Fig. 10.4 (a) shows a soil mass unde r hydrost atic co nditions., where in the wate r level remains ccnsram .
As Ihe interstices in the soil mass are interconnect ed , wate r rises to the same elevation in different
piezometers rued to the soil mass. The effect ive stress at venous sections can be determ ined using Eq. 103.

-
, w Al"EA ¥w , 111 11
. SOI.. l I1'5olI t >'

SOlL.2 U 'U IJ,

JI ltul'"

Fig. lO.4,Wa lcr Tabte :llxwC' S«1

(1) Water Ta ble above the soil surface A-A:
Sect ion A-A 0 - 1...11, u - 1...11
Therefore, cr _a_u _O ...(a)
Section n-R a - Y... 11 + (y,..h l it , and u - y...(/I ... Il l)
The refore, cr - [(y,,,,h - 1...l H I - Y1' III ...(b)
where YI' is th e subme rged unit of soil-I.
Sect ion C-C a - y H ... (y,..hHI ... (y,..h Jh
u - Y (H ... H I ... H 2)
Therefore a- 'h' III + Y2' 1/ 2 ...«)
where Y2' is the sub me rged unit weight of soil-2.

(2) Wafer Thble at the soli surf ace A-A

Fig. 10.4 (b) shows the cond ition when the depth Jl of water above the sect ion A-A is reduced to zero.
In this case, the effect ive stresses al various secti ons are ddccmincd as under :
I Sect lonA-A a _ u _ a - 0 ...(d)
Section B-B a - (." ..)11/ ) , and u - Yw1/ 1
and 0: - YI' III ... (e)
194 SOIl. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Section C-C (J .. (Y,a)' 111 + (Y,ah Il z

U .. 'Yw(ll, + H z)

Therefore, a .. "fl' HI + Y2' lh ...if)

Comparing Eqs. (a), (b), (e) with (d). (e) and (J). it is observed that the depth Jl of water above the soil
surface docs not contribute to the effective stress at all. In other words. the effective stress in a soil mass is
independent of the depth of water above the soil -surface. It should therefore not be su rprising that the marine
soil deposits, which are unde r a very large depth of water, have a low effective stress and co rre.spondingl y
low shear strength.
(3) Water Tuble In Soil-l
Fig . 10.5 (a) shows the case when the water table is at D-D in the Soil- l at depth Ht'. The effective
stresses at various sections arc determined as follows. .

(., (b'
Fig. 10.5. Wafer Table in (a) sen-i and (b) sene .
Section A-A a -u -iJ -O
Section D-D 0 • YI[{ L' ,
where Y1 is the unit weight of soil above O..,-D. u :::: a
The refore, (j • YIH l '
Section 8-8 a - YI/11' + (Y6.. h Ht (Note. HI' + Ht - HI)
u - Ywllt
Therefore , (j - YIHI' + [(y,.. )1 - Yw] Ht" - YIHI' + YI'H(
Section C-C 0 - yI JII '+ (Y,a)1 Ht + (Y,ahH2
u .. Yw(H2 + fIt)
The refore, (j • YIHt' + Yl' fit" + Y2' Il 2
'When H l " • 0, 0 _ yl lft' + Y2' 112
(4) water Tab le in Soil-2
Fig. to.5 (b) shows the condition when the water table is at EE in Soil-2 at depth 112' , The effective
stresses at various sections are as under:
SedionA-A o -u -iJ-O
Secti on 8-8 a -yIBI , U " 0 , '0 - yl lft
Section E-E 0_ l lJ-lI + Y-i/2" u - 0 (Note. JI 2' + IN' - 1I1J
cr - ylIlt + Y2H2'
Section C-C 0_ ylIl I -+ Y2U2' -+ (YsahH2"
u - Yw Il2"
(j - "tIHt + Y2H2' + Y2' H2"
Efl:ncnVE srxnss PRINCIPLE 195

where Y2' is submerged unit we ight of Soil-Z.

(5) Wate r 'Thble be low c-c

Fig. 10.6 shews the condition when the water tabl e is below C-C.
As the porewater pressure is zero everyw here, the effective stresses arc
ajso equal (0 the total stresses.
Sectjon B-B (J • 0' • YlH I
Sectio n C-C 0 • a•
YlHI + 'hH2
The fonowing points are worth noting in the five cases studied
above. -----.¥------
(I) ~ere=v:a:.":w:. any section goes on tocreesing as the Fia. 10.6. 'NIkr Table below Klil.

(2) The effWive stress depends upon the bulk. un.i.I weigh!. above the water tlbk and the submerged unit
weight below the water kvcL
(3) The effcaive stresses in a soil mass can be dc:lamined from the basic defin itions., without
memorising any formula.
10.6. INCREASE IN H n :CnVE SfRESSES DUE TO SURCIIARGE
ut us consider (he case when the soil scrtece ~ subjedcd to a surcharge 100d of Inlensity q per unit area .
Let us esseme that lhe water table is at level B-B (Fig. 10.1). The stresses at various sections are de termined
as under.
Sn.150n A- A o -q, u_ o , o _q
Le., all the points on the soil surface are subjeded to an
efIeaive stress equal to q. ~ I ~ ~ I
Sn:tlo n ll- B o • q + 11 H I ' u • 0 A
~I
'Ibcrefoee, 0 - q + Yl H I B ft B
Section e--c 0 - q + Y1HI + (Y,,,hJl2
II - y",H 2 ( l"sa' l:!
There fore, a- q + Yl H I + Y2'//2 c c
From the above tltus iratlons. it is clear that the effccti vc stress
throughout the depth is grea ter tban the case with no surcharge
discu...sed in the preceding section . The difference is equal to the F1i · 10.7.Effect of SurchHrge.
lntensny q. In other words, the effective stress is increased by q throughout .
10.7. E.'f·ECTIVE SntE..~SES IN SOILS SATURATED BY CAI'ILLARY ACTION
If the soil above the water table is saturated by capillary action, the effective stresses can be determ ined
using Bq. 10.3. How ever, In this cas e the pore water pressur e abov e the water tnble is negative [Fig. 10.8 (a)l.
The water table is at level B-ll. Let us cons ider two cases:
(I) Soli satura ted upto surface leve l A-A [Fig. 10.8 (a)]
(2) Soil saturated up to level D-D [fig . 10.8 (b)]
(I) Soli saturated upl o surface level A-A (fig. 10.8 (a»)
The pore pressure d iagra m is drown on the right side.
The stCC!'&S at various sccdoos are det ermin ed as under.
SKtlonA-A a • 0, II · -1", H t
Tberetoee, o . 0 - (-1",Jl 1) - y",H 1
1% SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(b)

Fig. 10.8. Effed of a pillary rise.

If the soil was not saturated with capillary action. the effective stress at section A-A would have been
zero . Thus, the capillary action has increased the effective stress by 1",,111- In other words , the negative
pressure acts like a surcharge (q).
Secuon D-D rJ = (0",,) ] H I' (No te. /I I' + /It = H I)
If =- '(",II( = - y,..(1/ 1 - H I' )
There fore, a = [('(,<I,) ' H I' - y~,f11 '] + Y",H I
0 - r.' 111' + y...H .
If the soil had been saturated due 10 rise in water-table 10 A-A. the effective stress at section D--D
would have been "tt' Il l" Thus , the effec tive stress is increased by 't,..111 due 10 capillary action .
Sectjo n n--Il 0 _ (Ysa), HI . u _ 0
There fore, (j - (rs.. )J III - "tl' II• ... 1.../1)
If the soil above B-B had been saturated due 10 rise in water table to A-A. the effective stress would
have bee n 'tl' H I _Thus !.he effect ive stress is increased by 'twil l by cap illary action
Sect ion C-C 0 - (1 )1Hl + (Y... h Il2 ' u - 't",112
Therefore, 0 • (y hH I + 'f2' Hz + y...H 1
.. 't2' 112 - 11' //1

At this section also, the effect ive stress has also increased by lw HI '
It may be noced thai the effecti ve stress al all levels below lhe plane of saturatio n A-A.. due to capillary
water, is increased by lw HI ' The capillary water pressure lw 1/1 acts as if a surdlarge. 1be e ffect is somewhat
similar to the constant com pressive stresses induced in the walls of the capillary tubes discussed in chapter 7
(2) Soli saturated upto level D-D [FIg. 10.8 (b)] .
Let us now consider the case when the soil above the water table B-B is saturated only upto level
D-D upto a height Ht . The soil above level D--D is wet and has a unit weight of y.
The capilla ry rise in this case is H r".
The stresses at various sections can be det ermined as under.
Sect ion A-A (J ." .. 0.0
There is no effect of capillary water .
Sectio n D--D a .. 11H I' , u .. - l ""Ht
lberefore, U • YI HI' ... Yw Ht
The effective stress due to capillary pressure is increased by ywH t .
Sectio n B-B a .. l H I' + ('1'. ...) 1 li t .. 11' HI' + 11' H J " + """Ht
u • 0
Therefore. a • (11H I' + Yl Ht) + y""Jlt
EfFECTIVE SfRESS PRINCIPLE ,.7
The e ffective stress is increased by '(.. fi t" due to capi llary action.
Likew ise, it can be shown lhat Ihe effective stress is increased by l", Ht 3t section C-C also.
The following points may be noted from the study of boI.h cases :
(1) The capillary wa ter above the wa ter !able causes a negative pressure '{...II. where 11 is the capillary
rise . This negat ive pressure causes an increase in the e ffective stresses at all levels be low the
saturation level The Iocrease is equal to 1",11. The capillary action is eq uivalent to a surcharge
q - ,.fI.
(2) If the soil is saturated d ue to rise in wa ter table. Ihe effective stress depends upon the Submerged Wlil
weight; whe reas for the so il saturated wit h cap illary water, the effectiv e stresss depends upon the
sa turated un it weigh t. In the latter case, the WOller does not contribute to hydrostatic pressure.
(3) U the wate r table rises to the top soil surface. the meniscus is destroyed and the cap illary water
changes to the Iree water , and the effective stress is reduced throughout .
(4) Eq. 103 is ap plicable in all cases. However, it should be remembered that the pore water pressure
in Ute cap illary zone is negative.
10.8. SEEPAGE PRESS URE
As the water flows through a soil, it exerts a force on the soil The force aas in the direclion of flow in
the case of isotropic soils. The force is known as the drag force or s«page force. The pressu re induced in
the soil is term ed seepage press/lre.
Let us cons ider the upwa rd no w of water in <I soil sample of len gth Land cross-sectionalarea A under
a hydraulic head of h [Fig. 10.9 (a) J. The cxpres's ion for seepage force and see page pressure can be derived
considering the boundary water pressures UI and u2 ectmg on the top and bottom of the soil sample, as shown
in Fig. 10.9 (bXI). 1bc boundary water pressure can be resol ved into two romponents, nam ely, the hydrostatic
pressure and the hydrod ynam ic pressure as shown in Fig. 1O.9(bXil) and 1O.9(b )(iil).
(1) The hydrosta tic press ures /l1(S) and U2(S) are the com ponent s wh ich wou ld occur if there were no
flow. U the samples were sub merged under wate r to a dept h o f HI, these press ures would have
occurred,

T
I

( Ol

Fig. 10.9. Vertically upwiI rd now.

198 SOI L MECHA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(2) The hydrodynamic pressures Ul(d) and Ui,.tlJ are the rom poncnls which arc responsible for now of
water. Thi..s pressure is spent as the water flows through the soil. These components cause the
seepage pressure.
At the lop of me sample. UI - UI ($) + Ut (d)
m ~ HI-~ Hl +O
At the bot tom of the sample . &.1 2 " U2 ($) + &.1 2 (d)
lw(H I + L + h) .. "(...(1ft ... I.) + y",h
The hydrodynamic pressure is due (0 hydra ulic head h. The seepage force (1) acts on the soil ske leton
du e tonowfng water through frictional drag . It is given by
J - l _hA . ..(10 .14)
The seepage pressure (P,) is the seepage force per unit area,
p, • J /A • (; « ... (10.15)

lbe seepage pressure (P,) can be expressed in terms of the hydraulic gradient. From 10.15.
P, .. y_ h - Y.... (1./1. ) . L
or P, • ti; L •..(10.16)
Th e secpege force (1) can be expressed as the for ce per unit vo l ume (J) . as
. J YwhA h
) .. A"";L .. "'AL .. l w L
or j .. h... ... ( 10. 17)
Thus. the seepage force per unit vol ume is equal to the prod uct of the hydraulic grad ient (I) and the unit
weight of water. As the hydraulic grodienl is dimensionlcs.s, the seepage forc e per unit volume has the
dimensions of the unit weight (i.e.)IFI1}j. lt has the units of N/m3• For isotrop ic soils. the seepa ge force acts
in the direction of now.

10.9. FORCE EQUILIBRIUM IN SEE I'AGE PROIlLEMS

Force equ ilibri um in see page problems can be rons idered adopting ei lhcr of the followi ng approaches.
{I} Considering the equ ilibrium of the entire mass and using the bound.-uy JX"fSSurcs.
(2) Consi dering the equ ilibrium of the solid part icle or the mineral skeleton. and using the hydrodynam ic
pressures.
(a) Vertical Flow
(I) Upwards, Fig. 10.10(0) shows the forces acting on the soil mass shown in Fig. 10.9 (a), Th e unit
weight of the soil used is the saturated unit weight. The resultant force (R) on the soil mass considering the
equilibrium of the entire mass . adopting the first approach ,

$UG+JU
~OARY
U'2=¥.(~ +l"HllA
FORtES
U;:'t",h"
FORCES ACTING 0111
R: u.+ w- U2 SOLID PARTJ(LES
: L"r'_)".. h" R:w'- U2:~J
: L"~-r.. h"
lot' Cb!
Fig. W.W. Force cqulllblmm in vertical now.
EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE 199

R = (W + VI) - V 2
R .. (LA '(sat + '(",AlII) - '(W A (fir + L + h)
or R _ LA y' - y.h A ••.(10.18)
The figure 00 the left-hand side shows the force diagram. The resultant force R acts downward.s. For
stability of the mess, R must act downwards.
Fig. 1O.10(b) shows the forces acting on the solid particles, adopting the second approach. The unit
weight of the soil used in this approach is the submerged unit weight. The resultant force (R) on the soil
skeleton is given by
R - W ' - V 2'
R - LA t ' - '(",hA (same as Bq. 10.18)
In Eq. 10.18, the first term gives the submerged unit weight and the second term, the seepage force (Eq.
10.14). It must be noted that in the first approach, the seepage force (1) is not considered se paratel y. It is
automatically accounted for in the boundary forces.
(h) Downwards. Adopting a similar procedure, it can be shown that the resultant force when the now is
downward is given by
R = LAy' + 'Yw h A .. .(10.19)

(b) Inclined Flow

Fig. 10.11 (a) shown the now through an inclined soil specimen. In this case also. the resultant force R
can also be determined by adopting either of the two approaches discussed above for the vertical flow. As for
the vertical now, in the first approach, the resultant force R is the vectorial sum of the saturated weight

-LS- r~
u 'P"' m" sot
'"b )
•
F"low

B "
III R "Wso t +U

\0 )
121R= w;,Ub0
lb)

Fig. 10.11. Fora: eq uilibrium In Inclined now.

(Ws....) and the boundary forces V. In the second approach, the resultant force R is the vectorial sum of the
submergedweight (W.ub) and the seepage force (1). The force triang les are shown in Fig. 1O.1l(b). Thus
(1) ii _if,. + Ii (10.20)
(2) R • if,", + ] (10.21)
Thus the two approaches give the same resultant force R.
In Fig. 10.11 (b), the buoyant force is represented by D. Obviously,
B - Wsat - Wmh • •• (10.22)
The two approaches give identical results. However, the first approach is more popular. It is more
convenient to determine the boundary forces than to determine the seepage forces. The seepage forces depend
upon the direction of flow and change from point to point. It becomes difficult to determine the seepage
forces.especially in two-dimensional flow.
 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

10.10. EFF ECnVE STRESSF..~

The seepage force affects

;';':iV:~U:~ i~=;;'~O~ "2~

UNDER
As the wa ter flows through the so il. it
exerts a seepage force on me soil particles.
the interparticle

as the seepage force increases the

downward,
interpart icle forces . On the other hand, when
1
~lEADY

"1
SEEI )AGE CONDITIONS

the now is upward. the e ffective stress is

dC(.Te3S00 as the seepage force decreases the
interpart icle forces. The two cases arc:
r-j~~~~;§~-¥-,
discussed separately bel ow.
(a) Downw ard Flow. Let us consider the
case when the flow is down ward (Fig. 10.12) .
The head causing Dow in h. Tbe pore water
pressu re at sections A-A and B-B are Fig. 10.12. Downwllfd Aow.
indicated by the piezom eters. The effective stresses at various secooos are dete rmined using Eq. 10 .3.
Section A-A 0 .. Y ... II.... u· 1...1/,....
The refore . cr '" 0
Section n.. - II 0 '" (1... )1 H I + 1.. 11 u • y.. H ...1
Therefore. a '" (y,,,,,)1H I + y...H - y.. I1 1
cr '" (YI' H I + 1 H 1) + y.. H - y.. I1-",,1
'0 = Yl ' If l + y (I1.... + 111 - 11...1)
For hydros tatic co nd itions. the effective stress is r.' Ill' as d iscussed in Sect . 10.5. The second tenn
indicates lhe effect due to flow.. As (H.. • JJ1) > 11...1, the effect ive stress is increased due to dow nward flow.
Section C-C 0 = y.. I1 + (1... )1111 + (y...h H 2 • u . 0
'Ibererore. a• y... H + (Yl' • y...) III • (''/2' • l ...) 1/2
(j '" ll ' HI + Y2' H 2 + Y (1/1 + H .... + Hi)
or (; '" YI' 1/ 1 • Y2' H2 + Y·II
A co mparison with the effective stresses corresponding to hydrostatic conditions shows that the effective
stress is increased by Y.... h.
The conclusion that the effect ive stress is increased due to dow nward flow can also be dra wn from
intitutive feeling that as the water flows downwa rd, j( exerts a drag force in the downward direction and
causes an increase in the interparticle forces ,
(b) Upward tlow. Fig. 10.13 show s the case when rbc flow is upw ard . The piezo meters at various
elevations indicate the pore water pressure .
Sect ion A-A 0 '" y...If.... u. Y.... /I ..
Therefore, '5 .. 0
Section B--n o '" l ... If...· + (Yl..)l 111. U - y.. H...l
Therefore, a '" (Y.<II)11I 1 + y.../I.. - y.. /I..I
- (-'1' + -,.. ) 111 + y.. l1 - -,.. 11..1
0'" YI' II I + y.. (l/l + 1/ - 11..1)
As 1/...1 > (1/1 + II...). the term Y",(1I1 + II... - 11...1) is negative, and the e ffective stress is less than that
~rom the corresponding hydrostat ic cond itio ns
EFFECI1VE STRESS PRINCIPLE 2m

Fig. 10. 13. Upwa rd Flow.

Section C--C 0 • '( ... 1/... + ('(",)111, + (y... h H z • u · 1•..JI...z

{j • '(", /I", + ('(,' + '(..,)I1\ + ('(z' + '(",) liz - 1",11..'2
(j • 1\' //1 + 1z' I12 - (I1W2 - 11", - 1/ 1 - /Ii) 1...
(j - 1\' 1/, + 12' //2 - y",h
Thus, the effective stress is reduced by y",h from the com:spo nding hydrostenc condi tions.

10.11. QUICK SAND CONDmONS

As discussed aoove, the effective stress is reccced due 10 upward flow of water. Whcn lhe head causing
upward flow is increased, a stage is eventually reached when the effective stress is reduced 10 zero . The
condition so developed is known as quick sand condition . J-ig. 10.14 shows a soil spedmcn of lengm L
SUbjected to an upward pressure. lei us consider the stresses developed at section C-C

Fig. 10.14 . Quic k MOOcon ditions .

o - Y... L _ (y ' + y",)L, u . '(",11"" - y...(L + h)
Tberenxe, (j - (y ' + y..J L - Yw' (L + h)
or a - y 'L - y",h
The secood term can be wrinen in terms of the hydraulic gradient as under.
y.h • y. (hIL) · L - 't• • i . L
Therefore, (j - '( ' L - y", it
202 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The effective stress becomes zero if "1 ' L - 't...i L

or i • y '/ y. . ..(10 .23(0»)
Th e hydraulic gradient at which the effectiv e SlrCSS becomes zero is known as the critical grad ient (i c) '
Thus
i, • y '/y. ...( 10.23)
Substituting the value of lhe submerged unit weight in terms of void ratio from Eq. 2.24 (a).
ic _ (~ : ; ) .. . (10 .24)

Taking the specifi c grav ity of solids (G) as 2.67. and the voi d ra tio (e) as 0.67,

t, • i·~7 ;'6~ • 1.0

Thus the effect ive stress beco mes zero for the so il w ith above va lues of G and e when the hydraulic
grad ient is unity i.e. the head causing now is equa l to the length of the specime n.
Alternatlve method
The abo ve express ion for the critica l gradient ca n also be ob tained fro m the equ ilibriu m of forces . When
the quick conditio n deve lops, the upward force is equa l 10 the downwa rd weigh t. Thus
lSQI (L )( A) - (h .. L) A y...
or (y_ - y. )LA • A h y.
Ly ' • h Y. ... (I0 .23(b»)
or hI t · i 'rt:
i - 1 '/y.. ...[same as Eq. 10.23 (a»
The shear strength of a cooesionless soil depends upon the effecti ve stress (see chapter 13). The shear
strength is given by
s - o lan t
where • is the angle of shearin g resistance. Tbe shear strength becom es zero when the effective stress
(; is zero. The soil is then said 10 be in quick (alive ) rondition . If the cri tical gradie nt is exceeded, the soil
partic les move upward, and the soil surface appears (0 be boil ing . The quic k con dition is also known as
bo iling condition: During this stage, a vio len t and vis ible agita tion o f particles OCOJrs. The discharge suddenly
increases due to an increases in the coefficientof permeability occurred in the process. If a weigh t is placed
on lhe surface of soil, it sinks down . The soli beha ves as a liqu id having no shear streng th.
When a natural soil deposit becomes quick , it cannot support the weight of man or anim al But contrary
(0 common belief, the soil does not suck the victims beneath ilS surface. As a maile r o f fact, qUick sand

behav es like a liquid with a unil weight about twice thai of wat er. A person can ea sily floa t in it with about
one-third of his bod y out of qu ick sand . However, qu ick sand is highly viscous and movemen t In it would
req uire a grea t effort and energy. A person may die by drown ing (suffocation) if he gets tired and let his head
fall into the q uick sa nd in panic.
If a person is caugbt in qu ick sand co nditions. he shou ld keep his heed high above the soil surface and
move slowly towards the ban k. He sh ould try to cerch som e tree on the bank and try to puU himself out of
the qui ck sand .
II is 10 be emphasized that qu ick sand is no( a special type of sand . II is a coodition which occurs in a
soil whe n the effective stress is zero . Any cohes ionIess soil can become quick w hen the upward seepage fro:e
is large enough to carry the soil panicles upward. The quick sand rondition may also develop in gravel when
the hydraulic gradient exceeds tbe critical grad ient. However, the discha rge required 10 maintain quia
andition in grav els ~ very large, wh ich may not be available. The required discha rge depends upon the
permeability of the soil
 EFFEC11VESTRESS PRINCIPLE 2113

The shear strength of cohesive so ils is given by (sec chap ter 13).
s - c+otan$
The soil has shea r strength equal to the cohesion intercept (c) even when the effect ive stress is reduced
to zero . The cohesive soils, therefore , do not becom e quick as soon as the effect ive st ress is reduced 10 zero.
The quick sand cond itions may be summarised as under:
(1) Quick sand is not a spec ial type of so il. It is a hydraulic cond ition.
(2) A cobesiontess soil becomes quick when the effect ive stress is equal to zero.
(3) 111c critical gradient at which a cohcsionl css soil becom es quick is about unity .
(4) The discharg e required to maintain a quick condition in a soil increases as the permeability of the
soil increas es.
(5) The cohesiv e soil docs not become quick when the effective stress is equal to ze ro, as it still
possesses some stren gth equal to the cohesion intercept.
(6) A quick condition is most likely to occur in silt and finc sand .
10.12. SEEPAGE IJRESSURE AIJPROACII FOR QUICK CONDUIONS
The expression for critical gradi ent in the proceedin g section has been developed using the first approach
mentioned in Sect. 10.9, i.e., consideri ng the boundary
pressures. The same expression can . be developed
using the second approach, i.e; considering the -r h
seepage pressure.
Let us consid er the equilibrium of the soil
skeleton in Fig. 10.15. The downward force is given
L,--------¥--, 1
I
"
by
W.1Ib • (A x L) r '
!WSVb
j
L

The upwa rd force is equal to the seepage force

(Bq. 10.14) . I'
J .. t t; (A xL)
When the soil becomes quick, the resultant force
is zero .
Therefore, Fig. 10.15. Seepage Pressure Approllch
ALy ' .. ;YwCA x L)

i - f ... (some es Bq, 10.23)

Alternatively, one can work with pressures instead of forces. The downward pressure due to the
submerged weight of soil is given by
(j .. t' L
The seepa ge pressure is given by Eq. 10.16 as
PI - ;Y",L
The net eff ective stress would be zero when cr .. P•.
Thus iLy", - y 'L
i .. y ' / Yw •••(same as Eq. 10.23)
10.13. EFFECT OF SURCllARGE ANIl SUBMERGENCE ON QUICK CONllmONS
Fig. 10.16 shows D soli specimen submerged under water and subjected to surcharge load of intensi ty q:
Let us consider the stresses at sect ion C-C.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGlNEERlNG

T
I
Fi g. l o. l 6. F1Ja:t cl ~.

o - 1 11 + q + l_L
and It - l H 1 or It - l ...(h + II... + L)
'Iberefcee, (j - <1 H + q + lldL) - l ...(h + If... + L)
The soil will become quic k when (j _ O. Thus
l ...(h + II... + L ) .. 1 II + q + 1_ L
l ...h + 1...11... + 1 L - 1 11 + q + l _ L
1 h - l ' L + q
h _ 1 ·~...+ q ... ~10.25)

Co mparing this equation with Eq. 10.23 (b) for the: case when there ii no surcharge: as dscossed in the
preceding sections. it is observed that the:: head required to cause quick rendition is increased by qllor 10
orbe r words, the down ward weight Iocrcases the: stability against quick oonditions. Tbe aitical gradient is.
however , Dot affected by the depth of water (II ...) over the soil surface . Substi tuting q = 0 in Eq. 10.25 .

h • L!:.
Y.
hlL .1 ' / 1...
j - 1 '/1... ... (same as Eq. 10.23)

10.14. FAILURES OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES BY l'lPING

Hydra ulic strucicres, such as weirs and dams. bui U on pervious foundations sometimes fail by fonnatioo
of a pipe-sba ped channe l in its foundatkln. known as piping failure The failUR occurs when wate r flowing
throu gh the foondation has a very high hydrau lic gradie nt and it carries soil particles with it, There arc two
types o f such failures :
(I) Beckwara-ercstco piping failure.
(2) Heave-piping failure .
( l ) .Backwa ni Erosi on P ipi ng. Th is type of piping begins with the removal of soil panicles by flowing
water near the exit points . A scour hole forms near the exit when the hydra ulic gradient is high. Tbe bole
extends upstream along the foundati oo . 'The failure occurs as soon as the scour hole approaches the upstream
reservoir. 1bc failure mechanism of backward erosion piping is not aa:nenablc to theoret ical solutm.
EFFEC1TVE SfRESS PRINCIPU::

Backw ard erosion of soil is ca used by Ihe percola ting wate r, and the piping begins when the hydraulic
gradient at exit, known as exit gradient, exceeds the cn ucat grad ien t (it ), given by Bq. 10.24. The soil at the
exit is removed by the percolating wa ter. When the soil near Ihe exit has been removed , the flow net gels
modified . There is more conce r areuon of the now lines in the rema ining soil mass, resu lting in an increase

Ag. 10.17. Backward emNOO Piping.

of Ihe exit gradie nt. This causes further removal of the soil. Th is process of backward erosion continues
towards the upstream reservoir and a sort of pipe is formed (Fig. 10.17). As soo n as the channel approaches
the reservo ir, a large amount of water rushes through the channel so formed and the hydrauli c structure fails.
Backward erosion piping may also occur in the body of earth structure. such as an earth dam. This lakes
place when the phreatic line cuts Ihe downstream faa: of the dam and the seepage pressure is high. It is
indicated by a progressi ve sloughing of the downstream face . Such failures can occur even when the exit
gradient is low. If tbe downstream faa: has the s lope angie equal to the angie of internal friction of the
cohesionless soil, the critical gradient at which failure occurs is approximately equal to zero. In other wcecs,
the failure ma y occur even whe n the seepa ge is almost horizontal towards the downstream fare .
Backw ard erosion piping ma y also occu r along any weak beddin g plan e in the foundation, or along the
periphery of a condui t embedded in the earth dam when the seepage pressure is high.
Generally. backward erosion piping failure occurs when the exn gradient is greater than the critical
gradient. But. in exceptional cases, it may occur even when tbe overall downward submerged weight of the
soil is grea ter than !he upward force due to seepage. In such a case, some of the fine particles of the soil are
carried by the percolating water eve n though the most of soil particles are restrained. Thereafter, the see page
concentrat es in the loosened soil and results in piping failure.
(2) Heave Piping. Failure by heave piping occurs in the form of a rise or a heave of a large mass of soil
d ue to see page pressure. When the seepage force due to upward flow of wa ter at any level is greate r than the
submerged weight of the soil above thai level. the entire soil mass in tha t zone heaves up and is blown out
by tbe percolating water, This type of failure is known as heave piping failure.
Heave piping may occu r on the downstream of a shee t pile cutoff wall of 8 hydrauli c strccrcre (Fig.
10.18). According to Terzaghi , heave piping occurs within a distance of D{2 on the downstream of the sheet
pile, where D is the depth of pile below the ground surface . It occurs in the zone marked a b c d when the
upward see page force is greate r than the submerged 'weight of the soil in this zone. Tbe seepage force can be
determined from the flow net.
In Fig . 10.18. the equipotential line of potential 0.4 h passes throu gh d and that of 0.3 h through c. The
average excess bydros tatic pressureon the base c d of the prism a bc d is 0.35 h. Tberetoee, upward seepage
force. U • 'fw (0.35 h) (D/2 x I) per unit length and downw ard reee due to submerged welgtll ,
206 son.MECHANICSANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING

J;;[]]~
1.. T
Fig. lO.l8.lIeave Piping.
W.y'x(Dl2x D)
Heave piping wo uld occur when U II: W '. TIle failure is associated with an expansion of the soil whidl
results in an Increase in the permeeoluty of !he soil. The flow suddenly Increases and ultimately leads to
failure .
The factor of safety with respect to heave piping a m be obtained from the followingequation.
F.~.~
U y. (he) (D 12)

or F. :L.E...
y. he
. ••( 10.26)

where hD is We average excess hydrostatic pressure at the base of the prism ab c d.

10.15. P REVENTION O F PI PI NG FAI L URES
The occurrenceof piping in and below a hydraulic structure such as an earth dam is disastrous. This may
cause catas trophe . Th e followi ng measures are generally adop ted 10 prevent piping failures.
(1) Increasing the palh of percolatio n. The hyd raulic gradient (,) depe nds upon the p<'l th of percolation
(L). If the length o f the path is increased , the: exit gradie nt will oecreese 10 a safe value. The length of the
path oC percolation can be Increased by adopling the following merbods.
(a) Increasing the base width of the hydmulic struct ure.
(b) Providing vertical OJt off walls below the hydrau lic structure .
(c) Providin g an upstream impervious blanket, as shown in Fig. 10.19.
(2) Red ucing Seepage. Wilh a reduction of seepage Ihrough the dam, Ute chances of piping failure
thro ugh Ute body of the dam are considerab ly reduced. Th e quantil), of seepage discharg e is reduced by
providing an impervious core, as shown in Pig. 10.19 .
(3) Providing dratnage ni ter. A drai nage filter cha nges the direction ofnow away from (he downstream
face. It prevents the movemen t of soil particles along with water. 1be drainage filter is properly graded, as
discussed in the follow ing section .
The drainag e filter may be horizontal or in the form of a rock roe (Sect. 9 .11). It may also be in the form
EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPlE
""
~~
'---- UPSTREAM lllANKET

Fig. 10.19. fuve nliOfl of Piping,

of a chimney drain , as shown in fig. 10.19. A chimney drai n is effective for stnIlified soil deposits in which
tbe horizontal permeability is greater than the vertica l penneability.
(4) Loa ded filt er. A loaded filler consists of graded sand and gravels. The fUndion of the )oadcd filter
is to increase the downward force without increasing the upward seepage force . .
The loaded filler is placed at the exit po int where the water emerges from the foundation. For the sheet
pile wall, the filter is placed over the affected zone abc d in Ag. 10.18. The loaded filler increases the factor
of safety against heave piping. The factor of safe ty (f) is given by
F _ W'; W ••.(10.27)

where W is the weight of filter.

The loaded filter should be of pervious materia l such that it docs noc. increase the hydrostatic pressure. It
should on ly increase: the downward force.
10.16. DESIGN OF A GRADED FILTE R
A graded filter consists of layers of pervious material which pennit flow of water but prevent the
movement of soil particle s. The soil particles in a particular layer are coarser than that in the preceding layer.
However. the difference of sizes of the particles in the two layers sho uld not be excessi ve otherwise the
particles of the preceding layer will be ca rried into the next layer. Th e particle sizes of differe nt layers are
fixed according to the des ign crite ria given below :
(1) The filter ma terial shou ld be coarse eno ugh so that the pcrcoleung water moves eas ily without any
build up of water pressure in the filler.
For the fJIler to provide free drainage . its roefficient of permeab ility shoul d be 25 times or more !han the
coefficient of permeability of the soil to be protected. known a> a base maluiaL As the ooeffIc:ien! of
permeability vane; as the square of the particles size, the ratio of the particle diameters should be at least 5.
Therefore, the Iirst criterion of design of gl'Pded filter is lhat D u of filter material is greater than SD15 of base
material
or V" (j) > 5 V" (b) ...(10.28)
where (j) stands for filter and (b) Cor base material.
(2) The filler mater ial should be finc enough that the soil particles of the base material are not washed
through the filter,
It would not be necessary to scree n out all the particles in the base matertal.. If the niter openings
restrain the coarsest 15% ie . D ss size of base material. the soil particles are checked due 10 formation of a
skeleton. The coarser 15% particles rolled. over the openings in the filter material and Icem smaller openings
to trap the smaller particles. a> shown in Fig. 10.20 . ThereCore, the size of the openings formed in the filter
must be less than D ss of the soil. It has been established tha t the dameter of the openings is about 1/5 of the
DIS size of the filter. Therefore. the second criterion is

~ DI S of filter material < D8.~ of base of material

V" (j) < 5 Va>(b) ... (10.29)

Combining both the criteria (I) and (2).
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDIillON ENGIN EERING

, , .... ----- , .......

L~GAAlN

I
\
\
\
""
Fig. 10.20. Openi ngs in filler

D lS(fJ <5 -c D Is(/) .. .(1030)

Ds..
«b) DIS(b)
The U.S. Corps of Engineers have recommended that
D",fJ)
D", (b) < 25 .. .[10.30 (a)l
In a graded filter, each layer is designed considering it l.IS a filler and the preceding layer ali a base
material. The particle sizes of the layers increase in the direction of flow. (Fig. to .21).

c., c.
Fig. 10.21. Graded filter.
(4) The material of the last layer should be CO.1C'SC enough not to be carri ed away through the openings
of the perforated drainage pipes, if provided.
If the Dss sizc of the last layer satisfies the following criterion, the chances of washing of the filter
material into the pipes are reduced. •
For circular hales in the pipe,
D ss of filler material
Diameter of the hole > 1.2 ...(1031)

For slotted openin.gs.

Oasof fJ.lter material
Wid lh ofslol > 1.4 •.. (10.32)

D as of filler material
Generally, size of opening for bo th Iypes of the openings is kept equa l to or grater than 2.0.
(5) The grain size curve of the filler material should be roughly parallel to that of the base material.
EfFECTI VE SfRESS PRINCIPLE

(6) To avoid segregation . filter should not con tain the panicles of size tarpcr than 75 mm.
(7) For proper working. the filte r materia l should not con tain more than SSe. of the fines passing 7SJ.l IS
sieve.
(8) The thickness and area of the filter should be sufficient to carry the seepage discharg e safely.
If the filter has to work as a loaded filler. the total thickness should be large enou gh to provide adequate
weight.

10.17. EffECTIVE STRE.~ IN PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIlS

In partially saturated soils. air is also
present along with water. In the discussio n
given below, it is assumed th..at air is in
sufflciem quantity such that there is
conununy in both the air phase and the water
phose. Because of men iscus formation. the air
pressure is greater than the water pressure. It
is assumed thai the air pressure and water
pressure are cons tant throughout the void
spaces. Thus, there are three measurable
stresses in a partia lly satura ted. namely. total c.,
stress 0, pore water pressu re u... and air
pressure u".
Let us cons ider the forces acting on the
wavy plane X-X. shown in Fig. 10.22 (0).
The wavy plane passes through the points of
contact of solid particles . The wavy plane can ( bi
be taken as a plane as already mentioned .
Fig. 10.22. PartiaUy satu r:lle(( soil.
Fig. 10.22 (b) shows the forces acting on the
plane, From equilibrium in the vert ical direaion.
uA - IN + u...A ... + u"A" ...(a)
where 0 = total stress, A 101031 area of the plane, A... = area of the plane passing through WOlter.
A" =
area of the plane passing through air. and
IN = summation of normal forces acting at the particle to particle contact points.
T.N A... A ..
From Eq. (a). o-T +u"'A+ u"A
(J - (j + u...a... + u.. (1 - a...) ...(b)
where (j = effective stress (. T.NI A) , a.... A,,/A, and a" _ A/A _ 1 - a...
The area at the points of con tact is neglected as it is very small as compared to the area through the
water and that through the air. Eq. (b) can be written as
(j • 0 - u... a...- u" (1 - a,..) .••(1032)
Eq. 10.32 C3MOI be verified experime ntally as it is difficult to meas ure the area a.... Bishop er at (1960)
cooduacd a large numbe r of tests and gave the following equation for the effective stress in partially
saturated soils.
(j • o - u" + X(u" - u...) . . .(1033)
where X (pronounced as Chi) represents the fraction of the area of the soil occupied by water. It depends
mainly 00 tbe degree of saturation S (Fig. 10.23). Its va lue is zero for dry soil and is unity for fully saturated
soil. The value of X also depends upo n the soil structure . the cycle of welling and drying. and stress changes.
no SO IL MEC HANICS AND FOU NDATION ENGI NEERI NG
' ,0

O·6
V
V
6

O'4
/ -,

/
O·
2/
O·0
20 40 60 80 100
OEGREE OF SATURAfON (S) ...
Fig. 10.23. VllrialiOll0( X wilh S .

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Example 10.1. A sand dl'po.'iit is 10 III thick and overlies a bed of soft clay. The ground
water table is 3 In below the ground surface. If the sand above the ground water table has a degree of
samration of 45%. plot the diagram showing the variation o/the total stress, pore water pressure and the
effective stress. The void ratio 01 the sand is 0.70. Take G = 1.65.

So lution Bulk density. p . (~ : :e) r IO'

p _ ( 2.65 ; ~'~7~ 0.70)C lOCO . 1744.12kglm]

or '{ _ ) 744 .12 )C 9 .81 )C 10-3 • l7 .ll kN /m]

For saturated soils. S - 1.0. and

p • (2.~l;j+ +o.~~O ) )( HXX) _ 1970.59 kg/ m2

y • 1970.59 )( 9.81 )( Hr3 _ 19.33 kN/m 3

Fig. E 10.1 shows the soil profile. The stresses at section 0·0 and C-C are as under:
Section B-B a - 17.11 x 3 - 5133 kN/m 2, u _ 0
'0 • 51.33 kN/m 2
Section C-C a - 17.11 x 3 + 193 3 )( 7 _ 186.64 kN/m 2

Fig. E 10. 1.
EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE 211

u = 7 x 9.8 1 = 68.67 kN/ m2• a "" 186.64 - 68 ,67 = 117.97kN/m2

Fig. E 10.1 shows the variation of stresses .
D1uslrath'e f.xa nlplc 10.2. Derennine the increase in the effectivr stress a' section C-C in lIlustrativ~
Example 10.1 tl'hrn th~ water table is lowered by 5 m. Assum~ ,hal thr soil above th~ watu tab/~ has the
drgrrr of saturation af 45'1> thm ughout.
SoIuriOlL (J = 8 x 17.11 + 2 x 19.33 = 175.54 kN/m
2

u = 2 x 9.81 = 19.62 kN/m2 • a = 175.54 - 19.62 = 155.92 kN/m 2

Increase in effective stress = 155.92 - 117.91
2
= 31.95 kN/m
IlluslnUn Exam ple 10.3. A soil profile consists of a sur/ace 100'r r of clay ., m 'hid (1 = 19..5 INlm J)
and a sand layer 2 m ,hick (y = 18.5 tN/m · ) (A'erlying an im~,.".rab/~ rod. The water table is al ,h~ gmlllJd
f

SJUjau. If tM. ","'ota tevet i~ a stundp ipr d~wn into the sand ~'~r rises 2 In abov e 1M ground sur/au . draw
1M plot sho "H" g 1M VlJrnJlwn of 0 . II and c, TaU 1... = JO tN/nl".
(b) Determine thr increase in effutiw stress at th~ top of the md M'hrn thr artesian head in the sand is
rrdslad b.l' 1 m.
Solution, Fig. E 10.3 sho ws lhc profile .
Section 8-B (Oay), 0 = 19.$ x 4 = 78.0 kN/m 2 • II = 4 x 10.0 -= 40.0 kN/m~
a = 78.0 - 40 .0 = 38.0 tN/m 2
Section B-B (sand) 0 = 19.5 x 4 = 78.0 kN /m 2
II = 6 x 10.0 = 60.0 kN/m 2• ii = 78.0 - 60.0 = 18.0 kN/m1
Section C-C 0 = 4 x 19.5 + 2 x 18.5 = 1l5.0kN/m 2
2
u = 8 X 10.0 = 80.0 leN/m • a
= 115.0 - 80.0 = 35.0 kN/ m2
Fig. E 10.3 shows the variat ion of stresses . It is 10 be noted lhat there is a sudde n change in II and a at
levelB-P

Fig. E 10.l
(b) When a rleslan pre.(.'mre Is reduced by 1 m
Section C-C (J =4 x 19.5 + 2 x 18.5 = 115.0 kN/m 2
/I = 7 x 10.0 = 70.0 kN /m 2 • a = 115,0 - 70.00 = 45.0 kN /m 2
Increase in stress = 45.0 - 35.0 := 10.0 kN /m 2.
llfustrauve Exampl e 10.4. A soil profile consists of a SU'?CICt' toyer of sand 3,5 m Ihid (p = 1.65
t
Mg/m· ), llll ;lIIem lediaU layrr of da y 3 m thid (p = 1.95 Mg/m ) ami thr IHJ/fom layer of g rav el 3.5 m thick.
=
(p 1.925 Mg/mJJ. The " 'atrr table is al the upper sur/act of Iht' clay' layer: Determine the eff~ctiv~ pressure
at various lr\'rls inrmrdiat eJy after placement of a surcharge load of 58.86 tN/m l to thr ground sur/act.
Solution. Fig. E 10.4 shows the soil profile .
Setlion A-A a 2
:= 58.86 kN/m • u = o. a = 58.86 kN/m 2
 SOIL MOCIIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

+
Jm
t
3m

3·5m

1
8'--0

0'-
" -_
"-----------"SOOd
Cloy
,,-C- - - - ' - - - -

Grovet
_ ----"-_

----'' - -
bB
58.86kN/rrrl
H

~ ."8...
~
u.6~77 ","'.22
kN / m 2 kN/ m 2 kNJm2

l'ig . E 10.4
St.·clio n H-U o· 58.&1 ... :l 5 (1.65 Ie 9.81) - 115.51
u • O. 0.1 155 1 kN/m 2
sectlon C-C n • 115.51 ... ~ x (1.95 Ie 9.81) • 172.90

u • ~ Ie9.81 _ 29.43. 0" _ 172.00 - 29.43 _ 143.47 kN /m 1

Sn1~ln U-D u_ l72.lXl ... .'\.5 (1.925 Ie 9.81) _ 238.99
u _ 65 Ie 9.81 _ 63.n . a_
238.99 -63.n _ 175.22 kN /m 1.
tuus tre uve Exa mple 10.5. A sand deposit consists of lWO layers. TM top toyer is 2.5 m thid. (p :
17m.f»7 kglmJ) and l~ bottom laye- is 3.5 m thick (p_ = 2064.52 kg/mJ) . Th~ waler tabte is at a depth 0{
3.5 11/ from the surtoce and the zone of capillary saturation is I m above the water table. Draw the diagrams.
.~/lO lI'itl1t the variation of total stress. neutral stress and elJective stress.
~ lllltlon. Fig. E 10.5 shows the soil prolilc.

".1
.
,-5",1
I'"
'lOP LMl£A

CWI '!RX!ioYIJtiTrwcp
, A WO

~ .,,~
o EIOTTCJIol lAI'ER
0
~: ..·n
kNI",'

Fig. E 10.5
Y _ I7lllJ.67 Ie 9.8 1 Ie ur} _ 16.77 kN / ml
Y... _ 2(k't4_"2 Ie 9.81 x 10-1 _ 20.25 kN /m 1
unlA-A o _u_o.O
Level U-U (t(~ "'y~r) a _ 16.n Ie 2S _ 4 1.93 kN /m 2 u _ 0
(; _ 41.93 kN /m I
Level n.-n , lIltt!u m laye r) <1 _ 16.n Ie 2.5 _ 41.93 kN / m2

u _ - 1· Ie 9.81 _ _ 9.81 kN /m 2
o _ 41.9~ -(-9.81) _ SI.74kN / m i
Level ( .---t.: <1 _ 16.77 )(; 2.5 ... 1 x 20.2" _ 62 .18 kN 1 m 2
u _ 0 ; (i _ 62.18 - 0 _ 62.18kN/ m I
EFFECTI VE STRESS PRINCIPLE 213

Level D-U 0" = 16.77 x 2.5 + 20.25 x 3.5 = 112.8 kN/m 2

u = 2.5 x 9.81 = 24.53 kN/m1, a = 112.8 _ 24.53 = 88.27 kN/m 2

Illu strati ve Exampl t" 1lJ.6. A 8 In thick laver of stiff satu rated day (y = / 9.0 kNI" ,J, is underlai n by a
layer of sand. The sand is und er an a rtes ian p ressure of 5 m. CIl/CUUltt' th e maximum depth of the cu.t that
can be made .....ithout causing a heave.
Solution. Fig. E 10.6 shows lhe cut . lei H be the requ ired depth of the cut. Heave will occ ur when the
a
effective stress becomes urn at level A-A.

Mt-E 10.6-
0" = 19.0 x (8 - If) = 1520 - 19 H . II = 5 x 9.81 = 49.05
ij = 152.0 - 19 H - 49.05 = 102.95 - 19H = 0
or H= 5A 2 m.
D1ustra tin Eu mp l~ 10.7. A /0 ", thick laver of silty cllI)' (p = /8&1.64 kglm J ) overlies a gravel layer.
The gra~'d is wider WI aNesicul P"SSU.f"t' (If 11.5 m. /t is proposed to excava te a fo undation t"nch 2 m deep ,
Determine the fac tor uf safely aga inst hea\'illg.
(b) What .....OIdJ be tht' facto r of safrty again st heaving when II unif orm prruurr of 98./ J:Nlm 1 is applied
to tht footing cons tr ucted ill the abovr trench ?

Solution . Factor of silfcly ~;wa~~:~rca~ ~~~t:;; ;:ae:~~:~~~cr

F = 1 864,64 (9:.~ lxx l ~~\ x (10 -2) = 1.19
(b) Afte r Constr uc tion. The downward force is increased due 10 the uniform press ure of 98.1 kN/m 1.

F = 1864.64 (9.81 ;8 ~0:\) J;.fO-2) + 9!l.1 = 1.99

tuu streuv e Exa mp le IO.H. De/ermine the fac tor of safet )' against heave f ailu re in th t! hydraulic structure
shown ;11 Fig. Ex. 10.8, P = J850 kglll,",-
Solution. Average pressure on the base of soil prism,
hOI = 0.4211 = 0.42 x M = 3.36 m
t:= I K50 x 9.81 x 10-'\ - 9,81 = H.34 kN/m2

From Eq. 10.26. fuctor of sa fety. F = ~~ ~"

F = 9.~·~4x X3.;6 = 1.27
lllast rat ive Exa mple 10.9. Determine the approximate limits of the filter material "quiredfor the soil of lht!
= =
basematerial which has D , ~ 0.01 mm and 0 85 O. lO mm. and the gruding curve as ShoWII ill Fig. E / 0.9.
Solution. From Eq. 10.28. Dls l/) > 5 D l ~ (b)
D IS U) > 5 x 0.01 > 0.05 mm
214 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

From Eq. 10.29,

or
00
90
1/ V '// /
o.mmrn J V /
80
7 1-----.1/ / / J
70
0
/ i .> / //
Bose mater ial--! Filter-,L/ / //
.0 / / )' j
0
/ £/ / 11
/ / / .L2
10
lim mm 4 .05mm / / o.5mm

0
0.001
7 0.01 r> / / 0.1 1.0 10.0
Particle size (mm) _ _
fig . E 10.9
Therefore, DIS of filter material should lie between 0.05 mm and 0.5 mm. As the gradation curve of the
filter material should be roughly parallel to that of the base material, the hatched portion indicates the limits
of the material suitable 3S filler.
IIIustralive Example 10.10.1[ excavation is carried out in a soil with: a poros ity of DADand the specific
gravity a/solids 0/2.65, determine the critical gradient. A 1.50 m layer a/the soil is subjected to an upward
seepage head of 1.95 m. What depth of coarse sand would be required above the soil to provide a /ocrorof
safety of 2.50 ? Assume that sand has the same porosity and sp. gr. of solids as the soil.

Solution. e - 6 - ~:: - 0.667

 EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE 21'

Critical g ra d ie nt "" ~:~ = 12 .~50~6~7 "" 0.99

Saturated density p"" = t~ ::) p,

265+ 0 667 ) ,
"" ~ x 10 "" I 99g/0lI(l952kN/m)

Let x be the depth of suml layer

Effective pressur e ill bottom = ( 1.50 + x)( 19.52 - 9.81)
= ( 1.50 + x) 9.71
Upward pressure <It bott om "'" 1.95 x 9.8 1
Now fac tor of safe ty, F S. "" (1 .50 + x ) x 9 .71 "" 250
1.95 x 9.81 .
X "" 3.4201

PROBLEMS

A. Numerical
10.1. Determine the total. neutral and effectiv e stresses at the bonum of the deposit shown in Fig. P 10.1.
(Ans. 199.14. 83.39. 115.75 kN/m 2)

r
G5.
'p=1·6 g/ml
W.T. io
3m /_2·0fil /ml
205m ,_1·1Og/ml
1m P='559' m l
2m /=1·85 g/ml

Fig. P 10.1
10.2. The water table in a deposit of uniform sand is located at 2 m below the ground surface . Assuming the soil
above the water table is dry, determine the effective stress at a depth of 5 m below the ground surface. The void
ratio is 0.75 and the specific gravit y of solid s is 2.65.
(b ) If the soil abo ve the water table is saturated by capillary uctlon , what is the effective stress at the that depth?
(Am. 57.43 kN/m 2; 65.83 kN/m 2j
10.3. A deposit of fine sand has a void rutin of 0 .54 and the specific gravity of solid particles is 2.67. Compute uie
safe exit gradient . with a factor of safety of4. ·
[ADS.0.271)
10.4. A deposit of silly rlu y lie s between two layers of sand,
as shown in Fig. P 10.4. T he lower sand layer is under
artesian pressure of 4 In and the water level in the upper
sand layer is 2.0 m below the ground surface. Determine
IS the effective stres s ur the botto m. , _16 kNlml n
(h) Also. determine the head above G.S. that would
cause heaving at the base of the clay.
[A ns, 32 kN/m2• 7.2 m]
10.5. The porosity of II sample of sand in the loose state was
54% and in dense state, 38%. · Find out the critical
hydraulic gradient in both the states if the specific
gravity of the soil grain was 2.60 . Also lind out the
Fig. P 10.4.
216 SOIL MECHAN ICS A ND FOUNDAl l0N ENGI NEERINO

J
saturated densiti es in kgtm . [A ns. 0.736; 0.992; 173733 kglml ; 1992. .56 kglmJ 1
10.6. 1£ 40% of the excess hydfOSlDtic pressu re is lost in Ilowi ng throu gh soil B which has a coefficient of
permeabili ty of 0 .05 ern/sec (fig . P 10.6), de termine the discharge velocity and seepage veloc ily throu gh each
soi l ond the hydraulic head m wh ich instabil ity occurs.
[Ans. So il A : 0.02 ern/sec, 0.06 ern/sec; Soil n:
0.02 cnvscc. 0.053 l.m/Scc; 73.33 em]

Ag. P 10.6.
n. Descriptive and OhJectlve Type
10.7. Define 10t<l1 stress, neutral stress and effective stresss. what is the Importanceof the effect ive stress ?
10.8. Prove that the effective stress (0) for 1I sa turated soil ca n be expressed as
(j _ o -u
where (J '" 101al stress, u = pore water pressure.
10.9. Whal is the effect of surcharge and the capillary actio n on lhe effective stress ?
10.10. Prove that In.: seepage force per unit volume is equal to the product of the hydraulic gradient and the unit
weight of water.
10. 11. Discuss two different apprcectes of oonsidcring the equil ib rium in seepage proolc ms. Which approach is JDa'e
convenient and wh y '!
10.12. Wh at is the eff ect of the see page press ure on Ihe eff ective st ress? Give exam ples .
10.13. what is qu ick sa nd ? How would you calcul ate the hydrauli c gra dien t req uired 10 crea te quick san d co nditions
in a sample of sand ?
10.14. Explain the mechanics 'of piping in hydrauli c structures. Whll! methods are used to increase the factor of safety
agoinst pipin g ?
10.15. \Vhy a filler is used on the downsI rca m of an ea rtb dam ? How wou ld you desig n a flrtcr ?
10.16. wbat ar e two diff erem types of piping failures? Explain with the help of sketc hes .
10.17. Whal is effecti ve stress principle ?
19.18. Write whet he r the followin g statements are correct.
(a) Th e effecti ve stress is the stress at the poi nts of conl act of the soil parti d es.
(b) lbe eff ec tive stress stress a m be measured directly in the field.
(c) The effective stress is equ al 10 the roral stress minus the po re wa ter pressure.
(d) Th e rise of water duc 10 capillary action reduces the effectiv e stress .
(e) lbe shear strength of a soil depends upon its effective stress .
(j) In parlial ly saturated soi ls, tbe pore air pressure is mo re then the po re water pressure .
(g) Quick sand is a type of sand .
EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE 217

(h) Quick sand conditions can develop even in gravel.

(I) Backwan.J-.erosion piping is amenable to the theon:tical solunon.
(i) Hea ve piping occ urs un the downstream of the pile fO£ a d iJ.lance of hal f the depth of the pile.
(,I:) The pipi ng can be checked by prov iding a loadcJ Ilher,
(/) The graded filter co nsists of a layer o f pervious materials which is well-graded .
(m) The diamete r of the ope nings betw een particles is equal 10 about D l5 size of the particle.
(II ) Th e graded ti ller checks the now of WOller.
(0 ) Piping is the slime as quic k sand.
(I' ) The effect ive wess <I' various points mcreeses due 10 rise in the water table.
(q) The effective stress in a rully submerged soil depends upon ill' submerged unit weight.
(AlIS. True. (c) . (I!"). ifJ. (h). (J), (l) . (q)J

C. Multipl e Choice Questions

1. The critica l gmdie nt of a soil increase s
(a) with increase in void ratin (fJ) decrease in void ratio
(c) dec rease in speci fic gravity (d) None {If abov e
2. T he cxlt gradient is equal to the ratio of
(a) total head to total length (b) slope of Ilow line
(e) slope of equipotential line (tl) head loss 10 length of tlow field at exn.
3. Th e effective stress is
(0) actual contact stress (bl an ahstract quantity
(e) equal 10 to tal stn:ss (Jl None of above
4. The effective stres.' controls the folluwing, properties of soils:
(a) Shea r strength (b) Co mpress ibility
(e) Permeabi lity (d) All Ihe above
S. Quick sand is
(£I) a type of sand
(b ) !l co ndition in whic h a cche sloolcs s soi l loses it;; strengt h because of upward Il ow of water.
(c ) a conditi on in which a co hesive sui! loses its streng th.
(cl) none o f abo ve.
6. The see page pressure is propo n iona l to
to) hyd raulic gradient (b) unn weig ht o r water
(e) length o f lhe speci me n (Jl all the above.
7. A depo sit of fine sand has a porosity I I and specific gravity of solid is G. 1be crnical gradient is equa l to
(0) (G - I) (1 + n) (b) (0-1) (I-nl
(cl (O-I )/O+ n ) (Jl (G- I)/(I-n)
8. For a void ratio o f 0. 60 . the relationship between the specific gravity o f solids (G) and the hydraullc gradient
(1") for (he quick SHOO condition is
(el) G ;:: O.n i + I (b) G = i + 0.6
(c) G = 1.6 i + I (d) G '" 1.6 i · )
9. For a soil deposit having /I '" 33% lind G = 2 .60. the critica l grad ient is
~ ID W lill
(e) 1.01 (J) Ll O
~~ I . ~ ~ 2 ~ 3 . ~ ~ ~ 5 . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ . ~ ~
 11
Stressees Due to Applied Loads

11.1. INTR O DUCTION

Stresses are induced in a soil mass due to weight of overlying soil and due to the applied loads. These
stresses are required for the stability analysis of the soil mass, the settlement analysis of foundations and the
determination of the eart h pressures . The stresses due to self weight of soil have been discussed in chapter
10. These stresses are summarised in Section 11.3. The rest of the chapter is devot ed to the determina tion of
stresses due to applied loads.
The stresses induced in soil due (0 applied loads depend upon its stress-s train charact eristic. The
stress-strain behavio ur of so ils is extreme ly com plex and it depends upon a large number of facto rs, such as
drainage conditions, water content, void rutin, rate of loading, the load level, and the stress path. However,
simplifying assumptions are generally made in the anal ysis to obtain stresses . It is generally assumed that the
soil mass is homogeneous and isotropic. The stress-strain relationship is assumed to be linear. The theory of
elas ticity is used to de termine the stresses in the soil mass. It involves considerab le simp lification of real soil
behavi our and the stresses compa red are approximate ones. Fortunat ely, the results are good enough for soil
problems usually encou ntered in pracrlce. For more accurate results, realistic stress-strain characterisucs
shou ld be used. However, the procedu re becomes complex and numerical techn iques and a high speed
computer arc required.
11.2. STRESS-STRAIN P~IETERS

The main stress-strain parameters required for the application of elastic theories are modulus of elasticity
(E) and Poisson's ratio (v). The mod ulus of elast icity can be determined in the laborato ry by cond ucting a
triaxial compressio n lest (see chapte r 13). The stress-strain curve is plotted between the devi ator stress
(01 - (3) , and the axial strain (£1)' An unconso lidated-undrained (Ull) or an unconfined compression test can
be performed for saturated, cobcsslvc soils. A consolidated dra ined (CD) is usually conducted for cohes ionless
soils . The value of modulus is generally taken as the ("j"-"')

~).t ~C::~tli:C:,t ~~ ~ ~~ ~akm~~(r;~~ (<1j_ "])1 --- - -- --- - - - ---- -

initial tangent modulus or the tangent modulus at 1/2 to

1/3 of the peak stress is also used.
1be value of Polsscc's ratio (v) for an elastic

=::
materia l varies from 0.0 to 0.50 . For undrained
cooditions, the value of Poisson' s ratio is 0.50. Fa

~it~ ~~;=~ ~~~l: =ueO:~+ {Vj-~)t

outside the elast ic range of 0.0 to 0.50 is also SKont modulus
occas ionally eacou ruered. It is diffio..l1t to ascerta in the
exact valu e of Poisson' s ratio. Fortunately, the effect of Fig. Il .J. SlJ'tss-Strain Curve
 STRESSES DUE TO APPUED WADS 219

Po isson' s ratio on the comp uted stresses ~ no!. significant and an approximate value can be used without
much error.
Tables 11.1 and 11.2 g ive typ ical range o f values of modu lus of elast icity and Poisson 's ratio,
respectively, for some soi ls.
Ta ble 11.1. Typ Ical Values of E

E
S. No. Type cf Soil
MNIm kNlm'
1. Softaay 1.5-4.0 1500-10OO
2 Hard clay 6.0-15.0 6000-15000
3. Silty Sand 6.0-20.0 6000-2‫סס‬oo
4. Loose Sand 10.0-25.0 1‫סס‬oo-25000

f s.
6.
Dense sa nd
Dense gravel
40.0--80. 0
100-200
40‫ס‬oo-8OOOO
1)( ICY 102)( lOS

I
Table 11.2. Typica l Values of Poisson 's Rat io (v)

S.Na Type of Soil

1. Sat urated d ay 0.4-0.5
2. Unsatu rated clay 0.1-0.3
3. Sill 0.3-0.35
4. Loose ,""xl O.3l>-<lSO
S. Dense sere 0.20-<1 .30

11.3. GEOSTATIC STRESSES

1be method for the detcrmin atkln of total vertical stresses duc to se lf weight of the so il have been
discussed in.chapter 10. The stresses due to self weight of soils are generally large in com pariso n with those
induced due to imposed loads. This is unlike many othe r civil engi neering st ructures, such as steel bridges,
wherein the stresses due to se lf wei ght are relative ly smal l. In soil engineering probl em s, the stresses due to
self weight are significant. In man y cases the stresses due to self we ight are a large proport ion of the total
stresses and may govern the des ign.
When the ground surface is horizon tal and the properties of the soil do not change along a horizontal
plane, the stresses due to self weight are known as geoStaliJ:stresses. Such a oondition generally exists in
sedimentary soil deposi ts. In such a case. the stresses are normal to the horizon tal and vertical planes, and
there are no sheari ng stresses o n these planes. In other words, these planes are principal planes. The vertical
and horizontal stresses can be determined as under.
(a) Vertical stresses. The verti cal stresses are detennined using the methods described in chapte r 10. Let
us consider the horizon tal pla ne A.......4. et a depth z below the ground surface [Fig. 11.2 (a)l. Let the area of
coss-secnco of the prism be A . If the unit we ight of soil (y) is ronstallt, the vertical stress (aJ is equa l to
the weight of soil in prism divided by the area of bese . 1bus

Oz _ Weig~ :;~~prism _ y(Z; A )

or o, - y z . . .(11.1)
If the soil is strolified, having n layers of thickness ZIo %l, .•. Z~. with unlrweigbr 'h, 12 , ... 111' the verti cal
stress is given by

.-1!
- E1
0, ' l ; Z; .•. (11.2)
:ut I son. MOCIIAN1Ci AND FOUNDATION ENGINf'Hl ING

In natural deposit s. generally the den sity of the soil o.s.

increase s with an increase in depth due [0 the weight of soil ""''''''''''''''P'''''I-I''''''''"'''''~;;''''
abo ve. In such a case. the unit weight of soil ca nnot be taken
as constant. In this case, the weight of soil in the prism is
g iven by

w=Sn
yA dz

where dz is the thickncs..s of a small strip of soil at depth z.

Therefore. the vertica l stress is given hy

W
f
o
1 A dz
0";: = A" = - A-

0, = j 1<1:. .. .( 11.3)
o
Fig , 11.2. Gem lalic Suess,
If the soil is stratified and a lso ha.s a variable unit weight.
the vertical stress is given by

0. = 1 1
o
'Yl dz. +
0
12 dz + ... + I y~dz
0
...(1 1.4)

(b) Horizontal stre sses. The horizontal stresses (o x and c .) act on ve rtical planes, as shown in Fig. 11.2
(b). The horizontal stresses at a point in a soil mass are highly variable. These depend nor only upon the
vertical m esses, but also Oil the type of the soil lind on the conditions whether the soil is stretched or
compressed later all y. In the trea tme nt that follo ws it wou ld be ass ume d tha t <J, = 0 ,_
The ratio of the horizontal stress (o~) to the vertical stress (at) is known as the coefficie nt of latera l stress

or lateral stress ratio CK). Th us K =~

0,
a.. Ka, = ... (11.5)
In natu ral deposits, gene rally there is no latera l stra in. The lateral stress coefficien t for this case is known
as the coefficient of lateral pres.mre at rest (Ko). The value of its coe fficient can be obtained from the theory
of elastic ity, as exp lained below. 1n retaining structures (chapter 19), there is either stretching or contraction
of soils and the value of K is different .
The strain in .r-direction is given hy (sec any text on theory of elastici ty or mech anics of materials)

E.. = i [a% -~'(a" + a,)]

For conditions of no lateral strain, e, = O.
Thu s a, = ~'(ay + aJ
Takin g ax = a " and simpl ifying,
u ,(1 -v) = \' crt

0,=(,:,)0,
(J A = Kocrt .. .( 11.6)

where Ko= ~ . . .(11.7)

SfRES.';;;ESDUE TO AI'I'I..IEI> WAIlS 22.

The value of K o <Am be obtained if the Poisson's rutio v is known or es timated . Eq. 11.7 is not of much
prnctiClI use as the so il is not a pure ly clast ic material and it is d ifrKlJlt 10 estimate the l'o isson ratio.
The value of ~ is det ermined from actual measurement of soil pressure or from experience. For a
sedimentary send depos it, its value va nes from 0.30 to 0.6, and for a rorma ity con.·'nlid :ltoo clay, ns value
genera lly lies betwee n 0.5 and 1. 10. Table 11.3 gives the average va lues of Ko for diffe rent type...of sous .
Juky's formu la is commonly used , accordi ng to which
Ko - I - sin lp'
where .' is the ang ie of shear ing rcstsnnce.
Ta ble 11.3. values of Latera! Pre....sure Coemcl~nt ut I{cst (KO)

S. No. 7'ype of Soi l K,

I. l.oose sand 0 5 -0.('()
2 I k/lM sand Il..l --0 50
3. c tev (tlrai",ed) CI,S-O.W
4. Clay (Ull(lraiIJClI) O.HO- I . I
5. Owr<onsolii/at ..d day 1.0 _ :'\ 0

11.4. VE lnlCAL STIU::S."~ nuz TO A CONCENTUATEU LOAU

Boussincsq (pronounced as Boo-s i-ncsk) g:lve the theor etic al solution... for the sIres" d istrihution in an
clnstic med ium subjected 10 a concen trated !o.ml on its surface. '111Cso lulions are commonly used Lo obta in
the stresses in a so il rnarss due (0 external ly applied loads . "th e followin g a·;sumplioll....arc made .
(I) the soil mass is an clastic continuum, having a mn......an t vatoc of mIMlulu.... uf ch"lkilY (I~), i.c, the
ratio betwee n the stress, and strain is ccosram. .
(2) The so il is homogeneou s, Le.; It has identical propcrtie.... lit dtffcrcm points .
(3) The soi l is isotropic, i.e.; it hcs identi ca l propcrtfc.. in :111 directions.
(4) lhe soil mass is scm i-jnfln lte, i.e., lt extend.. to inftnil y in the duwnw ard di rcl1iun ;uxl lateral
dircdions. In olher wo nJ.s, it is lim ited on us tup by a horizontal plane :LrllJ cxlentl.. III infinity in all
othe r directions.
(5) Th e soil is w eightless an d is free from rcsklua l strc......"CS before tile llpplic ilion of the It)lld.
[Note . The stresses due to self weight are computed separately :t.. eiplaincd in the pn,:cClling section ).
Fig. 11.3 show s a horizontal sur face of the etcsoc conti nuum subje cted In : 1 poiru Inad Q ru poin t O. The
origin of the coordinat es is taken at O. Using k:lglll"ithmic strc........ flifK.1 iun fur the sululioll uf eke....ici ly problem,
Boussincsq proved tro t the polar stress (JR at point P (r, y. z) i" given by ~ -rr

"R· in ~ ...
(11.8)
where R :::: polar distance between the origin 0 and point I~.
P:: : angle wh ich the line or
mak.es with the vert ica l.

Obvio usly, R _ Vxl + i + .;

R _ ff:7 where r2 - J? i
and sin P _ rI ll and cos p_u R
The vertica l stress (o z) at point P is given by
(J. _ OR cos21~

• -"- (Q u ~ll ) a~211

2.1: Ir I·; g. 11_\ . Stn"",.:~ uuc In " ,ux:cnUlltet:! looJ
222 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

or C1 _3Q .~
z 2 :t ~

3Q ('IR)' 3Q
a"2i<'~'2i<'l1
r'
a' -2i<'?'l1
3Q 1 r'
a
, - 2"
~ . .li' .[_r'_]
i')"
(? +
3Q I I
.. .(11.9)
a, • 2i< . ? ' [1 + (d,)'J"

a, • Is • ~ .. .(11.10 )

I _ 3 •. .( 11.11)
where B
2 lt (1 + (r/zl ]~
The coefficient f B is known as lhe Boussinesq influence coefficient for the vertical stress. The value of
Is ron be determ ined for lhe given value of r/z (rom Eq. 11.11. The computed values are labulnled in Toole
11.4.
Table 11.4. Values of Boussl nesq's Coefficient (In)

'I' Is
'I' Is 'I' Is 'I' Is
0.00 DAns 1.05 0.0745 205 0.0077 3.25 0 .0011
0.05 0.4745 1.10 0.0658 210 0.0070 350 0.0008
0.10 0.4657 1.15 0.0581 2.15 0.0064 3.75 0.0005
0.15 0.4516 1.20 0 .0513 2.20 0.0058 4.00 0.0004
0.20 0.4329 1.25 0.0454 225 0.0053 4.25 0.0003
0.25 0.4103 1.30 0.0402 230 0.0048 450 0.0002
0.30 0.3849 1.35 0 .0351 2.35 0.0044 4 .75 0.0002
0 .35 0.3577 1.40 0.0317 2.40 O.(X)40 5.00 0.0001
0.40 0.3295 1.45 0.0282 245 O.OC137 10.00 0.‫סס‬OO
0.45 0.3011 1.50 0 .0251 250 0.0034
0.50 0.2733 ISS 0.0224 255 0.0031
0.55 0.2466 1.60 0 .0200 2.60 0.0029
0.60 0.2214 1.65 0.0 179 265 0 .0026
0.65 0.1978 1.70 0.0160 270 0.0024
0.70 0.1762 1.75 0 .0144 275 0.0022
0.75 0.1565 1.80 0.0129 280 0.0021
0.80 0.1386 1.85 0 .011 6 2.85 0.0019
0.85 0.1226 1.90 O.01OS 2 90 0.0018
0.90 0.1083 1.95 0.0095 295 O.{(I16
0.95 0.0956 2.00 0.0085 3.00 0.0015
1.00 OJ)844

The following points arc worthnoting when using Eq. 11.10.

(1) The vertical stress does not dependupon the modulus of elasticity (E) and the Poisson ratio (v). BUI
the solution has been derivedassuming that the soil is linearly elastic. The stress distribution will be the same
in all linearly elastic materials.
STRfSSES DUE TO APPUED WADS 223

(2) The intensity of vertical sr.ress just below the load point is given by

0, • 0.4n5 ~ ... (11.12)

(3) At the surface (z = 0). the vertical stress just below the lood is theoretically infinite. However, in an
actual case, the soil under the lood yields due 10 very high stresses. 1be load point spreads over a small but
Ilnite area and, therefore, only Ilnite stresses develop.
(4) The vertical stress (oJ decreases rapidly with an increase:in rtz ratio. Theorelically, the vertical stress
would be zero on ly at an infinite distance from tbe load point. Actually, at rtz = 5.0 or more, the vertical
stress becomes extremely small and is neglected.
(5) In actual practice, foundation loads are not applied d irectly on the groun d surface . However, it has
been established that the Boussinesq solution can be appUed conserva tively to field prob lems concerning
loads at shallow depths, provided the distance z is measured from the point of applica tion of the lood.
(6) Boussinesq's solulion can eve n by used for negative (upwa rd) loads. For example, if the vertica l
stress decrease due to an excavation is required, the negative load is equal to the weigh t of the soil removed.
However, as the soil is not fully clastic, the stresses determined are necessaril y approximate.
(7) The field measurements indicate that the actual stresses are generally smaller than the theoretical
values given by Bousstnesq 's solution, especia lly a t sha llow depths. Thus, the Bousstnesq solution gives
conservative values and is commo nly used in soil eng ineering problems.
Limitations of Boussfn esq' s Solution. The solution was initially obtained for dete rmination of stresses
in elastic solids. lis app lication to soils may be questioned, as the soils are far from purely eJastic solids.
However. experience Indicates that the results obtained are satisfactory .
The application of Boussinesq's solution can be justified when the stress cha nges are such that only a
stress increaseoccurs in the soil. The real requirement for use of the solution is not thai the soil be etasnc
(it' .. fully recoverable), but it should have a constant ratio between stress and strain. When the stress decrease
occurs, the relation between stress aOO strain is na. linear and, therefore, the solution is not strictly applicable.
If the stresses induced in the soil are small in oomparison with the shear strength of the soil, the soil behaves
somewhat elastically and the Bousslnesq solution can be used .
For praaical cases. the Boussinesq solution can be safely used for homogeneous deposits of clay,
man-made fills and for limited thickness of uniform sand deposits . In deep sand deposits, the modulus of
elasticity increases with an increase in depth and, therefore, the Boussinesq solution will not give satisfactory
results. In Ihis case, the assumption of proportiona lity betwee n stress and strain cannot be justified. For such
a case, non-linear elastic solutions or clastic-plastic solutions are required.
The point loads applied below ground surface Close somewha t smaller stresses than are caused by surface
loads, and, therefore, the Bousslnesq solution is not strictly applicable. However , the solution is frequently
usedfor shallow footings, in which z is measured below the base of the footing.
11.5. JIORIZoNTAL ANn SHEAR STRESSES DUE TO A CONCENTRATED LOAD
The method for determination of the vertical stress (oJ has been discussed in the preceding section. In
most soil engineering problems, only the vertical stresses are required. Occasion ally, other stress compone nts
(0", Oy or">,, and 1:yz) are also required. Tbcse components can be determined as follows :
Fig. 1J.4 shows an elementary stress blod::, ind icating all the stress components. In all there are 9 stress
components. namely, o~ 0 ,. 0 :0 "t..,.. 't= t,.,. ~"ta and 't zr However, the moment equation gives the following
relations.
1:..,. -""", , ~ _ 't..,. : 'ta - 't.a:,
and, therefore Independent unknown componen ts are only six 0 .... 0,.. o zo"t.l)""t}l<' "tv:' The equations for
determination, of Oz have already been given. The oorrcsponding equations for other compone nts are :

o
•
.112 [~+
2., It
(l - 2V).{ _ I_
3
(2 R +
,)x'
' R (R + z] - R' (R + ,)'
- -,-}]
It
224 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING
o

Oy
_W
2::t
[IiIf +
(1 -2v) { _ _l _
2 R(R + z) I
r

/'
.. - ~~R+ :)Z~: . *'II
'r
:IJ'
_;JQ
2;t
[=If . (1-2v) ~ I
:l K(R +z)2

<,,-~~ ... (11.13) v

r . ~ .xz'
:Jt 2l't 11 Fig. 1l.4. Different SIre" Componenb.
It may be noted that and t ..,. depend upon Poisson's ratio.
0 .... 0)'

Cylindrical Coordina tes, Sometimes, it is more convenient to use cylindrical coordmates (r. 8, z) instead
of cartesian coordinates (r, y, z). The Boussinesq solution in ter ms of cylindrical coordinates is as under
(Fig. 11.5).

Fig. 11.5. Cylln dnca l Ccordlnntcs.

Vertical stress,
3Q z'
0, - Z;;:'Ii'

Radial stress,
Or'"
.£
2."1: 7 - ...!!..::.M...]
[3Z,.z R(R + z) ••.( [ 1.14)

Tangential stress,
",,--f;;(1 -2V)[R(R
3Q ..i'
1+Z
) - *'1
Shear stress, <'-Z;;: ']i'"
Shear stresses "t,e ... "'"ze ... 0

where R - ...;; + %2. as before .

smESSE S DUE TO .....PPU ED LOAD S 225

11.6. ISOUAR DlA GRAl\1

An isobar is a curve joini ng the points of eq ual stress intensity . In other words, an isobar is a contour of
equal stress. An isobar is a spatial curved surface of the shape of an electrical bulb or an onion. The curved .
surface is sym metrical about the vertical axis passing through the load point.
The iscoer of a particular intensity can be obtained using Eq. IUD. The calcu lations are shown in a
tubular form . Table 11.5 gives calculations for an isoba r of intens ity U. l Q per unit area. Q

From Eq. 11.10. U,' I , ~

Taking c, • 0.1 Q.

0.1 Q - I, · ~
I, = 0.1 z' ...(a)
For different depths r, the value of Is is compu ted from Eq. (a), as
shown in the second row of Table 11.5. The values of rtz for computed
values of Is are obtained from Eq. 11.11 or Table 11.4. Once the values
of rlz have been determined, the radial distance r can be obtai ned as
shown in table. It may be observed that r is zero at the load point. and it
allains a ma ximum value at rtz = 0.75 and again decreases. As the isobar
is symmetrica l about lhe toad axis, the other h.'1lf can be drawn from
symme try. The shape of an isobar approaches a temtnscate curve (not
circle). fig . 11.6 shows the pressurebulb of intensity 0.1 Q. Fig. 11.6. Isobar 0( 0.1 Q
In the same ma nner. the isobars o f other intens ity 0 .2 Q. 0.3 Q. etc, can be dra wn. Obvious ly, the isobars
DC higher intens ity shal l lie within the isobar of 0.1 Q.
Tabl e 11.5. Calculatk ms for Isobar of 0.1 Q
Depth % 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.7S 2.00 2.185
/, 0.00625 0.25 0.05625 0.10 0.1562 0.225 0.400 0.4775

'I' 2.16 1.50

0.75
1.16
0.87
0.93
0.93
0.75
0.938
0.59
0.885
0.44
0.710
0.27
0.540
0.000
0.000

Isobars are useful for dctcnnining the effect of the 103d on the vertical stress es at various points . The
zone within which the stresses have a slgntfl conr effect on the settlemen t of structures is known (IS the
pressure bulb . 11 is generally assumed tha t an isobar of 0.1 Q term s a pressure bulb . The area outside the
pressure bulb is assumed to have neglig ible stresses.
11.7. VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE
The vertical stresses at various points on 3 horizont al plane at a particular dept h z can be obtained using
Eq. 11.10. Let us de termine the stresses at a depth of 2 m. Therefore,
0, • I, . (Ql z') • IB • (QI4) • 0.25/, Q.
The value of Oz are computed (see Table 11.6) for different values of rtz; aner obta ining /8 from Eq.
l UI or Tahle It.4.
Thble 11.6. Ca lcu lat ion Ior- vertical stress at Z = 2m
0 050 1.00 1.50 2.00 25 0 3.00 4.00
rtz 0 0.25 050 0.75 1.00 125 1.50 2.00
I. O.477S 0.4103 0.2133 0.1565 0.0844 0:0454 0.0251 0.0085
0, 0.1194 Q 0.1026 Q 0.0683 Q 0.0390 Q 0.0211 Q 0.0113 Q 0.0063 Q 0.0021 Q
 SOIL MEC HAN ICS AND FOUNDA1 10N ENGINEERING

Fig. 11.7. Vertica l Slrcss on J hori7.ootlll plane.

Fig. 11.7 shows the vertical stress distnbutioo diagram. 1be diagram is symmetrical about the vertical
axis. The maximum stress occurs just below the load (r ::::: 0). and it decreases rapidly as the distance r
increases.
The vertical stress distribution diagram on a horizontal plane can also be obtained graphically if the
Isobars of different intensity are availab le. TIle horizontal plane is drawn 00 the isobars diagram. The points
of interseaion of the horizontal plane with the tscoar of a particular intensity give that vertical stress.
11.8. INFLUENCE DIAGRAMS
An influence diagram is the vertical stress distribution diagra m on a horizon tal plane at a given depth.
due to a unit concentrated load. In Fig. 11.7. if the roncentrated load Q is taken as unity. the d iagram
becomes an influence diagra m. 1bc influence diagrams are useful for det erm ination of the ve rtical st ress at
any point on tha t ~tal plane due to a number o f coecenrrared loads app lied at the grou nd surface.

. ~ ~ ~

"'" A '" , *"' k , .If. *" It ,,<oJ;'; < ,.

~B·'eA :
I
1
I I
!
'
Gee-bee ~1
__.1__ 1 -~ - ~ !J

~~~ ..~~::::----------- A ' CB

Fig. 11.8. Influence Dillgmms.

Fig. 11.8 shows three influence diagra ms. marked I" 12 and 1). due to unit loads applied at three points
A'. C' and B' on the ground surface. Th e stress at any point A on the horizontal plane at dep th z due to three
loads Q l. Q 2 and Q 3 is given by
(o~).~ - QI0M + Q20AB + QJ 0 AC .. . (IUS)

where OM "" vert ical stress at A due to unit load at A '

0 AB "" ve rtical stress at A due to unit load at B '
and 0 AC ::::: vert ica l stress at A due to unit load at C '
The valu es of OM. (JAB and 0 AC can be abtained from the influence diagra m II. 13 and 12•
Th e compu tation work is roosid embly simplified using the reciprocal theore m. accordingto which
0AB - OBi" 0 AC - 0c4. and 0BC - 0CB
where the first suffix de notes the point where the stress is requ ired and the second suffix gives the point
above which the load is app lied. Acco rdingly. Eq. 1l. IS cen be written as
(OJA - Q IOM + Q 2 0a.., + QJ 0eA ...(11.16)
SfRESSESDUETO APPLIED WADS 127

where OM = vertical stress at A due to unit load at A

GIlA = vertical stress at D due to unit load at A
and 0CA = vertical stress at C due to unit load at A

Therefore; there is no need of drawing three influence diagrams in this case. Only one influence diagram
(11)with unit load at A' is sufficient. The values of 0IlA and 0CA are determined from 11 diagram below the
load points B' and C' .
If the stresses at any other point, say point D, are required, then the influence line for load above that
point (B' in this case) would be drawn. Alternatively, the influence line diagram II can be traced on a paper
and placed in such a way that its axis of symmetry passes through the point B' .
11.9. VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON A VERTICAL PLANE
The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane at a radial distance of r can be obtained using Eq.
11.10. In this case, the radial distance r is constant and the depth changes. The values of rtz are obtained for
different depths z. The values of I B are obtained from Eq. 11.11 or Table 11.4 and the stresses computed as
0z • (IBI?) Q. Table 11.7 shows the calculations for vertical stresses on a vertical plane at r = 1 m.
Table 11.7. Calculutions of Vertical stresses ut r = 1m

z 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 5.00

'I' 4.0 2.0 1.00 0.667 0.50 0.40 0.20

IB 0.0004 0.0085 0.0844 0.1904 0.2733 0.3294 0.4329
0, 0.0064 Q 0.0340 Q 0.0844 Q 0 .0845 Q 0.0683 Q 0.0527 Q 0.017 Q

Fig. 11.9 shows the variation of vertical stresses on a vertical

plane at r = 1 m. The vertical stresses are plotted horizontally along

~~~~a~~r: ~e~~'i=: t::~et~~~isde~.be~t~a~~~~~ -.,,""""""....,wf;~~-.k...

vertical stress occurs at rlz = 0.817. This corresponds to the point of
intersection of the vertical plane with the line drawn at 39°15' to the
vertical axis of the load.
11.10. VERTICAL STRESSES DUE TO A UNE WAD
The vertical stresses in 3 soil mass due 10 a vertical line load
can be obtained using Boussinesq's solution . Let the vertical line
lood be of intensity q' per unit length, along the j-exjs, acting on the
surface of a semi-infinite soil mass, as shown in Fig. 11.10.
Let us consider the load acting on a small length Sy. The load
can be taken as a point load of q' by and Boussincsq's solution can
be applied to determine the vertical stress at P (.-; y, z). From Eq. ,
11.9, Fig. 11.9. Stress 011 a vertical plane

~o, _ 3(q' Oy) • _ _

r'_ ...(a)
2>t (? + i')"
The vertical stress at P due to the line load extending from --QO to + 00 is obtained by integration,
3q'r' ,.~
c, - zn L (? + i')"
3q'r' ,. dy
or
c, • 2"it f", (x' + i + ;)~ ...(b)
 SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUN DA11ON ENGIN EERING

Ag. 11.10

Substituting ~ + z? = ,,2 in Eq. (b ),

3 q,.,..1 1- J\'
0: =~ _ (,, 2 + I )"" •••{e)

2
Le t )' = " Ian e . Therefore. dJ = scc e dO.

r
It

Eq. (c) ca n be writt en ali 0: = ~

2n 0
u~s~c20
II '.r~C'~ 0
dO

o_= ~4
- 27tu
10
cos~OJ9 . . .(d)

Let sin 9 = t. Therefore , cos 0 dO =elf

Eq. (el) become s cr: Y.f.- f
= Xu o
( I - ,2) c/1

crl=¥j- [t -jr' J o
cr =3Cf' ':\x ~= ~
• XlI4 3 X(x 2 + Z2)2

0, = 2x~' [I + ;xldr .. (11.17)

Eq. 11,17 can be used to determ ine the vertic al stress at point P.
When the point P lies verticall y below the line load , .( o. =
The refore . 0: =~ ...{II.IS)
The expressions for lhe stresses Of and t lZ can be obtained in II similar ma nner. starti ng from Eq. 11.1).
SfRfSSES DUE TO APPU ED LOADS 229

(J =2q' ~ ...(11.19)
~ n: (.r~ + ::2)2

and 2q' xi' .. .(11.20 )

"C:-7 · ~

11.11. VERTICAL STRE'lS UNDER A STRIP LOAD

The expressioo for vertical stress at any point P under a strip load can be developed from Eq. 11.17 of
the line load. The es prcss ton will depend upon whether the pint P lies below the cent re of the strip load
or not.
Note. The length of the stri p is very long. For convenience. unit length is cons idered.
(1) PoInt P below the centre or the strip
Fig. 11.11 shows a strip load of width B (=< 2b) and intensity q. Let us consider the load acting on a small
elementary width dx at a distance x from the centre of the load. This small load of q dx can be considered
us a line load of intensity q'. From Eq. 11.17,

..

.JlIg. 11.11. Strip I..OiId, pd nl P below centre.

Au • 2qdx [ _ _1_ ]'

, nz 1 + (x /:: )2
The stress due to entire strip load is obtainedas
u· -"9.f" _ _ l _ - dx .. .(a)
, 1U .... [1 + (x/z)2 ]2
Let xlz = tan u. Thecefore. dx = z ~ u du

Substituting in Eq. (a). 0, _ ~

:ltZ
x2 I zseC:uu,
0 (I + tan
du

where 8 = tan -I (biz) = angle made by exterrunes of the strip at P .

Of o~ _ ~ !. cas 2 u du
x 0
230 ron.M ECHANICS AN D FOU NDATIO N E NGINE ER ING

Of O:-;<29 +sinZ8) ... (!l.21)

(2) Point P not below the centre or the strip

Fig. 11.12 shows the case when the point P is not below the centre of the strip. The extremities of the
strip make angles of ~ 1 and 13'2at P. As in the previous case, the Io.'ldq dx acting on a small length dx can
be considered as a line load. The vertical stress al l' is given by Eq. 11.17 as

1:===.':====;:1
t I,:'r.~ I;) .'
0F·".. ,,
f , '' /
/
I " . :

I. /
I
/'
'
""
/

z ~ / ./ "

l
U"~;~/
riY.>'
i /"~/'
~'
t
Fig. n .ll. Slripload, pointPnoI al ee cemre.

6 2 q dx [ I ]' . . .(a)
0: ,. ----;u- I + (xlZ)2

Bq. (a) is simplified makin g the fo llow ing substi tution,

.r . z tan p dr _ z secz p dp

Therefore Ii c . _ 2 q (2 sec
.
1i0: - ¥
., P) dJI
cos
2
2

Pd13
[ 1 + ~n'~ r
ea
Integrating, 0, . ;; f (I + =2~) <>\l

"
0: -
.
· '!. [~+2 sm 2~ 1
; [ (~ - 131)
I

+ (sin
"
"
132cos P:z - si n PI cos PI)]
Substituting pz - 131 • 2 B,

•..(b)
SIRESSES DUE TO APPUED WADS 231

If@l + ~. 2lF,ilambeshownthat
sin~cos~ - sin PI COS Pt • sin 29cos2q>
Therefore . Bq. (b) becomes

0,.;- [29 + sin 29 cos2lpJ ... (11.22)

The expressions foc 0 ... and -r... can be likewise derived.

a• • i [28 - si0 28 cos2~) ... (11.23)

and "t... . ;- [sin28 sin2lp] ••.(11.24)

It may be mentioned that Eqs. 11.22 to 11.24 are general equations which can be used even for the case
when lhe point P is below the centre of the load.
In this case, ~ - -Pl _ 8

Fig. 11.13. IsobIn 01 t trip load.

232 SOI L MEC HANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEER ING

and Pl +Ilz-0 {J'-O

There fore, Eq. 11.22 gives

Oz - ~ (28 + sin 28) ... (same as Eq. 1121)

Eq. 11.22 C3I1 be used to determine lsccers ofdiITercn t Intensity due to strip load. Fig . 11.13 shows the
tscca rs. The isobar of load intensity 0.1 q is at a depth of about 6 B below the load. Fig. 11.13 can be used
for determination of vert ical stress es at various points.
11.12. MAXIMUM SHEAR STR ESSES AT l'OINTS UNDER A STRIP LOAD

The shear stress at any point P below a strip load is given by Eq. 11.24 as 't Q .. ; sin 28 sin 2q>. The
planes on which the shear stresses arc zero are known as principal planes. Therefore for pr incipal planes,
't o:: = O.

~Sin28Sin2{J''''O
As q and 8 C3I1not be zero, 't Q will be zero when
sin2t "'O or 2 {J'''' 0
The principa l stresses are obtained from Eqs, 1I.22 and 11.23. substituting 2<p _ O.

uJ - u ; - ~ (28 + sin28) ... (11.25)

(12 - 0 ., - ~ (28 - sin 28) ., .(11.26)

The maximum shear stress is equa l to half the difference of the principal stresses. TIllIS

't max - ~ (01 - 03) - ~ sin 28 .. .( 11.21)

Eq. 11.27 indicates that the maximum shear stress at P depends upon the angle 28 subtendcd by the strip
load at the point Po Obviously, the maximum shear stress will remain constant if the angle 28 docs not
cbange. Let us draw a circle with the centre a obtained by the intersection of lines OA and on making angles

------....

Fig. 11.14. Maximu m shea r stresses

Sl'RESSES DUE 10 APpUE D WADS

(90-28) with the ends of the load, as show n in Fig. 11.14. As the angle subtended at the centre of circle is
twice that at the circumference, the poin t P makes an angle 29 . All the points on this circle will sublend an
angle 28.
From Eq. 11.27, es the maximum shear stress depends on the angle 29. the circle is the locus of all points
wi th shear stress equal to 't!DoU' The ebsoane maximum valu e of sheer stress, (T~lI:LU will occur when
sin 29 = I in Eq. 11.27 . Th us

('t""",)max " ;
100 locus of ('tm;\X)m:u: is a semi circ le, which bas the width of the loaded strip, D, us its diem erer, In this
case,
sin 28 .. 1 a 29 .. 90°.

11.13. VERTICAL STIl FS S ES UNDER A C IRC tJlAIl AREA

The Ioods applied to soil surface by footi ngs are nO( ccoccnuated loccs, These are usually spread over a
finite area of the footing . It is generally assu med that the footing is flexible and the contact pressure is
unifonn . In other words., the load is assumed to by ~ R---I
unifonn ly d istributed O\'Cf the area of the base of footings.,1~\n\el'lsJty2q
Let us determine the vertical stress at the poin t P aI
depth z below the centre of a uniformly loaded c ircular area
(rig. 11.15). Let the intensity o f the load be q per unit area
DOO R be the radius of the loaded area . Bocssl ncsq's
solution can be used to determine 0:. The load on the
elementary ring of rndius r and wi dth dr is equal to q
'!'.
er

', ,
\\" \
1 r '0
q
,,' I
•" /1

1 \\ I ",
(2w) The load acts at a constant radial distance, from '" \:\ . // /
the palllt P. FromEq. 11.9. '\\
, " // 1
3 (q x 2..vdr) l i z " \~. . '/ /
60,' ~ . %' . [1' (rlzl'J" I f/
The vert ical stress due to entire load is given by ':~2 .et>~1
0, •
Jqz' J.10i IY' ,, drI)'" •••(a) \ ,11'
p

Let ,) + ? .. u , Th erefore , 2r dr .. du. Aa. JUS. Cirrular 1.Md.

(,r+h
&J. (a) becomes 0, • Jq'> J.. ;;;'"
.i qz' ( - ~) [u-"'L~' ".
- - q'> [ IR' ,II i'" - (~'" 1
• q,> [~ - IR' ,11)'" ]

or 0, • q [ 1-11 , ;RI Z)Z} '" (11.29)

o, • Ie . q (11.30)
234 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

r
where Ie is the influence coefficient for the circular area, and is given by

I, - [1 -jl + ;RIz)' 1 .. .(11.31)

Table 11.8 gives the value of the influence coefficient Ie for different values of R/z.

Table 11.8. Inffuence Coefficients It for th e Circu lar Area

RJ' I, RJ' J, RJ' I, RJ' I,

0 .00 0.0000 0.65 0.4109 130 0 .7734 1.95 0 .9050
0.05 0.0037 0,70 0.4502 135 0 .7891 2.00 0.9106
0.10 0.0148 0.75 0.4880 1.40 0.803 6 2.50 0.9488
0.1.'1 0.0328 0.80 0.5239 1.45 0.8170 3.00 0.968 4
0 .20 0.0571 0.85 0.5577 150 0 .8293 3.50 0 .9793
0.25 0 .0869 0.90 0.5893 1.55 0.8407 4.00 0.9857
0.30 0 .1286 0.95 0.6189 1.60 0.8511 5.00 0.9925
0.35 0.1592 1.00 0 .6465 1.65 0.8608 6.00 0.9956
0.40 0.2079 1.05 0.6720 1.70 0.8697 7.00 0.9972
0.45 0 .2416 1.10 0.6956 1.75 0.8779 8.00 0.9981
0.50 0.2845 1.15 0.7175 1.80 0.8855 9.00 0.9987
0.55 0.327 3 1.20 0 .7376 1.85 0.8925 10.00 0.9990
0 .60 0.3695 1.25 0.7562 1.90 0.8990 00 1.0000

Bq. 11.31 for the influence coe fficient Ie can be written in terms of the angle 29 subtended at point P by
the load.
Let tan 8 "" Riz. Therefore.
Yl

l, - [
l -j~}
l~ • 1 _ (cos 2 8)1I2 • 1 _ cos3 8 .•.( 11.32)
Eq. 11.32 indicate s that as B tends to 90°, the value of t, approaches unity. In other words, when a
uniformly loaded area tends to by very large in comparison with the de pth 1:, the vertical stress at the point
P is approximately equal to q.
When the point P is not below the centre of the load, analysis becomes complicated and is outside the
scope of this text. In that case, the isobars shown in Fig. 11.16 can be used to determine the vertical stress at
any point. It may be noted that the isobar of O.lq cuts the axis of the load at a depth of abou t 4R (= W )
below the loaded area. The zone within which the stresses is indicated by this isobar, as mentioned above, is
known as the bulb of p ressure. The reader should compare this pressure bulb with thai below the strip load,
which is much deeper.
11.14. VERTICAL STRESS UNDER A CORNER OF A RECTANGULAR AREA
The vertical stress under a comer of a rectangular area (Fig. 11.17) with a uniformly distributed load of
intensity q can be obtained from Bouss inesq 's solution . From Eq. 11.9, the stress at depth z is given by, taking
dQ - q M - q dx dy,
STRESS DUE TO APPLIED LOADS 2J5

r-. ---1--.----1
,. . r--D ~

,
q

(OJ , .
~
d
~
,,,s
~
o.:P'
2
. 0:1-

D'
4A 20

Fig. 11.16. Isobars for circ ular lo;¥:Ied area.

. . 3",' f r" qdxd,·
By mtegrano n. 0'[ -"" """"21t Jo Jo (x2 + l + Z?)V2
Although the integra l is quit e co mplicated. Newmar k was able to perfo rm it The results were presen ted
as follows:
1112 112 ; ;
<J. =..!L[ mil . 2 + +s in- I ( mn ] .. .(11.33)
• 21t ~ m + II
2
+ 111 n + I .vm 2 + ,,2 + m2n 2 + I
where m = 8/1. and n ::: U z.
The values of III and n ca n be interchanged without any effect on the values of (fl' Eq. 11.33 can be
expressed as

Fig. 11.l7 . Venica l stress underc:omcr.

236 SOIl.. MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

. .. (11.34)
where IN i ~ Newmark's infl uence coefficient , given by
2+112
["m
/N = - I _~. 2 11I2 +2 22 . _I
+ sin ( non ]
21t '1 m 2 + 1,2 + I 11/ + n + m If + I -.,Jm 2 + ,, 2 + /Il 2 n2 + I
Table 11.9 gives the values of iN for different values of 111 and II .

Table 11.9. Influence Coeffici ents IN for Rectangalas- Area

n
'" 0.2 OA lUi 0.8 /.0 2.0 3.0 50 /0.0
0.2 0,0 179 O.032K OJ1435 0.0504 0.0547 t),(}610 0,0619 0 .0620 0.0620
0 .4 O.0.l28 O,H602 (I.OKOI 0.0931 0. 1013 O.Jl34 0 .1150 0.1 154 0.1 154
0 .6 0.0435 0.010;0 1 0. 1069 0.1247 0, 1361 0. 1533 0.1555 0.1561 0.1562
0 .8 0.0504 U,m)} I 0. 1247 0 .1461 0. 1598 0. 18 12 0.1841 0. 1849 0.1850
1.0 0.0 547 0.1013 0. 1361 0 .1598 0.1752 0. 1(1)1) 0.2034 0.2044 0.2046
2.0 a.D61O 0. 1134 0.1533 0.1812 0.1999 0.2325 0.2378 0.2395 0.2399
3.0 0.06 18 0.1150 0.1555 0.1841 0.2034 0.2378 0.2439 0.2461 0.246 S
S.U 0.0620 0. 1154 0.1561 O.IK49 0.2044 0.2395 0.2461 0.2486 0.2491
10.0 0.0620 0.1154 0.1562 0.1850 0.2046 0.2391) 0.2465 0.2491 0.2498
Padum gave charts for determination of the influence factor IN (Fig. 11. 18). These charts can he used in
a design office. The charts can also he used for dcterrninauon of the vertical stress under a strip load. in
which case the length tends to infinity and the curve for II =
00 can he used.
o.26
0""
.l
--4ill-- I
V"
-: ...
O~ ~o

"

.1
IJ
/1%
//

----
...---
0..0.6

o~o.'i

0,,0.

0" .3

:e--~~
0 ~ o.2

V
O~V- "mO.1

:I~ I=='- I
0.1 0·' •
Fig. 11.18. Fsd um's chart.
1\.15. VERTICAL STRESS AT ANY POINT UNDER A RECTANGULAR AREA
The equations developed in the preceding section can also tie used for finding the vertical stress at a
point which is not located below the come r. TIle rectangular area is subdivided into rectangles such mat each
5nESS DUE TV APPUED WADS

rectangles, has a romcr at the point wbere the vatical stress is required. Tbe vertical stress is determined
using the principle of superposition. The following three cases can OCOJr.
(I ) Point en ywbere below the recta ngular 8rN. Fig. 11.19 (a) shows the location of the point P below
the rectangular area ABeD. The given recta ngle is subdivided into 4 small rectang les AEPII, EBFl~ IfPGD
and PFCG, each having one come r at P. The vertical stress at P due to the given recta ngular load is equal to
that [rom the four small recta ngles . The refore, using Bq. 11.34,
A E B A, 6 E

m!w
HI----~_-- -- ---- F . -- :! (2)

iQ: lJ) :
I . :
0, i ----'10
(a) I (3) I (4) !
~ --- - - - - -- L J
H P
0»
OJ

(c) Fig. 11.19. ~rtieaI 5~ under 11 rectallgulllrarea.

Oz • q [(IN). ... (INn'" (l Nh ... (IN). ] .•.( 11.35)
where (l Nh , (INn. (l Nh and (IN)4 are Newmark's influence tactces obtained from Thble 11.9 for the four
rectangles marked ( 1), (2), (3) and (4).
For the special CfISC, when the point P is at the centre of the rectangle AJJCD, all the four small
rectanglesare equal, and Eq. 11.35 becomes
oz·4 / N .. .(11.36)
where IN is the influence facto- for the small rectangle .
(1) Point outside lhe loaded area. Fig. 11.19 (b):shows the point P oolside the loaded area ABeD. In
this case, a large rectangle AEPF is draw n with Its one comer at P.
Now rectengje AJJCD = rectangle AEPF - rectangle BEPH - rea angle DGPF ... rectangle CaPR
The last rectangle CGPH is given plus s ign because this area has beendeducted twice, once in rectangle
BEPH and once in DGPF. .
The refore, the stress at P due to a load on rectangle ABCD is given by
0, • q [(1N)' - (IN), - (lNh + (IN). ) .. .(11.37)
where (IN)" (I Nn. (IN)) and (I N). are the influence coefficients for the rectang les AEPF, BEPH, DGPF and
CGPI/, respectively,
(3) Polnl below lite edge or lhe loaded area. If the point P is below the edge of the loaded area ABCD
(Fig. 11.19 c), the given rectangle is divided into two small rectangles APED and PBCE. In this esse,
0, • q [(l NI) + (IN},) ... (11.38)
where (l Nh and (l Nn :ire influence coefficients for rectangles APED and PJJCE, respectively.

11.16. NEWMARK'S INFLUENCE ClIARTS

The. methods for the detenn ination of vertical stresses under a strip, a circula r and a rectangular area have
been discussed in the precedi ng sectio ns. In practice, sometimes one has to find the vert ical stresses under 8
unifonn ly loaded areas of other shapes. For such cases. Newmark's influence chans are extrem ely usef ul
238 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Newmark's chart is based on the concept of the vertical stress

below the centre of the circular area, discussed in Sect. 11.13 . Let
us consider II uniformly loaded circular area of radius R I • divided
into 20 equal sectors (Fig. 11.20). The vertical stress at point Pal
depth z just below the centre of (he loaded area.d ue to lood on one
sector (hatched area (1» will be (1/20) o f thai due 10 load OD CuU

r
circle . From Eq. 11.29.

0, • kq [ I - {1 + (~l/'>' 1 .. (aj
If the vertical stress (oJ is given an arbitrary fixed value. say
0.0050, Eq. (aj becomes

00050 ·
.
.!L[I_I11__
20
l_ _ }'" 1 ...(bj
+ (Rl /z )Z Fig. 11.20. Concentric circles foc RI and Rz.

Solv ing Eq. (b), Rl / z - 0.270 ... {1I.39)

Th us every one-twentieth sector of the circle. with II radius R I equal 10 0.270 z, would give II vertical
stress of 0.005 q at its centre .
Let us now consider another concentric circle of radius R2 lind divide it again into 20 equal sectors. Each
larger sector is divided into two sub-areas. If the small area (marked 2) exerts II stress of 0 .005 q at P, the
vertical stress due to both area (1) and (2) would be equal to 2 x 0.005 q. Th us,

2 x 0.005 q • .!L20 [ 1 - { _ _ 1_ _ z }'"

I + (R,I,j
1 '..(cj
Solving , R.yz • 0.40.
In other words , the radius of the second circle should be equal to 0.40 L
Likewise, the radii of the third to the ninth circles am be determined. The values obtained are 0.52 z,
0.64 z, o.n z. 0 .92 z. 1.11 Z. 1.39 Z and 1.91 z, The radius of 94
circle is 2 .54 z, The radius for the tenth
circl e R IO r. given by

10 x O.OO5q • .!L20 [1 _{ _1 +_1 __,}'" ]

(Rlo/z)

or R IO - 00
'Therefore, the tenth circle cannot be drawn.
Fig. 11.21 shows the complete Newmark's influence chart. in which only 9i circles hove been drawn foc
z equal to the distance AB marked 00 the chart .
Use or Newmark's Chart. Tbe chart can be used 10 detamine the verucat stress at point P below the
loaded area . A plan of the loaded area is drawn on a tracing paperto a scale such that the length AB( = 2 an
in Ibis case) is equal to the depth (z) of the point P below the surface . For example, if the pressure is required
at a depth of 1 m, the plan should be drawn to a scale of 2 an = 1 m o r R.F. = 1150. The traced plan of the
loaded area is placed over the Newmark chart socn U131 the point P at which the ,'pressure is required
roincides with the centre of the chart. The vertical stress at point P is given by
a~ _ I x n x q .. .(11.40)
where I = influence coefficient ( = 0.005 in this case ).
S1'RESSES DUE TO APPLIED WADS 239
,--,---,.------,--- ---,-----r--,

Fig. 11.21. Newmark'lI QIarts .

n = Dumber o f small area units rov ered by the plan . Each area between two successive radial
lines and two success ive concentric circle is taken as one unit.
q = intensity of load.
The following points are worth noting:
(I) The fractions of the unit areas should also be counted and prope rly accou nted for,
(2) If the plan of the loaded area extends beyonds the 9 ¥h circle . it may be ass umed to approach the
10th circle for the purpose of count ing the unit areas.
(3) The point P at which the vertical stress is required may be anywhere within or outs ide the loaded
area.
(4) If the depth 81 which the stress is required is chan ged. a fresh plan is required such that the new
depth is equal 10 the distance An on the chart.
11.17. CO MPARISON OF STRESSES DUE TO WADS ON AREAS OF DIFFERENT S HAPES
The variatio n of vertica l stress with depth depends upon the shape and size o f the loacted area. fig . 11.22
shows the variation of the vertica l stress with depth below the centre of circul ar; square and strip loads.
The vertical stresses are equal to the load intensity at the surface and decrease rapidly with an increase in
depth (z). In the case of circular and square loads, the vertical stress i~ about 10% of the surface load (q) at a depth
of about 2B. However, in the case of strip loads. the stresses are much greate r. Even 31 z = 38 , the vertical
stress is about 20% of the surface load (q). In othe r words , the pressure bulb in this case is much dee per.
2<0 SO IL MECHANICS AND FO UNDATI ON ENGIN EERIN G

., 0.00 ,.><> ,~, ,.GO

I
M'
IA
1.00
1 lJ-r vl

., TT
ICir CUla r--...... -::' -- - e

I.'
reula r
0.5 0.6')
0."
I.'. 0.14
qua,
0.70
0."
0.18
'"
tr,p

0 . ')')
0. 39
SQuor ~-X ... 2. 0 0.0 8 0 .14 0.31
'.0 1<'"" 2.'i().06 0.01 0."
I/. / 3.0 ().()4
"" 0 .20
B"W,d 'h or diom.ler
/

I.' 1/1 i
I
,.0

,., -/1 I I

r.c '/'
Fig. 11.22. Compl n.<;OO of Qn:ular, sqUllre and strip lOAds.

11.111. VERTICAL lITRESSES UNDER TRIANG UlAR WADS

Fig. 11.23 shows a lriangular load with a width of 2b and the intensity varying from 0 to q. 1bc vertica l
stress (u~) at a point P(x,z) is given by

Ag. l1.23.Triangullltload.

": - ~ [~ a - sin 26 ] .• .(l1.4t)

where ~ I, the angle which the line PB marks with verti cal, and a is the angle subtended by PA and PO
at P.
If the point P is exactly below lhe end B. x .,. 2b and 6 :: O. Therefore,

«l _ .!L
2x
(~
b oJ _!f!.
x ...{Il.4l)
Sl'RESSES DUE TO APPU ED WADS 241

The above equa tions can also be applied to the case when the intens ity of the 1000 increases linearly from
zero at ooe end to a maxim um q and then decreases to zero (Fig. 11.24).
For the load shown in Fig. 11.24 (a).

I 2b I 2b . 1 I' 2b I 2b ,I

~~.2 Z
(a ) (b )

Fig. 11.24. Triangular load with maximum intensity at centre.

o~ - i!tb [2b (Ul + a21 + x (al - a2l1 ...(11.43)

When the point P is exactly below the point B, a l _ ~ _ a and x :: 2b. [ri g. 11.24 (b)J. The refo re,

O~ - ~ [2b )( 2a + 2b(a - a)]

Oz.~ .. .(11.44)

11.19. VERTICAL STRESSES UNDE R TRAPEZOIDA L LO A DS

Fig. 11.25 (a) shows a trapezoidal load due to an embankment, whichconsists of a triangu lar load over
widt h a and a uniform load o f intensity q over width b. The vertical stress at point P is given by

A~}~~'
~~ p p
(a) (b)

Fig.i!.2S.Ttapezoidall oild .

o, ~ ; [ (a: b) (a l + a21 _ ~ al ]
o~ • ; [ (a l + a ll + ~ al]
Oz - ~[a (al + au + bad .. .(11.45)

Obviously, for the trapezoid al load shown in Fig. 11.25 (b), the vertical stress at P,
242 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUND A:n ON ENG INEERING

0'• • ;; fa(ul + a.i) + ball ...(1 1.46)

11.20. STR~SES DUE TO HORIZONTAL LOAD

(a) Line Loud Ql Fig. 11.26 shows a horizontal load QI per 0,
unit run acting on the soil surface shown by solid lines. In this
CISC, it is more conv enient 10 determin e the rad ial stress (0 ,) and
the tan gential stress (oo). 111Cradial stress is given by

(J-~
, r (2a - sin2 a ) .. .(11.41)
where 0 = angle made by radial line r with the vertical
u = ang le made by soil surface with the vertical
For horizontal ground surface. a _ :t12 . Th erefore,
a _ 2QI sin 0
, r(;"(-O)
Fig. 1126. Horizont:d load.

.
(J _ 2Q IsinO
. .. (Il.4S)
"'
(b) Con centrated Load Q. In cartesian coorcmatcs, the stresses duc to a horizonta l load Q can be
wr itte n 3S
3Qxi'
(Jz- ~

0 ., -
SL
21t . Jiix x
[Y
Ji2 - (I- 2 v) +
(1-2v)R'
(R + z)2
{3 -
x'(3 R +
112 (R + z)
Z)ll
a _SL' ~ X [~ _ (1 _ 2V) +(1-2V)R' {3 _~l]
2
r 2lt Jil II I (U+ z)l U (R + z)

T
.y
_ SL. L x
2"t K
[:Ii
R2
+ (1 - 2v)1I'
(R+Z)2
{t _ x'(3R +
Rl(R +
Z)ll
z)

3Q x'z
"(,tt - 2i ' /f
"()"", ~ . * .. (11.49)

where x,y,z are coordinates of point P and R is lhe distance Op,

as shown in Fig. 11.4.
This case is generally referred to as Cerutti 's probie tn:
11.21. STRE.f;)SES DUE TO INCLINED LOAD
Fig. 11.27 sho ws an inclined load 0 2 per unit run acting on the
sell surface . The radial stress at a point at an angle e is given by

(1 _ 2Q2 (cospc:os e + Sin p ~in e ) ...(11.50)

r r 2a+ sm2 a 2a - s1112a
where p = angle which the load Q2 makes with vertical,
a ::: angle the soil surface makes with the verti cal. Rg.11.27. Incl in~IQlld .
SffiESSES DUE TO APPUED LOADS

Ice the horizon tal grou nd surface , a • .:t/2. Thus

2Q, [ COSpros B Sin pSin Bj

0;.-;- :t + :It

cr, ' 2~'ros(6_~) . ...(1151)

When the land is vertical, ~ • O.

Q2
0;. 2 CQ<;B . . .[( 11.51 (a)J
"'
1l.22. WFSTERGAARD'S SOL U110N
Boissinesq' solution assu mes that the soil deposi t is isotrop ic. Actual sedimentary depos its are genera lly
anisotropic. There are generally thin layers of sand em bedded in hom ogeneo us clay stra ta. wcst crgaerd's
solution assumes that the re are thin sheets of rigid materials sand-w iched in a homogeneous so il mass . These
thin sheets are close ly spa ced and are of infinit e rigidity and are, therefore. Inco mpressib le. Th ese permit only
downward displaceme nt of the soil mass as a whole without any latera l displacement. 'Therefore ,
Westergaard 's solution represe nts more closely the actua l sedi mentary deposits.
According 10 wcstergaard, the vert ical stress at a point P at a depth z belo w the concemrated load Q is
given by

... ( 1152)

where c depends upon the Poisson ratio (v) and is give n by

c . Y (1 -2v)/( 2-2v)
Foran elastic material, the value of v varies between 0.0 to 0.50 . For the cas e when v is zero, Eq. 11.52
is simplified considerably, laking c _ 1/ V2,
1 Q
...(1153)
0 .r. xli + 2 (r/z )zjW .?
cr. - I . ~ . ..(1154)

where I w is known as Westergaard influence coelficienL

I. - • [1 + 2 ~'IZ)' t" ...( 11.55)

The values of 10'/ are considerably smaller than the Bousslnesq influen ce factor (/n). Tabl e 11.10 g ives the
values of 1.... The values of IJj are also given for comparison.
'Thble 11.10. ComparLson or lw and IB
0.0 0.1
'I' 0.2 03 0.' 0.5 0.6
/s 0.4n5 0.4657 0.4329 0.3849 0.3295 0.2733 0 .2214
Iw 0,3183 0.3090 0.2836 0.2483 0.2!l99 0 .1733 0 .1411

rtz 0.1 0." 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 6.0

/s 0.1762 0.1386 0.1083 0.ll844 0.0085 0 .0015 0 .000 1
Iw 0.1142 0.0925 0.0751 0 .0613 0 .0118 0 .0038 0 .0005

Fig. 11.28 shows the variation of /8 and lw with rtz. Th e Westergaard Influe nce factor is abo ut 2/3
244 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

0.'
0·417

T -

fig. 11.28. Comparison of 1B and lw.

of the Bouss tnesq va lues for sma ll values of rtz. But for rlz more than 2.0, the Westergaa rd values are
slighlly greate r. The effec t of the load is negligib ly small in bot h the cases when rtz is greater than about
2.0.
11.23. FEN SKE 'S CHARTS
Just like Newmark's Charts which arc based on Boussincsq's solution, Fenske's Charts are based on
Westergaard 's solution. The Fenske chart can be prepared using Eq. 115 2.
Q 1 .
oJ: - 2i ' (cz)2(1 + (r/czl)3?i
The above equation can be integrated to obtain the vertical stress (o z) below the centre of a uniform
circular loa d of intensity q and radius R as was done for the BOllSSinCSq solution for derivation of Bq. 11.29.
In this case,

O
" Q[I _{ _1}"2] 1 + (Rlcz)2
...(11.56)

If instead of the full circle, only 1/8th secto r of the circle is considered, the stress is given by

0 .9. 1- _ _1_ _ "2 ] ... (115~

'8 [ { 1 + (Riel)' }
Eq. 11.57 is similar to the equation used for Newmark's chart, with one difference that the depth used
here is the modi i.ed depth ex.
The radius R t of the first circle am be determined for a constant value of o, (say, O.OUl q). Thus

0001q _ !l 1 1_ _ '"
. 8[ {I + (R,l eZ)'}

.;; " 0.127

or R 1 ,. 0.127 (ex)
The modified depth ex is marked as the distance AB in Fig. 11.29.
<0 STRESSES DUE TO APPUE D LOADS
'"

ou t
A B
t-- CZ---l
Fig. 11.29 . Fc:nskc' r; Chart ( I _ 0.00 1).
Likewise, the rad ii of OIhcr circles are determin ed. Unlike the New mark chart, the radia l divis ions are
also changed in Fenske's chan. The re are 8 radial divisions for the first circle and 48 radia l divisions for lhe
18th circle. 1be rad ii of the circula r arcs and the number of radial divisions are so chosen mal each influence
area unit is approximately a square . Table lLlI gives the values of R/ (cz) for different circles and their
corresponding number of division.
~9.
The method of using the Fenske chan is similar to that for the Newmark chan. However. in this case the
distance AD represents the modified depth cz. The plan of the loaded area is draw n on a tracing paper to a
scale such that the distance AD is equal 10 C times the dept h z of the poin t P at which the stress is required.
·6) For Poisson's ratio of ZCfO, the va lue of c is eq ua l to 0.707.
Table 11.11. Values of Ric: for Fenske's Chart

Circle No. 1 , I 3 I 4 I 5 I • I 7 I s 9
7) R1(CI) 0. 127 0.204 0.292 0.376 0.472 0 .560 0.664 0.772 0.900
s I I I
I.
Divisions 12 20 I 24 32 32 I 40 40 48
ed
Circle No. 10 It I 12 I t3 I 14 I IS I I 17 I 18 19
RI(<2) r.oaz 1.176 I L33' I L512 I 1.712 I L952 I 2.236 I 2.592 I 3.044 4.420
Divis ions 48 48 I 4. I 48 I 48 I 48 I 48 I 48 I 4. 48

11.24. AP PROX IM ATE l'tIETIIO DS

The methods discussed in the peececing secnoos are relatively mere accurate, but are time- consuming.
Sometimes, the engineer is interested 10 estimate the vertical stresses appro ximately for prelim inary designs.
The following methods can be used .
(1) Equiva lent Po int -Load Method. The vertical stress at a point under a loaded area of any shape can
be detennined by dividin g the loaded area into small areas and replacing the distribut ed load on each sm all
246 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDAllON ENGIN EERING

area by an equivalent point load acting at the

centroid of the area (Fig . 11.30); e.g. in Fig. 1130,
Q '" qa Z for each area. The torn} lood is thus
converted into a number of point loads. The vertical
stress at any point below or outside the loaded area is T .1 .2 ·3 . '>
equal to the sum of the vertical stresses due to these
equivalent point loads. Using Eq. IUD,
(I, ll I
+. ·5 ·6 ·7 .8"
Equivalent
point loads

+
[QI + Q2 (/on + .. . + Q. (/0).
0, ' :?
1 •
a -s ·10 ' 11 ' 12
or 0, • -; ,:?, Q, (10)' ... (11.58) ..1
Eq. 11.58 gives fairly accurate results if the
side a of the small area unit is equal to or less than
one-third of the depth z of point P at which the Fig. 11.30. Equivalent Point loads.
vertical stress is required.
(2) Two-to-one Load Irlstrt b utlon Met ho d . The actual distribution of load with the depth is complex.
However, it can be assumed to spread approxima tely at a slope of two (vertical) to one (horizonta l). Thus the
vertical pressure at any depth z below the soil surfac e can be determined approximately by constructing a
frustum of pyramid (or cone) of de pth z and side slopes (2:1). The pressure distribution is assumed to be
uniform on a horizontal plane at that depth.

The averag e vert ical stress

c:S
I'
Oz
B+Z ·1
Fig . 11.3 1. Two-to-One Distribution .
depends upon the shape of the loaded area, as given below (sec Fig. 11.31).

(1) Square Area (n x B),

qIi' .. .(11.59)
o, '"' (8 + Z)2

(2) Recta ngula r Area (B x L), o, - (B:(~)(£ £1 z) ... (11.6<lJ

(3) Stri p Area (width B, un it length), qz -1n\(~) Xx \) .. .(11.61)

(4) Circular Area (diameter D),

qd .. .(11.62)
o, - CD + z)i

The above method gives fairly accurate values of the ave rage vertical stress if the depth z is less than 2.5
times the width of the loaded area, The maximum stress is genera lly taken as 1.5 times the average stress
determined above .
(3) Sixty Degree Distribution. This method is similar to the preceding method . In this case, the presses
 STRESSES DUE 10 APPUED WADS 247

distribution is assum ed a long lines making an angle of ()()O with the horiz ontal instead of 6310 (2 : 1). The
method gives appr oxi mately the same results.
11.25. CONTACT IJRESSURJ;; BlSTIu n UllON
The upward pressure due to soil on the undersi de o f the footing is termed contact pressure. In the
derivations of the preced ing sections. it has been assumed that the footi ng is flexible and the contact pressure
distribution is unifocm and equal to q. Actual tocdngs are noc flexible es assumed. The actual distribution of
the contact pressu re depends upon a num ber of factors such as the elastic properties of the toonng material
and soil the thickness of footings . In fact, it is a soil- structure interaction problem .
Borowic ka (1936, 1938) stud ied the contact pressure d istrib ution of uniform ly load ed strips and c ircular
Iooungs resting on a semi-infmi te elas tic mass, assu ming the base o f the footing as frict ionless. 'Ibc analysis
showed that the contact pressure distribution depen ds upon the relative rigidity (K~) of the footing-soi l system.
The relative rigidity is deftned as

K •
,
(J->?l
6 (1
.!. -1) (EL£, ). (1.)'
b
... ( 11.63)

where = Poisson 's mhos for so il and footing material. respectively,

v.' vf
<. E.. Ef = Mod uli of elastici ty for soil and footing ma terial, respec tively.
e 2b = width (or diame ter) of footing, t = thickness of footing.
a Fig. 11.32 shows tbe contact pressure distribution of circular and strip footings for d ifferent values of
e relative stiffness . For a perfectly rigid foot ing (K~ _ 00). the con tact press ure is minimum at the centre, with

I - - - OTc mel t>' . 2b -----l 1 1 I---W ldth ~ 2 b - . j

I I It T \! i
:
I
~ I

!
~ c-ccrTT7-r.n-:rrT7l
~ O,2')q

MQ
00'1 '1
O.l')ql

o·')q l . '0
. ~
K:oOj:9

l 0.7'>: ,,'' - " = ' -_ -'",

O,7Sq
q 1<; . 0.00
~
•

10)C"CI,IIO, Iool ;,.,g

). Fig. 1I.32. COOI;ld Pressure (Borowicka) .

a value of about 0,5 q for the circular foot ing and 0 .67 q for the strip foot ing. Tbc cont act press ure is very
9) large at the edges . In fact, it lends to in finity. For purely flex ible footin gs (K~ - 0). the con tact pressu re is
uniform and equal to q.
0) Borowicka's results can be used 10 determine the contact pressu re on a co hesive soi l which be haves like
an elastic soil mass. In a cobes lonless soi l, modul us o f elasticity increases with depth due 10 an increase in
coofming pressure. Such soils are non-homogeneous.
1) Contact pressu re on saturated clay, Fig. 11.33 shows the qua litative conr a ct pressu re distribution tmder
flexible and rigid footings resting on a saturated clay and subjected to a uniformly d istributed load q. wh en
2) the footin g is flexible, it deforms into the shape of a bowel , with the max imum deflect ion at the cen tre. The
contact press ure distr ibution is uniform.
.5 If the footing is rigid , lhe seulemem is uniform. Th e contact pressure distribu tion is minimu m at the
centre and the maximum at the edges. l bc stressesal [he edges in real soils cannot be infmi te as theoretically
determ ined for an elastic mass, In real soils, be yond a certain limit ing va lue of stress, the plastic flow occurs
and the pressure beco mes finite.
 '48 sou, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(;Ii) FLE J IBl E FOOTI" <; {b) RIGIO FOOTING

Fig. l1.33, Conlllct pressure on saturated clay.

Co n tact P ressure on sa nd. Fig. 11.34 shows the qualitative contact pressure dis tribution under flexib le
and rigid footin gs resting on a san dy soil and subjected to a unifonn ly distribu ted load q. In this case , the
edges of the flexible footin g underg o a large r settle ment than al the centre. The soil at the centre is confined
and, there fore, has a high modulus of elasticity and deflects less for the same contact pressure. The cornect
pressu re is unifonn.

( iI ) FLO lelE FOOTING (b ) RIGJO F'OOTiNG

Fig. 1134. Contact Pressure OIlSand.

If the footing is rigid. the sett lement is uniform . Tbe co ntact pressure Increases fro m zero at the edges to
a max imum at the centre. The soil. being unconfined et edges. has low modulus of elasticity. Howeve r, if the
footing is embedd ed, the re would be finite contact pressu re at edges.
Usual As.s um puo n, As discussed above. the contact pressure distribut ion for flexible foo tings is uniform
for both clay and sand. The contact pressure for rigid footing is maximum at the edges for footings on clay,
but for the rigid foot ings on sand , it is minimum al the edges. For
convenience , the cou acr pressure is assumed to be uniform for all
types of footings and all types of soils (Fig. 11.35) if load is
symmetri c,
The above assumptionof uniform pressure distribution will result
in a slig htly unsafe design for rigid footing on clays, as the maximum
bending moment at the centre is underestimated. It will give a
. conservative design for rigid Iooengs on sandy (rohcsioolt=SS)soi ls. as
the maxi mum bending mome nt is overesti mated . How ever. at the Fig. 1135. Unifonn OOfIbld ~UTe.
ultima te stage just before the failure, the soil behaves as an elas to-plastic materi al [and not an elastic material)
and the contact pressure is uniform. and the assum ption is jus tified at the ultimate stage.
11.26. LIMITATI O NS O F E I..AS11C TH EORIES
Both Bocssmesq's and wesrergaard's theories are applicable to elastic ma terials . Actua l so ils do not
behave in the manner as assumed in the analysis. 'The results ob tained arc necessa rily approximate. The
theori es have the followin g limi tations.
(1) TIle so il mass is never truly isotropic and homogeneous.
STRESSES DUE TO APPLIED WADS 249

(2) The soil mass is not clastic 3..0; the particl es do not return to the original positio n when the load is
removed.
(3) The stress -strain ratio for most soi ls is not consta nt.
However. for most soils the stress-s train ratio is approximately co nstant provided the stresses are well
below the failure stresses , and no unload ing occ urs.
Although the applicability of elastic theorie s to soil problems is questionable. yet the results are generally
not much d ifferent fro m the observed values. A difference of 20 to 30% between the theoretical and the
measured values may occ ur. Th is diffe rence is generally ignore d co nsidering man y co mplexities of the
problem. The clastic theories are used as better theori es are not yet availab le which can be used in a design
office.

ILL USTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Exa mple H .1. A concentrated load of 2000 leN is applied at the ground surface, Determine
Iht' vertical snrss at a point P which is 6 III directly below tne load. Also calculate the vertical stress at a
point R which is at a depth of 6 ", but lJI (I IlOrizolltal distance of 5 m form the axis of the load.
3Q ,
Solution. From Eq. 11.9.
a: =
21tZ2 • [I + (rldlVl

Point P, rl z = O. a. =3 x 2000 . _ _ ,_ _ = 26.53 kN /m 2

• 21t(6)2 (I + 01Y2
3x2000 I 2
Point R. r/ z = 5/6. a~ = ~ . [1 + (5/6)2]~" = 7 .1 kN /m
Illustrative Example H .2. A IOI1R strip footing of width 2 m carries u load of 400 kN/m. Calculate the
maximum stress at a deprh of 5 III be/ow the cenlrf! line of the foo ting. Comport' Iht' results with: 2 : J
distri bution method.

Solu tion. From Eq. 11.21, a: = ~ (29 + sin29)

In this case . b =I m and z = 5 m.
tan e = 115 = 0.2 and 2 9 = 0.395 radi ans
Takin g q = 40012 = 200 kN/m2•
a: = 2~ (0.395 + 0.385) = 49.6 kN / m2
2: 1 Dlstrfbu tion method. From Eq. 11.61.

0: = ~ :~ = 2r:!/,/ = 57.1 kN/m

2

Percentage error = 57. 14~.649.6 x 100 = 15.2 %

lIIustratin Example 11.3. There is a line load of 120 lc.N/m acting on the ground surface along y-oxis.

a - 2q' [ _ _I -
~ - tt:
1 + (xl d
r
Determine tilt" vert ical st ress at a point P whic h has x and Z coo rdinat es as 2 m and 3.5 m. respec tive ty.

Solution. From Eq. 11.17.

At poin t P. a =2 x 120 [ _ _ I _ - J' = 12.40kN/m2

~ 1t x 3.5 I + (2/3 .5)2
250 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN EERING

Illustrative Example 11.4. The unit weight of the soil in a uniform deposit of loose sand (K o = 0.50) is
16.5 kNlm 3• Determin e the geostatic stresses at a depth of 2 m.
Solution. From Eg. 11.1.
Oz .. yz .. 16.5 )( 2.0 .. 33.0 kN/m 2
From Eq. 11.6, 0 " .. Ko a z .. 0.5 x 33.0 .. 16.5 kN/m 2
illustrative Example 11.5. Determine the vertical stress at a point P which is 3 m below and at II radial
distance of 3 m [rom the vertical load of 100 kN. Use Westergaard's solution (v = 0.0).
1 Q
Solution . From Eg. 1153 , 0 ,," 1& [1 + 2 (r/z)2 j3h . "l

Oz .. It [1 + 2~3/3)21312 . ~~ .. 0.681 kN/m

2

Altern ativ ely Using Eq. 11.54, Oz .. Iw • ,

Taking l w from Table ILID as 0.0613,

Oz .. 0.0613 x ~ .. 0.681 kN/m 2

(3)
Illustrative Exam ple 11.6. Calculate the vertical stress at a point P at a depth of 2.5 m directly under
the centre of the circular area of radius 2 m and subjected to a load 100 k},Tjnl Also calculate the vertical
stress at a point Q which is at the same deprh of 2.5 m but 2.5 m away fron the centre of the loaded area.

Solution. From Eq. 11.29 (] . q [ 1- { _ _1_ _ }'"

' 1 + (Rlx) '
1
o at P ... 100 [1 _ { 1 '}"" ] _ 523 9 kN/m 2
, 1 + (2,012 ,5)'

From Fig. 11.16, the vertical stress at z = 1.25 Rand r = 1.25 R is cbout 0.2 q.
Therefore, Oz at Q _ 0 .2 x 100 _ 20 kN/m 2
Illustrative Example 11.7. An Lc-ehaped buil4mg in plan (Fig. E 11.7) exerts a pressure of 75 kNlm2 OIl
the soil. Determine the vertical stress increment at a depth of 5 m below the interior corner P.
Solution. The loaded area is subdivided into three small areas such
tha t each small area has one comer at P.
From Bq. 11.35, 0, - q [(IN). + (IN>' + (IN),]
For area At m-n -10/5 _2.0
From Toole 11.9, (INh = 0.2325
For area A z III - 1515 • 3, n ... 1015 _ 2.0
From Table 11.9, (INn = 0.2378
ForareaA J m ... 2015 - 4, n _ 1515 ... 3 : 10m I 20m ~
From Table 11.9, (INh _ 0 .2450
Therefore, 0& - 75 [0.2325 + 0.2378 + 0.2450] = 53.65 kN/m z• Fig. E 11.7.
Illustrative Example 11.8. A rectangular foundation 4 m by 5 m carries a uniformly distributed foadof
 SlRESSES DUE TO APPLIE D LOADS
,,,
200 IeNlml. Determine the vertica l stress a' a poi nt P located as shown in Fig. E 11.8 and at a depth of
2.5 m.
Solution . From Eq. 11.35. Oz - q({ IN)1 ... (IN)" ... (INn '" (IN)4]

In this case Fo r AI and A 2. m = 212.5 = 0.80, n =212.5 =0.80 Al I "3

{IN)l - 0.1461. --- ~---- -
For A 3 lind At, m = 3(2.5 = 1.20, n "" 2(2.5 = 0.80 "2 : A4
(l Nh - 0.1684
Therefore, Oz - 200 [0.1461 ... 0.1461 ... 0.1684 ... 0.1684]
_ 125.8 kN /m 2 Fig. Ex. 11.8
Illustrative Example 11.9. A T-shaped foundation
(Fig. E 11.9) is loaded with a uniform load of 120
w i"? Determine the vertical stress at point P at a depth
of 5.0 m. Use Newmark's influence chart Compare the
answer by exact method.
Solution . The foundation plan is drawn on a tracing
paper with a scale such that the dista nce An in Fig. 11.21
represents 5.0 m. The plan is placed on the Newmark
chart such that point P is at the centre of the cha rt.
Number of area units occupied by plan = 63
FromEq.llAO, o, - 1 xn x q
o , _ 0.005 x 63 x 120 .. 37.8 kN/m 2 Fig. E 11.9
Exact method. The loaded area is d ivided into 3 areas. suc h that they have one corner at P.
Area AI III = =
3/5.00 0.60 ; /I = =
1.5/5.00 0.30. (/ Nh =
0.0629
Area A z III = =
315.00 0.60 ; /I 615.00 = =
1.20. (lNh =
0. 1431
Area A, = =
m 3/5.00 0.60 ; n 3/5.00 0.60.= = (I",h =
0. 1069
From Eq. 11.35. (J~ "" q ((I N). + (lNh + (l Nh 1
or e . = 120 (0.0629 + 0.1431 + 0.10691"" 37.55 kN/m 2
Iljustratlve Example 11.10. A r~rongular loaded area '2 m x 2.5 m carries a load of 8() leN/m2 (Fig. E
1I.IO). Determine the vertical stress at point P located outside the loaded area at a depth of 2.5 m.
Solution. From Eq. 11.37, 0l .. [(INh - (lNh - {/Nh ... (IN)4)]

1
0' '''
T
I
1 Fig. E 11.10.
252 son.M ECHANI CS AN D FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

For large rectan gle AEFG, m • 3.5012.50 - 1.40. n - 250/250 - 1.00

and ([N)' " 0.1914
Area Al m '" 3512 5 ::: 1.40, n '" 05 12.5 = 0.20. (lNh :: 0.0589
Area A, m = 2.5/25 = 1.0. n = 1.0/2.50 = 0.40 , (lHh = 0.1013
Area A 4 m :: 0.512.5 = 0.2 , n = 1.0/2.5 = 0.40, (IN)4 = 0.0328
Therefore, a, • 80 [0.1914 - 0.059 - 0.1013 + 0.0328J
_ 5.12 kN /m 1
l
Ittustrattve Example lI .n. A rectangular foun dation 3.0 )( 1.50 m carries a unifonn load of 40 kN/m .
Determine the vertical stress at P which is 3 m below lhe ground surface (Fig. E ll. l1 ). Use equivalent point
load method.

I 3m -\
t--- t ro ---1--1 m --1--1 m- - l

T¥m (1) (2)

p
()1

(6)

II:
(4 ) (5)

(7) (8) (9)

fig. E 11.11.
Solution. Let us divide the loaded area into 9 small areas of size 0.5 m x 1.0 m.
load on each area _ 40 x ( 1.0 x 05) _ 20kN
The stresses at point P are determ ined due to 9 point loads, using Boessinesq's solution (Bq, 11.9).

For loads (1) and (4), r -" 1.5:1 + (0.25)2 _ 1.521. r lz - 0.507

For loads (2~ (3~ (5~ (~ r • ~ • 0559. r / z • 0.186

For loads (8) and (9), r _ V(0.75)2 + (0.5)2 _ 0.901 ; r /z - 0.300

For load (7), r. V(1.5)2 + (0.75)2 • 1.677: rjz · 0.559

'
Thererorc, • 3Q I
a: • ~ ~ x (1 + (rlz)Zf,?i

3X20 [ 2 4
In this case, a, " '" (3)' x [! + (O.507)' t" + [1 + (O.I86)'t"

. 2 1]
+ (1 + (0.30)2fl'2 + (1 + (0.559)2]S1'2

or = 1.061 (1.129 + 3.674 + 1.612 + 0.507] = 7.34 kN/m 2

illustrative Example 11.12. Determ ine the vertical stress at a po int P which is 3 m below the ground
surfac e and is on the centre line of the embarzhnent shown in Fig. E 11.12. Take 1 • 18 lNlm J•
SI'RESSES DUE TO APPLIED LOADS

Fig. E n .12.
Solution. From Eq. 11.46,

0: - ~ [0 (0 , + a ;z) + b ad
In this cas e, a = 12 m and b =2 m, q =6 x 18 = 108 kN/m2
tan az - 2/3.0 - 0.667; <X:z - 0.588 radians

tan (a1 + a;z) - 3~~ - 4.667; (a, + a;z) '" 1.359 radians

Therefore , a: - ~ Xx \~ [12 (1.359) + 2 x (1.359 - 0.588 )} _ 102,3 kN / m 2

PROBLBtIS

A. Nu meri ca l
11.1. A mon ument weighin g IS M N is erected on the ground surface. Co nsidering the load as II con cenuuted one.
de termine the vertical pressure directly unde r the monument at II depth of 8 m below the grou nd surface.
2
[Ans. 111.9 kN1m )
11.2. A concentrated load of 50 ItN llCtS on the scrrece of a homog eneous soi l mass ol large extent. Determine the
stress intensi ty at a depth of 5 m, direct ly under the load, and at a horizonw l disumce of 2.5 m.
2
[An s, 0. 955 kN/m ; OS5 kNlm 21
11.3. Two co lumns A lind B ore sit uated 6 m aport. Column A transfers a lood of 5(,)0 kN lind co lumn B, 1I load of
250 kN . Determi ne the resultant ver tical stress on II hcrl zcmal plane 20 m below the grou nd surface III point s
vertical ly below the points A and B.
2
[A ns, 59.8 kN /m ; 29 .9 kNlm 2 j
11.4. An ex cavation 3 m x 6 m for foundation is to be made to a depth of 2.5 m belo w ground level in a so il of bulk
3
unit we ight 20 kN/m • Wha t effect this excavation will have on the vertical pressu re at a depth of 6 m measured
fran the groun d surface vertically below the centre o f foundatio n 1 /N for m '" 0.43 a nd n '" 0.86 is 0.10 .
[Ans. dec rease 20 kN/rn1
11.5. A square fou ndcnon (5 m x 5 m) is to carry a load of 4000 kN. Calculate the vertical stress at a dep th of 5 m
below the cen tre of the foundation . IN :: 0.084 fot m • n :: 0.50.
2
(il) Also determine the vertical stress using 1 : 2 distribu tion . [A ns. 53.76 kN/m j 40 Ic.N/m21
11.6. A wate r tower has a circular foundatial o f 10 m diame ter. If the totnl weight of the tower. induding the
founwtion, is 2 x 10' kN, cal culate Ihe veni cal stress 81 8 depth oC25 m be low the foundation level.
[Ans, 231.9 kN/m 2]
11.7. A rectangu lar foundation, 3 m x 2.1 m, is perfectly flexib le and carrie s II lood of 300 kN/m2. Determ ine the
2
vertical press ure 8t a dep th o f 5 m below a.poi nt P shown in Fig. P 11.7. [A ns, 31.8 kN/ m J
11.8. The co ntact pressur e fa" a sq uare footi ng 2 m x 2 m is 400 kN/m 2. Using 1 :' 2 dis tribution , determine the depih
2
at wh ich the conlact pressure is 100 kN1m • (Ans. 2 m]
113 . A rectangu lar founda tion 20 m x 10 m SUbjects the sebgrade to a CUllacl pressure of 250 Ic.NIm2. Determine the
verti cal stress at 8 point P 10000 ted lit a depth o f 5 m (Fig . P 11.9).
(Use Thble for IN value s) (Ans. 3.375 kN/m1
 SOiL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDI\110N ENGINEERING

T
_
f----2o m ~-:l
1 10m

i
L
I
:-----j
I
L _Jp1.
t
1 Sm

Fig. P 1l.7. Fig. P 11.9.

11.10. A 1000 kN load is uniformly distributed on a surface erea of 3 m x 2.5 m. Find the approximate value of
vertical stress at a depth of 2 m, using,
(i) 2 : 1 distribut ion
2
(il) 600 distrlburion. [Ans. 44.4 kNfm ; 39.2 kN/ml
H.ll. A concentrated lood of 1000 Ir.N acts vertically at the ground su rface. Determin e the vertica l stress a t a point
wh ich is at
(I) a depth of 2.5 m and a horizonml distance of 4.0 m
2
(il) at a depth of 5.0 and a radial d istance o f 2.5 m. [Ans. 3.2 Ic.Nfm ; 10 .9 3 kNJml

8 . Descriptive and Objective Type

11.12. State the assum ptions made in computing stresses belew !he groood surface due to n point 100d acting on it
Discuss their validity in practice .
11.13. Derive an expressi on for the vertical stress at a point due 10 a poim load, using Boussinesq 's theory.
11.14. Wha l do you understand by geostatic stresses ? How are these detennined ?
11.15. Wba t is an influence diagrnm ? What is its use in proctice ?
11.16. Derive an expression for the ven lcal stress at a point due 10 a line load . Give examples of n line load .
11.17. How would you dete rmine the stresses at a poiru due to a (0) strip load (b) circu lar load . Compare the zones of
influence due lO the two types of loads.
11.18. Describe the method of c:alculati ng the s tress at a point below the corner of a rectang ular 100£1. How is this
method used for finding the stresses at points ot her than that below the comer ?
11.19. Discuss the basis of the constr uction of Newmark 's influence cha n. How is lr used ?
11.20. Explain Westergaard's theory for the determination of the vertical stress at a point. How is it different from
Bocsslnesq's solution ?
11.21. what is Fenske's chan? Explain its construction and use.
11.22. Discuss various approximate methods for the determination of the vertical stress lit 0 point What are their
limita tions ?
1I.n. What do you understand by contact pressure? What are the factors that uffect the contact pressure distributions ?
Draw the contact pressure distribution diagram for flexible and rigid fOOlings on sand and clayey soils .
11.24. Mention whether the following state ments are true or false .
(d) The vertical stress d ue 10 a pant load depends upon modulus of elasticity.
(6) For determin ation of the deformatio n, the secant modulus at the peak stress is used .
(c) The Poisson ratio for mosI of the soils is zero.
(d) The horizon tal stress can be more than the vertical suess.
(e) Th e Boussinesq influence coefficie nl jus t below the point load is zero.
(j) Th e maximum shear stress due to a Slrip load is constant at all points.
(g) Th e zone of influence due 10 a circul ar lead is deeper than thll! due to a Slrip load.
(h) Whil e delennining Newma rk's influence roeffi cient, the consant M and n can be interchanged .
STRESSES DUE TO APPL IED LOAD S

II)Th.: Boussinesq solu uon alwa ys gives stresses great er tha n Ihe w esrergaa rd solutio n ,
(;) Th e eq uivalent po int load give s reliab le resuns if lhc dimension of the area is grea ter Ihan three times Iile
dept h.
U:) Two-to-o ne load d istribution and sillty-dcgr« distri bulio n give appro ximately !he same stresse s.
(I) In actua l des ign. the contact pressure distribut ion is genera lly taken as uni form .
lAlLs, True, (cil. (h) . 101:). (f))
c. Multiple-Choice Qu estions
1. The stress developed at a point in the soil e xactly below a point load ill the surface is.
(a ) propo rtio nal 10 the depth of poin t.
(b ) pro portional to the squ a re o f the depth of point.
te) inve rsely proportional to the depth of point.
(J) inversely pro portional to the squar e o f the de pth of point.
2. An isobar is a curv e which
(a ) joi ns points of equa l honzon tal stress.
(b ) jo ins poin ts of equa l vertic al stress.
(cj jcins point s orzero vertical stress .
(tf) joins poi nts of maxi mum vert ical stress.
3. If the entire scrni-inflnhe so il mass is loade d with a load intensit y of q at the surface , the vertical stress at any
depthis equal to
(u) q (b ) 0.5 q
(c) zcro ({f)infinity
4. Fo r a strip o f width 8 subjec ted to a load inte nsity of q at lhe surface, the pressure bulb o f intensity 0.2 q
e xtends to a de pth of
(u) 3B (h) 6 B
(c) 1.5 B (JJ B
S. Newmark 's influence chan ca n be used for lhe dcte nn inati on of vertica l stress under
(a) circ ular load area only (h ) rectangular loaded area o nly
(e) strip load only (JI Any shape of loaded area
6. The Westergaar d analysis is used for
(a) ho mogeneo us soils ( b) cohesi ve soils
(c) sandy soils (d) stratified soils
7. A conce ntrated load of 1000 kN acts vertica lly at a point on the sou surface. Acco rding to Bon sstnesq's eq uation
the ratio of Ihe vertical stresses at de pths of 3m and 5m is
tal 0.35 (b) 0.70
(c)1.75 (ill 2 . 7~
8, A load o f 2000 kN is uni form ly d istribu ted over an area of 3 m x 2m. TIle average vertica l stress at a dep th of
2m using 2 : I distri bution is
(a) 160 kN/m 2 (b) 100 kNhn l
(c) 48 kN/m
2 (tl) 37kNfm 2
[A~I . ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 . (a),~ W . 5 . ~ , ~ ~ 7 . ~ , &~
 12
Consolidation of Soils

12.1. INTRODUCTI ON
When a soil mass is subjected 10 a compressive force. like all other materials. ito; volume decreases . The
property of the soil due to which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive forces is known as the
compressibility of soil. The compressio n of soils can occur due 10 one or more of the following causes .
(I ) Compre ssion of solid particles and water in the voids.
(2) Compression and expuls ion of air in the voids.
(3) Expulsion of water in the voids.
Compress ion of solid particles is negligibly small. Compres sion of water in the voids is also extremely
small. as the water is almost incompressible in the range of stresses involved in soil engineering. Therefore,
the compression due to the first cause is not much significant.
Air ex ists only in partially saturated soils and dry soils. TIle compression of the air is rapid as it is highly
compressible. Further, air is expe lled quickly as soon as the load is applied. Howe ver, the compression due
to the second ca use is not relevant for saturated soils.
When the soil is fully saturated, compression of soil occurs mainly due to the third cause, namely,
expulsion of water. As this chapter is mainly concerned with saturated soils, only this ca use is relevant.
The compression of a saturated soil under a steady static pressure is known as conso lidation, It is entirely
due to expulsion of w(/fer [mm the voids. It is similar to the action of squeezing of water from a saturated
sponge under pressure. The soil behaves as a saturated sponge. As the consolidation of soils occurs, the water
escapes. The solid particles shift from one position to the other by rolling and sliding and thus attain a closer
packing. It is worth noting that the decrease in volume of soil occurs not due 10 compression of solids or
water but due to the shifting of positions of the particles as the water escapes. Small volume changes may
occur due to bending, distortion and fracture of the soild particles, hut such changes are insignificant in the
ordinary range of stresses involved in soil engineering problems. However, bending. distortion and fracture
are indirectly responsible for a further decrease in volume due to shifting of particles.
Settlement of a structure is its vertical, downward movement due to a volume decrease of the soil on
which it is built. In other words, the seulcmcr u is the gradual sinking of a structure due to compression of the
soil below. A study of consolidation characteristics is e xtremely useful for forecasting the magnitude and lime
of the settlement of the structure.
The compression of soi ls due to expulsion of air due to dynamic methods, such as rolling and tamping.
is known as compaction (see chapter 14).
Th is chapter deals mainly with consolidation of fully saturated soils.
(Note . In geology, conso lidation means hardening of soils due to solidification. It should not be confused
with the word consolidation used in soil engineering).
 CONSOU DATIO N OF SOILS 257

12.2. INITIAL. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

The coosolidati on of a soil deposit can be divided into 3 stages :
(1) Initia l Consol idat ion. When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, <! decrease in volume
occursdue to expulsion and compression of air in the voids. A small decreasein volume also occurs due LO
ccmpeessioo of solid particles. The reduct ion in volu me of the soil just afte r the application of the load is
known as initial consolidation or initial compression. For saturated soils. the initial conso lidation is mainly
due to compression of so lid particles.
(2) Primary Consotldanoe. After initial consolidation, funhe r reduction in vo lume occurs due to
expulsion of water from voids. When a saturated soil is subjected to a pressure, initially all Lhe applied
pressure is taken up by water as an excess pore water pressure. as water is almost incompress ible as
compared with solid particles . A hydraulic gradient develo ps and the water starts flow ing out and a decrease
in volume occurs. The decrease depends upon the permeability of the soil and is, there fore, time dependent .
lhi s reduction in vo lume is ca lled primary consolidati on.
In fine-grained soils, the primary consolidation occurs over a long time. On the other hand, in coarse-
grained soils, the primary consolidation occurs rather quick ly due to high pcnncability. As water esca pes from
tbe soil, the applied pressure is gradually transferred from the water in the voids to the scild particles. 111us,
tbe effective stress is increased .
(3) Secondary Consolidation. The reduction in volume cont inues at a ve ry slow rate even after the
excess hydrostatic pressure developed by the applied pressure is fully d issipated and the primary consolidation
is complete. Th is add itional reduction in the volume is called seconda ry conso lidation. The causes for
secondary oonsolidaLion are not fully esta blished. It is attributed to tbe plastic readjustument of the solid
particles and the adso rbed water to the new stress sys tem. In most inorgan ic soils., it is genera lly small.
In the discuss ions that fo llow the word coosotication means primary conso lidations unless otherwise
e, stered. The primary consolidation is the most important component of the total COf\'>Olidation and forms the
main Sltlject matter in this chapter.
12,J. SPRIN G ANAWGY FOR PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
The process of primary consolidation can be explained with the help of the spring analogy given by
y. Tmaghi. Fig. 12.1 (0) shows a cyli nder fitted with a tight-filling piston having a valve. The cylinde r is filled
with water and co ntains a spring of specified stiffness. Let the initial length of the spring be 100 mm and the
y Sl.ifInes> of sprin g be to mrnlN. let us assume that the piston is weigh tless and the spring and water are
d iniLialty free of stress.
When a load P (say, 1 N) is applied to the piston, with its valve closed, the enti re load is taken by water
[Fig. 12.1 (b)]. The stiffness of the spring is negligible compared with that of water, and consequently, no
" load is taken by spring . From equilibrium .
"
'y vat~. dOled \ICIlv. c.Iol;td Val'lll!' ope n
.e
re

g. T
l 00mm

ll---.L-----'(0)
,.
(0)
b ll
(oJ
Fig. 12.1. Spri ng Analogy.
 258 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Po.' + P, '" p ... (12.1)

where P w = load taken by water, P, = load taken by spring, and P = 100al load.
For P = 1 N. Bq. 12.1 becomes
p.., + p$ .. 1.0 ... (12.2)
Initially (t = 0) when valve is closed, P, '" 0.00. 'Iberefore. PM' .. 1.0
If the valve is now gradually opened. water starts escaping from the cylinder. The spring starts shari ng
some load and a decrease in its length occurs. When a portion (liP) of the load is transferred from the water
to the spring, Eq. 12.2 becomes
61' + (1.0 - 61') = 1.0
1 O",----.------~
As more and more water escapes, the load carried by
~ IRe spring increases. Fig, 12.2 shows the transfer of the
load from the water to the spring. Eventually, when the
steady conditions are established. the water stops
escaping. Finally, at time t '" 'f' tbe entire load is taken
c
t
by spring. Thus, P", = 0 and p. = 1.00. 9
This load causes a decreases in length of the spring
by 10 mm . The final length is 90 mm . as shown in Fig. 00 \f
12.1 (c). TIME ( t ) - -
As the load carried by water is zero. it is again free . . . .
of excess pressure. Now if the valve is closed and the Fig. 12.2. Load Sharingbetween spnng and water,
load P is increased 10 2N, the process of transfer of load repeats and finally the spring lakes the complete
load and its length becomes 80 mm. Likewise, the process is repealed till the final increment of the load has
been applied.
12.4. BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SOILS UNDER PRESSURE
The behaviour of saturated soils when subjected to a steady, static pressure is similar to that of the spring
analogy mode l. The solid particles in the saturated soil behave like springs, while the water in the voids
behaves like water in the cylinder. The permeability of the soil controls the flow of water and it can be
like ned to Ihe valve in the piston. The pore water press ure (U) in the soil is analogous to the pressure carried
by wa ter in the cy linder. Finally the stress developed in the spring is analogous to Ihe effective stress @)
developed in the soil.
When a pressure . ao, is applied to a saturated soil sample of unit cross-sectional area, the pressure is
shared by the solid part icles and water as
.6.0 + U '" .6. OJ .. .(12.3)
Initially, just after the application of pressure , the entire load is taken by water. The pressure developed in
water, also known as excess hydrostatic pressure or hydrodynamic pressure (U), is equal to the applied
pressure. The pressure taken by the solid particles, rep resented as the effective stress, .6. 0 , is zero. Thus
a + (tij) = .6.oj ... (12.4)
The excess hydrostatic pressure developed after the application of the load sets up a hydraulic gradient,
and the water starts escaping from the voids . A:;. the water escapes, the applied pressure is transferred from
the water to the solids. Eventually, the whole of the pressure is transferred to the soil solids as the effective
stress, and the excess wate r pressure becomes zero. Thus
.6.0 • .6.0, ... (12.5)
As the effective stress increases, the volume of the soil decreases. "[be decrease in volume is generally
exp ressed as change in vo id ratio. Fig. 12.3 shows decrease in voidratio with time, as the effective stress
increases due to transfer of pressure to the solid particles. Initially, just after the application of the pressure (I
= 0), the void ratio is eo. Finally, when the pressure has been fully transferred to the solid particles (t = ttl,
G CONSOUDATION OF SOILS

'0
l) lhe void ratio is (e/)I' It mcsr be noted that the
curve shown in Fig. 12.3 is drawn for applica -
tion of one pressure increment .6.oj •
If the applied pressure is now increased to
t)
.0.02. the process of load transfer repeals and
lhe soil attains event ually a d ifferent final void
g ratio (ejh when the entire load is transferred to
~ the solid particles. A curve can be daw n
between the fina l void ratios and the
cdrcspooding effect ive stresses for di fferenl
load incre ments. (Fig. 12.4). It may be noted
that as the effective stress increases. the final
void ratio decreases, and. the refore. the ,,0
volume of the soil decreases. The reduct ion in
fig . 12.3 . 'hriation of void I'l'lliowi lh lime
volume is due 10 ex pulsion of wate r from the
voids under excess hydrostatic press ure and is, therefore . primary conso lida tion.

us , CONSOUDATION TEST
The oonso lida tion lest is conducted in a laboratory to
study the com press ibility of a soil. The test is performed
in the consoli dation test apparatus, known as the
(t' h
f
t (~t1 ------L--
, •
~

e consolidometer or an oedamae r [(Fig. 12.5 (0»). It (t't )(t' V) ----:----

I r-
---, ---r---.,----
ss cooststs of a loadi ng device and a cy lindrical cont ainer
called conso lidatio n ce ll. The soil specimen is placed in
the cell between top and bolto m porous stones . The
(t'f
(Pt)
,I
---;---r--r---r--
' ,
consolidatio n cells are of two types : (1) Floating or free K'I 61"2 4i'J 6'-4 6i'S
ring cell [Fig. 12.5 (b)] in which both the top and bottom
porous stones are free to mov e. Th e top porous stone can
Fig. 12.4. P10l between lp od o.
move downward and the bottom stone can move upward
as the sample consolidates . (2) Fixed ring cell [Fig . 12.5 (e)l in which the bottom porous stone cannot move .
Only the top porous ston e can move downward as the spec imen conso lidates. The fixed ring cell can also be
used es a variable -hea d pcrmeebiuty test apparatus. For this purpose. a piezometer is attached to the base of
tbe cell.
The inside surface of the ring should be smooth and polished to red uce friction. The ring imposes a
condition of zero lateral strain on the soil sam ple. The internal dia meter of the cell is usually 60 mm, but the

'0f
I ~-~----1 1 -.1

~
,.,o:--, ~
S<!mp lt t
Pcro.,JS ~ I""'t

Fig. 12.5. Consol idlltiotlTesl.

260 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

cells w ith a diameter upto tOO mm are also availab le. Tbe thickness of the sample is fixed from lhe following
considerations:
(I) The thickness of the sample should be as small as possible 10 reduce side frict ion . but a minimum
thickness of 20 mm is usually required to gel uniform distribution of pressure on the sa mple.
(2) TIle diameter to the thickness ratio should be a minimum of 3.
(3) The thickness of the specimen should nor. be less than to limes the maximum size of the particle.
The thickness of the sample for a 60 mm diameter cell is usually taken as 20 mm. The specimens of
diameter 50, 70 arxl 100 mm may be used in specia l cases.
The coosondometer has arrangements for the application of the desired load increment. saturation of
sam ple and mcesuremem of change in thickness of the sample at every stage of consolidation process. The
consolidation cell is placed in a water j acket or wa ter trough so tha t water bas free access into and out of the
sa mp le. The cell is prov ided with a perforated pressur e pad at its top for the applica tion of load. The load is
applied either by sus pend ing weigh ts from a hanger resting at the ce ntre of the press ure pad or by a lever
arrangem ent. The arrangement for saturation of the sa mple co nsists of a small water reservoir con nected 10
the cell with a plastic tube (no t show n in figu re). A di al gau ge is used to measu re the chan ge in thickness as
the co nso lidation tak es place. The sample is kept subme rged under water to prevent evapora tion from its
surface.
Defore condu ct ing the tes t, the porou s sto nes are sa turated either by bo iling them in distilled wa ter for
abo ut 15 mi nutes or by keep ing them submerged unde r wate r for 4 to 8 ho urs. The bottom porous stone is
first placed in the consolidation cell and a filter paper is fixed on the porous stone. The ring co ntain ing the
sample is then placed on the bottom porous Slone. Another filte r paper is kept on the to p o f the sam ple and
then top porous Slone is placed. The load ing pad is placed o n the top porous stone . The bolts are ttgmened
so as to hold tbe entire asse mb ly, and then me ronsolida tion cell is kept under the loading unit . It should be
centred carefully so lhat the load is applied axia lly. The dial gauge is mounted and edjusred. The mould
assembly is connected to the water reservo ir to saturate the sa mple. The level of water in the reservoir should
be approximately same as lhat of the sample.
An initial se tting pressure: of about 5.0 kN/m2 (for very soft soils. 2.5 kN/m 2) is applied to the sample.
The initia l set ting pressure: is chosen such that there is 00 swe lling. The load is allowed 10 stand lillthere i<;
no change in the dial gauge reading or 24 hours wh ichever is less. The fmal dial gauge reading unde r the
initial setting pressu re is noted .
Th e first increment of load to give a pressure o f 10 kN/m 2 is the n app lied to. the specimen. The dial
gauge rea dings are taken afte r 0.25, i.o, 2.2.'), 4.0, 6.25, 9.0, 12.25, 16.0,20.2.'),25,36,49,64.81, 100, 121.
144, 169, 196, 225, 289, 324, 400. 500, 600 and 1440 m inutes (24 hours). So metimes, a fter 49 minutes,
rea dings are taken at 1, 2, 4, 8, 10 and 24 hours. The pri mary co nso lida tion in the sample is usually co mplete
wit hin 24 hours.
The second increment of the load is then applied . It is usual practice to doub le the previo us load in each
incr ement. The so cccssi vc pressures usually applied are 20, 40, 80. 160. 320 and 640 kN/m 2, etc, till the
des ired maximum requ ired load intensit y is reac hed. The max imum loa d in ten.s ity Ls gove rned by the actual
loading on the so il in the field afte r the co nstruct ion of the structure.
Afte r the consolidation under the final loa d incremen t is complete. the load is reduced to one -fourth d
2
the final load (160 kN/m in above case) and allowed to stand for 24 hou rs. Th e sa mple takes water a1XI
swells. the reeding of the dia l gauge is taken when the swelling is comp lete, lhc load is further reduced to roe·
Ioerth intensity (40 kN/m1 and the swelling recorded after 24 hours . The load is then reduced to 10 kNfm1
and the swelling is noted . The load is finally reduced to the initial setting load and kepi for 24 boors and tbe
final dial gauge rea ding taken . Throoghocr the test , the oontaincr gutter should be kept filled with water.
Immed iat el y after complete unloading, the ring with the sample is taken out . The excess surface water is
dried using a blotting paper . The weight of the ring and the sample is taken . The sa mpl e is then dried in all
oven (maintained at llooq for 24 hours and its dry mass M. and the wate r ccore nt are detennined.
(See Chapt er 30, Sect . 30 .15 for the laboratory experimen t).
 CONSOU DATION OF spUS 261

12.6. DETERMINATION OF VOID RATIO AT VARIOUS LOAD INCREMENTS

The results of 3 consolidation lest are plotted in the fonn of :;I plot between the void ratio and the
effective stress. It is, therefore, required to determine the void ratio at various load increme nts. The re arc two
methods :
(1) Height of solids method, (2) Change in void ratio method.
The first . method is a general method applicable to both saturated and unsaturated soils. The second
method is applicable only to sa turated soils.
(1) Height of Solids method. In this method, equivalent height of solids is determined from the dry mass
of the soi L 111e height of solids is given by

tt, - t -(:/:.) .± .. (126)

where ll, = height of solids, Vs = vol ume of solids,

M, = dry mass of sample, G = specific gravity of solids, A = cross-sectional area of specimen.
From definition of void reno,
e ... vo lume of voids ... V - Vs ... (a)
vol ume of solids V,
Eq. (n) am be written as,
(A x If) - (A x If,) If - l/, ... (12.7)
(A x JI,) - -n;-
where II is the total height (total thickness).
Thus, the void ratio is determined from the total height (H) and the height of so lids. The total thickness
of tbe sample is measured at least once during the test, usu ally either before the start of the test or at the end
of tbe test. At other stages of l oad ing, the thickness II is worked out from the measured thickness and the
difference in dial gauge readings.
Therefore, II - flo :t 1:.6 H .. .(12.8)

, where No = initial height and t:J-I = change in height.

SeeTable 12.1 for the illustration of the method.
e
Tab le 12.1. Computation of Void ratios by Height of Solids Meth od
2
>1 Given dabl llo - 25 mm, A = 50 cm , Volume = 125 ml,
L, M s - 1<.XJ.24 gm, G = 2.67, wf = 24.94%
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01 mm
Observations Calculations
Applied Dial Change in
re e 10m Eq. (a)
pressure gauge thi ckne ss H =Ho ±I:.MI n-e,
,L (kN/m
2) reading Ml(mm)
- (H - H1)/Hs

0.0 490 25.00 10.75 0.754

,f
10.0 482 - 0.08 24.92 10.67 0.748

'~i" 20.0
40.0
470
431
-0.12
- 0.39
24.80
24.41
10.55
10.16
0.740
0.713
ie 80.0 390 - 0.41 24.00 9.7 5 0.684
160.0 343 - 0.47 23.53 9.28 0.651
is 320.0 295 - 0.48 23 .05 8.80 0.617
In 640.0 249 - 0 .46 22.59 834 0.5&'1
0.0 364 +1.15 23. 74 9.49 0.666
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUN DA110N ENG INEERING

From EG. 12.6, 1/. - 2.~~~2~.O x -k - 1.425 an - 14.25 mm

e • /I - /I. _ H - 14.25
From EG. 12.7, .. .(0)
II, 14.25
Obviously. the initial void ratio (eo) at the start of the test is given by

e.- ~
Ho - H,
.. ( 12.9)

11- II,
FOr an intermediate stage, e • ~ ...(12.10)
Afte r determinat ion of the void ratio and the water content at the beginning and at the end of the test,
the corresponding degree of saturation can be found from the relation. S - wG /e .
a
From the calcu la ted void rauos. a plot of ' e' versus log can be made, as shown in Fig. 12.8.
(2) Chunge in Void milo metho d. In this method. the final void ratio (el). corresponding to complete
swelling conditions after the load has been removed. is determined from its water content, using the equation.
c, _
wG
assuming tha t the soil is fully saturated.
The void ratio corresponding to intermediate loading stages is determined as explained below. From the
definition of void ratio,
e. V- V·.~ _l .. .(0)
V, V,
where V = total volume and V. is the volume of solids . Eq. (a) can be wriuen as
V.V.(1 +e)
~ Ax n-~{l +~ ... (b)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen and 1/ is its total height .
3y partia l differentiation of (b), A dH • V. de ...(, )
From Eqs. (b) aod (c~ 7f- - I':'e
\ .6.t' _ (1 ;/ e) !J{ •..(12.11)
Eq. 12.11 am also be derive d d irectly, taking the volu me of solids as unity and the cross-sectional area
also <IS unity. In this case .
Original volume :: 1/ - I + e
Change in volum e =6£, and change in height = tJ.l/
The refore,
""!""+e - n
"" 6H

/i.e - !!...jfl /!J{ ... (same as 12.11)

As the vo id rat io t', and the total height 11 of the samp le are known at the end of the test, the void tulia
at any other sta ge can be determin ed from the cha nge in thickness tJ-{ measured by the dial gauge . Thus, the
change in void rat io (At') under each pressure increment is calcula ted from Bq. 12.11 by working backwartls
e,
frem the known value of void ratio at the end of the test aner swellin g.
(1 + t',)
Thus t:.t' - ---n;- 61/ ... [12 11(')1
CONSOUDATlON OF SOILS 263

where M I is the change in thickness, as measured with respcct ro the thickness III at the end of the test.
See Table 12.2 for the illustration of me melhod .
Table 12.1. Computation of Void Rati os by Change In Void Ratio Method

Given Data 110 = 25 mm, A = 50 cm2• Volume = 125 ml, M~ = 190.24 gm,
G = 2.67, WI • 24.94%, III • 23.74
el = WI x G ., 0.2494 x 2.67 • 0.666.

From Bq. 12.11 (a), he. (l ~~7~) )( I:.lI · 0.0702 1:./1 .. .(d)

Least coun t of dial gauge = 0.01 mm.

App lied
pressuree
(kNlm 2)
Obsen'iltiQn$

Dial gauge
reading
Chullge in
thickness
tiil(mm)
li _lIo :%1:.tiff
.,
Calculations

(fram Eq. Cd)

e

0.0 490 2..<;.00 0.754

-{l.OS
10.0 482 24.92 - 0.006 0.748
20.0 470 - 0.12 24.80 - O.~ 0.740
40.0 431 - 0.39 24.41 - 0.027 0.713
BO.O 390 -0.41 24.00 - 0.0 29 0.684
160.0 343 -0.47 2353 - 0.033 0.651
320.0 295 - 0.48 23.05 - 0.034 0.617
640 .0 249 - 0.46 22.59 - 0.032 0585
0.0 364 + 1.15 2..1.74 + 0.08 1 0.666 f
12.7. CONSOUDATION TEST RESULTS
(1) Dial gauge rea ding-lime plot. Fig. 12 6 (0) shows the plot between 1he d ial gauge reading and time
for a typical load increm ent for clay and sand sam ples. The thickness just after the application of the load
jrcremem (I - to). is a max imum which decreases as the time increases . 1be decreaseis rapid Initially but it

"

1 Clay
~
<oy
S
~

n,... ttl -
la) 11»
Fig. 12.6. (a ) Dial g;luge reading.lime plot. (b) Final void ratio-O plot
slows down as the time passes. There is practicall y no change in thickness after 24 hours. The consolidation
at that load increment is considered to the complet e at 24 hours. For sand, the change in thickness occurs
very quickly and stops a fter a few minutes. lbis i.s due to high permeability of the sand which permits easy
flow or water.
264 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

Th e plot between the dial gauge reading and time is required for determining the coe fficient of
consobcetlco. which is useful for obtaining the rate of conso lidation in the field.
(2) Final void ratl o-effectlve stress plot . The thickness of the specimen after 24 hours of application of
the load increment is taken as the finallhickncss for that locremem. The final void ratio (~f) corresponding to
!.he final thickness for each increment is determined us ing the methods discussed in the preceding section.
Fig. 12.6 (b) shows the p1ol: between the final void rauos, (£oil•• (elk (elh .. . etc. and the corresponding
effective stresses 0 1. ~ oJ. ...for 10<Kl increm enls I. 2. 3• ... etc. As the sand is relatively less compressible.
the change in void ratio is small. TIle plot between the final void ratio and the effective SU'tSS is required for
oerermlneuon of the magni tude of the co nsol idation se me me r a in the field.
The reade r must carefully note the difference between Fig. 12.6 (a) and Fig. 12.6 (b). 'The forme r shows
the process of consolidation under a particu lar increment. For each load increment, a plot like Fig. 12.6 (a)
C3l1be plott ed. The latter sho ws the plot betwee n the fina l void ratios reac hed under differe nt load increments
and the corresponding effect ive stresses under those incre ments.
(3) Fina l void mtio-Iog (J plot . Fig. 12.7 (0) show s a plot between the final void ra tio and the effec tive
stress , which is simil ar to one in Fig . 12.6 (b). For convenience the suffix:f has been dropped. The curve has

Log cr ---
(0) ( b)
Fig. 12.1 . (a)r-ii p101. (b)r- Iogo plol
concavay upward. The slope of the curve er difTerenl points is differen t. 1bc slo pe decreases with an increase
in effect ive stress.
It is more common to plOi the:: resu us on a se mi-log gra ph. in which lhe final void rat io is plotted on the
natu ral scale and the effecti ve stress as
abscissa on the log scale [Fig. 12.7(b].
The plot is pract ically a straigh t line for a A
normally consolidated clay (defined tater)
within the range of press ure usua lly
enco untered in prac tice .
(4) Unloading and Reloading plot.
In Fig. 12.8. the curve AD indi cate s the
decrease in void ratio w ith an increase in B
the effecti ve stress. The cu rve is sim ilar to ,0
o ne shown in Fig. 12.7 (b). It is the
loading curve. ,: ~ G
After the sample has reach ed f
equilibrium at the effective stress of~. as
shown by point B, the pressure is reduced
and the sa mple is allowed to take up water
and swell The cu rve BEe is obtai ned in Fig. 12.8. Loading. unlOilding <'IndrdOilding pklI.
CONSOUDATION OF SOILS "'5

unloading. This is known as the expansion curve or swelling curve. It may be noted that the soil cannot attain
the void ratio existi ng before the start of the test, and there is always some permane nt set or residual
deformation.
If the specimen which has swelled to the point C is reloaded. the recompression curve CFD is obtaioed.
As the load approaches the maximum Value of the load previously applied corrcspooding to point B. there is
reversal of curvature of the curve and then the plot DG continues as an extension of the first loadin g curve
AB. Howeve r. the reloaded specimen remains at a slightly Iowa void ratio at point D than that attained at B
during the initial compression for the same load.
12.8.BASIC DEFlN mONS
The tonowing basic dcfm itioos related to oonso lidat ion are o f paramount importance .
(I) Coeffi cien t of Co m pRSSlbilily. The coeffici ent of compressibility (Q~) is defined as decrease in void
ratio per unit increase in effective stress. n is equal to the slope of the e - (j curve at the point under
consideration [Fig. 12.7 (a» .

Thus a; • ~~ • ~~ .. .(12.12)
As the effect ive stress increases. the void ratio decreases. and therefore, the ratio del dO is negative, The
minus sign makes a~ positive. For convenience. the coefficien t of compress ibility Q" is reported ll'i positive .
As the value of a; is d iffere nt at various effective stresses. while reporting its value . the effect ive stress
10 which that value corresponds mus t be me ntioned. The coeffici ent o f compressibility decreases with an
increase in the effect ive stress . In other words. the so il becomes stiffer (less compressible) as the e ffective
stress is increased and the cu rve becomes Ilattcr;
The coefficient of oomprcssibi lity (a,,) has the dimensions of (L2/ F]. The units are rn2fkN. It may be
noted that the units are inverse of that for pressure .
(2) Coe ffiden l or Volume change. The coefficient of volume change (or volume compressibility) is
deftned as the volumetric strai n per unit increase in effective stress . Thus
- A VIVo
m.. - ~ .. .(12.B)
where m.. = coefficient of volume change . Vo = initial volume,
AV = change in volume . and A 0 = chan ge in effecti ve stress.
The reader shou ld note Lhat the coeffici ent of volume cha nge is Inverse of the bulk modulus used in solid
mechanics and fluid mechanics . For mos t clays. m~ - 1 )C 1O~) 10 1 x 1<rm 2JkN.
The volumetric strain (6VIVo) can be expressed in terms of either void ratio or the thickness of the
specimen as explained und er:
(a) Let eo be the initia l vo id ratio. Let the volum e of solids be unity . Therefore, the initial volume Vo is
equal to (1 + eo). If &e is the cha nge in void ratio due to cha nge in vol ume I1V. we have AV . &e. Thus
AV Ae
V; - r:;e;;
Therefore, Bq. 12.13 becomes nJ " _ -Ae~(~ + eo) ... (12. 14)

(b) As the area of cross-section of the sample in the ccesoudoneter remains: constant , the change in
volume is also proportional to the cha nge in height. Thus AV • IiH
AV All
There fore,
V;-H;;
where /f o = initial height .
266 SOIL MECUANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Therefore, Eq. 12 13. becomes . . .(12 .15)

or !J.H .. -nJ"lloA o ...[12 .15(a)J

The relationship between a" and In " can be obta ined from Bqs. 12.12 and 12.14 as

m" .. 1 : " eo ... ( 12.16)

Like a .. • the coe Cfkicnt of volume change mIl depe nds upon the effective stress at which it is determined.
Its value also decreases with an increase in the effective stress. The unit of m.. is the same a<i tha t of a.,.
However. the ccefflciem of volume change m" is more commonly used in practice than the coefficient of
compressibility a...
(3) Compression Index. The compression index (C~) is equal to the Slope of the linear portion of the
a
void ratio versus log plot (fi g. 12.7 (b)]. Thus

C~ .. Iog:~~) ... ( 12.17)

where 00 = initial effective stress, a = final effective stress, 6.e "" change in void ratio
Sometimes. Eq. 12.17 is expressed as

C,- bglO(~~&O ) .• .( 12. 18)

where AD is the change in effective stress .

The numerical value of Cf can be easily determined from me difference in void retio oorresponding to
one log cycle. Thus
C, ' -~ e • -&e ...(12.19)

The compression index is extremely useful for dcrermtnanonof the seltlement in the field.
The compression index of a clay is related to its index properties. especially the liquid limit Terzaghi and
Peck gave the following empirical relationship for clays of low to medium sensitivity «Sf $ 4).
(a) For undisturbed soils, C~ • 0.009 (w L - 10)
(b) For remouldcd soils, C~ • 0.007 (wL - 10)
where wL = Iiquit limit (%).
The value of C~ normally varies between 0.30 for highly plastic clays and 0.075 for low plastic clays.
The compression index is also related 10 the insitu void ratio eo or water content (wo) as under
C, _ 0.54 (eo- 0.35) (12.21)
C, - 0.0054 (2.6w o - 35) (12.22)
The coefficient of compressibility Qv may be calculated from the compression index as under:

at, • 0.435 5-
o.
where 0 .. is the average pressure for the increment.
(4) ExpansIon Index . Tbe expansion index or swelling index (C~) is the Slope of the e-tog '0 plot
obtained during unloading (BEC in Fig. 12.8).

C _ !i.e ... 1223)

, log., ( 0+,,&0)
CONSOUDATION OF SOILS ,.,
As it is evident, the expansion index is much smaller than the compression index .
(S) Recompression Index . Recompression is the compression of a soil wh ich had already been loaded
and unloaded. 1be load during recompression is less than the load 10 which Ihe so il has been subjected
previously. The slope of the recompression curve obtained during reloading ( CFD in Fig. 12.8) whe n plotted
as e-log 0, is equal to the recompression index (C,). Thus

C. - log (;'''.:" 0) ...

(12.24).

lbe recompression index is appreciably smaller than the compressionindex C... 11is usually in the range
of Ilia to 1/5 of the compression index.
(6) NonnaUy consolidated and Over-consolidated clays. A nonnally consolidat ed soil is one which had
not been subjected to a pressure greater than the prescnt existing pressure . A soil is said to be
over-consolidated if it had been subjected in the past to a pressure in excess of the present pressure.
The portio n AD of the curve in Fig. 12.8 represen ts the soil in normally consolidated condi tion. The curve
in this range is also al lied the virgin compression curve. The soil in the range CD when it is recompressed
represents overconsobdatcd condition, as the soil had been previously subjected to a pressure u2>.which is
greater than the pressure in the range CD.
'lbe maximum pressure 10 which an over-consottdatcd soil had been SUbjected in the past divided by the
present pressure is known as lhe overconsolidation ratio (O.C .R.). For example. the soil indicated by the
coodition at point C has an over-ccosoudarion ratio of O:YOl'
It may be emphasized that oormally c:oosolidated soils and overconsolicated soils are oor different types
of soils but these are conditions in which a soil exists. The same type of soil can behave as normally
ansolidated in a certain pressure range and an cver-ccosoucaied in some other pressure range . For example,
in Pig. 128, the soil which behaves as overoonsolidated in the range CD would again behave as normally
consolidated in the range rx; .
The liquidity index of a normally coosolidal.ed clay is generally between 0.6 and 1.00, whereas that foc
an over-consolidated clay between 0.0 and 0.60.
As the recompression index (C,) is very small as compared with the compression index (C..), the soils in
the overconsolldered state have smaller compressibility. The settlements of the structures built an
over-consolidated clays are small.
(7) Underconsolldated days. If the day deposi t has not reached equilibrium under the applied
overburden loads, it is said to be undc roonsolidaled. This nonnally occurs in areas of recent land filL
12.9. TERZAGill'S TIIEORY OF CONSOU DATION
(I ) Assumptions. Terzaghi (1925) gave the theory for the determination of the rate of consolidation of a
saturated soil mass subjected 10 a static, steady load . 1be theory is based on the following assumptions:
(1) The soil is homogeneous and isotrop ic.
(2) The soil is fully saturated.
(3) The solid particles and water in the voids are incompressible. The oonsolidation occurs due to
cxpulsion of werer from the voids .
(4) The coeffJc:ient of penneability of the soil has the same value at all points, and it remains constant
during the entire periodof consolidation.
(5) Darcy 's law is valid throughout the ronsoIidation process.
(6) Soil is.1aterally confmed, and the consolidation takes place only in axial dircdion. Drainage of water
also occurs only in the vertical dircaion.
(l) lbe time 13g in consolidation is due entirely to the 1O'N permeability of the soiL
(8) Then: :is a unique relationship between the void mUD and the effective stress, an4.lbis relationship
268 SOI L MECHAN ICS AND FOUN DATION ENGINEERING

rem ains constant during the load incre ment . In othe r words. the coefficient of compressibility and the
coeffic ient of volume change are constant.
Co mme nts on the assumptions
The assum ptions made by Terzagru are net rully satisfied in actual field problems. The results obtained
from the use of the theory 10 practical problems are approxim ate. However; ronsidering complexity of the
problem. the theory gives reasonably accurate estimate of the time rate of settlement of a structure built on
the soil. A brief comment on the various assumptioos and their effect is given below.
Assumpti ons 1 to 3 are genera lly satisfi ed for fully saturated, clay deposits . How ever, the presence of air
may affect the ecccrecy,
Ass umptions 4 and 5 are not fully satisfied . In fact. the coefficient of permeabi lity varies at d ifferen t
poin ts in the deposi t. Its value decreases as the oonso lidation progresses duc 10 an increase in the effecti ve
stress. Further, at ve ry low hydra ulic gradients, the Darcy law in not stricny appl icab le. Fortunately. the errors
introduced due to these assumptions are small.
The largest error is probably d ue to the assum ption 6. In the field. the co nsolidation is usually
3-dimensional and not one - dim ensional. Howev er, in the C<"1."C of depos its having large areas compared wilh
their thicknesses have essentia lly one-dimensional consolidation and the error is not much .
Assumption 7 is nor fully ju stified. as some seco ndary consolidation does occu r along with the primary
consolid ation . Howev er, for most inorga nic so ils. the seco ndary conso lidation is small and does not introduce
much erro r.
The actua l relat ions hip between the void ratio and the effective stress is not linear. con trary to the
ass umptio n 8. However. if a large num ber of samp les are taken from the same stra tum and an average value
o f the coeffici ent of volume change (m~) is take n for the appropriate range of the effective stress, the error
introduced due to this assu mption is not unduly high . 1bc on ly justification for ma king this assu mption is to
get a relatively simple express ion. lbe theory becomes more complex when actual relationship is used.
(2) Derivation or Diffenmllal Equation. Tbe ba.s ic differe ntial equation of one-dimensional
consolidation can be derived as under :
Let us consider a saturated clay layer of thickness 2d ( • H) sandw iched bet ween two layers of sand
(Fig . 12.9). Whe n a uniform pressure of ,& 0 is applied on the surface of the top sand laye r. the total stress
deve loped at all poin ts in the clay layer is increased by '&0.
As exp lained in the spring analogy model (Sect. 12.3). initiaUy !he whole of the pressure is taken up by
water . and the hydrostatic excess pressure of '&o /ywdcvelops. Fig. 12.9 shows the excess hydros tatic pressure
d iagram on the right side . It is assumed tha t various po ints along the thickness of the clay layer are con nected
by flexible tubes to the piezometers. At time I = O. just after lhe applicat ion of the load . the excess hydrostatic
pressure u; is equ al 10 '&o/ Yw throughout the clay layer. 'Ibis is represen ted b y the horizontal line AB. The
tJ.<r t =O

T
~o:rlr...· ·~h

r~-'-''-'--T--'-'-'--'-'lslJ--;I}--\f--thd1''-- 1 w~ la bll'

T
H: 2d
t.t ,

1 t====~=!===::7Clay

Fig. 12.9 . ExCV4 H yd m&I.'li c Prc:MUK.

CONOOUDATION OF SOILS ,..
excess hydrostati c pressure is independent of the position of the water table . For convenience. the water table
is assumed at lhe level of the surface of the day layer.
water starts escaping tow ards the upper and the lower sand layers due to excess hydrostatic pressure
developed . The hydro sta tic excess pressureat the top and the bottom of the clay layer , indicated by points C
and E in the pressurediagram, drops to zero. However, the excess hydrcsauc pressure in the middl e portion
of the clay layer 31D remains high . The curves indicating the distribu tion of excess hydrostatic pressureare
known as isochrones. The isochroneCDE indicates the distribution of excess hydrost atic pressure at time t.
As the coosolidation progresses, the excess hydrostatic pressure in the middle of the clay layer decreases.
Fimlly at time t _ 't , the whole of the excess hydrosta tic press ure has been dissipated, and the pressure
distribution is indica ted by the hori7.ontal isochrone CFE.
Let us consider the equilibrium of an elemen t of the clay at a depth of z from its top at lime t. Th e
consolidation pressur e co
is partly carried by water and partl y by so lid particles as
6. 0 - 60 + ii •••(12.25)
where tl. (j is the pressure carrie d by so lid particles,
and Ii is the excess hydro -sial ic press ure (pressure units)
'lb e hydra ulic gradient (I) at that de pth is equal to the slope o f the isochrone CDE at a horizont al distan ce
z from the point C in the pressure d iagram.
i _ ~ _ alu/y.> "-'- ( ~) .. .(a)
Thus, az dz 1... az
where ii is the excess hydrostalic pressu re at depth z.
The expression foc the hydrau lic gradien t i can also be obtained as under. LeI us conside r a thin slice of
clay layertl.z at depth z (Fig . 12.10). The pressure difference (~across this thickness is given by

Aii _ (ii +!!

oZ
. dz) - ii _ §.. . dz
az
The unbalanced head across the thickness is given by

tl.h _ !R _ .!. (~ . dz)

1", 1", az
The hydraulic gradi ent becomes

i. ~. ~ (~) ... [same as (a)] T . - - 4-'.L-- ---,

From Darcy 's law, the velocity of flow at depth z is tJZ
given by 1
v _ ki - k . .!. (!!'!.)
1... az
The velocity of flow at the bottom of the element of
thickness 42: can be written es Fig. 12.10. Pressure DifTcrenocon a nun Slice.

'vilz
v+- ·dz_v+ -a [l(aU)]
- -
az 1... ilz
dz
'vaz
v +-dz _ v + -l
Y.
(a
-
2u

a?-
) dz
ov k ;1ii
Therefore,
ax" y,;' u . . .(1226)
270 &:IlL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

The discharge entering the element Q. is

Q• • v(Ax x Ay)
where Ii.r and liy are the dimensions of the element is plan.
The d ischarge leaving the element Q.., is

Q_ - ( v + 1; . dz) (Ax )( !J.y)

Therefore, the net discharge squeezed out of the element is given by
"Q - Q_-Q.

AQ - [ (v + ~ . dz) - v] tu x !i y
AQ - ~ (ar x 60y )( Al) .•.(b)
As the water is squeezed out, the effective stress increases and the volume of the soil mass decreases.
From Eq. 12.13, .
sv, -m~Vo h.{j

where Vo = initial volume of soil mass ( _ tu /iy dz)

and lio = increase in effective stress .
The decrease in volume of soil per unit lime

~ - -m.("x "y "') ~ ...(e)

As the decrease in volume of soil mess per unit time is equal to the volume of water squeezed out per
unit time. Eqs. (b) and (e) give

~ (Ax liy A x) - - m~ (6x 6.y &) ¥

1; --mv~ ...(d)
From Eq. 12.25. 1i'i5 - Ii, (J - ii
ali a _.ti§ _ ~
at iJt at
For a given pressure increment. ah.0 • O. Therefore.
~ au
at ·-at
Th ere for e, Eq. (d) becomes •••(12.27)

Equating tw o val ues of iJv/az from Eqs. 12.26 and 12 67,

~aJ-mv(~)
a2 ii ail
<v :« •..(12.28)

wbere c.. is the coefficient of consolKlation and is given by

CONSOUDATION OF SOILS 271

k: k:
cv · - · g-- ...(12.29)
'Y",m v p",m,.
Eq. 12.28 is the basic differenti al equation of one-dim ension al cooso lidation. It gives the distribution of
hydrostatic excess pressure;; wilh depth z and time t:
12.10. SOLUTION OF BASIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONSOUDATION
The solution o f the basic differen tial equati oo of one- dimensiona l conso lidation (Eq, 12.28) can be
obtained using Fourier se ries. Let us ex press bydro tatic excess pressure U as
u-
I, (z) . h (.) ...(12.30)
where / 1 (z) and 12 (I) indicat e som e functio n o f z and r, respectively.
Substituti ng the above val ue of uin Eq. t 2.2&,
.z ]
c. [ h (.) 8?[(,(,)] • lilz) -a[(.,-.(.)- I
i' •
8? [(,(z)] iii [(,(.) J
""""7,(Z) - c.f, (/)
The left-ha nd side of the above equation is a function o f z only and the right-hand side is a funct ion of
I 1
only. In other words . if lhe left-hand side is equal 10 some constant (say. - A whe n I is taken as a variable
and the right-hand side is equal to the same constant when z is considered as a varia ble.

Thus.
a' [(,(z) I - -A'/, (z)
8? ...(a)

and

Eq. (a) has the solution given by

.'
8? [(, (/)] - -A'c.h(') ... (b)

/1 (z) • C I cos Az + C2 sin Az . . .(c)

where C 1 and C2 are constants of integration.
Eq. (b) has the solution given by
h(r). C)[A2~VI ••• (d)
where C) is a constant of integration and e is the base of the hyperbolic or Napieri an logarithm .
Substituting the above solutions in Eq. 12.30.
U - [C t cos Az + C 2 sin Ax] C 3 e~2 ~.t
cosaz + C5 sin Az] e_A. ~vt
1
U _ [C, ... (12.31)

where C, and C5 are other constants. such that

C,_ CJC) and C5 - C2 C)
The constants C, and C5 can be determined from the boundary conditions :
(I) I=:O U - Ui for any valu e of z
where u; is initial hydrostatic pressure.
(il) I. 00 u _0 for any value of z
(iU) z =: 0 , u _0 for any value of I
(ill) z::H(=2d) , ii_O foranyvalueoft
For the boundary condition (iii) , Eq. 1231 gives C, =: O.
 sou, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEF.RING

1t1 c
Therefore, Eq. 12.31 becomes ii. C5 sin (Az) e- • I ••• (e)

For the boundary cond ition (iv). ii • a at z • H .

c I
1berefore, C5 sin (AH) e- A,l • • 0
The above equation is satisfied if AH • let, where 11 is any integer. The equation can be written in the
following fonn:
l ,
it. B I Sin (JU.lII)[ (7& / J1) C. , + B;zsin(2.'tZ'111) e-(4 7&1/l/1 c•

+ . .. + B. sin (mtz /H) e-(,.1·1/ffl c. , + ...

.. - . 1 1 .1..
ii _ "~1 BII sin (1UfZI1I) e- (" 7& 11, }C.I •••(1232)

where B l , B 2 ••• B n arc co nstants.

From boundary condition (I), when t = 0, U - Uj. Therefore.

iii - ~ BII sin (nrt zl/I) •••[12.32 (a)1

.-,
If m and 11 are two unequal integers, the following identities hold good.
~ sin mx sin nr dx • a
arxI ~ Sin2 IU dr . x/2
In the eoove identities if (1U I If) is substituted for .r, the differential dx changes 10 (rt/If) dz and tlr
limits of integration change 10 0 10 H.

Therefore. { sin (mx vlf) sin (nrt vH)dz. 0 ...IJJ

o
H
and fo sin2 (n'lzl ll) dx » H/2 ...(g)
M ult ip lyin g both sides of Eq . 12 .32 (a) by sin (n rt v i I) and in te gr a ti ng between the limits
o to H,

{ii, sin (n rtzlII) dz - ~ [n",{ sin(mrt z l lf)sin (IIrt Zllf) tb:]

o m _\ 0
(m • • j

+ .i, [B• .f, sin' (n n 2/ H) dz 1

The rigbt-bald side of the axwe equationhas beensplit into two parts: (,) when m .. n (ii) when m = II.
Using identities (j) and (g). the above equatim becomes

{ ii j sin (n or: v II) dz • B. ' (HIZ)

o

Therefore, BII • ~ [ iii sin (n rt zI /fJ dz ..4IJ

Substituting the above value of BII in Eq. 1232,

~ ING CONIDIlDAllON O F SOILS Z73

... (e) U.~~. [~fo~in(n;czllf)dz 1sin (n;c z/Jf)e- (,.' 1t' / ,r )C'¥,
--I
If· '" 2u. n
U. L nJt' ( l-cosn;c)(sinn;c z!Jf)e-<If . 1/ C', '
22

in the .. ,
Only odd integers n art: relevant. beca use for even integer t-ccos 11.-': • 0
...(k)

and for odd integers I - cos 11.-': • 2

Substituting n • 2N + I, where NN is _ _an integer, Eq. (l ) becomes

u _ i u. ~ - ' -
'/:0 (2N+l)
:It
[ s 'n e2N +
I 1/
I)n] e
_«2N+ l)z7f,zl ff ) C'¥' ... (12.33)
'2 .32)
Eq. 12.33 is the required solut ion of the basic diITercnlial equati on of on e-d imensional consolidation. It
gives the varia tion of hydrostatic excess pressure u
with depth z at any time I in term s of the initial
hydrostatic excess pressure ui (equal to Ii o i l ...).
Substituting Jl • 2d, where d is the leng th of the drai nage path, in Eq. 12.33,
12 (a)] 4 :j ; ~ 1)n J -((I N + 1/11'/4;)
em 2+d
-
U • X N~O em I+ 1) [ .
sm e
C'
·
I
... (123 4)

Let us introduce a non -dimensioo al p;.lramcter, known ES time factor (T~) . given by

.•.(123 5)

.nd the
Eq.I2.34 becomes. u _ § ~ - '-
x N~O (2N + 1) x
[ .
S in
(2N + I);u
2d
I e
_(2N +l)l ,l r .t4 ... (12.36)

u
A series of isochrones ind icating the varia tion of wit h z C<1n be plotted for different values' of T~ . The
... (f) shape of the tsochroncsdepends upon the initial distribu tion of excess pore water pressure Ui and the dra inage
conditions at the boun dari es of the CL'I): layer. If both the upper and lower boun daries are free dra ining. the
•. .(g) clay layer is known as open layer. If on ly one boundary of the clay layer is free drai ning. the layer is call ed
half<",",d toyer:
limits Fig. 12.11 (a) shows the isochrones fa- an open layer of thickness 2d when the ini tial d istributioo of
pressure is uniform . The upper half of the diagram is also applicab le for a half-closed layer of thickness d
[Fig. 12.11 (b)]. The hydraulic grad ient at any point is equal to the slope of the isochrone at that point.
The progress of consolidation at any point depends upon the pore water pres sur e at that point. The u
degree of consolidation (U z) at any point at depth z is equal to the ratio of the diss ipated excess pore water
pressure to the initial excess pore wa ter pressure . i.e;

. ..(h)
la l
Fig. 12.11.lsochronca.
214 SO IL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

... (1237)

Substituting the value of ;;Iii; from Eq. 12.36.

- (AId') .-,h.
2 .
Uz • I -
JM - 0
SlIl ... .. .(12.38)

wh~ M . ~ ~ N + l)
Eq. 12.38 gives the degree of consolida tion at a point. In practical prob lems, the main interest is 10 know
the average degree of consolidation of the whole layer. The average degree of conso lidation (ll) is defined as
U _ Uj - V, .•. (123 9)
U,
where Vi is initial excess hydrostatic pressure over the entire depth,
1
U; -U Jo l"- Lt; dz
and V, is the average excess hydrostatic pressureafter time t over the entire depth.
1 14 _
V, • '2,iJ o
u dz
1 l" _
'2,j JQ udz
Eq. 12.39 ClIO be written as, U - 1- ~

U Jo u: dz
dz J: u
U-1 - - - -

c
ru,
For constant initial excess pore water pressure iii> Eq. 12.40 becomes
dz
... (12.40)

1 14 _
U. 1 - 2 dui 10 u dz .. .(12.41)

It may be noted that the average degree of consolida tion U

is equal to the area of the hatched portion of the rectangle
shown in Fig. 12.12.
u
Substituting the value of from Eq. 12.36 in Bq. 12.41.

U- I- - l- JA
l" LJ~ -2u, . (AI' )e-,h•
2 d uiON _o M
Sin -
d

where M • ~ (m + 1) as before.

•••(12.42)

U - f (T.) ... (12.43)

There fore the averag e deg ree of consol idation (U) depends fig. 12.12. Average Degreee of Consoli dation
 -...-
CONSOUDA1l0N OF SOILS m

upon the non-dimensional time rnaor Tv The curves am be obtained between U and T~ for differentdrainage
conditions and lhe pressure distribution.
Table 12.3 gives the values of Tw for different values of the average degree of coosolidation (lI) . Case (1)
is applicable for unifonn pressure distribution for both open layer and half-closed layer. This is also
a~l icable for triangular (linear) distribution of pressure in the case of open layers. Case (2) is applicable for
triangular distributioo of pressure for half-dosed layer with maximum pressure near the drainage face. Case
(3) is also applicable for triangu lar disaibUlion of pressure for half-closed layer but with ZCIO pressure near
the drainage face. Fig. 12.13 gives the curve for the three cases considered.

" Table 12.3. Varia tion or U with T,o

'"
') Pressure
distributiOll ""kJ .Dr",.'.
Curve (l)
Case (1)
r-. ~
Cun>e (2)
Casc(2)
~JCurve (3)
Case (3)
U T, T, T,
0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.1 0.008 0.003 0.047
0.2 0.031 0.009 0.100
03 0.071 0.024 0.158
0.' 0.126 0.048 0,221
05 0 .196 0.092 0.294
0.6 0.287 0.160 038.'
0.7 0.403 0.270 0500
) 0.665
0.8 0567 0.440
0.' 0.848 0.720 0.940
1.0 ~ ~ ~

) The time factor T" depends upon the coe fficient of consolidation (e,,). lime I and the drainage path d (Eq.
12.35).lbe coeffici ent of consolidation represents the combined effect of the coeffici ent of permeab ility (k)
and the coefficie nt of volume change (m,,) as indicated by Eq. 12.29.

. <, 1 ( k ) 1 ( k )
Thus
1, - 7' - m,y_ Ji- m,gp_ Ji1 ... (12.44 )

As the codso lidatio n progresses. both the coe fficient of permeab ility (k) and the coefficient of volume
cange (m,,) decrease. but the ratio (kim,,) remains almost coostan t over a co nsiderab le range of pressure.
Consequently, the coefficient of consolidation remains atmosr consta nt.
The drainage path (4) represents the maximum distance that the water has to travel before reaching the
free-drainage boundary. For an ope n layer, the value of d is equal to half the thickness of the layer, whereas
for a balf-cjosedlayer, it is equa l to the thickness of the layer.
The lime (I) is measured from the instam the load is applied to the layer.
As indicated by Eq. 12.44. the time factor T" and hence the degree of consolidation depends upon
l..m.. d and t. It also depends upon the distribution of pressure across the thickness.
Thecurve (1) in Fig. 12.13 is parabolic. The relationship can be represented by the following crnpirical
equations.
276 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
oo
r--
o.
'I'---- <,
---- r-,
2
<,
o. , <,
<,
'\
o. , "'I'- -,
~
\
\l
~
,
O.

I.. ~ \ \
-. -,\ 1\
6

o.7
1\
O.8

O. ,
0
0.01 O.Q) cos 007 ' ,,,_
0. 0.3 o.s OJ'
t-,
LO

Fig. 12.13. U-.:r.Curves.

T~ _ ~ U2 (for U < 0.(0) . .. (12.45)

and T~ - - 0.933 log 10 (1 - U) - 0.085 (for U > 0.(0) . .. (12.46)

where U is expressed as a ratio (nol percentag e).
Bq. 12.46 can also be written as,
T" - 1.781 - 0.933 10&10 (100 - U%) . .. [12.46 (a)J
These approxim ate relations are extremely use ful when the curves between U and T. arc not available.
Limitation of the Consolidation Theory. One-d imcnsio nal conso lidation theo ry is based on a number of
assumptions which arc not realised in practice . The equation has the following limitations :
(1) The value of the rocfficient of consolidation (c,,) has been assumed 10 be cons tant. In reality. it
changes with a change in the ronsolidation pressure . ru accurate predictions of the time-rate of
consolidation in the field, its value should be determined for the expected pressure range.
(2) The distance d of the drainage path cannot be measured accurately in the field . The thickness of the
deposit is generally variable . and an average value h3S (0 be estimat ed.
(3) The re is so metimes d ifficulty in loca ting the drainage face. Sometimes th in perv ious seams which
 CONSOUDATION OF SOILS m

C3fI act as good drairiugc faces arc missed in the boring operations. On the other hand. sometimes
isolated sand pockets are wrongly taken as drainage faces.
(4) The equation is based on the assumption thai the consolidation is one-dimensional. In field. the
consolidation is generally J. dimensional. The lateral drainage may have a significant effect on the
lime rate of coesolidatioo.
(5) The initial consolidation and the secondary consolidation have been neglected. Sometimes. these
form an important part of the total consolidation.
(6) In the field, the lead is seldom applied trstamcneocsly, The effect of the loading period has to be
ronsidered. as explained in Sea. 12.15.
(7) In actual practice, the prcs.<;ure distributio n may be far from linear or uniform. The theory becomes
complicated whe n correct distribution is considered.
Notwithstanding the above limitations, the conso lidation theory is used to predict the lime rate of
settlement of the structures built on a soil. The results are fairly accurate if the theo ry is applied with caut ion,
keeping abov e limitations in mind.
12.11. Dl."TERMIN ATION OF COE FF IC IE NT O F CONSOL IDAT IO N
The curve betw ee n d ial gauge reading and time I obtained in the laboratory by testing the so il sample is
similar in shape to the theoretica l cu rve between U and T~ obtained from the consolidation theory. This
similarity between the laboratory curve and the theoretical curve L<; used for the determination of the
coefficient of consolidation (c~) of the soil. Th e methods are known as the fitting methods. The folJowing two
melhodsare commonly used.
(1) Squ ere-rooe or lime method . The method. devised by Taylor. utilizes the theo retical re lationsh ip
between U and ..ff;,. The relationship is linear up 10 the value of U equal 10 about 60% (Eq. 12.45). 11 bas
been fUlther established lhat at U = 90%. the value of .fT; is US times the value obtained by the extension
of the initm1 straight line portion [Fig. 12.14 (a»).
The sample of the soil whose coefficient of consolidation is required is tested as explained in Sea. 12.5
For a given load increment. lhe dial gauge readings arc taken for different time intervals. A curve is plotted
between the d ial gauge reading (R). as ordinate, and the Vi. as abscissa [Fig. 12.14 (b)]. The curve ABCDE
showsthe plot. The curve begins at the dial gauge readi ng Ro at time to. indicated by point A.
As the load increme nt is applied, there is an initial compression. II is obtained by producing back the
"0 A
A
I ",

~1
o
~ u· /·
~_ l ol 'i
bo

Theoretic al
" , , :r imo r y co nsn f do tion cu rve
-,

)] b"~
iT,
(Q)

il
,r
I.} .[t _ _
Fig. 12.14. SqU<Ve-rool d.1imc: plOI.
278 SOIL MEC HA NICS A ND FOU NDA TION ENGINEERING

initial linear part of the c urve to intersect the dtal-g angc readi ng axis at point A' This correspo nds to the
corrected zero read ing (R,.). The co nsolidation between the d ial gauge read ing Ro and R,. is the initia!
compression. The Tcrzaghi theory of cons olidation is not applicable in this range.
From the co rrected zero reacting point A ' , a line A' C is drawn such that its absciss a is 1.15 times that
of the initial linear portion A ' H of the curve. "Inc intersection of this line with the curve at point C indicates 90lii
-rr;;;.

*
of U. The dial gauge reading corresponding to C is shown as R9I ) and the corresponding abscissa as
The point D for 100% primary con solidation can be obtained from R9() as.

R,. - R l[lo = (R,. - R9()

The con solid ation afte r 100% of primary consolid ation. in the rangc DE. is the seco ndary consolidation.
TIle value of the coeff icient of consolidation of the soil for thai load increme nt is obta ined from the value
of w:;;;
obta ined from that plot . Fro m Table 12.3, for U = 90% . the value of Tv = 0.848. Therefore, using
Eq. 12.35.
c = T,. d~ = 0.848 d~ = 0.8 48 {P ... (12.47)
\. r (..Jt;l 190

The distance of the drainage path d is half the total thick ness. The 101 al thickness may be taken as the
a verage (11' the initial thickness (II,) and final thickness (/1,) of the sample .

Thus d = i i[
= Hi ; HI ] .. .[12.4'(a)]

For single drainage. 'I = H = ( ~

2 11 l .. . [12,48(b)]

The test is rep ea led for di fferent load tncrcme nts und an a vera ge valu e of c,. obta ined . as shown in
Fig . 12.15.
(2) Logarithm of lime method. The method
given by Casagrande uses the theoretical cu rve
betw een U and Log T", as shown in Fig. 12.16 (a ).
The curve co nsists of three parts : (i) an initial

~~~~~~ :~ii~~ i;: ~~:~~::icli~~a~.h~~~ed ~i:;i)atl:i~~~~ t

portion to which the horizontal ax is is an asympt ote. c..,
It is observed that the point of intersection of the
tangent draw n at the point o r inflexion on the curve
and the asymptot e of the lower portion gives the
value of 100% conso lidation.
Logr __
The sam ple of the soil i ~ tested as explained in
Section 12.5. For a give n load increme nt, a curve is
. ploucd between the dial gauge reading R and log I Fig. 12.15. Variatiun or c•.
[Fig. 12.16 (b)} . Let Ro be the initial dial gauge before the application of the load increment. The corrected
zero reading (R..) is obta ined using the fact tha t the initial portion of the c urve is paraboli c. Two points Band
C are selected correspondin g to some arbi trary time I , and 4110 respec tively, and having the vertica l intercept
a, as shown . Point A ' is located such that the vertica l interce pt between H and A' is also equal to a. It
represents the correc ted d ial gauge read ing R,. corresponding 10 zero prima ry co nsolidation. As a check, the
procedur e can be repeated by select ing two other points (not shown) with the time ratio 1 : 4. It should also
g ive approximately the same location of point A ' , Obviously. the consolidation between the d ial gauge
read ing Ro to R... represented by A and A ', is initial compression.
 CONSOUDATION OF SOILS Z79

~
h'«'O<O'
cur ve

, 100 •
,, "" Tv
(0 )
,
, '
RIOO
R,
- -----------:-: ----- -"f---
" F

- - --- - - ---- 1- - - -- __ .:
_ E
_
, I

,..
Log t - _

Fig. 12.16. Logarithm of tim e Plot.

The flnal portion of the experimental curv e is linear. The point Faxn:sponding to 100% consolidation is
obtained fran the intersection of the two linear parts, as shown. TIle values o f R lllO and ' 100 are obtained
ccresponcing to point F. The compress ion between the dial gauge: readings Rr and R ux) is the primary
coosolidalion . and thaI between R 100 and R, is the secondary c:oosolida Uon.
The point M rorresponding to 50% primary conso lidatio n (R so>is located midway between Re and R lOo
arxlthe value of time ' so is obtained.

Thus Re - Rso • t (Re - R lOO)

From Table 12.3. for U = SOli., the value of T~ is equal to 0.196. From Eq. 12.35 ,
0.196<1'
c; • ~ ... ( 12.4 9)
The distance d of the drainage path is detennined using Bq. 12.4&, as in the firs t method.
The test is repeat ed for different load increments and an avera ge value o f c" for the desired load rang e is
detennincd, as shown in Fig. 12.15.-
Compa rtson of the two methods . The two methods for determination of the coe fficient of consolidation
give comparable results for most of the soils. However, the following points must be carefully noted.
(1) For som e soils, the square-root of time plot does not give a st raight line for the initial portion and,
theref ore, to locat e the corrected zero R.:becomes difficult. For such so ils, the log-of-time method is
better.
(2) The square-root of time method is more su itable for soils exhibiting high secondary consolidation. In
ed such soils the log r- plot does not show the charact eris tic shape req uired to loca te the point
nd corres pondin g to 100% consolidation.
pt (3) The square-root of time me thod is more convenient for a general case, as it req uires dial gauge
readings covering a much sho rter period of time com pared with the log-t ime method. The latter
It
method requ ires accurate plotting of the secondary coesolktauce curve in o rder to locat e the
he
asymptote.
Compression Ratios. Th e follow ing defInitions for differen t compression ratios are used.
ge
(I) Initia l compnsslon ratio (Ti). It is the ratio o f the initial compression to the total compess ion. In
terms of dial gauge readings, it is expressed as
 SOIL MECHANiCS AND FOUNOA:nON ENGINEERING

R o - Rt
' i - 110 _ R, ... ( 12.50)

whe re Ro = z ero
d ial gauge readi ng. Rt = corrected zero reading , and Rf = final dial gauge reading .
(I',) Primary compressi on rati o (r..), II is. ratio of the primary comPression to the total compression. In
terms of dial gaug e readings. it is given by
R, - RIlXl
... 12.51)
' ". ~ - Rf
where R lOo = d ial gauge readi ng rorrespondin g to 100 % primary consolidation.
(ii .) Seconda ry compresston ratio (r..). It is the ratio of the secondary compression to the total
com press ion. In terms o f d ial gauge readi ngs.
R IOO - Rf
r, - ~ _H ... (12.52)
f
It can also be written as ' s - 1 - (r; + r;) .(12.53)
because ' s '+ 'j + '" • I
12.12. PRECONSOLIDATION I)RESSURE
The maximum pressu re 10 which an ove rconsolidatcd so il had been subj ected in the past is known 3S the
preconso lidation pressure or over-co nsolidatioo press ure @c)' When a soil spe ci men is taken from a natural
depos it. the weight of the overlying
material (over-bu rden) is removed. This
causes an expans ion of the soil due to a
rcdu dion in pressure. Th us the specimen
is generally preconsolicared or over-
coosolidated. When the specime n is Iooded
in the coosolidation test. the initial portion
AB of the com pression curv e A /JeD (Fig.
12.11) is actually a recompression curve.
Consequently. the initial port ion AB is
relatively flat. II is follow ed by a straight
line CD with a steep slope which indicates
the com press ion of a virgin (normall y
conso lidated) soil.
In the transition rang e BC, the slope
gradually changes. The preconsolldatton
pressure @t) falls in this range . It can be Fig. 12.17. Determination ofot •
obtai ned using the method given by Casagrande.
Th e procedure consists o f the following steps :
(I) Determine the point E on the curve where the curvature is maxim um, i.e., the radius of cu rvatu re is
minimum .
(2) Draw the tangent EF to the curve at E.
(3) Draw a horizon tal line EG at E.
(4) Bisect the angle betwee n the tangent EF and the bodzorual EG, and draw the bisector Ell.
(5) Produce back the straight line portion CD of the curve and determine the point of intersection P of
the bisector EH and the backwa rd extension of CD.
(6) Draw lhe vertica l PJ through P which cuts the log a-axis at J . The point J indicates the:
precooso:.idahon pressure ac.
NO CONIDUDATION OF SOIL.";; 281

(7) The vertical PJ cuts the curve at point K. lbe portion ARK of the curve represents the
SO) recompression curve and the portion KeD as the virgin compression curve.
12.13. CAUSES OF PRE CONSOLIDATIO N IN SOILS
In Precoosotidatjon in a soil deposit may be due to one or more of the causes mentioned below:
(1) Prcconso lidation may be due to the overburden which had been later removed by erosion.
(2) It may be due to loads of buildings and othe r structures wh ich had bee n demolished.
51) (3) It may be due to me lting of glaciers which covered the soil deposit in the past.
(4) Preconsoltdatlon may be due to capilla ry pressure which acted on the so il in the past but was later
destroyed due to a rise in water table.
.rtal
(S) Preconsohdation may be due to dessication of the clay depos it. During drying due 10 rise in
temperature, tension develops in pore water and the effective stress increases. Afte r dessication, the
soil remai ned prccorsolldered.
52)
(6) Sustained downward seepage forces cause an ina-ease in the effective stress. When the seepage later
53) stops. the soil becomes preccesoudated due to reduction in the effective stress .
(7) Pre-coosolidation may be due to lectonic forces caused by the movement of earth's crust which later
became less severe.
12.14. nNAL SI=.T fLEMENT OF A SOIL DEPOSIT IN Til E FIELD
the
.rral Computenonof settlement of a soil deposit in the field consists of two pans :
(I) Compu tation of magnitude of final settlement.
(il) Dcterm tnauo n of the time-rate of settle ment.
For the comp utation of final seUlemcnt, the coefficient of volume change or the compressio n index is
required, which is based on the plot between vo id ratio and the effective stress. For the time-ra te of
computation , the Tcrzagbi theory is used. It requires the coefficien t of ronsolidation and is discussed in Sect.
12.10.
(1) FlnaJ Settlement Using Coe mdenl or Volume Cha n2e
Let us consider a small element of thickness fu at a dep th z in the clay deposit of total thickness Ho (Fig.
12.18). Let the effective pressure increment causing the settlement be 6ii From Eq. 12.15,

J>"
I I I I I I I I I I +

I +ft/2/7/1ZZlZ7TLl/LlTfl

e is
j
Fig. 12 18. Leyer Subjeded 10 .10.
6 / / . mv//o(60)
' of
Representing the final sett lement as As, and taking Ho • 6.z,
the 6s, . mv 6 1, (60)
Total sett lement of the complete layer,
28Z SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

If both m" and 6,0 are constant,

"0 ...

r
s/ • m" t.. (j (125 4)
In an actua l case, as the pressure intensity 6.'0 and the coefficient of volume change m" decrease with
depth Z, it is coeveuem to divide the stratum into a number (n ) of small layers and to assume 60 and m" as
coostam in eadl layer. The fmal settlement is given by

r"''
'I - }; (m.~ (6 0); (6%), .••(1255)

The settlement 'I may also be obtained

the method of grap hical integra tion. The
.~; m, , -",.. ,m v)
variation of '&'0 and m.. wi th the depth z is
shown in Fig. 12.19 (a), and Fig. 12.19 (b)
respectively. Fig. 12.19 (c) sbows the variation
of the product (60 )( m,,) with the depth z. The
final sett lement is equa l to the area of the
diagram in Fig. 12.19 (c). z z z
Howev er, if the thickn ess of the clay layer Ca) (b) (c)
is relatively small, the variations of !J.(j and m"
w ith depth z may be assumed as linear (Fig. Fig. 12.19. Graphical lntegratioe Method.
12.20). The values at the mid-depth may be taken as representa tive
values, and Eq. 12.15 may be used as
'I • (m.). (60). Ho ... (1256)
where (m"),,, and (60)", are the values at rnid-deplh.

(2) Final settlement uslng Void Ratlo

If t: - 0 plot for the soil is available, it can be used to determ ine
the final settleme nt. The value of se rom:sponding to the given load
rI-
.. rI"'
~ ,. ~ ~'
increment is read off from the plot and substit uted in Eq. 12.11.

6/1_Ho (~)
1 + eo z z
' al to t
'1./I0' (~)
I + eo Fig. 12.20
... (12.57)

where eo is the initial void ratio.

The usual pm:tire is nee. to use At: but to use the coefficient of compression index (Cf ) foc nonnally
axlSOlidaled soiB and the roefIicien1 of recompression index (C,) roc precoosoucated soils as explained below.
(a) Norm a Uy consolidated soIls. As mentioned earlier, the compression index of a normally consolidated
soil is constant. For such soils, it is more convene rs to use compression index. From Bq. 12.18,
C _ - de
c
10810( 00 + d a )/ oo
- &e - Cc loglo (oo + &0)/00
where lie is change in vo id ratio wben the effective pressure is increasedfrom 00 to @o + &0}. Substituting
this value of At: in Eq. 1257.
 CONSQUDATION OF sorts sea

Sf - 1 ~~ eo . H o • 10g l0 (0 ~ot.. a)
0
...(12.58)

(b) Preconsolidnted soils. The final settlements are sm311 in the case of preconsoltdat cd soils as the
recompression index C, is considerably smaller than the compression index . From Eq. 12.24,

- l1e- C, log
(ao 6a)
~
+

Therefore, Eq. 12S7 g ives '1 - - C, - ' 110 '

I +eo
(ao+ 6a)
\og ---
aD
...(1259)

The above equa tion is applicable when (ao + !:J. 0) is smaller than the perconsouoauon pressure 0 ...
If the pcrco nsolidatlon pressure Ac is greater Hum 0 0 but less than (00 + 6.0), the settlement is computed
in two parts:
(I) Settlement for pressure OQ to 0...
(it) Settlement for pressure a..to (00 + Ii 0)
For the first, part. the recompression index is applicable, whereas for the second part, the compression
index is used. Thus

' I - -,-
C, _ c.n;
. 110 log (0.. / 0 0) + -, - log
(ao 6a)
+
--
-- •..(12.60)
+ ~ + ~ ~

In this case, the Ilrst part is relatively small and is sometimes neglected.
12.15. TlMESE1TLEMENT CURVE
om,
The load i<> not applied to a soil deposit in the field instantaneously as assumed in the consolidation
theory. First excavation is done for the footing. It causes a decrease in the stresses. After the excavation, the
footing is constructed and the load of the super-structure is applied gradually. as shown in Fig. 12.21 (a). 'th e
net load on the soil becomes zero, say at time t - to. It then gradually Increases to full load P at t - tpo
Thus, there is expansion of soil due to removal of load in the beginning and it is followed by recompression .
It is generally assumed that the net compression of the soil during the period t = 0 to t _ to is negligible. The
actual loading pcriod is from time t - to to t - tpo During this period, the loading is assumed to vary linearly
fromzero to full load P.
The time-settlement curve in the field is obtained based on the assumption that the setllement at the end
of construction period (tp ) is the same as that would have occurred in half as much time had the entire load
been applied instantaneously. In other words. the actual settlement at time tp is equal to that at t/2 due to
instantaneous loading. In Fig. 12.21 (b), the curve DB is the load settlement curve obtained using the Tcrza ghi
theory, assuming that the full load P is applied instantaneously at time to. The corrected curve is obtained
from the instantaneous loading curve . The point C on the corrected curve has the settlement FC at time tpo
Thissettlement is equal to the settlement AN at time t/2 of the instantaneous curve. A horizontal line AC is
drawn from point A to cut the vertical FC at time tp at C.
The settlement on the corrected curve at any other time is also obtained from the instantaneous curve.
Thesettlement LG at time l is obtained from Ihe settlement KD at time t/2 of the instantaneous curve, but a
correction is applied. AI time t, as the full load is not acting. the settlement is not exactly equal to KD. The
actual load acting at t is equal 10 P )( (tltp ) , i.e. the load acting at time t is -(tltp ) times the full load P . The
correction10 the settlement is made graphically, as described below. A horizontal line DE is drawn to cut the
verticalat time tp at E. The diagonal OE is drown. It intersects the vertical LG at time t at point G. The actual
settlement at time l is given by LG. Obviously, this is equal to FE x (tltp ) or KD x (lltp ) ' Therefore, the
correction factor is (tltp ) '
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

------- -- -- - ---- lptP~-~,~~~~~--

Full load ", P

.;. "] i
,
,

....,~ic-_4c_+-__iO''------ t lmll'

B
Inslon1one-ous loodi"'9 tur .....
(0 )
Fig. 12.21.1ime-SettdmcnICurvc-
Likewise, the senlemem at any other time can be obtained. Fig . 12.21 (b) also indicates the senlemem aI
time r/4 of the Irstaneocs curve. A smooth curve is draw n through all points so obtained. Thus the corrected
curve DC is dra wn . The curve e M beyond the loading period is extended by mnking offsct 8M equal to AC.
Th e load after tim e 'so is equa l to the full load P. The offset. therefore, remains equal 10 the one-half of the
loodin g period (r,.n). In o ther words, the horizon tal 0fIsel: between the corrected curve and the instaraaneocs
curv e after the klading period is constant. and equal 10 y2.
Alternative meth od.
lbe corrected curve can be obta ined easil y if th e rate of se ulemem is not of interest during the
const ruClion period (rp ) . In this case, the corrected curv e can be taken as the curve for instaneous load ing in
which the orig in is taken at t • tpl 2. In ot her words , the who le load P is assumed to be applied
instan taneo usly at half the load ing period (tpl2).

12.16. FIELD CONSOLIDATION CURVE

Th e co mpressi on ch aracteristics of in-situ soils are diff erent from those obta ined from the tests con ducted
on the so il samples. Even the so -called undisturb ed sa mples are also slightly disturbed wh en these are taken
out. The di sturbance ca uses a slight decrease in the slope
of the compression curve obt ained in the laborntory after
conducting a consolidation test. Consequently, the slope-of
the curve for in -situ so ils ls, ex pected 10 be greater than
, that ob ta ined from the test. Th e methods for obtaining the
field consolidat ion curve from the laboratory consolidation
curve are discussed separatel y for norm all y consoli dated, ~
ov er-co nsoli dated and under-conso lidated so ils.
(a) Normully consolidated sell, Sch mertma nn ~
establish ed tha i the labora tory virgin curve intersects the
field consolidation line at a void ratio of 0.40 eO. where
eo is the initial void rauo . The initial vo id ratio (eo) can be
taken as the void ratio at the start of the lebore toey test.
Th us the field consolidation line must pass through point Fig. 12.22..Fidd Conso lidalioo Curve of H.C. Clays.
 CGN~UDATION DF SOILS

C corresponding to a void ratio of 0.40 eo (Fig. 12.22). [Note. In some texts. it is taken as 0.42 eo]. 1be
coordinates of point D represent the natu ra l void ratio (eo) and the effective overburden pressure (00) before
the sample was extract ed. When the sample has been taken out, the overburden pressure reduces to zero, bu t
the water content (w) and hence void ratio remain essentially the same. The process is represented by line
Dc.
When lhe undisturbed sample is tested in the laboratory. the compression curve (k..), represented by the
curve ABC is obtained. The portion AB of this OJfVC represents the recompression and the portion Be as the
virgin compression. The upward extension of the linear portion IJC Intersects the horizontal line thro ugh eo at
pointE. For a oonnally oonsolidatcd soil, the po int E always lies tow ards the len of the point D. Once it bas
been established tha t the so il is norm ally consoli da ted. the field consolidation line or in-situ consolidation line
(k,) i,<; drawn jo ining the points D and C. The slope of Ihis line DC is equal 10 the compression index of the
in- situ soil,
If Ihe sample is remouldcd and again tested, the compression curve (k,) is obta ined. The slope of the k,-
OJrVe is somewhat smaller than that of the k:..-curve. However. the downward extension of the k,-line also
intersects the horizontal line drawn from 0.4 eo at point C.
(b) Preccnsolldared so il. In Fig. 12.23. the curve ABC is the laboratory compression curve (k..) for the
undisturbedsample. The point C corresponds 10 a void ratio of 0.4 eo- Tbe backward extension of the linear
portion of the c urve ABC meets the
at horizontal line Co D at point E. In case of
ed
preconsolidatedsoils. the point E lies towards
C.
be
the right of point D representing the in-situ
condition <00. eo). It is obvious that lhere is
I
recompression of the soil from a pressure of ~
00 to the prcconsolidalion pressure <Ot). A
smooth curve DG is drawn from point D
be
in f~~~i~~ ~~~ 1~:~=~:"i;7:;ou~~ ~
a.. is denoted by the point G. The point G is
ed
joined to the point C by a straigh t line. The
curve DGC represents the Held compression
C1llVC (k,). For pressure between Cio to 0... the
relevant index is the recompression index C, Ag. 12.23. Field Consolidlltion CUM: for D.C. allYS,

and for the pressure more than 0... it is the compeessioo index (C..) given by the krline.
(e) Unde rconsolld a ted soils. In areas of recent landfill, sometimes the soil is underconsolidatcd. it has
not reached equilibrium under the effec tive overburden pressure (00)' For suc h soils , the preconsolidation
pressure (0..) is less than the overburden pressure.
Thus 0 .. < 00 or O.C.R. < I
The total compression for such soils when subjected to external loads is equal to the sum of the
conpeession due to overburden pressure till equilibrium is reached and the additiona l compression due to
external loads. Thus
lie- lie t + 6.e2
where li et = decrease in void ratio due to 00
6ez = decrease in void ratio due to applied pressure, as found in normally consolidated soils.

12.17. SECONDA RY C ONSOL IDATION

According to Terzaghi's theory of consolidation, the primary ronsolidation stops when the excess pore
water pressure becomes zero. In actual practice, it has been observed that some consolidation continues even
286 SOIL MF.cHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEER ING

after the full dissipation of the excess pore water pressure. This additio nal consolidation is known as
secondary consolidation . In other words, the secondary consolid ation is thc co nso lidation which occurs after
the co mpletion of the primary conso lidation,
Th e causes of secondary consolidat ion are not well understood . This is probably due to the gradual
readjustment of the soil skeleto n which occurs after the stresses caused during primary consolidation . 1bere
is plastic readjustment of the soil particles to the new stress . (10 this respect , secondary conso lidation is
so mewhat analogous (0 the creep in steel when it is overstressed and is in the plastic srete.) Secondary
consoli dation may also be due 10 progressive fracture of the interparticle bond" and the particles themselves.
The rare of secondary co nsolidation L-; given by the secondary compression index (e l ) , as defined below.

c, - log~o~t~'I) . .. (12.61)

where Ae is change in void ratio between time ' l and ' 'l
It is eq ual to the slope of the Ilnal linear part of the curve drawn between the void ratio and log time
(Fig. 12.24).

P rima ry cansolida liao

100"1. '~-::'-i .cr: ccnscnccuco

l O9l - -
Fig, 12.24. Sec:oodllry C(lO.o,nlidalion.
Another parameter, known as the coeffici ent of secondary con solidation (C,,), is more com monly used . It
is given by
C _~_~ . _ _l_ _
... (12.62)
o I + ep 1 + ep loglo (lyt l)
where ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
a nd Ae = change in void ratio between time tl and t 'l '
The magnitude of the secondary co nsolidation is given by
e
s, .. u x 1I10g1O(t2 Itl ) ... [12.62(0)1
TIme tl correspondsto the end of primary consolidation.
The rate of secondary consolidation depe nds upon the plastic charactersstics of the soiL It is controlled
by blghly-viscocs. adsorbed water layer surroundin g the clay minera ls. As the secondary conso : ldation is
highly erratic. its estimate using the above equations is seldom accura te.
For a particula r son, the rate of seconda ry consolid ation increases a'> the ratio of the pressure increment
to the existin g pressure is decreased. For standard consolidation lest, the ratio is kept one. The rate also
increases with a decrease in the thickness of the spec imen used in the test. There are a numbe r of other
factors which control the rate of seco ndary conso lidation. In general, the value of Co for normally
consolidated so ils varies with the oompressibility and hence with the natural water ccorem .
lbe rate de pends upon the length of time the preload may have acted on the soil. It also depends upon
the shear stresses and on the degree of disrurbaoce of the sample.
Secondary consolida tion is important only for highly plastic clays and organic so ils. In some organic
CONSOU DATION OF SO ILS

soils. the secondary coosolidation may even be more than the primary consolidation. In over-coosoltcared,
inorganic clays, the secondary consolKtation is. usually small and hence it is neglected.
12.18. J-D CO NSO LIDATI ON EQ UATION IN CARTESIAN CO ORDINATES
'Ierzaght's theo ry of one-dimensional consolidetion discussed above is based on the assumption that the
soil is laterally confined and the consolidation takes place only in the vertical direction. In field, as the layers
are not laterally confined , the consolidat ion takes place in all lhe three-dimensions. In general, the
consol idat ion in the horizontal direction is small and. therefore, neglect ed. However, in some special cases,
suchas in sand drains, there is significant radial drainage , in addition to the vertical drainage. For such ceses,
three-dimensional oonsolidation equation is required to determine the rate of ronsolidation. 1be equation foc
3-D coosolidation is derived below, making the following assumptions :
(I) The soil mess is homogenous.
(2) 1be soil is comple tely saturated.
(3) 1be soil particles as weD as the water in the voids are incompressible.
The consolidat i~n t a~es pl~ce vz.~~
due to reduction In VOids z Z 2 h
y
dy
,j-l--------::>1 Vy · ay·T
caused by flow water.
(4) Darcy's law, in generalised v. -
form, is applicable to
:·'T
anisotropic soils.
dx
(5) Pressure Increment do is
applied tnstantaoeocsty to
develop an initial excess pore
water pressure U; .
Fig. 12.25 shows a parallelepiped
of soil mas.s with sides dx; dy, dz with
its centre at point P (x, y, z). Let the
velocity components at the point P by
d,
v"' v,. and v~ The velocities on the s ix

~:SWti~::a~s~~gint~er~~ y Yz- ~:~ .~

The volume of water entering the Fig 12..25
parallelepiped per unit time (Qi) is obtained from the products of the relevant velocities and areas. Thus

Q; _ (vx- ~ . ~) dYdl+ (v,-~. ~ )d«k + (V,- ~.~) xduty

likewise, the volume of water going out per unit lime (Qo) is given by

Q. _ -avx . -dx) dydz

( v"+ 2 2
+ (=""
~.
Yaz2
AU) .:::.l. dx dz + (av,
v + -
" az
dz)
. -
2
)( dx dy

Therefore, the volume of water squeezed out of the parallelepiped per unit time is given by
dQ - Q.-Q;

dQ. avx + =a~ + -a,,~ ) dx dy dz

( -ax ay az
... (a)

The volume of the parallelepiped V is equal to dx , dy, dz. It is also equal to V, (1 + e), where V, is the
volume of the solids and e is the void ratio. Thus
288 SOIL Mf£ HANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEER ING

v • _ v_ .. dxdydz
s 1 + e 1 + e
V .. V,(l + c)

~ .. ~ [V,(1 + e) ] .. V. ~
av dxdydz ile
at-I +e"at •..(b)
Obvious ly the volume of water squeezed out per unit time is equal to the change in volume of
parallelepiped per unit time. From Eqs. (a) and (b).
tb:dydz .
I + e
~
ill
_ (~ + ~
ax oy
. . ~) iJz
dxdydz

-ae = ( 1 + e) (av",
- + iJv + -BV:)
.::.:l:. .•. (0)
at ax oy az
If Ii is the excess hydrostatic pressur e. the velocities in .r, ~ and z direct ions are obtained from Darcy 's
law as

v:< -k:tjx -~ %1 -*x-!: .f;

v, . q .k, * 'k,~ '~
v: .. k: i; "' k z ~ .. k z t .~
Subs tituting the above velocit ies in Bq. (e),

~ .. .!....±...! (k 2
a fi + "r ilu + k (iu) ...(d)
a, r. ' a2 ar' 'az'
As soon as the pressure increment (~ 0) is applied. the pore water pressure develops. Initially, the load
is entirely taken by pore wa ter, but as the lime passes, water is squeezed out. The excess porewater pressure
gradually decreases and the effective stress increases, as in the one-dimensional conso lidation. Thus
<la -lio +&
where <lO = effective stress, and li 'ii = pore water pressure.
As any increase in effective stress (O) is equal to a decrease in excess hydrostatic pressure 'ii,
<lo '" - li u
Therefore,

But ~ - coefficient of compressibility av (Eq. 12.12).

ile
Therefore, au - - a"
From the rule of partial differentiation.
aeaeaii §..
...(,)
ai -a;: ' ai -av ' at
From Eqs. (d) and (e),
CONOOUDATION OF SOILS

!lE.. + k i ~)
2
aii l!.....!..E . 1.. (k:r i1 ;; + l-
ai - Q" 1... aJ? "Y ai f
iJ ?
1be above equa tion can be wri Uen in terms of uie coefficient o f volume cha nge m...
Q.
From E<j. 12.16, nl" .. ~

~_ --.L(k !ti. +k,. iP u +! a ii )

2
Thus
at ", Y. • it<' al • a,'
TIle equation can be written in terms of coetncients of co nsolidal io n c..,.. . C,y and c"" in the three
diru:tions us ing Eq. 12.29 .
aii a~ a~ a~
Therefore, at .. <; ~ + C.,. 31 + al C,': .. .(12.63)

Eq. 12.63 is the general equation for mrce-dimersto-en consolidation (3-1) consolidation].
lZ,19. 3-D CONSOLIDATION EQUATION IN CYUf\ IIFJ CAL COOH ',H'l ,\TES
Three-di mensional consolidationequation, obtained in It-,' proceeding sec.ion, can be transformed into
cylindrical coo rdinates (7, e, z) by making the following subs ..nnton :
x-rease. y_ r sin 8 and z=.
where r = rad ial dis tance (po lar distance).
and 8 = angle made by the radius with the pole.
Thus, tan 8 _ y/x or B .. arc fa;'!(yl x ) ... (aj
a~

Differentiating Eq. (b). 2r ~

? -~+ I

_ 2r or *.. '" ~ cos B

.. .(b)

Likewise, ~ .. ;- .. sin B

ae L 1
From Eq. (Q~
~ - - z' ='r
or =' e ~ - -~
ae ------=.1 =...!:. sin 8
~ - z' (1 . II.>?-) • ,> .--;-
dB x rosa
Lnewtse, ay-r -;-
There fore, ~.~ .~ +~ .~
ax ar ax ao ax
~ .. s
axar
cos Il .s
as
. (SinOr )
and -(iu -I-cosS
! a I a\1 -
--sinB- ([fj cos 8 - ausin O)
-1 -
ax? \ iJr r ar } ar r aO
290 SO IL MECII AN1CS A ND FOUNDATIO N ENGI NEER ING

... (c)

Likewise,

+ !!..E. 005
2
8 - 2 aii . sin8cos8 + i ii . 005
2
8 ...(d)
ar r aS r ae2 ?
From Eqs. (c) and (d),
alii + alii _ a2ii + .!. ~ + 1. il ii ... (c)
ax2 al - ar2 r ar ? 002
In the case of axial symmetry, C,,,, = c\). = c,,, (say)
aii a2j; al /i. a2u
From Eq. 12.63, iii .. C vx a;z + Cry ai + c"" aJ?
au (a2 jj
at .. C,., ax2 +
il
ai
2
i) +
a2 1i
c,': al
Using Eq. (e). !!..E
ilt
(82ii2
=c,"ar + .!.!.!E+ ..!.. 2
r ar , 2 as
iP ii )+c v~
2
a 1i
aJ?
In the case of axial symmetry. il2~ .. 0
ae

Thus,
ail -_ c.; (aill2)ii
at + r
1. !.!E
ar +
) c -«
aa2iu ...(12.64)
Eq. 12.64 is the governing equation for consolidation in three- dimensions in terms of cylindrical
coordinates for the case of axial symmetry. The equation can be split into two parts :

(I) Radial How : c,1' (tPIi r £.E.)

ar2 + 1.. ill .. §.at ... (12.65)

(il) Vertical flow : c,~ ( a; ).. 4ff- (12.66)

where c,r .. k,/(m v '(...) and c''Z .. k/(ml' 1M')'

If U, and Uvare the average degrees of consolidation in radial and vertical directions, respectiv ely, using
E<j.12.43.
U, = fil,) (12.67)
and U" • f( T,) (12.68)
where T, and T,. are time factors in radial and vertical d irections . respectively, given by (using Eq. 12.44),
T, • c" I/ (4R' ) (12.69)
and T" = c,.:t/tf (12.70)
where R is the radius of the drainage area.
d is the drainage length in the vertical direction.
It has been shown that the overall average degree of consolidati on U under co mbi ned radial and verti cal
directions am be expressed as
(1 - U) ~. (1 - U,) (1 - U,) ... (12.71)
The value of U v can be obtained using the theory of one-dimen sional consolida tion as already d iscussed
The value of U, is obtained as explained in the following section for the sand dra ins.
 CONSOUDATION OF SOILS 291

12.20. SAND DRAINS

The main application of the radial consohcauon is in the design of
sand drains used to increase the rate of drainage in the embankment.
Sand drains are constructed by driving a casing (or a hollow mandrel)
into the embankment and making vertical bore holes. The holes are
backii.lled with a su itabl y graded sand. The casing is withdrawn after
lhr sand has been filled . The drain'> are generally laid either in a square
pattern [Fig. 12.26 (a)} or a triangular pcuern (Fig. 12.26 (b)J. The
spacing (5) of the drains is kepi smaUer than the thiclcness of the
tt±j
~INGC5Ij--R=l).56'
embanlcmcnl (211) in order to reduce the length of the radial drainage ,., S

path. The zone of influence of each drain in a triangular pattern is

~
hexagonal in plan, which can be approximated by an eqorvejeor circle
of radius R. where R = 0525 S. In cese of a square pattern , the radius
of circle of influence R is equal to 0.554S. The radius of the sand drain
isreprcscnled by r",.

~
Fig. 12.27 shows the sand drains installed in position. A sand
blanket is placed over rbe top of the sand drains to connect aU the sand
drains. To accelerate the drainage. a surcharge load is placed on the R:=O·525S
sand blanket . The surcharge is generally in the form of dumped soil.
Due to surcharge 103d. the pore water pressure increases in the
(0'
embankment. The drainage occurs in the vertical and horizontal
directions. The borizornat drainage QO..'UrS because of sand drains. The
sand drains accelerate the process of dissipation of excess pore water ffiI
Wi
4) created by the surcharge.
The mcory of sand drains was given by Rendulic (1935) and
" I Barron (1948). Later . Richart (1959) summarised the theories.
Depending upon the type of strain. there are two cases.
~
;5)

;6)
(1) Free strain case. (2) Equal strai n case.

blan~~: i~r;:~~I~re~B~:i~f~ ~~~;n = ~~h;~~l~~= fig. 12.26. PatterM of Sand Drains.

distribution of surface loads. but the settle me nts at the surface are un even . Th e basic different ial equation for
radial drainage. given by Eq. 12.65. is

~_ c (iP'U + 1 2E.)
at .... ar2 r ar
67)
68) SURCHARGE
14),
SAND BLANKET
6 9)
70)
SAND DRAIN

teat

.7 1)
sed.
fig. 12.27 . Sand Drains hllla llaD04.
292 SOIL MECIIANICS AND FOUNDA110N ENGI NEERING

In lhe case of free strain case. the boundary conditions are as under
At time I .. O. ii » Uj. Ai time t > o. Ii .. 0 at r .. , _ and at r .. It !!: = 0
The so lution for excess pore water pressure Ii at any lime 1 and at a radial distance r is ob tained by the
so lution o f the differen tial equation c...

U .. o±", - 22Uda ) Uo (a,.{r,.,) /.4 u~ ,h,)

"'1,<1.2- ... o[n lIo(nn) - V I (a )1
where .'1 .. R/ rw nod
V I (a) .. J 1 (a) Yo (a ) - YI (a) 10 (a)
Uo (an) .. l o(an ) Yo (a) - Yo (an) J ll (a)

:mJ Vo(ur/r...) .. 1 0 (a r / r ...) Yo (a) - Yo (.z) 10 (a)

•·vt-crc J u = Besse r function of firsr kind of zero order.

1 I = Besse l function of first kind of first order.
TO = Bessel function of second kind of zero order.
Y; = Besse l function of seco nd kind of first order.
•;,,~ a l . « 2 . . arc roots of Bessel function which sat isfy the equation
1 j (an) Yo (a) - Y I (an) J o (a) .. 0
Abo T, .. C..... t/ (2 R )2
k, kJ.
c, .. n1 _ Y..... 111,. 1..' .
i ~ ,. hie:1 ..to\- i...coefficient of permeabi l it y in horizonta l direction.
1:1l" average pore water pressure u"" throughout the soil mass may be written as

"'vi (0.) eH u· ..7,)

oN
.u - u~,.~ ... 0.2 ( n'- _ I) [n2 lPo(OJJ) _ v~(o.)]
The avera ge degree of radial conso lida lion U, a m be delennincd from the equation

U, - I-~ .. .(12.72)
u,
Fig. 12.28 shows the variation of V, with the time factor T, by dotted lines for different values of II,
where 11 - Rlr...
(2) Equal Strain Case. This c.1SC occurs when the surcharge applied is rigid, such as heavy steel plates.
In this case. the settlements are uniform, but the distribution of pressure is non-uniform . The problem was
solved by Berroo, who gave the expression for execss pore water pressure ii as

-u 4"_
- (2R)2 F (n)
(?-.:.)]
[11' tog, (r l r ...) - - -
2- ... (12.73)

2
where F(II) _ ~ I~.I _ (3n ~
n - I 4"
u"" = average value of pore water pressure thro ughout ou r the emban kment

lI av - ii; e ;" in which J... _ ;.~~)

 CONSOUDATION OF SOILS 293

The average degree of consolidation in radial direction is given by

U, _ 1 _ t!~T,IF("J) • . .(12.74)
Fig. 12.28 shows the variation of U, with T. by firm lines for 3 va lues of n.

rr ( EQU'J l s tra in can)

Ur l% ) n =';

'0 0.0" 0.0" 0Jll9

10
)0
0.016
0.0"
."',
0.070
OJl8'
0.1)1
'0 0·060 0.10 1 0.188
'0 0.081 0.131 0.2';';
'0 0.101 0.180 0.331
70 0 .1)7 0.23 1 0.1031
80 0 .18S 0..311 0 .';9 2
90 0.270 0 .4';'5 0.8 47
ss 0.3 ';1 0.';90 1.102
; I.()
" ()..';)9 0-90 7 1.69)

5
'0

Fig. 12.28. Variation of U. which T, .

It may be observed thai the curves for free strain and equal strain are not much differe nt and they give
awroximately the same results. Equal strains case is generally preferred as it is more conve nient. Fig. 12.28
also gives the value of T. in a tabular form for the equa l strai n case.
Effect of Sm ear Zone . A smear zone is form ed aro und a sand d rain due to the rcmouldin ing of clay
caused during its construction.A decrease in the coefficient of permeeotliry in the radial direction occurs due
to ltmoolding. Barron extended the analysis of the equal-strain case taking into accoun t the effect of smear zone.
The analysis is based o n the ass umpti on thai the clay in the smear zone has ze ro
excess pore water press ure on the inner bo undary and the time-depe ndent excess pore
wser pressure on the outer boundary. Fig. 12.29 shows a cross-section through a sand
s. drain having a smear zone. The radial distance from the centre line of the drain well
6 10the fan hest point on the smear zone is equal to the radius of smear zone r,.
The excess pore water pressure Ii in this C<1SC in given by
I) -u • ;; 2"F'
1 u.... [ tog, (r/R) - (1'-1;) + k;
•• (~)
n 2 jog, B 1 ...(12.75)

where kh = coefficie nt of permeabilit y of the soil in horizontal direction

i, = coefficient of permeability of smear zone,
B = r,lr.... and n _ Rlr... where R = radius of influence

/II • .'
~o'
n -
log"
4
0' '"(.'-0' )
(nIB ) - -3 + 2
4n
+ T
~.
-
n
-, - log" B
Fig. 12.29. Sm~r 7.00£
 SOIL M ECHAN ICS A ND FOUNDATI ON ENG INEERl1'IG

.nd II ", . _ U;t" -(ST,Im )

The average degree of consolidation is given by

U, _ I _ ~ _ I _ e - {8T, lm j
... (12.76)
The solution s for values of III are also availab le in the form of curve s for diffe rent values of kl,lk, and B
and n. It may be noted that for no smear zone . B = 1.0 and the results of equal -strain case apply.
The net effect of the smear 1.one on the conso lidation is that the influence area o f the drain is reduced.
As an approximation. the effect of smear zone is sometimes reken indirectl y into account by reducing tbt
radius 'of influence R 10 05 R.
The following poin ts regard ing sand drains may be noted .
(I) Seco ndary consolidation is not taken into account in the design o f sa nd drains. In faa. the san;!
drains are ine ffective in controlling the secondary consolidation for highl y plastic and organic soils.
(2) Sand drains tend to act ns weak piles and red uce the stresses in the clay. Consequently, the execs
pore water pressu re developed is generally less as compared with that in the case when there arc 00
sa nd drains. This factor is not taken into account in equation given above.
(3) The typica l design parame ters for the sand drains arc as under :
(a) Radius of sand drains well, r .. "" 0.2 to 0.3 m
(b) Spac ing of sand drains, S '" 2 to 5 m
(c) Depth of sand drains. 2H = J (Q 35 m
_ (d) Th ickness of sand blanke t = 0.6 to I m.

12.21. EFFECT OF LATERAL STRAINS O N CO NSO Ll IlATI O N

In field , the condit ion o f zero lateral strain as assumed in Terzagtit's conso lidation theory is not satisflec
The initial excess pore water pressur e (u,) is. therefore, not equal to the increase in the vert ical st ress
ass umed in on e- di mensional conso lidat ion.
Skem pton and Bjernun developed a semi-empirical method of calcula ting settlement. taking into
the effect of lateral strai n. The final settlement is expressed by them as
Sf - IJ.s....J •• .(12.
where Soo/ is the final settlement based on the" assumption of no lateral st rain using one -dim ensi
consolidation theory, as explained in Sec. 12.14. The correction factor IJ. is given by

( III" A0 1{A + ::~ (I -,A)}dz

" • . ..(12.1
J:.o m" Aojdz
where A is the pore pressure coefficien t as d iscussed in.5h<lpter 13.
If m~ and A arc assumed 10 be constant. Eq. 12.78 reduces to
IJ. ,., A + (1 - A ) a ...(12.
11
6 0 3 dz
where a __0_ _

r..
o
AO l dz

The value o f a depend" upon the shape or the loaded area and the thick ness D of the clay stratum
relation to the dimension of the loa(Jed area. II cun be calculated using the theory of elast icity. lbe value
a for the circular and str ip fIM)\ inh" arc given in 'Iuble 12.4.
- ...-
G
CONSOUDATION OF SOILS ,.5
Table 12.4. Values or (."Ot"ffid e nl u

DIB 0.0 0.25 050 1.0 2.0 4.0 10.0 ee

a
6) (circular footing) 1.0 0.67 050 0_'" 0 .30 0.28 0.26 0.25

B a
(wip footing) 1.0 0.80 0.63 053 0.45 0.40 0-'6 0.25

Note : (1) B is equal 10 the widlh of strip footing or diameter of the circular footing.
the (2) For square footings, use the values of a for the circular footing of the same area.
The values of the pore pressure rocfficicn l A depend upon the type of the clay.
The typical values of the correction factor !.A. are g iven in Tatl1c 12.5. Fig. 12.30 gives the valu es of j.l for
nd
dillcrem values of A and Di ll ratio, where D is the thickness of soil layer.
its.
Thble 12.5. Values of It.
no
Type of Soil
Heavily ever-consolidatedday "
0.25 to 0.4
Moderately cverconsolidered clay 0.4 to 0.7
Normally consolidated clay 0.61 01 .00
Soft, sensitive clay 1.0 to 1.20

C2

fled. ~
as
"
unt
ot~~lj._~ ~~
1o.M~~
t7"
.77)
'ana l 6p-- ~~W ~/.
f

'·'V
/ ff - - Cl r cu laT

-- - - St rlp -
2.78)
o.a

0 ~, o., A __ o.e 0·' ' .0 ,.,

2.7 9)
II' g;~liOOted I==:~t~
L Hftlvily _ consolidated
r;;r.liwl
Fig . 12.30. Plol (Of VlIlue oC}lo.
ILL USTRATI VE EXAMPLES
arn m
th~ clay layer shown in Fig . E 12.1 due to
Illustrative Exa mple 12.1. Calculo.te the fina l settlement o[
lue of 1 J
an increase o[ pressure 0[30 kNlm at mid-height o[ the layer. Take y..... 10001m •
296 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Sand
1:10 kN / m)
T
40 m

h
Cloy
- -- - - - - - ~- --- -- ---
18 k N/m3
Cc~O . 22

~o= 1.)0
t
2.':im

1
Fig. E 12.1
Also calculate the settlement when the water table rises to tJ~ ground surface.
Solution. Initial pressure at the centre of the clay layer.
2•
00"" 4 JC 20 + 1.25 x 18 "" 1025 kN/m

From Eq. 125 8, Sf. ~

1 + Co
· /10 10810 (00 ~0060)
"" ~ 250 1 ( 102.5 + 30.0)
1 + 1.30 )C agiO 1025

"" 0.0263 m "" 2.63 an

When lhe water table rises to lhe ground surface.
2
00"" 4 x (20 - 10) + 1.25 )( (18 - 10) "" 50 kN /m

0.22 . ( 50 + 30 )
Therefore, Sf "" 1 + 1.30 x 2.501og lO ~

"" 0.0488 m "" 4.88 em

As expected, the settlement increases due to the rise of the water table.
ill ust ra tive Exa mp le 12.2. A footing has a size of 3.0 nr by 1.50 m and it causes a pressure increment
0/ 200 IeNlm' QI its base (Fig. E 12.2). Dete rmine the consolidation settlement at the middle of the clay layer.
~:s:m;o 2~/:Il~ressure distribution and consider /he variation of pressure across the depth. of the clay layer.

''''~'<'''''''''''''»> ~
f-,.' m-! T
' : 16- 0 kN/m
1
:g L
i'~1: 18 .0kN/ITlJ 0f·sm

C L AY
_ 0 ' _ '

r: 1 5 ~ N l m3
.

lib=0·80
Ce:(). 30
_ ' _

L
3m

Fig. E J2.Z.
Solution. lnitial pressure at the centre or the clay layer,
00 _ 2.5 x 16 + 0.5 (18 - 10) + 1.5 x (15 - 10.0) • 51.5 kN /m 1
'0 CONSOU DATION OF SOILS 297

The pressure increase at the top, middle and the bottom of the clay layer are found as follows (Eq.
11.60).

(Ii 0), • (3.~cx:. ;.O\\~.51.:0i.o) - 51.4kN/m 2

(Ii cr)m • (3.;~ ;5\\~.51.:0;.5) -27.7 kN/m

2

(liD)". (3.~ ;.o\\~}:O~.O) - 17.3kN/m 2

The average pressure can be found from the following equat ion (Simpson's rule).

a 0 • i; [(a o), + 4 (ao). + (a 0),]

Ii (I' - ~. [5 1.4 + 4)C 27.7 + 17.3] _ 29.9 kN/m 2

'
Thererore, from Eq. 1258,
. sf - 1 0.30
+ 0.80 x 30
. 1agIO ( ~
51.5 + 29.9)

sf • 0.09941 m - 99.41 81m

1:
kNl,,~;I:I:t:~:U~;::rJ~,7n~' ~/f:::;';e~£e~'~~ti~e t::C~na;::as~ina;r~:::::~ :;~~u~;l:e;~;emtJz~
of the ckiy layer. The clay is over-consolidated, with a preconsolidatlon pressure of 75 kN11II1. The values oJ
the coefficients of recompression. and compression index are 0.05 and 0.25, respectively. Take initial void ratio
as 1.40.
Soluti on. From Eq. 12.60,

a (lNlm1 80 160 szo 640 1280

1.35 1.28 1.14 0.% 0.78

Plot e -clog Ii curve: If the initial overburde n pressure is 150 kNlm 2, draw the {leld consolidation line and
hence determine the coefficient of compression.
(b) If the thicknes s of the clay layer in the field is 4 m WId the increase in the press ure due to loadin g
is 50 kNlm 2, compute the settlement.
Solution. Fig . E 12.4 shows the required plot The field consolidation line is d rawn between the point
(000 eo) and the point D where the plot cuts the horizontal line through e = 0.40 eo = 0.4 x 1.55 = 0.62.

From the figure , c, - logl~(~:/Ol) - 10~::~1~iS:oo) - 0.844

From Eq. 12.58, Sf - 1 ~t eo Ho 10810 (0 ~o A(j)
0
 SOIL MECHAN ICS AN D FOUND ATIO N ENGI NEFRING
298

isc
'0 "0. 1.') '; ---- - ----- -- - "\
, "
I

,
<,
<,
'r
I

'
F ;f!ld COn 50 Iid o t ,o n " n"
.
"0
,:'- -, ,
\,
.20
,, ,
I' .'0
,
,, \ I

\
\
"
I
I
00

I,
lloborot:>fyc:urve
.~I I
\
90
, ,
I
I~
I
.0 ,,

'"
I
I
,
I
\ '\
., '0
0 6<> ~
- --- --- --- --- -L - -- -- 0
20 '0 co 1":>0 200 900 '000

Fig. E 12.4

0.844 ( ISO ... 50 )

.. 1 ... 155)( 4.0 loglO ~

.. 0.1654 m .. 165.4 mm
. illustrative Example 12.5. A clay stratum 5 nr thick has the initial void ratio of 1.50 and the effective
l
overburden pressure of 120 leN/m l . When the sample is subjected to an increase of pres.mre of 120 leN/m , the
void rauo reduces lO 1.44. Determine the coefficien t of the volume compressib ility and the final senlement of
the stratum.
-Ae/(l+ eo)
Soluti on From Eq. 12.14, m~ .. ~

m~ .. (1.50 - l.~i~(l .. 1.50) .. 2 x 10.... m2/ kN

From Eq. 12.54, sf" m~ .6. 0 Jlo

Sf .. 2 )( l~ )( 120 )( 5 )( 1& mm .. 120 mm
CONSOUDATION O F SOILS 299

Illustrative Example 12.6. Determine the coefficient of consolidation of soil whose test data is plotted in
Fig. E 12.6. The sample was 2.0 em thick and had doub le drainag e:

20o Ro ~ 200
I I
Re ,, 185 1

t "o~~~"'-
19
IB RSO"ll l,

.
Re _R 100,,"*-(Rc-R9Q )
~
~
0
~ = ~ (l 8 ,) _ lt l, ) : 1 9
" 0
"<; ' R100 " 185 _ 19 ,,106

0
'-:.' ,1
~"
C 13
6
11o RgO "lIlo
I -:- -, f---
:~-:=---[--- : --- ------ -
~
1
I --- e - , -
~l..":..:...

100
0 I 2
1.150
3 ,
[I-
t in minutn Fig. E12.6 .
Solution . The construction lines are shown dotted.
From the figure , ..rt;; - 6.55 or too - 42.90 minutes
From r:c. 12.47, O.848l'i 0.848 x (1.0)2 00198 1/ .
...... cv"' ----';;;;;--- ' 42.90 - . cmmm.
Illustratlve Example 12.7. Determine the coefficient of consolidation of a soil whose data is plotted in
Fig. E 12.7 The sample was 20 mm thick and had double drainage
'00
91R£..:"'1 9 1_ ~ ~~ 0,, ').')
14. ,.,., IIII111
"- 1,,0·20

"~ R,-R 50 "-T <Re-R100)

rs0
-, ,, 1- (191 -79),, '56

0 1'1 " 191_ 56 ,,13';

50
R_':£.,,~';
- -- --- -- I
0 ,
I
I
I r\
,I
,I ~\
~ ~1!!9:.'f- -
60
0.' 2 3 lo S6189l.l)
---

Fig. E 12.7.
,
,
I

3 lo log~IO
1 in
--- -

mi"lJt ~5

'09 ' - -
!
c t 678
--
eo
I--
2 3 ," eoo
300 son. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Sol utio n. The construction lines ore shown in Fig. E 12.7. R 100 is obtained from the intersect ion of the
two straight lines drawn. The point 50% consolidation (R~) and the corresponclng (yoare determined.

Rf - Rso • ~ (Re - R 1oo)

In this c<1SC. Rc • 191, R lOo • 79

Therefore, R,. - R. - t (R. - R,oo) • 191 - t 0 91 - 79) • 135

From the plot, 10810 '50 - O.5S
l !>(j _ 3.802 minutes :: 288.12 s

From Eq. 12.49, c, • O.l96J2 • 0.196 x (0)2 • 0.D86 rnm2/scc

'so 228. 12
Illustrative Example 12.8. A 3 m thick c lay layer benetJlh a building is overlain by a permeable stratum
and is underlain by an impervi ous rock: The roelflCienl 0/ consol idation of the clay was found to be 0.025
cnllminute. The fmal expected settlement for the layer is 8 em. (a) How much time will it take for 80% of
the total settlement to take place ? (c) Determine the time required for a settlement of 2.5 em /0 occur. (d)
Compu te the settlement that would occur in one year.
Solul lon. (a) Length of drainage pam. d = 3 m = 300 an.
From Bq, 1235. C" .. T~tf/t
Substituting the values, 0.025 .. T~(300)2/t or t .. 3.6 X 106 T" .•.(a)
From Thble 12.3, when U .. 80%, T,," 0.567
The refore, from Eq. (a), t .. 3.6 lIl; Icf x 0.567 .. 2.041 x l cf minutes .. 3.883 years.

(b) when the settlement is 2.5 em, U .. H x 100 .. 31.25% .

From Table 12.3. when U = 3 1.25%, T" .. 0.078

Therefore , from Eq. (a), t .. 3.6 x l cf x 0.078 .. 0.2808 x 1(f minutes - 195 days
(e) From Eq. (a), 1 x 365 x 24 x 60 .. 3.6 x I£f' T" or T" . 0.146
From Table 12.3, when Tv = 0.146, U = 0.429 .
The refore, set tlement = 0.4 29 x 8 "" 3.432 an
Itt ust re n ve Example 12.9. A clay layer 4 m thick has a fina l settlement of 6.0 em. 'The layer has double
drainage. If the coefficient of consolidation is 0.02 an 1/minute, determine the time required for different
percentages of consolidation from 10% upto 90% and hence p lot the time-settlement curve.
So lution. From Eq. 12.35, T,," C"t/tf
T. - 0.02 x 1/(200)' or I. 2 x Ill' T.
2 lIl; l etT"
If time is taken in years, t - 60 x 24 x 365 .. 3.805 Tv
The calcu lations are given in the tabula r from below for U of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90% and
the corres ponding T. ob tained from Table 12.3.
1be settlements are caku1at oo from the values of U and the fmal settlement (s/) Leo s .. U x sl or $ .. 6U
U~ W W ~ ~ W W N M 00
Tv 0.008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.196 0.287 0.403 0.567 0.848
I ~,) O.m o 0.118 0.270 0.479 0.146 0 .092 1.533 2157 3.227
s~ M 12 IB U 3~ 3~ 4.2 4B 5A
 '01
CONSOU DATION OF SOJI-"i 2 J 456789
2 J 4 5 6 789 2 J 4 56 "/8°
o.0
t--
.0 r--
t--....
.0

.0
~
.0
1'\
0
r.-
0

9·0

0.10 1.0 10
0.01
Time (years) ---.-
Fig. E·12.9.

Fig. E. 12.9 shows the seulemcm-log r curve.

lIIustl'l:Iotivt' Exa mple 12.10. An area is IInderlo;n by a stratum of clay layer 6 III thick. The layer i,1
1
doubly dm mc d and has the coefficient nf con.f olidat;OII of 0.3m Imonth.
(a ) How long would it take lor a surcha rge load to cause a setdeme ,u of 40 em if the same load causes
final seute mcm of 60 em ?
II
"(b) If the sand drains (5 = 3 111 and Tw = 0.30) m e /lsed, determin e the time required {t)r 90%
consolidation. Toke C'T ::: 2.0 m2/month. Assume the triangular tayout of drains. Neg lect vertica l consolidat ion
in this case.
Solution. (a) U .. 40/60 .. 0.6667 Le, 66.67%
From Table 123. for U .. 66.67%. Tv" 0.364
From Eq. 12.35. c,. .. 1~, Jl/t
or t • 03 64 x (3)'2/ 0.30 .. 10.92 months.
(b) For triangular layout of drains, R .. 0.525 x S
or R.0.525x3-1.575m
n .. Rlr.." • 15 7510.30. 5.25
U, .. 90% and n .. 5.25, we have T,';' 02 70
From Fig. 12.28, for
1
From Eq. 12.69, T, .. C, .. t14 R

0.270 - ~
4 )( (1.575)1
or t .. 1.34 months.
 SOiL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Illu..strat lve Exampl e 12.11. The laboratory consolidation data fo r an undisturbed clay samp le are as
2 2
follows. e t - 1.00. 01 - 85 kN/m • and e2 - 0.80. 02 - 465 kN/m •
Determ ine the void ratio for a pressure 0] of 600 kNIIIl .

Solution.

Now c, - log~:(o:JoI) - 109:\~;85)

0.271 _ 1.~~9 e) or es _ 0.77

lllustratlve Exampl e 12.12. A clay layer 4 m thick is subjected to a pressure of 55 kNlm1• If the layer
has a doubl e draina ge and undergoes 50 % consolidation in one year, det ermine the coefficie nt of
consolidation. Take T~ _ 0.196.
If the coefficient of per meability is 0.020 IIl/yr, dete rmine the settlement in one ycar and rate of flow of
water per unit orca in one year.
Soluti on. c. _ T. h I _ 0.196 x (2.0)'/(1)
c~ _ 0.784 m2/yr

From Eq. 12.29.

m .. .s.: .. 0.020 )( HXll
~ c, Yw 0.7&4)( 1000 x 9.8 1
_ 2.60 )( 10-3 m2/ kN
s, - m~ Il o 60 - 2.60 )( 10-) )( 4 )( 55 • 0.572 m
Sculemenr after one year - 05 )( 0572 - 0.286 m.
Settl ement ra te Since U is proportional 10"fi for U < 0.60. the settlement (s) is also proportional to
t/i. Thus
S2 oct or t _ ci
When t = 1 year. s =0.286 m. Therefore.
I
C • (0.286)' • 12.226

Thus t - 12.226 ;:

~ - 2)( 1~.226 s • 24.:52S - O.I43m/y r

Discharge per unit area per surface _ 0.143/ 2 _ 0.072 m3/yr/m 2

PROBLEMS

A. Numerica l
12.1. A sa turated so il stratum 4 m lhick lies above lin impervious stratum and below II pervious stratum. It has a void
ratio of 150 at an initial pressure of ISO kN/m2.
2
(.) Com pute the change in vo id ratio due to to an increase oCstress of 50 kN1m . Take C c '" 0 .20.
(u) Also compete the final seulement of lhe soil suarum d ue 10 above increase in stress.
(iii) What woul d be the lime required for SO percent consolldeuon ? Take Tv '" 0 .20 and k '" 3.0 )( 10.....cmIsec.
[Ans, 0 .025; 4 an; 34.18 minutes)
12.2. In a laboratory, the consoIidntion test was performed on a speci men of clay 3 an thick . Th e sample was drained
CONSOUDATION OF SOILS 303

lit top and bottom . Th e time required for 50% consolidation of the sample WIIS observed to be 15 minut es .
Determine the coe fficie nt of consolidation of clay.
Calc ulate time required for 50% lind 90% consolidation for this clay deposit in the field 3 m thick and
drained at bo th ends. [Aos. 4.93 )( 10~ em1lsec; 104.17 days; 450.69 days]
12.3. There is a layer of soft clay 4 m thick under II newly constructed building. The overburden pressure over the
2
centre o f the clay layer is 300 kN/m . Compute the settlement if there is an increase in pressu re due to
2
construction of 100 kN/m . Take C~ '" 0.50, G '" 2 .70. The w ater content of the deposit was found to he 50%.
[Ans . 10 .63 em]
2
12.4. In II consolidation test, an increase of 100 kN/m in the vertical pres.<;ure was applied to 1Isaturated c lay sample
initially 2.5 em thick . The thickness of the sample reduced to 246 em after 24 hours. The sampl e was thcn
relieved of jlressure and allowed to take up wate r, The final thickness was 2.465 cm and the mois ture content
was 30% . Assumi ng that the sampl e was saturated throughout the test, calculate the following :
(l) the initia l void ratio. (fake G '" 2.68 )
(ii) the void reno after consotldatlo n .
(iil) the void ratio alter expansion
(i v) the coefficient of compre ssibi lity. [Ans. 0.83, O.RO, 0.804, 1.6 )( 10--4 m2/kN}
12.5. In a consolidation test on II soil , the void ratio of the sample decreased from 1.25 to 1.10 when the pressure is
2.
increased from 200 kN/m 2 to 400 kN/m Calculate the coefficient of consolidation if the coefficient of
2/yearj
permeabili ty is 8 )( 10....'1 em/se c. [Ans. 7.55 m
12.6. The time required to reach 60% consoli dation for a sample I em thick rested in consolidomcrcrunder conditions
of double drainag e was found to be 35 seconds . Determine Ihe time required for a layer 10 m thick to reach the
8
S:::JfTIe degree o f consolidation, if it has drainage only on one side . [Ans . 1.4 x 10 seconds ]
12.7. A clay stratum 2.5 m thick lies over a sandy s tratum and has drainage on both sides . Calcclat c the valu es of thc
pore. water pressure and the effectiv e stress at the middle of the cla y stratum when 60% o f consolid ation has
2 2: 2
taken place under an increment of land from 500 to 2..';00 kN1m . [An s. 800 kN/m 1700 kN/m }
2
12.8. In II con solida tion test, a fully saturat ed clay su mplg was subjected to a load of 500 kN/m . After 12 hours, the
2
averag e pore pressure was found to be 200 kN/m . Find out the time required for 50% consolidation to take
place . Assume T~ _ (Jt/4) cr. [Ans. 8.33 hours]
12.9. There is clay layer 8 m thick with II layer of sand on
either side. An undistu rbed S3mple 2.5 cm thick of
the clay when tested in the laboratory required 2..';
minutes to reach 50% conson caucn (T~ '" 0.20) . 11 is
"
proposed 10 construct II building at the above site.
Estimate the time required foc90% consolidation to take
place. (T~ '" 0.85). (Ans. 7555.6 days]
12.10. Fig'-P .12.1O shows II bore hole log obtained during
sub-surface exploration. There lire two layers of clay
of thickness 2 m each, located 6 m and 15 m below Fig. P 1210.
the grou nd surface . The bulk densities of sand and
clay were found to be 2.0 gm/ml and 1.82 gm/ml, respectively. Compute the total settlement of each clay layer
2
under II uniformly distributed load of 400 kN/m spread over II large area on ground surface . C~ '" 0040. eo =
1.08. [Ans. 32 .45 an, 21.57 em. total '" 54.02 em}

--.========"" :Em
SILT

~~ T.,0.15m
m
t
Fig. P-12.11.
12.U. A 6 m thick fine silt stratum IC~ .. 7.2 )( 10- 3 cm 2/secj underlies II coarsesand deposit and overlies II 0.15 em
 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

2/sec).
thick fine sand layer under which mere is a clay stratum 3 m thick (Fig. P.12.1I l (c v " 9 x I O~~ cm
A perviour.. stratum lies below the clay layer. When the clay layer reac hes a degree of COl\$oIidalion of 20%,
= =
.....h:ll would he the degree of consolidation of the sill layer '! (T.. 0.03 for 20% U and U '" 82% for Tv 0.6).
IAns.82%]
I:!.J :!. ,\ ,;Iil} layer of 10 m Ihickne~
underlies a sand snaiu m of 10 m and ove rlies a pervious layer. 1lJe sand layer
2
cnr:c, :J point load of 10 M N, Assume (' = 0.70, and G '" 2.72, Lt .. '" 60% and c" _ 25 x 10-4 an 1sec. Th e
wa ter table is located 5 m above the top o f the clay layer. Find how long would the c lay take 10 setue 4.7 em.
[An .. 36_'iS hours)
U.I3. A 15 m lhic\c: hydraulically. isotropic clay stratum overlies an impervious snarum. If the coefficient of
2
con.o;oI idation is 5 x 10--4cm /sec, find lhe time required for 50% and 90% oonsoIidation (T.. '" 0 .20 a.nd 0.85,
re.<'pcetively).
(ii) In order 10 accelerate the rate of scnternem. vertical sand drains of I m diameter were installed at 5 m centre
10 cen tre. Ca lculate how much the settle ment is accelerated due 10 provision of sand d rains. For n '" 5, T, '"
8
0.081 for U. '" 50"J{, and 1" '" 0 .27 for UT '" 90% . [Anll. 9.0 x 10' seconds ; 38 .25 x 10 seconds.
(il) 0.405 x 10' seconds ; 1.35 x 108 seronds)

n . Descripti ve a nd Obj ecuv e type

lZ .14. Desc ribe the wnsolidomeler lest. Show hrw,' the results of this lest are used to predict Ihe rate of setuement and
the magnitude or
scmcmem.
12.15. Deline the following terms :
(;) C.oeffidcnl o f oomprcssibi lity. (ii) Coefficien l of volume change .
(iii) Compres.sion index. (i") Expans ion index
( v) Recomp ression index.
l2 .16 . DI~!'s the spring analogy for primary consolida tion. Whal are its uses ?
12.17. Differemlnre between primary consolidation and secondary co nsolidmion.
12.18. Dlffcrentlare betwee n normally consolidated and the overconsottdat ec so ils. How wou ld you determi ne the
ovcrconsofidcuon press ure ?
12.19. ni<;C\I~" Tcreaghi's theory o t consolida tion, staling the various assumpcions and their validity.
12.20. w hat i~ the cocfflcicm of coesonoauo n '! Whal is us usc in the seutemem analysis ? How is it delermined 1
H .21_ What is the time factor '! 1I0w is il related to lhe average degree of w nsolida lion ?
12.22. Discuss the limitatio ns of 'lerzag hi's theory of consolidation . Why is lheor y used de spite irs Hmitations ?
12.23. What are different causes of preco nsolidatio n in soils? Whal is lhe effect of precorsottcauon on the settleme nt?
12.24. How would you detennine the nme-senterrenr curve in the field?
12.25. What is field oonsoIid<ltioo curve? lIow is it obtained ?
11.26 . Explain the phenomenon of secondary consoIida lion. Differenliate betwee n the' secondary consolidation index
and the coefficie nt of secondary consolidm ion.
11.17. Explain the theory of 3-dimens ional conso lidation. what is its practical use ?
12.28. Describe sand drains. How arc these designe d? Discuss thei r uses. W/'lal is the effect o f smear ?
11.29. Discuss Skemproe-Bjerrum 's theory for calculating ser.demenl. laking Into account the effect of lateral strains.
12.30 . Write whether the following SUllemenlS are coree.
(a) When Ihe soi l is fully saturated, the conpres..ion occu rs mainly d ue to rompression of wa ter.
(b) The initial consoli dation of II fully saturated soil is zero.
(e) The seco ndary consolidation is ncgliblc in organic soils.
(d) 1be friction in the fixed ring cell is more man Ihat in the n<><lling-ring cell.
(eo) The height of solids method for lhe determ inalion of void ratio cannot be used for partially saturated soils.
ff) The compression index of normally consoIidaled soils is constant.
(g) The expansion index and the recompression index ale apprc xlmately equal.
(II) The coefflciem of consolidatio n varies with the c hange in press ure.
(i) 'Ihe time taken for a half-closed layer 10 attain a particular degree of co nsondauon is twice C1f that for an
equiva lent open layer.
CONSOUDATION OF SOILS lOS

(j) Th e field conso lidation curve is genenilly steeper than the laboratory curve.
(J:) 'The act ual sett lement is alway s greater than that given by Tc:rzaghi's theor; if Ialeral strains occu r.
(AL" True, (b), (d), (fl, (g), (h), WI
C. Multiple Choice Questions
1. The cneffJcient of co mpressib ility is the ratio of
(0) Chan ge in void ratio 10 change in effective stress
(h) Volumelri c strain to change in e ffective stress.
(e) Change in thicknes s to change in effective stress.
(d) Stres s to strain.
2. With an Increase in the liquid limit, compression index.
(0) dec reases ( b ) Incre ases
(e) remain con stant (d) may increa se or decrease
3. The n::com pressio n inde x is ahout _ . o f the compression index
(a ) .s rimes ( b ) 1/5
(e) 1/2 (J) 1/20
4. Whe n conwlidation of a saturated soi l sa mple occurs. the degree
of saturat ion
(a) increases fh) decrease s
(e) remains co nstan t (d) may mcrease or decrease
5. Co nso lidation time of a soil sample
(a) increases with an increase J!'."OTIC-abillty.
(b ) increases w ith a decreases i'l compressibilny.
Ie) increases with a decrease in unit weight of warcr,
(d) inc reases with a decre ase in permeability .
6, The ultimate settle ment of a ~(l i l deposit increases with
(a) an increase 111 the compr ession Index.
(h ) an increusc in the initinl void nuio
(c) a decrease in thickness of the stratu m.
(d) an increase In lin~.
7. Under load, lho:: void ratio " I' a submerged . saturated clay decreases from 1.0100.92. Th e u llimate semeroem of
a laye r 2m Ihick la yer will be
la) 2.0 em (hI 4.0 ern
(c) 8.0 ern td) 16.0 em
1
8. A normally consolidated day layer senles 2 cm when the effec tive stress il> increased from 80 to 160 kNlm .
2
When the effective stress is funher increased to 320 kN/m , the further seulemenl will be
~2 c m W 4cm
~ I crn (d)8em
2
9. A fully satura ted clay speci men is subjected 10 a pressure of 200 kN/m in the cc nsclid arion test, Arler a period
1
of time when the average po re pressure is 60 kN /m , the degree of consolidation is
(a) 60 {b>70
(c) 30 (d) 50
[A~I . ~ ) , l~ 3 .~4 . ~ ,S .(~6.W ,7 .~ ,8 .~ ~~~
 13
Shear Strength

13.1. INTRODUCTION
The shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance 10 shearstresses just befo re the failure. So ils are
seldom subjeaed to direa shear. However, the shear stresses develop when the soil is subjected to direct
rompression. Althou gh shea r stresses may also develop when the soil is subjected to direct tension , but these
shear stresses are not relevant, as the soil in this case fails in tension and does. not fail in srear. In field. soils
are seldom subjected to tension, as it causes opening of the creeks and fissures. These cracks are not only
undesirable, bUI are also detrime ntal 10 the stabi lity of the soil masses. Thus. the shear fa ilure of a so il mass
occurs when the shea r stresses induced due 10 the applied compressive loads e xceed the shea r streng th of the
soil. It may be noted that the failure in soil occurs by relative movements of the particles a nd not by breaking
of the particles.
Shear strength is the principa l e ngineeri ng property which controls the stability of a so il mass under
loads. It governs the bea ring capacity of soils. the stability of slopes in soils . the earth pressure aga inst
retaining structures and many other problems . as expla ined in later chapt ers. All the problem s of soil
engineering are related in one way or the other with the shea r strength of the so il. Unfortuna tely, the shear
strength is one of the most complex eng ineering properties of the soil. The current research is giving new
conceptsand theories . This chapt er presents the bas ic conce pts and the accepted theo ries of the shear strength.
13.2. STRESS-SYSTEM wrrn PRINCIPAL PlANES PARALLEL TO TIlE COORDINATI: AXES
In generaL a soil mass is slbjected 10 a three--dimensional stress system . How ever. in many soil
engineering problems., the stresses in the third direction are rot relevant and the stress system is sim plified es
two-dimensional. TIle plane strain conditions are generally assumed . in wh ich the strai n in the third
(longitudinal) direction is zero . Such condi tions exist . for example, under a strip footing of a loog retaining
wan.
At eve ry point in a stressed body. there are three planes on which the shear stresses are zero . These
planes are know n as principal planes. The plane with the maximum compress ive stress (01) is ca lled the
majo r principa l plane, and that with the minimum compressive (03) as the minor principa l plane. The third
principa l plane is subjected to a stress which has the value intermediate between 0 1 and 03 . and is known as
the intermediate principal plane . Generall y. the stresses on a plane perpendicular 10 the intermediate principa l
plane are required in the analys is. Therefore . the stresses on the intermed iate principal plane are not mudl
relevant. Only the major principal stress «(1 1) and the minor princi pal stress (Ol) are generally important .
In solid mechan ics, the tensile stresses are taken as positive. In soil engineering proble ms, tensile stresses
rarely occur. To avo id many negative signs. compressi ve stresses are taken as positive and the tensi le stresses
as negative in soil engineering.
Fig. 13.1 shows a plane which is perpendicular to the intermediate principal plane . The major and minor
principa l stresses act on this plane. The major principal plane is horizontal and the minor principal plane is
SHEAR STRENGllI

vertical. Let us consider plane AB which is incli ned at an angle 8 (measured

COW1ICrc1oc1cwise) to the major principal plane AC
Resolving the forces acting on the wedge ABC in the horizootal (x-directioo),
alBC .. a ABsin8-'tABcosB
where a = normal stress on AB, 't = shear stress on AB.
In above expression, the length perpendicular to the plane of the paper has been <rj <F)
taken as unity, which is the ge nera l practice for two dimensional stress system. AI
The above equation can be simplified as L-.L,
Ol~.oSine-'t COS8 H
0) sine .. c sln B _ e cos a ...(a) Fig. 13.1.
likewise, reso lving the forces in the vertica l o-
direction).
AC- o ABoosB + 't AB sin S
01

.. o cos B + -r sin B
O J CO'> 9 ...(b)
Mulliplying Eq. (a) by cos e and Eq. (b) by sin e. and subtracting,
(01 - o) s in e ~ e .. q (cosBs in8 - ros9sinB) + 't (sin2 e + C062 0)
(0 1 - a3) sinBcosB .. 't

't .. t (OJ - 0l) sin 2 e ...(13.1)

Substituting the abov e value of 't in Eq. (a).

o)sin8 _ a sin e _ (o J ;03) sin28cos8

OJ- 0 - (0, - Clj) COS

2
e
0 " 03 + (01 - 03) (1 + C;S28)

0 " (01 ; 0) + (01 ; (3) ccs za ...(13.2)

Eqs. 13.1 and 13.2 give the stresses on the inclined plane AB, making an angle 8 (measured
counterclockwise) with the major principa l plane AC.
13.3. MO JIR'S CIRCLE
OUo Mohr, a German SCientist, devised a graphical method for the determina tion of stresses on a plane
inclined to the principa l planes . The grnphical construct ion is known as Mohr i' circle and is extremely useful.
In lhis me thod, an origi n 0 is selected and the normal stresses are plotted along horizontal axis and the shear
stresses on the ve rtical axis. As the compressive stresses are taken positive in soil engineerin g. these are
plotted towards the right of the origin , ie. along positive x-axis. The shear stress is gene rally taken as positive
if it causes a count erclockwise couple at a point inside the wedge ABC in Fig. 13.1. Thus the shear stress
marked on the plane AB is positive. The positi ve shear stresses are plotted upward from the origin. i e., along
positive y-exts. Let us craw the Moh r circle for the stresses shown in Fig. 13.1.
In Fig. 13.2, the point E represents the minor principal stress o J and the poin t F, the major principal
stress 0\. The point C is the middle point with the normal stress coordinate equal to (a, + 0))12. The circle
is drawn with C as the centre and EF as diameter. 1bc circle is known as Mohr 's circle. Each point on the
circle gives the stresses a and 'e on a particular plane. It can be shown that the point D on the circle gives
the stresses on the plane AB inclined at an angle a to the major principal plane . The line DE makes an angle
a with c-exis. Tbc angle IXF subte nded at the centre is obvious ly twice the angle DEC.
'00 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

From the figure , Oh .OC+CH

or OR • 01 ; °2 + (01 ; (3) cos 2 8 • (J

and DH .. CD sin28 .. 0\; °3 sin28 .. -r

Comparing the above equations with Eqs. 13.2 and 13.1, it is obvious that the coordinates of the point D
represent the stresses on the inclined plane AD in Fig. 13.1.
The point E is a unique point, which is known as the pole (P) or the origin of planes (OP). If a line is
drawn . from any point (say D) on the Mohr circle parallel to the plane ( s,,1Y. AlI) whose stresses are

ill
represented by that point, it will intersect the circle 31 the T
pole P. When the major principal plane is horizontal
(parallel to x-axis), the mmer princip al plane IS vertical I ~ Monor Pf,r-c ,pcl ptone
and the pole lies at the poin t E which indicates toe minor V ~
principal stress Once the pole h.1S been located. the : __- - - ~
stresses any other plane making an angle 0. with tnt: I _ ••- i -r-
major pnnctpal plane can be determined graphicall y by .-_""" ~- I
drawing a line through the pole and making an anale a 0 .-- P e 2£ I
with a-axis. The coordinates of the point obtained b;, {he
intersection of this line with thc circ le give the stresses
on that plane.
The line OD represents the magnit ude of the
resultant stress on the inclined plane AB. 111C ang le of
the obliquity of the resultant with the normal of the plane
An is equal to the angle 13. l'i~ , 13.2.
It may be mentioned that the equations developed in Sect. 13.2 and rho Mohr circle discusser in this
section are based on the princip les of mechanics .These arc valid for all materials irrespe ctive of thd e
stress-strain characteristics. The same relations arc also applicable in soli d mechanics.
13.4. STRESS ·SYSTEM wrrn PRIN CIPAL PLAN ES INCLINED TO T Il E COORDINATE AXIS
Fig. 133 (b) shows a stressed element in which the principal planes arc inclined to the coordina te axes.
In other words. the princ ipal planes are not vertical and horizontal. The stresse s on a plane inclined at an
e
angle to the major principal plane can be detcrmined using Eqs. 13.1 and 13.2 or using the Mohr circle, as

~
"J '
T

Minor ,do';,.' '100'· ':i

~

Major princip a l plon t

Fig. 13.3. Inclined Prindpal Planes.

 SHEAR STRENGTH 309

these relations are independent of the inclination of the principal planes. However. the orientation of the
principal planes is di fferent from that in Fig. 13.Z.
In Fig. 13.3 (a), the points E and F are located and the Mohr circle is drawn. as in Fig. 13.2. The pole
P is located by drawing a line EP from E parallel to minor principal plane Be or by drawing a line FP from
F parallel 10 the major principal plane AC. The stresses on the plane An inclined at an angle B to the major
principal plane can be determined by drawing a line PD through the pole P and parallel 10 AB. The
coordinates of point D give the stresses 0 and 'e 00 the plane AB. It may be noted that the line ED also
makes an angle a with c-ads.
13.5. IITJ<ESS.SYSrEM Willi VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PLANES NOT PRINCIPAL PLANES
Fig. 13.4 (0) shows an element ABC in which the vertical and horizontal planes BC and AC are subjected
to shear stresses in addition to Ihe normal stresses. lienee, these planes are not the principal planes. The
stresses 00 the plane AB inclined at an angle a 10 plane AC can be determined from the equilibrium of forces.
Resol ving the forces in .r-d irec tion (Fig; 13.4 (b)~

-,
incipc:;1
e t'

(bJ

CoJ
Fig. 13.4. Vel1irnl Planes not Principal Planes.
o AnsinB . O.rJJC + "t.ryAC + "tAB OOS 9
c sfn u » 0xsinB +"txy ccs Il e r cos B ...(aj
Resolving the forces in j-dirccnon,
oABrosB +"t ARsina • "t..,.DC + ayAC
c cos B + "tsinS. "t.rysinB + o,cosS
or ocos9. "t.rysinS + Oy cos 9 - 'r ain B ... (b)
Multiplying Eq. (0) by sin 8 and Eq. (b) by cos B and adding
28
o . oxsin2S + "t...,sinBros9 + r sin Bcos B + "txysin8 cos B + o,oos - r sin 8 cos 8

o . o.rsin2S + OyCOS
2 S + 2 't..". sin 8 cos S

o • 0.1' ( 1- ~2 B) + 0, (1 + C;S 2 9) + 't.rysin 2 8

0- ox; or + (Or;Ox) cos z B + "txysinZ8 . .. (13.3)

Eq. 13.3 gives the nonnal stress 0 on the plane AB.

310 son.MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEFRINO

SubstiM ing the above value of a in Eq. (a) and simplifying,

't .. ¥ sin 26 - 't:o:y cos 28 ••.(13.4)

Eq. 13.4 gives the stress 't on the plane AB.

Bq. 133 . can be written as.
o _ (0. ; 0, ) • (0,; oJ ccs z a +'",sin2B ...[ 13.3(a»)
Mohr's circle Squaring Eqs. 13.3 (a) and 13.4 aod adding we get

[of,;O')f +".[(0,;0,)' ca;'2B +~Sin'2B +2 (¥)ca;2 B '~ Sin 2B]

z
+[(0,; 0.) sin'2B + ~ ca;' 2B_ 2(0,; 0.) sin2 B(,,,,ca; 2B) 1

[ ( ~) ]' '("c...."!)"
0- 2 +'t .. 2 + "C;y ••.(135)

Eq. 13.5 is the ~uation of a circle whose centre has the coordinates [( ~
2 ) . 0 ] and whose radius

is l( ~) ' ]
2 + 'to,. • lbe coordinates of any point on the circle represent the norm al and shear stresses
(a , 't) on a particular plane . The circle is Mohr' s circle .
Construction of Mohr Circle
To draw the Mohr circle in this case, the noonal stresses O r and 0 , are marked as points Q and R
respectively on the c-ads [Fig . 13.4 (e)]. At point Q. a perpendicular QS is drawn. such lhat QS .. 't .."... The
shear stress 't>:y is positive on the plane Be as it causes a counterclockwise moment 31 a point inside the
wedge . Likewise. the perpendicular RT is equal (0 't..,.. However. this is negative because the shear stress on
the plane AC causes a clockw ise moment.

Point C is at the middle point of QR and has the coordinates [( ~

2 r:
) . 0 l . It also tics on the line
through point S and T. A circle is drawn with its centre at C and its radius equal to J. ( ~ )
... "( Z)' • The
2
,]
circle passes through points Sand T. Il may be noted that the point T in the ohr circle represents 'the
stresses on the plane AC and the point 50 on the plane BC. The line CD drawn at an angle of Z8 to the line
CT intersects the Mohr circle at D, Therefore. the point D gives the stresses on the inclined plane AB.
Principal Planes. As the principa l planes are the planes with zero shear stresses, from Eq. 13.4,

a• 0,. ; o~ sinZep _ 't:.y cos ze,.

Ian Z e,. - (O)'~~:r)12 .. .(13.6)

where Op is the angle which the principal plane makes with the plane AC in Fig . 13.4 (b). As the angle
subteoded at the centre is twice this angle. the line CU indicates one of the principal planes and the point U
represe nts the major principal stress. This can also be ~ed from the above value of tan Zer We have
 SHEAR srsasoru 311

Substituting these values of sin 26, and the cos 28, in Eq. 13.3,

o. ~. (-''L T''' ) (o,-oJ12

v'(¥l' .~
0", + 0 ,
or o-~:t

Therefore, the two principal stresses are as under.

0", + 0,
01 - ----y- + •••(13.7)

The point U gives the major principal stress (01)'

Minor principal stress, •. .(13.8)

The point V gives the minor principal stress (0)

AlsO, because lao 2 0, = tan , (20p + lSOO), the second principal plane is indicated by the line cv.
13 ~. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF MOHR'S CmCLE
The following important characteristics of Mohr's circle should be carefully noted. as these are required
forfurther study.
(I) The maximum shear stress ''t m:Lll is numerically equal to (Ot - 0)/2 and it occurs on a plane inclined
at 45 ° to the principal planes (Fig. 13.5).
(2) Point D on the Mohr circle represents the stresses (0 , 't) on a plane make an angle 0 with the major
principal plane.

6)

je
U

Fig. 13.5. CtwadefUtic:r;cL Mohr', Otde.

312 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERlNG

The resultant stress on that plane is equal 10 ~ and its angle of obliquity with the normal o f
the plane is equal to angle p, given by
~. "",-I « /0) . .. (13.9)
(3) The maximum angle of obli quity limn is obtained b)" dra wing a tange nt to the circle from the
origin O.
~ .. sln-1 (01 - 0 1 )/ 2 .. sin- 1 (~) ••. (13.9)
( 01 + 02)1Z 01 + 03

(4) The shear stress T.ron the plane of the maximum obliq uity is less than the maximum shear stress
-em"",.
(5) Shear stresseson planes at right angles to each other are numcrica11y equal but are of oppositesigns,
as shown in Fig. 13.4 (e).
(6) As lhe Mohr circle is symmetrical about a-axis, it is usual practice to draw ooly lhe top half circle
for convenience.
(7) There is no need to be rigid about sign coeventioe for plOCting the shear stresses in Mohr's circle .
These can be plotted either upward or downward. AJlhougb the sign convention is required fer
locating the orientation of the planes, the num erical
results are not affected.
T
13.7. MOHR. CO ULOM B TIIEORY
The soil is a particulate material. The shear failure
occurs in soils by slippage of particles due to shear stresses .
The failure is essentially by shear, bul shea r stresses al
fallure depend upon the normal stresses on the potential
failure plan e. Accord ing 10 Mohr , the failure is caused by a L-.,..f--~>--+
_O'
critical combi nation o f the normal and shear stresses .
The soil fails when the shear sress ('tt) on the failure
plane al failure is a unique function o f the norm al stress
(0 ) acnng on thai plane .
<, - flo)
Si nce the shear stress on the failure plane at failure is T
'"
defi ned as lhe shear stren gth ($). the above equation can be
written as
, - f lo) ...(13.11)
The Mohr theory is concerned wit h the shea r stress at
failure plane at failure. A plot can be made between the
shear stress -r and the normal stress (J m failure. The curve ('J
defined by Bq. 13.11 is known as the Mohr envelope [Fig.
13.6 (o)}. Th ere is a u,nique failure envelope for each
material. T
Failure of the materi al occurs when the Mohr ci rcle o f
the stresses touches the Mohr envelope. A'i discussed in the
precedin g sections. the Mohr circle represents all possibk
conb manoos of shear and normal stresses at the stressed
point. At the point of contact (D) of the failure en velope and
lhe Mohr circle, the critica l comb ination o f shear and
oocmal stresses is reached and the failure occu rs. The plane "-"-= '-'---1<--
c - ' --0'
indicated by the line PD Is, theretore, the failure plane . Any 'd
Mohr 's circ le whi ch does not cross the fail ure envelope and Pig. 13.6. F.ilu~ Envelopea.
 313

lies below the envelope ~nts a (non-failure) stable: condi:iorI. The Mohr circle cannot cross the Mohr
envelope. Il5 the failure would hive already occurred as soon as the Mohr circ le: touched the envelope.
The shear strengt h ($) of a soil at a point on a particular plane was expressed by Coulomb as a linear
function of the norm al stress on that plane. as
s • c + a tan, ...
(13.12)
In other words. the Mohr envelope is replaced by a straight line by Coulomb as shown In Fig. 13.6 (b).
In Eq. 13.12. c is equal to the intercept on 't-axis and , is the angle which the envelope makes with
a-axis [Fig. 13.6 (e)]. The component c of the shear strength is known as cohesion. Cohesion holds the
particles of the soil together in a soil mass. and is independentof the normal stress. The angle, is called the
angle of UtremaI fr iction. It represents the Crictiooal resistance between the particles, which is diced1y
prqKWtiooal to the normal stress.
As mentioned: before, the failure OCCU~ when the stresses are such that the Mohr circle just toccnes the
failure envelope, as shown by point B in Fig. 13.6 (c). In Other words, shear failure occurs if the stresses a
and "C on the fa ilu~ plane,~_as point B. If the stresses plot as point A below tbe failure envelope; it
represents a stable; noo-railiii-e condition . On the other hand, a state of stress represented by point C above
the failure envelope is not possible. It may be noted that a material fails along a plane when the aiUcal
combination of the stresses 0 and 'r gives the resultant with a maximum obliquity (U , in which case the
resultant just touches the Mohr circle.
13.8. REVISED MOHR· COULOMB EQUATI ON
una research showed that the parameters c and ., in Eq. 13.12 are DOt necessarily fundamental properties
of tbe.sotl as was originally assum ed by Coulomb. These parame ters depend upon a number of factors, such
as the water content, drainage conditions, conditions of testing . The curren t practice is to ccesicer c and • as
mathematical parameters wh ich represen t the failure oondiHons for a particular so il under given conditions.
That is the reason why c and • are now ca lled cohes ion intcn::cpt and the angle of shearing reststeuce, These
indicate the intercep t and the slope of the failure envelope, respectively.
Terzaghi established that the normal stresses which control the shear strength of a soil arc the effective
stresses and not the total stresses. In terms of effective stresses, Eq. 13.12 is wri tten as
s _ c' + (; tan,' ... (13. 13)
where c' and . ' are the cohesion intercept and the angle of sheari ng resistance in terms of the effective
stresses.
Eq. 13.13 is known as the Revist!d Mohr-Coulomb equation for the shear strength of the soil. The
equatioo has replaced the original equation ceq. 13.12). It is roe of the most important equations of soil
eng ineering.
The Mohr-Coulomb theory shows a recsonebty good agreement with the observed failures in the field
and in the laboratory. The theory is ideally suited for studyi ng the behaviour of sons at failure. The t heory is
used for estimation of the shear strength of soils. However. even this theory is not perfect . It has the
following main limitations :
(1) It neglects the effect of the intermediate principal stress (02).
(2) It appro ximates the curved failure envelope by a straigh t line. which may not give COITCC1 results.
(3) When the Mohr envelope is curved, the aaual ooliquily of the failure plane is slightly smaller than
the maximum obliquity. Therefore, the angle of the failure plane, as found. is nee correct .
(4) fur some clayey soils. there is no rued relationship between the normal and shear stresses on tbe
plane of failure. The theory cannot be used for such soils .
13.9. DIFFERENT TYI IES OF TESTS AND DRAINAGE COND nlONS
The followi ng tests are used 10 measure the shear strength of a soil.
(1) Direct shear test (2) Triaxial Compression test
(3) Unoonfincd Compressioo test (4) Shear Vdne test.
3 14 &JIL MECIIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Th e shear test must be conducted under appropriate dra inage condi tions thai simulate the actual field
problem. In shear tests, there are two stages :
( 1) Consolidation stag e in which the normal stress (or confining pressure) is app lied 10 the specimen and
it is al lowed 10 consolidate.
(2) Shear stage in which lhe shea r stress (or deviator stress) is appli ed to the spec imen to shea r it.
Dependin g upo n the drain age con ditions. there are thre e types of tests as explained below :
(1) Unconsolldated-c-Undralned Cond tu on, In this Iype of rest, no dra inage is perm itted duri ng the
consolidation stage. The drainage is also not permlued in the shear stage.
As no time i" allowed for consolidation or dissipation of excess pore water pressure, the lest can be
con ducted quickl y in a few minut es. 111e test is known as unco nso lida tcd-undra incd test (UU test ) or quick
1<:st(Q·I<:st).
(2) Co nso tlde ted-c-U nd ra lned Condition. In a corsoticatec-ccncratrec test, the specimen is allowed \0
consolidate in the first sta ge. The drainage is perm luer until the conso lidation is compl ete.
In the second st age whe n the spec imen is sheared. no drainage is permitted. The test is known as
conso lidated-undrained test (CU test) II is also ca lled a R·test. as the alphabet R falls betw een the alphabet
Q used for q uick test. and the alph abet S used for sl ow test.
The pore water pressure can be mea<;u~ in the seco nd stage if the facilities for its measurement are
ava ilable. In that case, the test is known as CU test .
(3) Consolrd eted-c-Dretned Cond iti on. In a oonsolidated-draincd lest, the drainage of the specimen is
permi tted in both the stages. The sam ple is allowed to conso lidate in the first stage. When the consolid ation
is complete. it is sheared at a very slow rate to ensure that fully drained cond itions exist and the excess pore
wa ter is zero.
The rest is known as a consolidat cd-drained test (CD test) or drai ned test. It is also known as the slow
lest (S- test).
13.10. MOnE OF AP))LlCA1l0N OF SIIEAR . 'OR CE
The shear force in a shea r test is applied either by increas ing the shear displacement at a given rare tt
by increa sing the shear ing force at a given rate. Accordi ngly, the shea r tests are either slrain-oontro lled or
stress-co ntro lled.
(I) Slnt in co n tro lled tests, In a seain-cootroued lest, tbe test is cond ooed in such a way that the
shearing strai n increases at a given rate. Genera lly, the rate of increase o f the sheari ng stra in is kept consaet,
and the spec imen is shea red at a uniform strain rate.
The shear fo rce acting on the specimen is meas ured ind irectly using a proving ring. The rate of shearing
strain is controlled ma nually or by a gear system attached to an electric motor.
MOSl of the shear tests are cond ucted as strain-controlled . The strcss-c-s tta in cha racteris tic are easily
obtai ned in these tests, as the sha pe of the stress-cs rrain curve beyond the peak point can be observed only
in a strato-ccoraroncd test. A srrain-cccorroued test is easier to perform than a stress- controlled test.
(2) Srress-c-C orurolled tes ts. In a stress----controlled test, the shea r force is increased al a given rate.
Usu ally, the r;:HC of increase o f the shear force is maintained constant. The shear load is increased such that
the shear stresses increase at a unifonn nil e . lbc resull ing shear displacements are obla incd by means of 3
dud gauge.
Sec ss-c-co mroned tests are preferred for conduct ing shear tests at a very low rate, because an applied
load C'lD easily be kept constant for any given pcriod o f time. Further, the lo ads C<.In be con venientl y applied
and removed . The stress-controlled test represe nts the field re nditions more closely ,

n .u Dl RELI SIIEAR l UI'

(a) Ap pe re tus. A direct shear tes t is conducted on a so il speci men in a 's heer box which is split into two
halves along a horizo ntal plane at its middle (Fig. 13.7). Th e shea r box is made of brass or gunmeta l. It ~
SHEAR SfRENGllf 315

Fig. 13.7. Dirtt1 ShCilrTal.

either squa re or circula r in plan. A square box of size 60 )( 60 x SOmm is commonly used . The box is
divided horizon tally such that the dividing plane passes through the .centre. Th e two halves of the box are
held toget her by lockin g pins. Suitable spacing screws to separa te the two halves are also provided. The
spacing screws are fixed to the upper half and they butt against the top of the ' lower half.
The box is provided with the gripper or the grid plates which are toothed and fitted inside it. The gripper
plates are plain (w ithout perforations) for undrained 1C'SlSand perfora ted for dra ined tests . Porous sto nes are
placed at the top and the bottom of the specimen in drained tests. A pressure pad of bress or gun metal is
fitted inlO the box at its top to transmit the nonnalload to the sampl e. 1be normal load from the loading yoke
is aw1ied on the top of the specimen through a steel ball bearing upon the pressure pad .
The lower half of the box is fixed to the base plate which is rigidly held in position in a large container,
The large contai ner is suppo rted o n rollers (rollers not shown). The container can be pushed forward at a
constan t rate by a geared jack which works as a stram-comrollcd devi ce . The jack may be operated manually
or by an elect ric mo tor.
A loadin g frame is used 10 suppo rt the large container. It has the arrangeme nt of a loading yoke and a
lever system for applying the norma l load.
A proving ring is fitted to lhe upper half of the box 10 measure the shear Iorce.Th e proving ring butts
against a fixed suppon . As the box moves. the provi ng ring records the shear force . Tbe shear dis pl8f..cement
is measured with a d ial gauge fitted 10 the container. Another dial gauge is fitted 10 the [q1 of the pre.... ssure
pad to measure the chang e in the th ickness of the specimen.
(b) 'Iest, A soil specimen of size 60 )( 60 x 25 mm is taken. II may be either an undislurbed sample Cl("
made from co mpacted and remoulded soil . The specimen may be prepared d irectly in the box and co mpacted.
The base plate is attached to the lower half of the box. A porous stone is placed in the box. For undrained
tests, a plain grid is kept on the poro us stone. keepi ng its seg regations at right angles to the dir ection of sheer.
For drained tests, perfo rated grids are used instead o f plain grids. The mass of the base plate. porou s stone
300 grid is take n. The specimen if made separately is trans ferred to the box and its mass taken.
The uppe r grid, porous stone and the pressure pad are placed on the specimen. '100 bo x i.<; placed inside
the large container and moun ted on the load ing frame. The uppa half of the box is brought in con:act with
the proving ring. 1be loadi ng yoke is mocrucc on the steel ball placed on the press ure pad . Tbe din l gauge
is Iitted to the container to give the shea r displa cement. lbe other dia l gauge is moun ted on the loading yoke
to record the vertical movement.
The lock ing pins are removed and the upper half box is slightly raised with the help of spaci ng screws .
The space betwee n the two halves is adjusted , depe nding upon the maximum particl e size . The space shou ld
be such that the top half of the 00" docs not ride on son grains which rom e between the edges.
The norma l load is applied to give a normal stress of 25 kN/m 2. Shea r load is then applied <It a constant
rate of strain . For undrained tests, the rate is generally betwee n 1.0 mm to 2.00 mm per minute . For drained
316 SOIL MECHA."fICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEFRING

tests, the strain rate depends upon the type of soil. For sandy soils, it may he taken as 0.2 111m/minute:
whereas fex- clayey soils, it is generally between 0.005 to 0.02 mm/min. The sample shears along the
horizon ta l plane between the two halves. The readings of the proving-ring and the dial gauges are taken every
30 seconds. The lest is con tinued till the spec imen fails. The fail ure is indicate d whe n the proving ring dial
gauge beg ins to recede aner having reached the ma ximum . For the soils which do not give a peak. point. the
failur e is assu med to have occurred when a shearin g st rain of 20 % is reached. AI the end o f the test, the
specimen is removed from the box and its water conte nt found .
2
Th e test is repea ted under the normal stress of 50 , 100, 200 and 400 kN/m • The range of the normal
stress should cover the range of looding in the field problem for which the shear para meters ace requ ired. The
shea r stress at an y stage during shear is equal to the shear force ind icated by the provi ng ring divided by the
area of the specimen. A plot can be made between the shear stress sod the shear strai n. 1be shc<1r strain is
equal to the shear displacement (lJ-l) d ivided by the lengt h of the specimen (L). The shear stress Ls obtained
from the shear Iced indicated by the provi ng ring and the cross-sectional area .
Direct shear tests can be cond ucted for anyone o f the three d rainage conditions. For U'U test. plain grids
are used and the sample is sheared rapidly. For CU test. perf ora ted grids are used . The samp le is co nsolidated
under the normal load and after the completion of consolidation, it is sheared rapidly in about 5-10 minutes.
In a CD test, the sample is consolidated under the nonn al load and then sheared slo wly so that excess pore
water pressure is dissipa ted . A CD ~t may take a few hours for cohesionless soils. For cohesive soils, it may
take 2 10 5 days.
lljs:: d irect shear lest is generally conducted on cohes ionless soils as CD lest . II is conven ient to perform
and it gives good results for the st rength para meters . It is occas ionall y used to determ ine the strength
parameters of sill and clay under unoonsoli dated--undrained T
and consolidated drain ed conditions, but it does nOl offer
the flex ibillty of a triaxial com pression test, as exp lained
later.
13.12. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS OF DIRE CT
SHEAR TEST Loosl' 50n d
(a) Stress -Strain Curve. A stress- strain curve is a plot
betw een the shear stress 't and the shear displacement
(MIlL) [Fig. 13.8 (a». In C2Se of dense sand (and also ~--------- , ~
over-consoudated clays), tbe shear stress attains a peak
~)
value at a small strai n. With further tocreese in strai n, the
shear stress decreases slighlly and becomes more or less 6JI
coosrem, known as ultimate st ress . In case of loose sands
(and nonn al1y consoli dated clays). the shear stress increases
gra du ally and finally attai ns a constant value, known as lhc
ultimate stress or residual strength. II has been observed that
the ultima te shear stress attained by both dense and loose - ,dv Lo oSt!sol'Ml
sands tested under si milar conditions is approximately the
sa me. Thc figure also shows the stress-s tra in curv e of a lb)
medium dense sene.
Generally. the failure strain is 2 10 4% for dense sand looSt!SQ"Cl
and 12 10 16% for loose sand.

i~ ;~.8 s~~!>h~~~nt~or'lO~~e t~~g~i:th t~~ "(t _'.!!.I~'!'-~~~_r.!?!.~ _

cross -sectiona l area of the specimen remains uncha nged. the
volume change is proportional to the change in thickness
measured by the dial gauge. In case of dense sands (and
over -consolida ted c lays), the vol ume first decreases slightly.
tel Fig. 13.8. SIress-Sirain CIIMt
 SHEAR STRENGTH 317

but it increases with further increase in strain. In the case of loose sands (and normally consolidated clays),
the volume decreases with an increase in.shear strain. The figure also shows the curve for medium dense
sand.
It may be observed that the void rauc of an initial loose sand decrease s with an increase in shear strain.
whereas that for the initiall y dense sand increases with an increase in strain [Fig. 13.8 (c) }. The .v9id ratio,at
which there is no change in it with an increase in strain is known as the critical void ratio. If 'the sand
initially is at the critical void ratio. there would be practically no c hange in volume with a n incre ase in shear
strain.
(b) Failure Envel op e. For obtaining a failure enve lope, a number of identical specimens are tested
under differe nt norm al stresses. The shear stress requ ired to ca use failure is dete nn ined for each norm al
stress. TIle Iarlu re envelope is obtained by plotting the points correspond ing to shear strength at different
1'IOm'la:i stresses and jom ing them by a straight line {Fig. 13.9 (all. 1be inclination of the failure e nvelope to
0' <
d v;9-(, ~i':~(,\;
s. T ~ ,.\\.
e

n
b

(a )
- -- - --l

C~J
~~ ._J
(c)

fig . 13.9. Failure Envelope.

the horizontal gives the angle of shearing resistance ¢' and its intercept on the vertical axis is equal to the
cohesion intercept c.
For dense sands, the failure enve lope can be drawn either for peak stress or for ultimate stress. The
valuesof the parameters, and c for the two envelopes will be different. For loose sands, the failure envelope
is drawn for ultimate stress, which is usually take n as the shear stress at 20% shear strain.
(c) Mobr-Circle. In a direct shear test. the stresses on planes other than the horizontal plane are not
known. It is, therefore . not possible to draw Mohr stress circle at differe nt shear loads. However. the Mohr
circle can be drawn at the failure condition assuming that the failure plane is horizontal .
In Fig. 13.9 (bl, the point B represents the failure condition for a particular normal stresss. 1be Mohr
circle at failure is drawn SUCh thai it is tangential to the failure envelope at B. Tbe horizontal line BP gives
the direction of the failure plane . c'Ibe point P is the pole. 1be lines PO and PA give the directions of the
major and minor principal planes, respectively. The principal planes are also shown in Fig. 13.9 (c).
Merits and Demerits of Direct Shear Test
lJin The direct shear test has the following merits and demerits as compared to the triaxial compression test
(described in the foUowine section) .
318 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Merits.
(1) The sample preparation is easy. The test is simple and convenient.
(2) As the thickness of the sample is relatively small, the drainage is qUick and the pore pressure
dissipates very rapidly. Consequent ly, the coesolidated-dramed and the consolidated- undrained tests
lake relativel y small period.
(3) It to;; ideally suited for conducting drained tests on cobcstonlesssoils.
(4) The apparatus i.s relatively cheap.

Dem eri ts.

(1) 'Ihc stress condulo ns are known only at failure. The cond itions prior 10 failure arc Indeterm inate and,
therefore, the Mohr circle can not be draw n.
(2) The SU'CSS d istribution on the failure plane (horizonIal plane) is not uniform. The stresses are mort
at the edges and lead 10 the progressive failure, like rearing of a paper. Consequently. the full
st rength of the so il is not moh iliscd simulta neous ly on the entire failure plane.
(3) 111C area under shea r gradua lly decreases as the lest progresses. But th e corrected area cannot be
determined and, therefore. the o rig jaal area is taken for the computation of stresses.
(4) 1111: orientation of the failure plane is fixed. This piane may not be the weakest plane.
(5) Conrrot on the drai nage conditions is very difrlcult. Consequently, only d rained Jests can be
condu ct ed on highly pcrm ccbte sons.
(6) 11k: measurement of pore wate r pressure is not possible.
(7) The side walls of the shear box C3lf"C lateral res .....rnint on the specimen and do IlOIallow it to deform
laterally.
13. 13. DIFFERENT TYPE-Ii OF SOIL.')

-0
On the basis of shear streng th, soils can be divided in to three types.
(I) Concsionjcss so il'>. (2) Pure ly cohesive soils and « +'ij
(3) Cohes ive-frictional so ils. 1 11
1. Cohesion less soils. These are th e so ils wh ich do not have coh esion

-- --
i.e., c' • O. These soils de rive the sh ear stre ngt h from the intergranular friction.
These so ils are also called fricti01UlI soils. For exam ple, sands and gravels.
2. llurel)' cohesive so ils. These are the soi ls which exhib it co hesi on bu t the
angle of shearing resistance, = O. For exampl e, sa turated clays and silts under CC- -
-CC
undrained ccodi uocs, These soils are also allied t..·• 0 soils.
- --
-- -
3 . Ccheslve -Irlctlcnal so ils. These arc composite soils havi ng both c' and
t'. These are also called c-i soils. For examp le, clayey sand, silty sand, sandy
clay, etc.
[Note. So me tim es, coh esive-frictional soils are also C311ed co hes ive so ils. f f f <C+'ij
Thu s any so il havi ng a value of c ' is ca lled a cohesive so il.] (.) ELEVATION
13.14. TRlAXlAL COMPRESSION TEST APPARAl1JS
The triaxial comp ression lest, or simply triaxial les t, is used for the
determination of shear characteristics of all Iypes of so ils under di fferent
drai nage cond itions. In this test , a cylindriC31 spec imen is stressed under
-
'0' I I,.rc
-C(
conditions of axia l symmetry, as shov..n in Fg. 13.10. In the first stage of the lest.
the specime n is subjected 10 an all roun d con fining pressure (a ..) o n the s ides
'"
<t I f '
.....
and at the top an d tbc bottom . This stage is known as the con solidation stage .
In the seco nd stage of tbe tes t, ca lled the shea ri ng st age. an addi tio nal (b) PLAN
axial stress, know n as the devi ator stress (a . ). is applied on the top of the
specimen Ihrou gh ~ ra mc -Tbcs, the total stress in the axial d irect ion at th e t-lg.13.to.
SHEARSTRENGTI-l 319

time of shearing is eq ua l 10 ( a~ + ad)' II may be noted that whe n the axi al stress is increased, the shea r
stresses develop on inclin ed planes due to com press ive stre ss es on the top .
The vertical side s of the speci men are principa l planes. as tbe re are no shear stresses on the sides. The
coo.fining pressure c , is equal to (he minor princi pal SI['C$ (o J), Th e top and bottom p lanes are the major
principal planes. The total axial stress which is equal to the sum of the confini ng pressu re and the dev iator
stress. is the major principa l stress (01)' Because o f a xial symmetry, the intermedi ate principal stress (a l) is
also equat ro the con fin ing pre.ssure (u~) .
[Note, The above interpretation of the stress cond itions in the triaxial test is not strict ly correct
according to the theory o f elast icity. In the case of cyli nd rica l specimens . the three prin c ipal ' st resses are
the ax ial. radia l and the circumferent ial stresses. The state of st ress is stat ica lly indet erminate th rou ghou t
the speci men. Fo r convenience. in the tria xial test . the circumfe rential stress is take n eq ua l to the redia l
stress and the prin c ipa l stre sses 02 and (1 j are assumed to be equa l).
The main features... or a triaxial test appurntus arc shown in rig. 13.11. It con..is(.'i ol :1 circular base that
has a central pedestal. The pedestal has one or two holes which nrc used for the drain age o f the spec imen in
a drained test or for the pore prcs.....urc meas uremen t in an undrained test. A triax ial cell is Fitted to the top o f
tbe base plate wi th the help of J wing
nuts (not sho wn in the figu re) after the
specimen bas been placed on (he
pedestal. The triaxial cell is 11 pcrspcx
cylinder which is permanently fixed to
lhe top cap and the bottom brass colla r.
There are three tie rods wh ich suppo rt
the cell. Tbe top cap is a bronze casting
with its cent ral boss fanning a bush
through which a stainless steel ram a m
slide. The ram is so designed that it has
minimum of Incrio n and a t the same
lime docs not penn it any leakage.
There is an air- release valve in the top
capwhich is kept o pen when the cell ior;.
ruled with water (or glycerine) for

:~:~i~ at::, ~~~~~~i~r:u;;~~p~~ ~~~~W(~l

fill light machin e o il in the ce ll to
reduce the leakage of water pa'>t the
ram in long duration tests. Th e
apparatus is mounted on n loading . .. .
frame. Th e deviator stress is applied to Fig. 13.11. Inaxlal Tes Apparatus
the specimen from a stram-com roncd loading machi ne. The load ing system consis ts of either a scre w jack
operated by an electric motor and gear bo x or a hydraul ic ram operated by a pump.
The triaxi al test apparatus has the followin g spe cial anechments.
1. Mercury Co ntrol Syst em. The cell pressure is a triaxial test in maintained constant with a
self-compensating mercu ry co ntrol sys tem, deve loped by Bishop and Henkel. It consists of two limbs of a
water-mercury manometer (Fig. 13. 12). 'lh c pressure in the water of the triaxia l cell develops due to the
difference in level" o f the mercury in the two pots. The water pressure at the . centre of the spe cimen in the
triaxial cell. al a he ight of II} above the datum . can be calc ulated usin g the theory of manom eters. As the
mercury surface in the upper pot is ope n to atmosphere. the (g3uge) pressure there is zero . From the
manometer equation.
321) SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

r I'Fcl*df;:",~C;,~':; f
I
seW ","

1
c.. JI

"
L--J----'L
Fig. 13.12. Mercury Control System.

where c , the cell pressure at the centre of the specimen.

lw the unit weight of water, and
'Y~, the unit weight of mercury.
The atove equation can be simplified as
c, = 1m (h I - hi) + (11 2 - hJhw ..• (13.14\
The upper pot is supported by a spring. When the volume of the specimen decreases due to conso lidation
or when the 'XatF teaks p~st the ram, water flows from thC.lowcr pot to the cell and the mercury level in the
lower pol rises b)' a smal l amount toh. The mercury level in the upper pot would also full by the same amount
if the two pots Me of the same cross-sccnona! area. However. the differenceof mercury levels in the two pols
is maintained constant by the spring. The s: iiTnc..... s (k) of the spr ing is selected such that it red uces in length
and causes a rise of the uPI'<'"r pot as SOOI I :11' its weight decreases due 10 now of mercury. The stiffness of
the spring is given by
.. .(13.15)

where A = cross-sectional area or the merc ury pot,

and W = weight of unit length of the tube filled with mercury whic h is also lifted above the floor.
2. Pore water Press ure Measure ment Device. The pore Willer pressure in the triaxial specimen is
measured by attaching it to the device shown in Fig. 13.13. It cons ists of a null indicato r in which no- flow
cond ition is ma intained. For accurate measurement. no- flow condition is essential because the flow of water
from the sam ple to the gauge wou ld modif y the actual magnitude of the pore water pressu re. Further, the flow
of water leads to a time lag in the attainment of a steady state in samples of cohesive soils because of low
pcnneability.
,I
The null indicator is e.ssenttany Uvtube partly filled w ith mercury. One limb of the null indicator is
connected to the specimen in the triaxial cell and the other limb is co nnected to a pressure ga uge. A control
cylinder. which is filled with water. is attached LO the system, The water can be displaced by a screw-
con trolled pistonin the control cylinder. The who le system is filled with ceaired water. The tubes connecting
the specimen and(~'the null-indicator should be such that these undergo negligible volume chang es under
pressure and are free from leakage.
Any .cha nge in the pore-water pressure in the speci men tends to ca use a movement of the mercury level
in the null-ind icator. However, the no-flow co ndition is maintained by making a wrrespooding change .in tilt
 SJlEAlt STRENGTIf 321

Fig. 13.13 . Pore Willer Pressure Measurement Device.

other limbs by means of the conuol cylinde r. Thus the mercury levels in the two limbs remain constant. The
pressure app lied by the control cylinder is recorded by pressure gauge or the manometer.
If the specimen is partially saturated, a special fine, porous ceramic disc is placed below the sample in
the triaxial cell. The ceramic disc permits only pore water to flow, provided the d ifference between the pore
air pressure and pore water pressure is below a certai n value, know n as me air-entry value of the ceramic
disc. Under undrained conditions., the ceramic disc will remain fully sa turated, provided the air-entry value is
4\ high. It may be mentioned that if the required ceramic disc is not used and instead !he usual coarse, porous
on disc is used, the devi ce wo uld measure a ir pressure and not water pressure in a partiall y saturated so il.
he In modem eq uipment. somet imes the pore water pressure is measured by means of a transd ucer and nOI
mt by conventional null ind icator.
>IS J. Volu'me Changes Mea surement. \blwne changes
lth in a drained test and during oonsolidat ion stage of a TRIAXIAL CEl l
of cnsoflde ted undrained test are measured by means of a
burette connected to the specimen in the triaxial cell . R>r
ecccrare measuremen ts, the water level in !he burette PEDESTAL
l5)
should be approximately at the level of the centre of the BURETTE
specimen (Fig. 13.14).
During consolidation stage, ' the volume of the
ipCcimen decreases and the water level in me burette
is rscs. The chan ge in the volume of the spec imen is equal Fig. 13.14. Volume Change Measurement .
10the volum e of the water increased in the burette . During shearing of specimens of dense sand when the
volumeof the sample increases, the water flows from the burette to the specime n. The increase in volume of
tbl: speci men is equa l to me vo lume of water decreased in the burette.

13.15. TRIAXIAL TESTS O N CO HES IVE SOIL.~

ris The following procedure is used for conducting the triaxial tests an cohesive soils.
trol (0) Consolidated-undrained test, A deeecd, coarse porous disc or stone is placed on the top of the
jedestal in the triaxial test appa ralus. A filter paper disc is kept over the porous stone. The specimen of the
ling encslve soil is then placed over the filter paper disc . The usual size of the specimen is about 37.5 mm
Idee meter and 75.0 mm height. A porccs stone is also placed on the top of the specim en. Deaired ve rtical filter
~ are placed at regu lar spacing around the entire periphery such that these touch bot h the porous stones.
evel The sample in then enclosed in a rubber membran e, whic h is slid over the specimen with the help of a
the membrane stretcher. lbe memb rane is sealed to the specimen with a -rings.
322 sou, MECHANICS AND rOUNDKI10N ENGINEERING

l be triax ial ce ll is placed over the base and fixed 10 it by tightening the nuts. The cell L-' then filled with
wa ter by con necting it to the pressure supp ly. Some space in the to p portio n of the ccU is fiUed by injecting
oil through the oil valve. Whe n excess oil begins lo spill QUI throug h the air-vent valve. bol:h the valves (oil
val ve and air- vent val ve) are dosed. Pressure is applied to the water filled in the cell by connecting it to the
mercury-pot system . As soon as the pressure acts on the specimen. it starts consolidating. The specimen is
connected 10 the burette through pressure conneaions for measurement of volume changes. The consobdanco
is complete: when there is no more volume change.
When the consolidation is complete. the specimen is reedy for being sheared. The drainage valve is
closed. The pore wetcr pressure measure ment. device is attached to the specimen throug h the pressure
con nections. lbe provi ng ring d ial gauge is set to zero. Using the manual control provided in the loading
frame. the ram is pushed into the ce ll but not allowed to touch the load ing cap. The load ing machine is then
run at the selected speed. Tbe proving ring records the force due to friction and the upward thrust acting on
the ram. Th e machi ne is stopped, and with the man ual control, the ram is pushed further into the cell bringing
it in contact with the looding cap. Th e dial gauge for the measu ring axial deforma tion of the specimen is SCI
to ze ro.
The sample is sheared by apply ing the deviator strcss by the loadtng mach ine. The proving ring readings
arc gene rally taken correspon din g 10 ax ial strains of 1/3%, 2/3%, 1%. 2%, 3%. 4%, 5% ....unlil failure or
20% axia l stra in.
Upon co mpletio n of the test. the loading is shut oIT. Using the manual control, all additional axial stress
is removed . Th e ce ll pressure is then reduced to zero , and the cell is emptied. The triaxial cell is unscrewec
and rem oved from the base . O-ri ngs arc taken out. and the mem brane is removed. The speci men is then
recovered after remo ving the Iooding C3p and the lop porous stone. The filter paperstrips are peeled oIT. The
post - shear mass and length arc determ ined . The wate r content of the specimen ts also found.
(b) Unoonso lid a ted Und rul ned test. 1be procedure is sirnilnr 10 that for a consolidated-undrained test,
with one basic difference that the specimen is IlOIallowed to consolidate in the fits( stage. The drainage vail"
during the test is kept closed. However. the specimen can be connected to the pore -water pressure
measu rement device if required.
Shearing of the specim en is started just after the application of the cell pressure. The second stage is
exactly the sam e as in the ronsolidated-undrnincd test described above .
(e) Consolidated Drained test, Th e procedure is similar to thai for a consolidated-undmincd test, with
on e basic difference that the specime n is sheared slowly in the second stage. Afte r the consolidation of the
speci me n in the first stage. Ihe dra inage valv e is not closed. It rema ins connected to the burette throughout
the test. Th e volume cha nges du ring the shearing stage are measured with the help of the bureue. As lhe
perm eabilit y of coh esive so ils is very low, it takes 4-5 days for the consolidated drained test.

13.16. TRIAXIAL TESTS ON COlIESIONLESS SOIlS

Triaxial tests on specimens of cohcsionlcss soils can be conducted using the procedure as described fa
cohes ive soils. As the sampl es of cohesionless soils cannot sta nd of their own. a spec ial procedur e is used fll
pre parati on of the sampl e as described below .
A metal former, which is a split mould of about 38.5 mm interna l diameter, is used for the preparanci
o f the sam ple (Fig. 13.15). A coarse porousstone is placed on the top of the pedesta l of the triax ial base, 300
the pressure cconecnon is attached to a burette (not shown). One end o f a me mbrane is sealed to the pedesW
by Ocrings. The metal former is clamped to the base. The upper metal ring of the fonner is kept inside tl:i:
lOp end of the rubber membrane and is held with the help of a clamp before placing the funne l and the ntlba
bung in position as shown in figure.
The memb rane and the Iunnel are filled with deaired water. The cohesionlcss soil which is to be tesed
is saturat ed by mixing it with enough water in a beaker . The mixture is boiled to remove the entrapped at
The sat urated soil is deposited in the funnel with a stopper in position, in the required quamny. The glai
rod is then remov ed and the sample builds up by a continuous rapid flow of saturated soil in the former. The
 SHEAR STRENGll l

funnel is lhen' removed, The sample may be

compaacd if required. The surface of the
sample is leveled and a porous stone is
placed 00 its lop. The loading cap ~ placed
gently on the top porous stone. a -rings are
fixed over the top of lhe rubber membrane .
A small negative pressure is applied 10
Iix'. sample by lowering the bu rette , The
negative pressure gives rigidi ty to the sample
and it can stand without any latera l support.
For sample of 37.5 rnm diame ter, a negative
pres s ure of 20 em of water (or 2 kN/m1 is
sufHc:ient. As soon as the negat ive pressure is
applied, the ronsolidation of the samp le
occurs and it slightl y shortens. "The diamete r
of lhe upper porous stone should be slighlly
smaller than that of the specimen so lhat it
can go inside when the sampl e shortens;
otherwise, a neck is formed.
The split mould is then removed , and the
diameter and tbe height of the sampl e are
measured. The thickness of the membrane is
deducted from the total d iameter to get the
net diameter of the sampl e. The cell ls then
placedover the base and cla mped to the base.
It is the n filled wit h water .
The rest of the proced ure is the same as fig. 13.15. Preparetioe of Sample of Cobc:sionla.s Soil.
fOf cohesive soils.

13.17. MERITS A ND DEMERITS OF llUAXlAL TEST

The triaxial test has the following me rits and demeri ts.

Merits.
(I) The re is comp lete coot rol.ovcr the drainage cond itions. Tests can be easily cond ucted for a ll three
types of drainage condit ions .
(2) Pore pressure changes and the volumetric changes can be measureddirectly.
x (3) The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
or (4) The specim en is free to fail on the weakest plane.
(5) The stat e of stress at all intermed iate stages upto failure is known . 'TheMohr circle can be draw n at
'"
jd
aoy stage of shear.
(6) The test is su itable for accurate research work . The apparntus is adaptable to specia l requirements
al such es exte nsion test and tests for differen t stress paths.
ne
er Demerits.
(1) The appa ratus is elabora te. cos ily and bulky.
ed (2) The dra ined lest takes a longer period as compared with that in a direct shea r test .
rir; (3) The strain cond ition in the spec imen are not uniform due 10 frictio nal restraint produced by the
iss loading cap and the pedestal disc. This leads to the formation of the dead zones at each end of the
he specimen.
J2A SOIL MECH AN ICS AND FOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING

Th e no n-uniform d istribut ion of stresses ca n be largely elimi nated by lub ricati on of end surfaces.
However. non-un iform distribu tion of stresses has practically no effect on the meas ured stre ngth if
length/d iameter ratio is equal to or more than Z.O.
(4) H is not possibl e to determin e the cross-se ctional area of the spec imen accur ately at large stra ins, as
the assu mption that the speci men rema ins cylindrica l docs no t ho ld good.
(5) The lest simulates only axis-symme trical problems. In the field, me problem is generany
3-dimensional. A general test in which all the three stresses are varied would be more useful.
(6) The conso lidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic ; whereas in the field. the consolidation is
. generally amsouopic..
Desp ite the above-mentioned de merits. the rriaxial test is extre mely useful. It is the o nly rel iable test for
accurat e determination o f the shear characteristics of all types of soils and under all the draina ge conditions.
13.18. COMPUTATION 01<' VARIOUS PARAMlnERS
(a) Post- Cousolldetlon Dtmenslon s. In conso lidated-drained and consolidated-und rained tests, tbe
consolidation of the specimen lakes place during the Iirst stage. As the volume of the specimen decreases, ilS
posr-consoucauon dimensions are different from the initial dimensions. lbe post consolidation dimensions can
be dete rm ined appro ximately assuming that the sample remains cylindrical and il behaves isotropically. Let
Li, V ;. and Vi be the length. diame ter and the vo lume of the speci men before consolidation. Let Lo-Do and
Vo be the corr espond ing q uantiti es afte r consolida tion.
Therefore . volumetri c change. 6 Vi = Vi - Vo
Th e vo lume tric change (6 Vi) is measured with the hel p o f burette.
/i Vi
Volumetric strain. e, • -v;-
For isotropic conso lidation. the volumetric strain is three times the linear strain (£,). Thus
£/ - E,. /3
Thus L o • Li - 6.L; - [,; - L, )( E/
L o • L i (I - E/) • L i (1- l'_,/3) ... (13.16)
Likewise, Do - D; (l - £-,/3)
The post consolidation diameter Do am also be computed after Lo bas been de termined from the relation,
(:t/ 4 . LYo) )( L o - Vo

. ,------y;-
Do - V~ ...(13.17)
(b) Cross-secuonal An.·a Durfng Shear Sta~e. A<; the sa mple is sheared, its length decreases and Ihe
d iame te r increases . The cross-sectional area A at any stage durin g shear can be determined ass uming tha t the
sample rema ins cylind rical in shape . Let 61.0 be the change in length and /i Vo be the cha nge in volume. The
volume of the specimen at any stage is given by Vo :2: 6.Vo-
Therefore.

Vo(1~ a~o)
A • Vo :to 6 Vo ..
Lo-!:d ,o
Lo
( H
I-I;;
O)
•..(13.18)

Eq. 13.18 is !he general equation which gives the CfU'iS-SCCIKmal area of the specimen.
The abov e equation can be wri tten as
 SHEAR STRENGlH

Aoio ( 1 ~~) Ao ( I ~ ~)
A. Lo (1 _ El) • (1 - £1) ••.(13. 19)

where £1 is the axial strain in the sam ple.

For an undrnincd test , :L" the volumetric cnen ge (.1Vo) i s zero, Eq. 13.19 becom es
Ao
A- ~ .. .(13.20)

Thestresses in the specimen at various stages of sheaf should be calculated using the cress-sectional area A
as found above.
The correction so applied is known as areacorrection:
ie (e) Stresses (I) Deviator stress. 1bc deviator stress (0.1) acting on the specimen whe n the ax ial load
ts applied by the lood ing machi ne is P can be obtained as
In I'
.1 °d - A ...( 13.21)
1<1 The devia tor stress (oJ) is eq ual (01 - u])
It may be noted thaI the load indica ted by the proving ring is slighlly more than P because of Iriction on
the ram and the upward thrust on the ram due to pressureof the water in the cell. The correction can be
determined separately.
A more convenient procedure is to lift the ram above the specimen when the cell pressure has been
applied. The -machine is started keeping the strain rate the same as 10 be used in the actual test. The proving
ring records the load. To account for correction. the d ial gauge on the proving ring is set to zero to indicate
zero load . This au tomat ically oompe n."i."lles the ram friction and the upward th rust on the ram due to ce ll
pressure. Thus the load indicated by the prov ing ring du ring shear would be equal to the load P applied to
the specimen .
(il) Principa l stresses. lbe mino r principal stress (Oy is equal to the cell press ure (o J . The major
16) principal stress ( 01) is equal to lhe su m of the cell pres.s urc: and the deviator stress.
Th ~ 01.~+(~ -~
on.
or 01-03+0<1 . . .(13.22)
(iii) Compressive strength. The deviator stress at failure, cr. _cr)
(01- oiJf' is known as the compressive strength of the soil.
17)
13.19. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS OF TRIAXIAL
the
n :.'ITS
Ihe (0) Stress-c-Stretn Curv es, Drained Test. Fig. 13.16 (a)
The shows the stress-a-strain curve for a drained test. Th e y -ax is
shows the deviator stress (01 - (3) and the x-axis, the axia l
strain (£1)' For dense sand (and over-consolidated clay) . the
deviatcr stress reaches a pea k value and then it decreases and
become> almost constant, equal to the ultimate stress. at large + Oe-nw sand
strains. For loose sand (and normally consolidated cl ay). the ro .c.c.r
.18) =~~ stress increases gradually till the ultimate stress is ok-- r""-- - - - - --
The vo lumetric strain ls shown in Fig. 13.16 (b). In densc l l
sand (and over-consolida ted clay ). there is a decrease in the v L~ 'send
volume at low strains. but at large stra in.s, th ere is an increase - tb) Vol,um. tri c siroin IN.C.C.)
in ibe vo lume. In loose ' sand (and nocma lly consolida ted day). Ag. 13.16. sms-train Curve foc Drained T~.
3" SOIL MECHANICS AND roU NDATION ENGINEERING

CWEJl CClI'6OL IO...rm c, ...v {OCC I

( DENSt SAND)

( i1) STRESS. STRAIN

(b l PORE PRES9.IlE

Fig. 13.17. Stcrss -Strnin Curve, CU Tr~ .

the volume decreases aI all strains . (For some loose san ds, there is a sligh t tendency to increase in the vol ume
at large strai ns).
Consolidoted---i.4ndrained test: Fig. 13.17 (a) shows the stress-stra in CUlVe for a consolida led-undra ined
lese. The shape of the curves is similar to thai obtained in a consolidated-drnincd test . In a consolidated-
undrained rest, there is an increase in the pore water pressure throu ghout for loose sa nd (and normal ly
consolidated cla y). as shown in Fig. 13.17 (b). However. in the case of de nse sands (and over- consolidated
clay), the pore water pressure increases at low strains but at 1. 1rgC stra ins it becomes negative (below
atmosphericpressure).
(b) Mohr Envelopes, Pordrawing the failure envelopes, it Is nec essa ry 10 test at lea st three sa mples at
three different cell pressures in the stress runge of interest . For dense sa nds a nd o ver-consolidated cla ys, the
failure envelope can be drawn either for the peak stress or for the ult imate stress. For loose sa nd" and
normally consolidated clays, the failure envelope is
drawn for the ultimate stress, which is usually taken at
20% strain. Further, the failure envelope can be drawn
either in terms of effective stresses or in terms of total
stress. Of course, the two envelopes will give different
values of streng th parameters (c and cp).
Brnllencss 18 is expressed as
I • Peak strength - Ultimate strength (0) Fo ,lurr en~lope fOf no ,m o lly Con ~O\l d<l ! fd
(e flecl;v .. i t' nses )
B Ultimate strength

~kwsss
(I) EJfectil'c Stresses. Fig. 13.18 (a) shows the
fail ure envelope for a nonnally consolidated clay in
terms of effective stresses obtained from a
consolidated drained tess. The failure envelope has an
angle of shearing resistance: of , and pesses through
origin. First the Mohr circles for the three tests are
drawn in terms of effective stresses correspooclng to T tbl Foi lu"
,,;W'
(ell..
~~elopr 1o,
ilr ...... e~l
O'o'.,_conSOli dCIlod d "y
failun:: conditions. 1bcn the best common tangent is
drawn to the three circles. Thc common tangent is the Hg . 13.18. Failure Envelopes (effectiv e slrc.<os).
'G SHEAR SfRENGTII 327

failure envelope. As each circ le represents a failure, there must be at least one point on it which gives the
stresses satisfying the failure criterion. Obviously. the common tangent jo ins all such points of the three
circles.
'lhus for norm <lily consolidated clays, shear strength is
s - otancp'.
Fig. 13.18 (b) shows the failure envelope for ovcrconso lidalcd clay in terms of effecti ve stresses. The
failure envelope is slightly curved in the initial portion. but. for convenience, it is approximated as a straight
line. 'Thefailure envelope bas an intercept c' on the 't- axis. 'Theangle of shearing resistance is .'. In the case
of over-consolidated clays. shear strength is
s_c'+otan<p'
The failure envelopes ilL terms of effective stresses can also be drawn from the results of a
consolidated-undrained lest (CU test) when the pore water pressure measurements are also taken. The shear
strength parame ters c' and 'P' obtained from the consoli dated -undrained tests and that from consoli dated
drained tests are approximately equal. Drained tests on dense sands and over-corsolicatec clays give slig htly
higher values of 41' due to extra work required during dilation (increase- in volume). but the difference is
small. and. therefo re. usually neglected.
(ii) Total stresses. The failure envelope in terms of total Sln:SSCS can be draw n from the test results of a
consolidated -undrained test.
[Note. In co nsolidated-drained tests. the total stresses are also equal to the e ffective stresses, as the pore
water pressure throughout is zero].
The failure envelopes arc similar in shape to that in terms of e ffective stresses but the values of the
strength parameters are quite different. Fig. 13.19 shows the failure envelopes for effective stresses and also
for total stresses for a normally consolidated clay. The
y angle of shearing resistance in terms of total stresses
d
(+CII) is much smalle r than thai for the effective stresses
(n
In the case of norm ally consoli dated clays. shear
strength is
s - atan4lclI TOTAl. STRE!050
Fig. 13.20 shows the failure envelope for an
overoonsolidated day in terms of total stresses. The
angle of shearing resistance {.....) is much smaller than
theangle i(l' ob tained in terms of effective stresses. In the
case of overconsotidated days. shear strength is
rIg, 13.19,
s .. c.... + o tan $CII
111c angle of shea ring resistance 4'.... obtai ned from the lotal stress envelopes is also known as apparent
angle of sheari ng resistance.

~bnsss.
Failure' erweicce tor ~

(ToLilI stresses )
- consolidat«!"d clay

Fig, 13.20. Sl:rengLb Envelope:.

azs SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI~EERING

Fig. 13.21.
fig. 13.21 shows the failure envelope in terms of tota l stress ob tained from an unconso lidated-un drained
l est on a normally consolidated clay. The failure envelope is horizontal (cfl • 0). and has a cohesion intercept
of Cor In this case, shear st rength is s _ e". The failure envel ope for an over-conso lidated clay is also
bo nzo ntat, but the value o f c; will be more, depending upon the degree of overoonsolidation.
For an unconsolidated-und rained lest. the failure envelope 030001 be drawn in terms of effective stresses.
In all the tests cond ucted at different ronfini ng pressures. the effective stress remains Ihe same. This is due
10 the fact that an increase in confining pressure resul ts in an equal incre ase in pore wa ter pressure for a
saiurated soil under undra ined cond itions . Thus only one Mohr circle (shown dott ed) in terms of effective
stresses is obtained from a U the three tests. It may be noted that the dev iator stress at failure is the sam e for
aU specimens.
13.20 EFFECT OF CONSOLIDATI ON PRESSURE ON UNDRAINED STR ENGm
As di~ in the preced ing sect ion . the shear strength of a cohesi ve soil under undrained cond itions
depends upon the consolidation pressure . If a rcmoulded specimen of saturated clay is first consolidated under
a confining pressure. say (crt) I' and then shea red under undrai ned cond itions. with d iffere nt confin ing
pressu res, the deviator stress is indepe ndent o f the 0:11 pn..
....... ure. The failure envelope is horizontal and the
cohesion intercept is C.,I [Fig. 13.22 (a)l.

It T
+.00 ~T
1 +.00
c,,~ (X TLL
T Ca) f ( b) ""

Fig. 13.22. Effect of Conso lidatioo Pre...~ urc Oil C~

The reader should carefully note the difference between the co nventiona l consolida ted -undrained lest
discussed earlier and the lest described in this sect ion. In me former. each specimen is consolidated under a
certain pressure. equal 10 confini ng pressure. and then sheared unde r undrained conditioos with the same cell
pressure. Thus. only one Mohr circle at failure is obtained for one confining pressure. In the latter, a set of
spec imens are conso lidated under the same co nfining pressu re and then sheared with differe nt cell pressures.
Thus, a number o f Mohr circles <It fail ure are obtained in which the deviator stress at failure is the same for
all specimens.
If another set of identical specim ens is co rsotidcred under ano ther pressure . say (crch. and then sheared
under d ifferent ce ll pressure, another horiZontal failure envelope is obtained with the rohesion intercept ca
{Fig. 13.22 (b)] . Likewise, the test can be repeat ed after consolida ting the set of speci mens under another
pressure, say (och· It is observed that t he greeter the consolid ation press ure, the greate r the und rained shear
strength represented by the cohesion intercept. Fig. 13.23 shows a plot between the co nso lidation pressure and
the undrained strength . Th e plot is a straight line for nonnally consolidated clays.
SHEAR srRENGTIf 329

Fig. 13.23. C~ - a Plo( for Normally consolidated Clay.

For over -co osoudated clays. there is a discon tinuity in the plot betwee n c.. and 0" at a pressure equal to
the preconsolicenoa pressure(0..). as shown in Fig. 13.24.

CLAY

Fig. 13.24. C~ - a Plot for Ovcr-consclldated CIIlY

13.21. RElA.ll0NSIIIP Bf:I'WEEN UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENG111 AND EFFECTIVE

OVERIIURDEN PRE.<;;SURE
A relationsh ip can be obt ain ed between the undra ine d s
strengt h (e~) and the e ffective overburden pressure 01 for a
norm a lly consolidated na tural d epos it. Fig . 13.25 shows the
Mohr circle in terms of total stresses obta ined from a
convenuooal CU test cond ucte d at a co nfining press ure of
0) on a normally consolidated clay.

By geometry. _c_"_ • s in 4'....

0") + e"

0") + e.. I
-c-"- - s in 4'.... Fig. 13.2.
'1. Relationship between C. , ca lind ~'"

~ • ....!....._I _ l - sint....
e.. ... . sin . ....
~. sin.4'.... 1 0·1,
0") I - s ID. .... C" 0·]
1be rat io c.. / o ) is a constant for a given clay. 55 0·2 ~= O' lI + 0. 00J7 PI
Skem pton suggested that a similar co nstant rat io ex ists 0·1
betwee n the undrained shear st reng th of norm ally O'OO!---7.":--tlO~30",,,
:,:-:,,
",""",,,,~,,,=-=,,,,,-:,,,""'''oo;-;n"'o-;',,'o
=~::~pr:~:l It ~~~n :~bl:hed ~~::~:
ratio (e.. / 0) is constant provided the plasticity index
P I (' .J
Fig. 13.26. Plot Between C,.I03 lind PI.
330 son. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(PI) of the soil remains constant (Fig. 13.26). An approximate value of the undrained shear strength of <I
normall y consolidated deposit can be obtained from Fig. 13.26, if the plasticity index has been determi ned.
The relationship is expressed as (Skenpton, 1957).

~ • 0.11 + o.oon PI
o
where Coo = undrained cohesio n intercept.
(j = effective over-b urden pressure
PI = plastici ty index (%)
TIle value of the ratio (Col / 0) determined in a conscljdated-undraincd test on undisturbed sam ples is
generally greater than actual value because of anisotropic consolidation in the fJeld. The actual value is besI
determined by in-situ shear vane test. as explained later.
13.22. UNC ONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
The uncon fined compression test is a special form of a triaxial test in which the confin ing pressure is
zero. The test can be co nducted only on clayey soils which can stand without confi nement . -Th c test is
genera lly performed 00 intact (non- f .••.s urcd), saturated clay speci mens. Although the lest can be conducted
in a triaxial test apparatus as a U~ test, it is mo re convenien t to perform it in an unconfined compression
testing machine. There are two types of machines. as described below.
(1) Mac hine wit h a sp ring. Fig. 13.27 shows the unconfmed compress ion test ing mach ine in whi ch a
loaded spring is used. 11ronsists of two metal cones which are fixed 00 horizont al load ing plates B and C
supported 00 the vertical posts D. The upper loading
plate B is fixed in postuco, whereas the lower plate C
can slide on the vertical posts The soil specimen is
placed betwee n the two metal co nes.
When the handle is turned, the plate A is lin ed
upward . As the plate A is attached to the plate C, the
latter plate is also lifted. When the handle is turned
slowly , at a speed of about half a turn per second, a
compressive force acts on the specime n. Eventually, the
specimen fails in shear . The compressive load is
proport ional to the extension of the spring . Spring _-++_~
The strain in the specimen is indicated on a chart 0
flxed to the machine . As the lower plate C moves F illC~ pl.""
upward , the pen attached to this plate swings sideways . Sa I
Pivot
The lateral moveme nt of the pen (in arc) is proportional Mewing p~trt
to the strain in the speci men. ~rr==:J::JIT:~~
The chart plate is attached to the yoke Y. As the r:
yoke moves upward when the handle is rotated, the chart
plate moves upward. lbe pivot of the ann of tbe pen
also ~oves upward with the lower plate. The vertical Ag . 13.27. U~ ned ~ prcui~ Tcoting
movement of the pen relative 10 the chart is equal to the MadJme (Spri ng Type).
extensioo of the spring and hence the compressive force. ThU\ the chart gives a plot between the de formatioo
and the compressive force. Springs of different stiffncsses can be used depending upoc the expected
compressive strengt h of the specimen .
(2) Machi ne wUh a Pro ving Ring. In this type of the unconfined compression testing machine, a
proving ring is used to measure the compressive force (Fig. 13.28). There are two plates, having cone seatings
for the speci men. The speci men is placed on the bottom plate so thai it makes con tact with the upper plate.
The dial gauge and proving ring are set to zero.
lbe compress ive load is applied to the specimen by turning the handle . As the handle is turned, the upper
SHEAR SfRENGll~ 331

plate moves downward and causes compression. (In some

machines , the upper plate is fixed and the com pressive load is
applied by rais ing the lower plate ). The hand le is turned
gradually so as to prod uce an axia l stra in of 1/2 % to 2% per
minute. The shearing is cont inued till the speci men fails or tiU
20% of the axial strai n occu rs, whichever is earli er.
The com pre ssi ve force is determ ined from the proving ring
reading, and the ax ial strai n is found from the di al gau ge
reading.
Presenta tion of Results . In an uncon fined compression test,
principal stress
the minor princi pal stress (03 ) is zero. The major . Proving ring
Bq. 13.21.
(0 1) is equa l to the deviat or stress, and is found fnm ~~I~
0t - PIA Moving plate
where P = axial load ,
and A = area of cross-section.
The axial stress al which the specimen fails is known 2S Conic al sE'a tjngs
the unconfined compressive strength (qu)' The stress- strai n
curve can be plou ed between the ax ial stress and the axia l
strain at d iffere nt stages before failure.
While calculating the axial stress, the area of cross- section
of the speci men at that axia l strai n shou ld be used. lhe Fig. 13~~~~~~n~~:g~i;n).Te'!ting
correcte d area ca n be ob tained fro m Eq. 13.20 ~
A - Ao/(I -£)
Th e Moh r circle am be drawn for stress co nditions at failure. As the m inor prin cipal stress is zero. the
Mohr c ircle passes th rough the orig in (Fig . 13.29). The fai lure envelope is horizontal (tu - 0) . The cohes ion
intercept is equal to the rad ius of the ci rcle , i.e.
0t qu
s- cu - T - "2 .•. (13.25)

...
Fig. 13.29. Mohr Cirdc: ror Unoonnnc:d ComlJl'CSSion Test.

Meri ts and Dem erits of th e lest

Merits
( 1) Th e test is convenient. simp le and qu ick.
(2) It is ideally suited for measuri ng the uoconso lidated-undmincd shearstrengt h of intact, saturated clays.
(3) The sensitivity o f the soil ma y be easi ly determi ned by conducting the test on an und isturbed sa mple
and then on the remoulded sam ple.
m SOi l MEC HAN ICS AN D FOUND ATIO N ENGINEERING

Demerits
(1) 1be test cannot be condoctcd on fissured clays.
(2) The lest may be misleadin g for so ils for wh ich the angle of shearing resistance is not zero. For sud!
soils, lhe shea r strength is not equa l to half the co mpressive stren gth.
(See Chapter 30. Sect. 30. 17 for the laboratory experiment).
B .2J. VANE SHEAR TE ST
The undrained shear streng th of sort clays can be determined in a laboralocy by a vane shear lest. The
test can also be conducted in the field on the soil at the bonom of a bore hole. 1be fteld lest can be
performed even without drilling a bore hole by dired. penetration of the vane from the ground surface if it is
provided with a strong shoe 10 protect it.
The apparatus consists of a vertical stee l rod having four thin stainless
stee l blades (vanes) fixed at its bottom coo. IS : 2720--XXX-I980

T
recommends tha t the height H of the vane shou ld be equa l 10 twice the
overall diameter D. The diameter and the length of the rod are
recommended as 2.5 mm and 60 mm respectively . Fig. 13.30 (a) shows a "mm
vane shear test apparatus.
For conduct ing the test in the laboratory , a specimen of the size 38
mm diameter and 75 mm height is taken in a containe r which is fixed
securely to the base. The vane is gradually lowered into the specimen till
f
r
the top of the vane is at a depth of 10 to 20 mm below the top of the
specimen . The readings of the strai n indicator and torque indicator are
taken.
Torq ue is app lied gradua lly to the upper end of the rod at the rate of
about 6 0 per minute (i.e. 0.10 per secon d). The torque acting on the
specimen is indicated by a pointer fixed to the spring. The torque is
continued till the soil fails in shear. The shear stre ngth of the so il is
determi ned using the formula derived below.
Deriv allon of Formula. In the deviation of the fonn ula, it is assumed
that the shea r strength (s) of the soil is constant on the cylindrical sheared
surface and at the top and bottom faces of the sheared cylinder. 1be torque
applied (1) must be equal to the sum of the resisting torque at the sides
(T1) and that at the top and bottom (T:z). Thus.
PLAN
+ '"
!'f05mm

T - T. + T2 •• •(a)
The res isting torque on the sides is equal to the resisting force
developed on the cylindrical surfac e multiplied by the radial distance .
Thu.~, (OJ

T1 - (strDH) x DI2 ... (b) Fig. 13.30. Vane Shear Test .

The resisting torque T2 due to the res isting forces at the top a nd bottom of the shea red cylinde r can be
detennincd by the integration of the torque developed on a circular ring of radius T and width dr (Fig. 13.30
(b»).Thus.
[,> f /2
T, - 2 f,on 1' {2xr) dr) , • • '" 3" J,
D'
T2 - ltS ~ .. .(c)

From Eqs. (0)' (b) and (c). T - x s Iv' H I2 + 1T' / 6]

SHEAR STRENOTIi 333

, - x (a' HI : + 11'16) ... (13.27)

For exam ple. if D = 1.2 em. and 1/ = 2 4 an. s = 0.158 T
where T is in N-cm and s in N/an 2•
Eq. 13.27 is modified if the top of the vane is above the soil surface and the depth of the vane inside the
sample is 111. In such a casco

... (13.28)

The shear strength of the soi l under undrained condi tions is equa l to the apparent cohes ion c...
The vane shear test can be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil Aft er the initial test. the vane is
rotated rapidly throug h several revolution', suc h that the soil becomes rcmoulded . The test is repealed on the
remou lded so ils and the shear strength in remoukled stale is derermlncd. Thus.

sensitivity (51) • (t;)~~~~~=

Merits and Demerits or Shear Vane Test
Merits.
(I) The test is simple and quick.
(2) It is ideally suited for the determination of the in-sit u undra ined shea r strength of non-fissured . fully
saturated clay.
(3) The test can be conveni ently used to detennine the sensitivity of the soil.
Demerits.
( I) The test cannot be conducted on the fissured clay or the clay co ntaining sand o r sill laminations.
(2) The test docs nor give accurat e results when the failure envelope is not horizontal.
13.24. PORE I)RESSURE PARAMlnERS
A knowled ge of the pore water pressure is essen tial for the determination of effect ive stresses from the
total Slrt'SSCS. The pore water pressure is usua lly measured in the field by installi ng piezometers. However. in
some cases. it becomes difficult and impractical to install the piezometers and measure the pore water
pressure directly in the field . For such ceses, a theoretical method for the determination of the pore water
pressure is useful Ske mpton gave the pore: pressure paramet ers which expm;s the response of pore pressure
due to cha nges in the total stresses under undrained conditions. These parameters are used 10 predict pore
water pressu re in the field under similar conditions. 1be expressi ons for pore pressure parameters are derived
separately for isotropic consolidation. [or dcviatoric stress and for the combined effect.

PRE ~E. u" PORE PRESSlflE • ..,.,.....0.11]

PORE PREi~RE INCREASE .Au)
(. )

Fig. 13.31. Pore Pressu re Under Isotrop ic Cooso li<b.tion.

334 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION F..NGlNEERING

(1) Pore Pre ssu re Under Isotropic Co nsollde noes. Let us cons ider a small element of a saturated soil
mass which is in equilibrium under three principal stresses 01' Oz and 0) [Fig. 133. (a)l . Let the initial pan:
pressure be Uo- When the element is subjected to an equal increase 6CIJ in all the three directions, let the
increase in the pore pressure be w) [Fig. 13.3 1 (b) ]. Conscquenuy, the Increase in the effective stress in each
directio n would be eq ual to (lior au).
let lhe initial volume be Vo and the porosity be n. As the soil is saturated, the volume of water would
be equal to nV o. If C, is the coefficient of rompressibility of the soil skeleton, the reduetioo in the volume or
the soil mass due 10 an increase in the effective stress (603 - dul) is given by
aVo. C~VO<A(J)-6U) ...(12)
If C" i'i the coefficient of volume cornpressibilily of pore Ouid under isotropic conditions. the reduaion
in the volume of voids is given by
& V,. - C" (n Vol & II) • • • (b)

Assuming thar the solid particles arc incompress ible. the reduction in the volume of the soil mass is equal
to the reduction in the volume of voids. Therefore, from 13qs. (a) and (b).
C, VO(li 0 ) - du) - C" (n VO> li u)
li u3 [nC" + C,}Vo - C, Voa 03
C,lia)
liu)_ nC,,+C,

aU3 - 8li0 3 . ••(13.30)

where B is known as the pore pressure parameter for the isorroptc co nsolidation. and is given by

B - 1 + n te" IC,) •••(1331)

In a fully sat urated soil. the compressibility of the 8
pore water (C,,) is neglig ible compared with the
compress ibility of the so il mass (C,). There fo re, the ratio
o- 8
(
I
(C" IV,) tends to zero and the coefficient B becomes
equal to unity. In other words. lhe change in pore water
pressure is equal to the change in the total stress. i.e. 6
& l3 - a03
In a partially saturated soil, the compressibility of
the air in the voids is high. 1be ratio (C,,/V,) bas a
o-4 /
value greater than unity, and, therefore. the pore pressure
II
coeffic ient 8 has a value of less than unity. The pore o·2
pressure coefficie nt B increases with the degree of /
saturation. but the variation is not linear (Fig. 1332).
There is a Sleep rise in the value of B at S = 80% or so.
(2) Pore Pressure Und er Devlator Stress . Let us
0·0
o 20
- ~
' 00
consider the element of a sat urated soil whic h is in
equilibrium under three principal stresses 01' Gz and 03
(Fig. 13.33). When lhe element is subjected to a deviator AI- 13.32.. Vari~lion of B with S.
pore water pressure be li tid • 1be changes in the effecti ve stresses in
stress 0d (- a1 - (3), let the increase in
the three d irections are given by
li at· dOd - liu4 .. .(a)
.. .(b)
~HEAR srRENOTI t

I.) Ib)

Fig, 13.33. Pore Pressure Under Deviator Stress.

and li 0 3 • - 6 ud ••.(c)
In an elastic material , the volumetric strain li VolVo is equal to the sum of the linear strains in three
dircction.s, and is given by

where £1 = strain in the direaion-t . 60

E, (60,E 60
- v E ') +
_60, (60' 60,)
- v +
£2 = strain in the direct ion -Z E E E

and £3 = strain in the direction -S • li °3 _ v (li °1 + d

E E E
o.z)
li Vo I - 2v
Therefore. -V; . -E - (li o l + 602 + li(3)

!iVo • ~ (liOI + Ani + li(3)

... (d)
Vo E 3
Because the soil is not a purely elas tic material Eq. (d) for soils is modified a<>
6 Vo ( 6 01 + !i.02 + A( 3 )
-V;. C, 3 ...(e)

where C, is the coefficient o f vo lume compressibility of the soiL

Substit uting the values of lio l • 6'0:2and li03 from Eqs. (0), (b) and (c) in Eq. (eo).

li Vo• (liOd - 6 ud - dUd - !iUd)

V C, 3 I
O

AVo. s. '(!iOd _ 3liu,t) .. .if)

Vo 3
As in the case of isotropic consolidation. the reduction in the vol ume of nU~d in voids is given by
li~. ~~~Ii.~ ... 00
As the change in the vo lume of the soil mass is equal to the reduction in the vol ume of voids,

i (lio" - 3Ii.u,, } Vo - C..(nVo)Au"

11u,,(n C.. + C,) Vo • C, Vo(li.o'p3)

6Ud' (_c. )
n C.. + C,
(60d)
3
,,. SOIL MECt lANtCS AND FOUND ATION ENGI NEERING

6 "• • (1 . ln~. ) t ).x ( (6o.J

Because a soil is not perfectly elast ic. the consta nt 1/3 is replaced by A in the above expression. Thus

littJ- - n
c.)
( A
1 . -
X (lJ.(JJ)
C.
Us ing Eq. 13.31, the above expressio n is wriuen as
Au,l _AB6 o" ... (13.32)
Bq. 13.3 2 can also be wmten as
A ll" - A !J.Ud .•.(13.33)
where A- A x 8 .. .(1334)
For II full y saturated soils, A is also equal to A. as B is unity.
The value of the pore pressure parameter A can be determined experimentally in a triaxial test. A
saturated soil specimen is set up under a certain oonfiningpressureand tbe pore water pres..sure is measured.
A deviator stress, lio,}o is then applied 10the specimen and the change in pore water pressure Au" is measured
under undrained conditions. The value o f the coeffi cient A. em be determ ined using Bq. 13.33. The
coefficie nt A is also equal to A. as n
is eq ual to unity.
Alt ho ugh the value of the parameter A can be de term ined ' ·0
at any stage of the load ing. its value at failure (A,) is of
mai n interest The parameter A, is required for the
determination of the shear strength which de pends upon
o·
the effecti ve stress at failure. The value of A, depends
upon such teeters as the oegree of saturation and over- At 0 - - ------
consolidation ratio.
For a heavily cvercorsolidared clay, there is a I -----,~-+-7--:<-"
tendency for the soi l to increase in volume (dilate) when -0·5;- 2 4 8 16 32
the deviator stress is applied. As 00 water can be drawn
OVER - CONSOLIDATION RATIO
into the soil to cause an increase in volume, a negative
pore press ure develo ps. Th is gives a negative value of Fig. 13.34.
AI' Fig. 13.34 shows the variation o f A, with over-consolidation ratio for a particular soil . Fa
overconsolidation ratio of grea ter than 4 .0, AI is negativ e.
For a high ly sensitive clay, the dev iator stress may cause collapse of the soil structure, and the value At
may be even greater than unily.
Tab le 13.1 gives the values of AI for different soils .
Table 13.1. Values or AI

S.Ho. Type of soil

l. Sensitive da y 1.5- 2.5
2.
,. NClnD<llly consoli dated clay
Ugh tly overconsolidaleed day
05-1.3
0..3-0.7
4. lIighly overccesolidated d ay -0.5-0.0
5. Very IClCUfine sand 2.0-3.0
6. Medium fine sand 0.0-1.00
7. Densefine sand --0.3--0.0
SHEAR SfRENGTI-I

(3) Pore pressure due to both Isotro ptc Consolidation and Deviator stress,
In a ron ventiona l triaxial test, the specim en is fll'St isotropically consolidated unde r a pressure of .1.03'
and then it is sheared under a deviator stress of (.1.01 - .1.0) . The pore pressuredeveloped em be obtained by
combining Bqs. 13.30 and 1332. as
.1.u _ .1.u) + !J..UtI
!J.. U - B!J..o) +AB (!J..o1-!J.. o)
!J.. u - D [!J..o) + A (ti 0 l-lio)] ... (13.3 5)
s u .. Bli.o) + A (ti 0l -lio) .. .(13.36)
where A -AxD
For a fully saturated soil. as D _ 1.0,
tiu - lio) +A (!J..0I-ti O) .. . (13.37)
The above eq uations can be used for dcrerml nerion of the pore water pressUfc in the Held when the
values of the parameters A and B have been de term ined.
13.25. MOIIR ·COULOMB FAILURE CRn- E RION
The Moh r-Coulomb equation was discussed in Sect. 13.6. The Moh r- Coulomb failure criterion can be
written in term s of princ ipal stresses. Fig. 1335 shows the failure envelope of a soil. It is tangent to the

F
"i-Oj
c cc t e I 'I ---r-. I
Fig. 1335. Mohr-Coulomb Failure Crill:r1on.
Mohr-circle at failure. The stress on jhe failure plane at failure i.s indicated by the point B on the Mohr circle.
The failure plane is indicated by the line BE. The failure plane makes an angle 8/ with the major principal
plane. The failure envelope has an intercept c on the t -axis and it cuts the a -axis (when extended back) ar
point A.
From the triangle ABC, sin f - qf
112(°1- 0 )

(-0120,- )
... [13.38(0)J
+
c cx c +

( 0 1 - ( 3 ) - 2ccosrp + (01 + O))sinq> ... [13.38(b)J

In terms of effective stresses, the above equenon becomes
(01 - 0 )) .. z c- cos e' + (01 + o)sinq>' .. .(1339)
where c' and . ' are shear streng th parameters in terms of effective stresses.
Eq. 13.39 may be written in a slightly modified form as
o~ - 0 1 sioq>" 0) sin sp + 0) + 2c' CO'>q>'
338 sou. MF.cHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

_ _ ~ 2 c' oos p '

°1 - 0) ( I _ sin 1fI') + 1 _ sin ,'
0 1 - 0 3 la02 (45 0 + 41'/ 2) + 2 c· tan (45 0 + $'12 ) . ..(13.40)

Thn2( 45° + . 12) is call ed flow ratio (N.).

Thus 0 \ - 0) N. + ze' iN;
For oohes ion lcss so il, c' - O.
The refore. 0 1 - 0) tan 2 (45° + , '12) (13,41)

01 - 0) ( ~ : ::~ : : ) (13.42)

When the stresses in a soil mass satis fy the above failure criterion, the failure is immincnr. The soil mass
is saki to have reached a sta le of plastic equ ilibrium. The failure cri terion is extensivel y used for the
dc tenn ination of earth press ure on retaining walls and in m an y ot her applications.
1be ang le 8, ca n be de term ined from the an gle o f sheari ng resistance ,t,
As the failure depend'> upon the
effective stresses and not the total stresses. lhc angle of shearing resistance affecting the orient ation of the
failure plane is " and nol the appare nt angle ,. Frt\lll the lriangJe ABC .
2 8, _90 • • '
8f • (45" + . '/ 2) ... ( 13.43)

13.26. MOIJIFlED FAI LURE ENVELOI lE

Mohr 's failure e nvelope is generally ob tained by drawing a romm on tangent 10 Mohr circles at failure
[Fig . 13.36 (a)] . Th is method of obtaining the failure envelope is noI convenient . as it becomes di fficult to
draw the required tangent touching all the circles. A modified failure envelope as expla ined below is more
convenient.
A modified failure envelope is a plot between p and q values at failure (Fig. 13.36 (b)], where

1;
1'----.L_'--_-L_-L L-
(0)

¥l:~=
. ~tP
Fig. 13.36. Conventional and ModiIied Failw-ee Envtlopes .
SHEAR SfRENGTH 339

... [13.44 <all

q _ at ; a3 .. .[13.44 (b)l

As discussed in Sect. 13.6. the coordinates of the top point of the Mohr circle corresponding to the
maximum shear stress are (al • a2l12 and (al - a31/ 2 and are, therefore, equa l to p and q.
In Fig. 13.36 (a), the points I, 2 and 3 give the maximu m shear stresses reached in the three tests at the
time of failure. These points arc: transferred to p-q plot in Fig. 3.36 (b), and a line is drawn through these
points. Tbe line makes an angle c' with the p -axis and has an intercept a' on the e-axls. This line is known
esthe modified failure envelope; and has the following equation in terms of effective stresses.
q _ p tan a ' . a'

(01;°3)_(°1; (3) lana' + a' ( 13.45)

(01 - ~) - (0 1 • ( 3) tan a ' • 2 a' (13.46)

A re1:Jtionship between the shear strength parameters c' and 4l' and the parameters of the modified
envelope a ' and a' am be obtained by comparing Eqs. 13.39 and 13.46,
sin !p' - tan a ' (13.47)
and c' cos cp' _ a' or c' _ a' sec 4l' (13.48)
The values of parameters c' and " are obtained from the intercept a' and the slope a ', using above
cquations:-- ~
It may be noted that points I, 2, 3, etc. represent the maximum shear stresses which are greater than the
shear stresses on the failure plane. The Mohr envelope givesthe shear stresses on the failure planes, which
are represented by the points of tangency; whereas the modified failure envelope joins the points of ma ximum
shear stresses at the time of failure.
The main adva ntage of the modified failure envelope is that the stress conditions at failure are
represented by one po int instead of a Mohr cil'fle. As the averaging of scattered points is easier than drawing
a common tangent to a number of circlcj; it is more 4.-
convenient than the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope . / Stress path
Despite this, Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is used more /
commonly than the modified failure envelope. A Mohr
envelope is more popular because it not only gives the
shearstrength parameters, but also' thc principal stresses at
the time of failure and directions of the failure plane. It 1\1
givesa better insight into the whole phenomenon.
The modified failure envelope is also known as the KI (a)
-line, It can be drawn either in terms of effective stresses or
in terms of total stresses. Q

13.27. STRESS PAll) Stres~ p a th

A stress path is a curve which shows the changes in
stresses as the load acting on the soil specimen changes.
Lambe's stress path is a commonly used stress path. It i.s a
line drawn through the points representing the maximum
shear stresses acting on the specimen as the load is
changed. In other words, it is the locus of points of
maximum shear stresses e xperienced by a specimen as the tbl
load changes take place. Fig. 13.37. StmlS Path.
340 SOI L MECIiANtCS AND FOUNDA'tl0N ENGINEERING

Fig . 13.37 (a) shows the Mohr circle I. II, III which represent the si ress conditions of a specimen as the
load on the specimen i s increased such that the minor principal stress remai ns constan t. The line joining
poin ts 1. 2. 3 at the tops of the Mohr circles is the srrcs..s path. It is more convenient 10 draw the stress ~th
on a p-q plot. as shown in Fig . 1337 (b). There is no need to draw the complet e stress circles. Only the stress
points 1. 2. 3. etc. corres ponding to maximum shear stresses are plotted. The direction of arrow on the stress
path indica tes the di rection of the stress changes.
There are basically three types of stress paths.
( l) EfTfi..1h'e Stress Path ~P). It is plotted between effec tive stresses (0 1 + 0 ) 12 and (01 - (3)12
(2) Tolal Stress Pat h (l'Sp). It is plotted between total stresses (01 + (3) /2 and (0 \ - 0 ) / 2.
(3) 'Ibtel Sll~ min u... sta tic pon: pressure pa th (I'SS I». It is a plot betwee n [(OJ +0 ))/2 - u~J and
(0 , - 0 J)/2. ..... here u~ is the static pore .....ater pressure.
It may be OOlcd Ihat the vertical axis for all Ihe stress palhs is Ihe same . as
01 - oJ 0 1 - 03
- 2- - - 2- - q
If the principal planes are horizontal and vertical, thc vertic il stress (o~) and horizon tal, st ress (0lr) are
lhe principal stresses. In tha t case. t he ebove three bas ic stress patbs can be drawn between
0 .. + 0.. 0 •. - 0 ..
(1) (2) -2-' - 2-

(3) ( o~ ; ° lr _ lis)and 0.. ; °lr • respect ively,

In the- norm al triaxial lest. as tbe Sialic pore wercr pressure (us) is zero, the stress paths (2) and (3)
coincide. Howeve r. if a back pressure is used in testing . the two stress paths will be differen t. In field, the
sta tic pore water press ure depends upon the positio n of the water table with respect to lhe point.

Fig. 1338. Differe nt Stress Paths.

Fig. 13.38 (a) shows the stress paths for a drained test. The point A corresponds to the stress co ndition
when only the confining press ure acts on the specimen. ( A<; 01 _ 0J,P _ 0). The point F represents the
failure. Fig. 13.38 (b) shows the stress paths for a consolidated undrained test on a normally consolidated clay
and Fig. 13.38 (e), on an ove r-consolidated clay.
Fig. 13.39 shows the effecti ve stress paths A - I for conve ntional triaxial compression test (0lt =
constant) i.e. 6. o~ = positive and 6.0/r = O. The typical example is the case of a footing subjected to the
vertica l loads .
The stress path A - 2 is for the unload ing case , when lio /r = negative and 6.0.. = O. The typical example
is the C3SC Qf active earth pressureon (he retaining walls .
1be stress path A - 4 is for the loading case in extension test when 6.0.. = 0 and 6.0.. = positive . It
represe nts the passive earth pressure C3SC.
ING snEAR STRENGTII 341

the
ling
-.alb
cess

Y~lj,ol Compr1! 55 iQr,

lory> r h)

~=---7f:.----------- •.!Yfb-
and
y~t;( o l 1!~If'n5jon
lrv<~ l

- Q

I'i g. 133 9. Loading and Unloading Stress Paths.

The stress path A - 3 is for the unloading case in the extensio n test. when 60" = 0 and eo, = negative .
11 repeeseras the C3..<>e of the foundation excavation.
The follow ing points about the stress path are worth noling.
(1) A negative value of q indicates that the hortt.ontal stress is greater than the vertical stress ; and a
(3) pos itive value. that the vertical stress is greater than the horizontal
the (2) TSP to the righ t of ESP indicates a positive pa: e water pressure and TS? to the left of ESP, a
negative pore water pres..s ure.
(3) TSSP to the right of ESP indicates a positive excess pore pressure and TSSP to the kft of ESP, a
negative excess pressure. When both roincide, excess pore: pressure is zero .
(4) Lines from any location 00 a stress path draw n at 45" 10 the axis CUi the horizon tal axis at a stress
equal 10 the horizontal stress.
Note. The stress path can also be draw n using the space d iagonal (Rendulic stress path), which is outside
the scope of the text,
13,21l. SnEAR STRENGTI) o r )'ARTIALLY SATURATE D SOILS
The e ffective stre ss in <I partially satura ted soil is dete rmined using Bishop's equation (see chapte r 10).
a- (J - U" - X (u... - II,,) . . .(13.45)
The parameter X depends upon the degree of saturntlon. As it is difficult to determine accurately the
tion effective stresses in partia lly sa turated so ils, it is co mmon practice to d raw the failure envelope in terms of
the total stresses.
clay Unronsolidated -undrained triaxial tests are cond ucted on a number of samples with a given degree of
initial sa turation (S). Tbc Mohr circles in terms 'T
rh = of total stresses are draw n at failure and the
the
failure env elope obtained (Fig. 13.40). No an
increase in confin ing pressure causes an increase
in the solubilily of air in voids, the degree of
nple
saturation increases, and the failure envelope
lends to the horizontal. For design purposes. the
e.It curved envelope is approximated as a straight
line. Ag. 13.40. Sln:lIgth Envd ope.
342 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

s-C.. + o tan f ... ...(13.50)

where s '" shear strength, c.. '" cobcslon intercept,
ep.. = angle of shearing resistance.
As it is difficull to draw the corroct failure envelope. 'r
the values obtai ned are necessarily approximate.
As the initial degree of saturation is - increased, the
shear stress to cause failure is decreased (Fig. 13.41). r-or
a fully saturated soil. the total stress failure envelope is
borizorual, as already d iscussed for fully sat urated soils.
'lh e tests arc conducted simulating the field
conditions. However, an actual soil deposit in field may
not remain unsaturated if it has an access to water. For
such a case, the soi l sample is saturated in the laboratory
and the undrained shear strength in saturated cond itions Fig. 13.4t. Failure Envelopes foc Durerem
should be determined. DegreeoC5.1.t\Jnltioo.

Partially saturated soils are encountered in the

nckt in artificial fills or residual soils. A compacted
soils is ordinarily place d at optimum water content
and it is therefore partia lly saturated. IL'i behaviour
depends upon the amount of air present in the pore
space. If the volume of air is relatively small, the
soil may get saturated under stresses. If the air
content is very large, the soil remains unsaturated
and undergoes L1rgC volume changes even in
undrained conditicas. The shear strength of partially Ol
satu rated soils is 001 yet fuDy understood . II is still
in the active research stage.
13.29. I1VOR."jLEV'S STRENGllI TlIEORY
According to livorslev's hypothesis, the shear
strengt h of remoulded, saturated days is given by
s • ce + (j tanfe ... (1351)
where ce = tru e cohes ion, 4'e true angle of internal
friction, (j = effective stress on the failure plane at
failure.
The constants c, and q.~ are known as the
llvorslcv shear strength parameters.
The true cohesion C~ depends upon the water
[,
cooten t (and hence void ratio) of the soil at failure,
,
whereas the true angle of internal friction 1', is ,
_ ~ ru ·~~"
approximately constant for a soil. It depends upon er>" lopr
the plasticity index of the soil. The angle 4l,
decreases with an increase of plasticity index of the
soil . T
At a given water content, the true cohesion c.. is 1: IL..-l-----l_ _~--~:__
directly proportional to the equivalent consolidatio n
pressure 0 ... and may be written as
c, _ Ko.. Fig. 13.42.
 SHEAR STRENGTII 343

l) where K is known us Hvors tev coe fficient o f cohesion. Accord ing ly, the shear st-eag th can be expressed

s • K(j~+ Olan cp~ .. .( 135 2)

Disho p and Henkel ( 1962) suggest ed a method for determ ination of c, and ,,~ from a series of
coosolidalcd-Wldraincd triaxial tests on nonnally conso lidated and over -ccosobda ted s peci mens . 1be two
failure envelo pes are obtained as usua l and are show n in Fig. 13.42 (b). The water con ten t at failure for the
two types of specime ns is p1ol.ted aga inst the maximum princi pal stress as shown in Fig. 13.42 (a).
For dete rmination of the true failu re envelope , any circle (sa y left c ircle I) for the ove r-consoli dat ed clay
in Fig. 13.42 (b) is chosen. The point corresponding to its maximum stress (°1)/ is projected upward to the
0 1- wI curve in Fig . 13.42 (a) to get the point 1 on the curve for ever-co nsolidated cla y. The po int 1 is
projected horizon tally across at ronstanI water content 10 obtain point 2 on the curve for the norm ally
coosolidat ed clay. The point 2 is projected downward to obtain the point (01)8 in Fig. 13.42 (e). lluough this
point, a Mohr circle 11 is drawn to touch the failure enve lope for normally' consolidated clay. In Fig. 13.42
(c), the: left circle I is the same as the circle I in Fig. 13.42 (b). The com mon tange nt to the circle I and Il in
Fig. 13.42 (c) is the true failure envelope. The parameters e~ and .~ are obtained from this envelope.
1be true failure envelope has been obtained using the concept thai two samples can exist at the sam e
water cornera, one as normally consolidated and one as over-corsobdared. As the water contents at points 1
arxl 2 are eq ual, the true coh esion is the same and the difference betw een the shear strength of the two
samp les is due to the internal friction on ly.
The fundamen tal properties o f soils can be st udied in terms of Hvorstev shear strength para meter.
However, the theory is gene rally used on ly for research purposes. For practica l 15e in e ngineeri ng problems,
the Mohr~lomb theory Ls comm only used .
13..JO. LIQUEFACTION OF SANDS
As d iscussed ear lier, the shear strength of sandy soils is given by the Mohr -Coulomb equation (Eq.
13.13), takin g the cohesion intercept as zero.
Thus s • a tan t ' ....(13.53)
If the sand de posit is at a depth of z below the grwnd and the water tabl e is at the gro und surface, the
effect ive stress is given by (sec Chapter 10),
(j • 1_ z - l",z. r ' Z
Therefore, S • l' z tan '*"
If the sand deposit is shaken due to an earth-quake or any other oscillatory load , extra pore water
pressure (u') develops, and the streng th equation becomes
s . (y'z-u')tan q.'
It can also be expressed in the term of exira pore pressu re head II, where u' • 1...h. Thus
s • (y' Z - y..M tan ~' ... (13.54)
As indicated by Eq. 13.54, the shear strength of sand decreases CIS the pore water increases. Ultimate ly,
a stage is reached when the soil loses all its strength. In which case,
1' Z -1...h • 0
s. i..y.
Z
Expressi ng hlz as critical gradient,
. (G - l)y. I
fe' • -r-:;:-e- . 1:
. G - 1
f~, . ~ .. .(13.55)

The phenomenon when lhe sand loses its shear strength due to oscillercey motion is known as
 9JIL M ECHA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

liquefaction of sand. The structures resting on soch soils sin k. In the effie of part ial liquefaction . the structure
may undergo excess ive settlement and Ihe complete failure may not occur .
. The soils most susce ptible to liquefaction arc the saturated. fine and medium sands of uniform particl e
size . When such deposits have a void ratio greeter than the critical void ratio and are subjected to a sudden
shearing st ressess, these decrease in volu me and the pore pressu re u' increases. The so il momentarily liquefies-
and behaves as a dense fluid. Extreme care sha ll be taken while cons truct ing structures on such soils. If the
deposits are compa cted to a void ratio smaller tha n the critical void ratio. the chances of liquefact ion are
reduced.
13.31. SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESIONLESS SOII1>
The shea r charac teristic; of cohcstonl ess soils can be summarized as given below.
The shear strength of coh csionless soils, such as sands and non- plastic s ilts, is mainly due to friction
between particles. In dense sands, interlocking between particles also co ntributes significant ly 10 the strength.
Tbe stress-strain curve for dense sands exh ibits a relatively high initial tangent mod ulus. 111c stress
reaches a max imum value at its peak et a comparatively low strain and then decre ases rapidly with an
increasing strain and eventually becomes more or less ccosrant, as discussed earlier. lhc stress-strain curve
for loose sands exhibits a rela tively low initial tangent modulus. At large strains , the stress becomes more sx
less constant.
The dense sand shows initially a volume decrease in a drained test, but as the strain increases, the volume
starts increasing. The loose sand shows a volume decrease througho ut.

andl~lt:a~ ~~~~~~:~~I ~i=~:~:;lg:., , .

;~~:r~:1~~3~~I.f~~=~::7~~:elh~~:S~ :\ .:'.:.: :~. \~ ?'.~: ".:~: i
specimen shows a clear failure plane and Ihe failure .' . . '. _' . . . • "'.:-:
is known as Ihc brittle failure [Fig. 13.43 (b)]. '"3 .:::':-., ~>.\. CJ ~ :..; >;:.~:: .:. ~
The failure en velope for dense sand can be .". ' ', ;-':: ;" .:: : .~' .
drawn either for Ihe peak stresses or for the . . ' .
ultimate stresses . The value of the angle of 9 '"i
shearing resistance (41')for the failu re enve lope for
pea k slrCSSCS is conside rably greater than lhat for (a) LOOSE SAND Ib} DENSE SAND
the ultimate stresses. In the ClSCof loose sands, as Fig. 13.43. Types of Failure.
the peak stress and the ultimate stress are identicaL there is only one failure enve lope. The angle of shearing
resistance in very joose state is appro ximately equa l to the angle of repcse. The angle of repose is the angle
at wh ich a hea p of dry sa nd stands without an y support, It has been establis hed that air-dry sand gives
approxim ately the same value of $' as the saturated sand. As it is eas ier to perform tesus on dry sand . tests
can be performed on dry sand instead of saturated s..md.
If the failure envelope is slightly non-linear, a straight line may be drawn for the given pressure runge
and the angle of shearing resistance is taken as the slope of Ibis line. The cohesio n intercep t, if any, is usually
neglected.
The angle of shearing resistance of sands in the field em be determined indirectly by conductin g in-situ
tests, such as the slandard penetration lest (SP1) as explained in chapter 17.
The Iectors thai affect the shear strength of cobcsicoless soils are summarized below :
(1) Shape of particles. "The shearing strength of sands with angular particle." having Sharp ed ges is
greater than that with rounded particles. other paramete rs being identical .
(2) Gradation. A well-g raded sand exhibits grea ter shear strength than a uniform sand.
(3) Denseness. The degree of interlockin g increases with an increase in density. Consequently. the greater
the denseness, the greate r the strength. Tbe value of " is related 10 the relative density (D,) as
0
" - 26 + 0.2 D,. However, the ultimate value of " is nOl affected by denseness .
~HEAR STRENGTIi 345

(4) Confining pres..,ure. The shear strength Increases with an increase in confming pressure. How ever.
for the range of pressures in the common field problems, the effect of confining pressu re on the angle of
shearing res istance is not significant.
(5) Deviat or stress. TIle angle . ' decreases unde r very high stresses. As the maximum deviator stress is
increased from 500 to 5000 kN1m 2• the value of t ' decreases by about 10% . Th is is due to the crush ing of
particles.
(6) Int ermedtete pri ncipal st ress. The intermedi ate principal stress affect.. the shear strength to a small
extent. The frictio n angle for dense sa nds in the plane strain case is about 2° to 4<> greater than that ob tained
from a standard triax ial test. How ever. for loose sand, there is practically no difference in the two values.
(7) Loading. 'lhc angle of shearing resistance of sand is independent of the rate of loading . TIle increase
in the value of t ' from the sl owest to the fastest possible rate of loading is only about 1 to 2%.
The angle of sheari ng resistance in load ing is approximately equal to thai in unloadin g.
(8) vtbratjons and Repe ated Iood ing. Repealed loading can cause signif1C3J1t cha nges. A stress much
smaller tha n the static failure stress if repeated a large number of limes can cause a very large strai n and
hence the failure .
(9) Type of min e ral s. If the sand contains mica, it will have a large void ratio and a lower value of . '.
However. it makes no difference whether the sand is composed of quartz or feldspar minerals.
(10) Capillary moisture. The sand may have apparent cohesion duc to ca pillary moisture. 1be apparent
cohesion is destroyed as soon as the sand becomes sat urated.
A person can easily wal k on damp sand near the sea beac h because it possesses strength due to capillary
moisture. On the same sand in saturated condi tions, it becom es difficult to walk as the capillary act ion is
destroyed.
Table 13.2 gives the representative val ues of cp' for different types of coheslonless soils.
Thble 13.2. Represen tative Values of ~' for Sands and Slits

s. No.
I.
2.
"'"
Sand , round grains, umfcrm
Sand , ang ular. welt-graded
.'
no 10 34"
33"10 45"
3. Sandy gravels 35"10 SO·
4. Silty sand V·I0 34·
5. Inorganic si ll V" 10 35·

Not e. Sma ller values are for loose condi tions and larger values are for dense co nditio ns.
13.32. SHEAR CllARACTERlSTICS OF COHESIVE SOILS
The shear characteristics of cohesive soils are summarized below :
The shear characteristics of a cohesive soil depend upon whether a so il is normally consolidated or
over-conso lidate d. The stress- strain curve of an over-consolidated clay is similar to tha t of a dense san d and
that of a norma lly consolidated clay L<; identical to that of a IClOSC sand. Howev er. the strai n required to reach
peak stress are generally greater in clay than in sand. lbc high streng th at the peak poin t in an
over-ccosobcatec clay is due to structura l strength; whereas in the oerse sand, it is mainly due to
interlockin g. In over-ronsolidated clay. strong structural bonds develop between the particles. Loose sands
lend 10 increase in volume at large strains whereas normally consoli dated clays show no tende ncy to expand
after a decrease in volume.
The effecti ve stress para meters (c', ~') for an overcorsojldated clay are determined from lhe fail ure
envelope.
s-c' +o ta n ~'
However. for a nonnall y coosouoatcc clay, the failure envelope passes through the origin and hence c' = O.
 SO IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGiNEEIlING

For "day, when tested in unconsolidated-undcraincd rest, the failure enve lope in terms of total stresses is
horizonta l (4'.. - 0) , and the shear strength is given by
s _ e..
For heavily over-consolidated clays. negative pore pressure develops during shea r, and the undrained
strength is more than the drained strength. The $.. = 0 concept, therefo re. leads to the res ults on the unsafe
side. Further; the cont inuity of heavily over-consolidated clays is commonly disrupted by a network: of hair
cracks and the average pressure is reduced. This results in a substantial decrease in its shear strength .
1bc gene ral behaviour of compacted (partially saturated) d ays is similar to a moderately
over-consolida ted clay. A total stress analysis is used for such soils .
The factors affecting the shear streng th of co hesive soils may be summarised as under:
(1) Struc ture of clay. The clay exhibits a definite structure. Even a normally-consolidated clay exhibits
a small peak: due 10 structural strength. In case of ovcr-coosoudarcd clays , the structural stren gth is
predominant.
(2) Clay content. The ultimate friction ang le 4" of the cohes ive soil depends upon the clay content. As
the clay content increases. the angte occreases. Further. the differe nce between the " at peak. and that at
ultimate condi tion increases with an increase in clay content, because the clay particles do 001 reach a fully
oriented face-to-face alignmen t at peak.
(3) Dra inage cond ilions. A<:, the cohesive soils have low permeability, the shear strength will depe nd
whether it is in drained condition or in undrained conditions . 1bc cohesive soils have very low strength just
after the application of the load when undrained conditions exist .
(4) Rote or strain. In the case of normally consolidated clays. the effect of rate of stra in upon the angle
of shearing resistance is relatively small. The value of 4" may decrease by abo ut 10% if the strain rate is
redu ced by a factor of 10. However, in some OISCS, the angle !fl' is found toIncrease with a decrease in rate
of strain. In the case of ove r-ccesobeercd clays, some of the shear strength is always lost when the rate of
strain i'> decreased.
(5) Intermediate principal stress. The values of c' and " are affected very little by the magnitude of
the intermediat e principal stress.
(6) Repeated loa din g. For clays tested at constan t water content, the shear strength is increased d ue to a
large numbe r of repetitions of the stress. However, if the stress intensities are too high, the cumulative
defonnations may result in failure .
(7) Confining pressure. The shear strength of clays increases with an increase in the confin ing pressure,
provided there is enough time available for the pore water pressure to dissipate .
(8) l)lasti cit y inde x. The value of " decreases with an increase in plasticity index of the clay. The
following relation is com monly used.
sin $'. O.814-0.234 log I01p
(9) Stress history. The values of strength parameters depend upon the stress history,
(10) Disturbance. Tbe shear strength of disturbed sample is less than that of the undisturbed samples.
Table 13.3. gives' the representative values of c.. for different types of cohesive soils for undrained
cond itions .
Table 13-1. Representative Values of ell for clay

S. No. Soil
I. Very sort d ay < 12
So ft to medium clay
,.
2
Stiff day
12 - 25
50 - tOO
4. Very stiff 100 - 200
s, HanI > 200
 IG SHEAR SI'RENGnJ 347

is 13.33. CnOICE OF TEST CONDITIONS AND SHEA R PARAMETERS

Test conditions and shear parameters should be chosen to represent the field conditions as closcly .es
possible.
00 In C3SC of coarse grai ned soils, drainage takes place quickly during the application of the load. Tests on
fe these soils are generally carried out under drained conditions. and lhcrcfore consolidated drained tests are
I ;' more common. However, in some special cases when large masses of saturated, fine sa nds are subject ed 10
quick loadings due to earth quakes or other causes, Ute undrained conditions are more relevant.
Iy In case of flne-grained soils, drainage takes place very slowly. Immediately after the application of the
load, undrained cond itions are suitab le. Howe ver, for fmal stability problems. drai ned tests are relevan t. as the
water content of such soils adjusts itself 10 the new condi tions in due co urse of time . Consolidated-undrained
Is tests are required for the cases when the soil gels
is consolidated under a certain loading and then additional T
load is applied; for example, in the case of earth darns,
wherein the soil gets consolidated under self weight
'"
at before the reservoir is filled and the wate r press ure
Iy causes additional stresses. Fig . 13.44 sho ws the shear
strength envelopes ob tained for a consolidat ed drained
,d (CD). consolidated-undrained (CU) and unconsolidated
undrained (UU) tests for a particular soil .
Sl
The choice be tween the effective stress analysis
(ESA ) using the effective stress parameters c' and ~' and 0 ""-- - - - ' -- - s-
Ie
the total stress analy sis (TSA) usi ng lhe apparent
is para meters c and .. depends upon the cond itioo wheth er Fig. 13.44. Envelopes£0£ Differenl TyPeS or Tails.
tc
)f the pore water press ure can be estima ted or not . If the pore water press ure can be esttmared (or measured).
the effect ive stress analysis shou ld be done, a'> it is more rational . It is based on well -esta blishe d, unique
funct ional relat ionship bet ween the shear st reng th and the ·e ffect ive stress on the failure plan e at fail ure.
)f
In case the pore water press ure cannot be accurate ly estimated or measured . the total stress analysis is
more convenient. However, it gives no ind ication of the real factor of safety. It is not known whe ther the
analysis woul d give error on the side of safety or on the unsafe side . The labor atory tests are conducted such
that the total stresses in the field are simulated. A tacit assumption is made thai. the pore water pressure that
develops in the field wool d be the same as in the labora tory. 1bc assumption may not be realised in pract ice.
e. Funher, it is not known whethe r the pore water pressure in the field is more than or less than in the
laboratory.
II may be emphasized tha t shea r st rength parameters do 001 have unique values for a given soil . These
parameters are meani ngless unless drainage conditions, type of strengt h envelope, the norm al stress range, etc.
are mentioned. Selection of these parameters will depend upon the field condi tions and the type of analysis.

ILL UST RATI VE EXAMI)LES

I uustra tlve Example 13.1. A. series of direct shear rests was conduc ted on a soil; ~ach test was carried
out rill the samp le failed. The folluwing results were obtained.

_ pie
No.
15
30 "
25
45 32

Determine the coh esion intercep t and the angle of shearin g resistance.
348 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

4.
ac
i
z
e 10
I-
16"
T ,.
i e 10 lO
... ( U. ,..,11
40

Fig. E-13.l.
Solution. fig . Ex. 13.1 shows the plot betwee n the shear stresses and normal stresses at failure.
From the plot, C _ 11 " N/ m 2, ill • 26°
Illustra ttve Exa mple 13.2. The folltJWing results were otnained from a series of consolidated undrained
tests on a soil; in which the pore waler pressure was not determined Dete rmine the cohesion i1l1ercept and
lhe angle of shearing resistance.

Sampl e COllfini/lg lHviQlor stress

Na pr«ssure Qlfajlure
2) 2)
(Wlm (Wlm
100 600
200
300 ""
870

Solulion. The major principal stresses in the three test arc 700, 950 and 1170 kN/m2• respective ly. Fig.
Ex. 13.2 shows the Mohr circle at failure in terms of total stresses.

600

'"~
E
400

I-

T
rso
1. 400 600 1200
cr tkN lm2 }
Fig. Ex. 132.
A co mmon tangent is drawn 10 the Mohr ci rcle.
From the plot, c - 150 kNhn 2, t = 24°.
m mlratlve Exampl e 13.3. A series of conso lidate d -undrained (eli) triaxial tests was conducted on an
over-consolidated clay and the fol,lowing results I+'e'Te obta ined.
SIIi:AR STRENGllt
".
St1mple Cdlprf!SSUrt! Deviator stress Port!'W;:;m~rt!
1) 1)
No. (kNlm (kNlm
1 125 510 -70
2 250 620 - 10
3 500 850 + 120

Pial the strength: envelopes in terms of total stresses and effective stresses. and hence determine the
strength parameters.
If the soil was p recanso lidated to a pressure 01 1000 kNlm1, plot the variation 01 the pore pressure
parameter AI with the over-consolidation ratio.
Solution. The table below shows (he required calculations.

Sample 0, 01 AI
01 u O.CR.
No.
'"
125 635 - 70
- OJ - U

195
" Ol - U

705
- u/OJ
-0.137 8.0
1
(=125+70) (= 635 + 70) ( = -701510) ( = 10001125)
2 250 870 - 10 260 880 - 0.016 4.0

r
3 500 13.':;0 + 120 380 12.'0 + 0.141 2.0

~ ,._
~I'' ' ..' -
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
 roll. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. Ex. 13.3 (a) show s the strengt h envelope in terms of total stresses. From the plot.
2
'" = 195 ", c = 140 kN/m
Fig. Ex. 13.3 (b) shows the strength envelope in terms of effectiv e stresses. From the plot,
2
. ' . 28.5°, c'. 50 kN/m
Fig. Ex. 13.3 (c) shows the plot between AI and O.CR
Illustrative Example 13.4. The following results were obtained from a consolidaed-sandrained (clJ)
test on a 1IOT17UJ1ly consolidated clay. Plot the strength envelope in terms of total stresses and effecti l'e stresses
and determine me strength paramet ers.

Sample
No.
Cell pTe!m4Te
(V/lm
2)
Deviator stress
(1;NIm2)
Pore 7:;",~~ssure
1 250 152 120
2 500 300 250
3 750 4'5 350

So lution. Th e table below shows the calculations for principal 100ai stresses and effect ive stresses.

Sampk
No. 0' 01 u 0, 01
1 2.<0 402 120 130 282
2 500 BOO 2.<0 2511 550
3 750 1205 350 400 855

Fig. Ex. 13.4 (a) and Fig. Ex. 13.4 (b) show the plot in terms of effective stresses and total stresses,
respectfvety,
600

'1 400

~
t- 200

Fig. Ex. 13.4 ( a) Fig. & .13.4(b)

From the plot in terms of 100aistresses, ,,= 14°
From the plot in terms of e ffective stresses, " = 22"
D1mtnati"e Exampl e 13.5. A sample s:
soil failed in a triaxial test under a deviator stress of 200 kNln(
when the confining pressure war 100 kNlm . If for the same sample, the confining pressure had been 200 kNlm2,
=
wIuu would have been the deviator stress (1/ failure? Anwne the soil has (a) c 0 and (b) 41 o. =
Solution. 1be stress 01 in the first lest :::: 200 + 100 = 3(D.
(a) Fig. E 135 (a) shows the pia for c ::::: O. The envelope has been drawn tangential to lhe flrSt circle.
lbe second circle has beendrawn c:uch tha i it passes through a } = 200 and is also tengcmtal to the envelope.
From the plot, • • 30°.
 SHEAR STRENGTIf 351

Alternative method
From Eq. 13.3 8 (0), sin ~ _ ~: : :~ _ 0.5

In the second test. , remains equal to 30°.

. (0, - ( 3)12
Therefore. from Eq. 13.38 (0). Sin ' - (0 , + 0 })12

0.50 _ °1 - 200 or 0 ... 600 kN/m1

0, + 200
'Iberetoee, 0 1 - 03 _ 600 - 200 _ 4<XJ kN/ m2
(b) From the pia when t ' '"' 0,
0.- 03 _ 200 , a<; shown in fig . Ex. 13.5 (b)

'.
<r ( kN Im2)

(a) Cb)

From Eq. 13.38 (0).

01 - 385.4

~I IIlustralive Example 13.7. The ssesses on 0 failure plane in a drained test on a cohesionless soil are as
under:
Normal stress (0) = 100 leN/m2.
Shear stress (t) = 40 kN/m 1.
(a) Determine the angle of shearing resistance and the angle which the failure plane makes with the
mnjorprincipal plane.
(b) Find the major and minor principal stresses.
Solution. fi g. Ex. 13.7 shows the Coulomb failure line passing through the origin and the point A with
coordinates (100. 40).
tan,' _ ; : _ 0.4 or, _ 21.80 °
From Eq. 13.43, the angle which the failure plane makes with the major principal plane ,
8 _ 45 -+ , '/2 _ 45 + 10.9 • 55.9°
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDA110N ENGtNED.IN G

k N/ m 2

Fig. u .13.7.
(b) The centre C of the Mohr circle 'is located by drawing a normal AC to line OA at A. Mohr's circle is
crawn through point A, with its centre at C. The circle ruts the o-axis at points lJ and D.
2 2
From the figure , 03 - 73 kN/m , 01 _ 159 kN/m
1be stresses OJ and " 1 can also be cotaiocd analytically as follows.

Length OA • " 100' + 40' • 100.7

A C _ OA _ 43 kN/m 2
tan ~'. _ 107.7 )( tan 21.80
DC _ OA sec e' _ 107.7 x sec 21.8 0 _ 116 kN/ m2
OD _ DC ... AC _ 116 ... 43 _ 159 kN /m 2 - 0 1 '
2
on - DC - AC - 116 - 43 - 73 kN/m - OJ .
Illustrative Example 13.8. An undrained triaxial comp ression test was conducted on a sample of
compacted clay. Por e-wa ter pressure was measured after tM appli cat ion of the cell pressure and also at
fail ure, as gi ven bel ow. Find the por e pr essure coefficie nts A and B.
(a) Consolidation stage. Change in ce ll pressure = 0 to 100 kNlm 2
Change in pore waler pressu re = - 60 to + 10 kNlm 2
(b) Shearing stage. Deviator stress at failure = 500 kN lm 2
2.
Pore pressure at failure '" - 70 iNlm
Solution . From Eq. 13.30, Ii U3 • B Ii 03

or [1O-( - 6O)J -8[100 -0J or 8 _0.70

From Eq. 13.32. Ii UJ - All Ii OJ
( - 1fJ- IO) - A x O.7(SOO) or A--O.23.
Illcstratlve Example 13.9. A shear vane of 7.5 an diameter and 11.0 em length was used to measure tht
shea r stren gth of a soft c lay. If a torque of 600 N-m was require d to shear the soil, calculate the sluw
s trength.
The vane was then rotated rapidly to cause remoulding of the soil. The torque requ ired in the remoulded
state was' 200 N -m. Det ermine the sensitivity of the soil .
Solut ion. From Bq. 13.27,
T 600 )( 10-3
S - :I ([)2 H/2 ... d /6) - ;( [(7.5)2)( 11.0/2 ... (7.5)1/6] X 10-1>
s _ 503 kN/m2
'G .SHEAR srRENGTII 353

In the remoulded state.

$,.." _ 200 x lCr) • 168 kN / m2
l't[(75)1)( 11.0/2 + (7.5)3/ 61 )( 1O"-fI

From Eq. 13.29. sensitivity _ : • 3.0

Illcstreuve Example 13.10. A se ries of triaxial tests was conduc ted on samples of Q cohes ionless soil
and the follo wing readings were taken for the deviato r stress (1cNlm 2) at different strains . Draw the stress-
strain curves and heTJJ:€ obtain the values of .he secant moduli ar one·half the ultimase stress,

Sampl'
Na

1
~(!tN/1ft )
50
I

IS
2

27
3

36
4

43
5

49
6

54
7

57
8

6'
9

63
10

64
2 100 22 37 49 58 OS 72 76 .79 81 82
150 OS
3 32 52
" 89 88 96 96
Solution. Fig. Ex. 13.10 shows the stress-strain curves for the soil at three d iffere nt confinmg pressures .
98 99

From the plot, the values of secant moduli are ob t.ained.

~ . I~kNI.,..2

of
at

Slr O< n ( '/.) _

Ag.E.H.10.
(E,) , for o, • 50 kN/m 2 is 1250 kN /m 2
(E,h for o, _ 100 IcN/m 2 is 1750 kN/m 2
2
(E,h for a c - 150 kN/m 2 is 2700 kN/m
he
PROBLEMS

'cd A. Numerical
13.1. The principal stresses al a point in a material are 80 kN/m2 and 40 kN/m 1. Determine the normal. shear and
resultant stress on a plane il'Clined at 30° to the major principal plane. .
Find also, for urls plane, the maximum value of obliquity. [AnL 70; 173 ; 72.1 kN1m2; 19.47)
13.2. On a failure plane in a cohesionless soil sample, the normal and shear stresses are found as 10 kN/m2 and 4
kN1m2. Delermine the resuna nr stress on the plane of failure, me angle of shearing resistance and me ioclinalioo
of failure plane 10 the major principal p1nne. (ADS.10.8 kN/m2 ; 21.8 0 ; 55 .9" )
U.J. A consoIidaled·undlained triaxial tCSlwas ronduaed on a saturated clay. When the oonfining pressure was 200
 SOIL ME CHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERJI"G

kN/m2, the sa mple failed at a dev iator stress of 500 kN/m 2. The pore water press ure was 150 kN/m2. Th e failure
plane occu rred at an angle o f 60° to the horizon tal. Determine the nor rMl and shear stresses on the failure plane
at failure. Also calcu late the the maxim um shear stress .
2,
(i l) If the same specime n were tcsted in a drained test with a co nfining pn... sure of 200 kN/m what would have
.....
2
bee n the devia tor stress at fail ure? c = 44 kN /m . {A n.". 226.5; 108; 125: 552.4 kN/m1
2
11.4. A cyli ndrica l soil sample failed at an axial lood of 140 kNhn in an unconfl ned compression resr. The faillllt
plane makcs an angl e d 54 - wi th horizont al. Determine the soi l propc nics. (Ans. lp = 181
13.5. The followi ng resens were obta ined from an und rained shear bo x tcst o n a soil.

NormaJ Load (N) 250 500 750

Failu" load (N) 320 460 6 10
Det erm in e the st re ngth parameters in terms o f total stresses. Th e cross-sectional area of the shea r box W1S
2.
36 c m (An..... = Z9", c '" 55 kNlm1
13.6 . The resu lts of a CO test o n a oornpaded soil are given below:

• (01-0l)
sa mple No.
'"
(kNlm1 (kN1m1
70 2'0 -to
350 550 . .0
Determi ne the cohesion intercept and the angl e of shea ring resistance in terms of (0) «sat stresses (b) effeaive
2;
stresses. [Ans, 21°, 55 kN/m 29-, 20 kN!'nl]
13.7. A shea r vane, 75 em dia and 11.25 em long, was pressed into sof t day at the bottom of a bore hole. Find ~
shear stre ngth of the day if the torqu e required for failure was 40 te-rn. [Ans, 33 kNilll1
13.8. In an uncon fined compression lest, the fal lowing results were obta ined . Diamete r of sam ple = 3.75 an. Length
of sample '" 75 an. Sping extension = 3.00 an. Spring coosam " 100 N,\.m. Defcnmrion of somple " 12 mm
Dete rmine the uncon fined com pressi ve stre ngth o f the soil. (An.s, 228. 1 kNIm~
2
....sare of 2S0 kNhn . The angle d
13.9 . A sa mple o f dry seed was s ubjected 10 a tr iaxial lest. with a con fining pn...
shearing resistance was found to he J6 0 • At what value of the majo r principa l stress, the sam ple is likely to fail!
(A n.s. 963 kN/m1J
13.10 . A d irect shear test was pcrformed on a 6 em )( 6 em sample of dry sand. The normal 1001.1 was J60 N. Tlx
failure occ urred at a shear load o f I SO N. Plot the Mohr strength envelope, and determine 4'.Assume I; ,, 0.
2;
Also determine lhe pri ncipal stresses at failure . [An s. 26.S7°; 69. 1 kN/m 18 1.1 kNlm;
2 2
13.11. An embankment is co nstructed of soi l, with c' " SO kN/m , . ' " 20° and y " 16 kN/m . Determin e the pm
water pressure , effec tive stress . shear stren gth of me so il at the base o f ,e mhunkmc nt jus t after the fill has bee!
raised from 3 m 10 6m. 'Iak e pore pressure coeffi cients A and B as 0 .50 and 0.80 , respect ively, and the latelil
pressure as one-h alf of the vertical pressure . [An ,,- 28.8; 67.2; 74 .5 kNlm;
13.12. A series of sheer tests was performed on a soil. Each test was carri ed out until the soi l sampl e sheared and Ih!
princi pal stresses for each lest arc as follows.

Test tl3(kNlm 2) m(kNl m1

300 . 75
400 1160
SOO 1460
Plot the Mohr circle of stress and determine lhe strength envelope and angle o f internal friction o f the soil.
[Ans.29'i
B. Descriptive and Objective Type
13.13. What is Mo hr 's Slrength thoory for soi ls? Sketch typical strength envelopes for a clean sand.
13.14 . Describe direct shear test. What are its merits and demeri ts?
13.15. Describe the triax ial shear test. what are the adva ntages of triaxial shear test ove r the direct shear tesl?
13.16 . Wha l is unconfined romprcssion lest? Sketch the appara tus used . What is its adva ntage ove r a triaxial test~
:UNG SHEAR STREN GTH 355

allure
13.17. Defin e slow. qo rck and co n...ohdar ed quick tria xial shear lest. illust rating their u e hy at lea.'" one field example.
plane 13.18. What is Mo hr' s d rde'! Discuss its important charac scns ncs.
13.19. wme revised Mohr -Couto rnb equation. Ho w J oe!>it d iffer fmm the original eq ualion?
13.20. Diffe rentiate between Ihe uress-con troued ..md the strJin-eolllrtllted test s. Why the latter tests are more
co mmo nly conduct ed?
13.21. Discuss the shear cturactcncncs of cchesionlcss ......ils and cohesrvc Sllils.
13.22. Explain the wo rking of the following accessories of a triaxrnl 1C.'1 apparatus
(al Pore pressu re mea uremc nt device,
(b l ~t ercu ry control !>y tern,
13.23. Deri ve a rdationship bet ....ecn the pri ncipal stresses at failure usmg Mohr-Coulomb tail ure criteri o n.
13,24. Discu ss modifi ed failure envelo pe. w h at arc us advu magec and disadv antages o ver Ihe standard fail urc
envel o pe?
13.25. Whal is stress path? Sketc h differe nt types of stress palhs 11Mcan he obta ined in a tri axial test.
13.26. Discuss the shear chamcrcnsncs 01 partially satu rated so ils.
13.27. w hat is Hvors tev' strl'nglh theo ry '! How docs il differ from the the Moh r-Coulomb theory '!
13.2"1. What IS liq uefaction ot sauds '! How L',lI1 it he prevented '!
13.29. Discuss how the shear lest co mhuo ns are decided. Where would you me the effective stress anal ysis and whe re,
thc tctal stress unulysis ?
13.30. Writ e whether the tollowing state ments are true or false.
( 0 ) 111eor igin and the pole arc the same point in a Mnhr ctrctc.
( h) On the failure plane.lhe shc'IT stress is maxim um.
Ie) Th e M ohr circle ClIO be draw n for all inte rmediate loadings in <I shear OOX I('Sl.
(d) According ttl Mohr's IhCf.lry. the fa ilure en velope is a strength line.
h') Th e shear strengfh of a soil depends upon Ihe total wresses
(j) The Mohr circle for unconfined compression test J1<lsscs th r oug h the origin.
(g> In a stress-controlled te~. lhe stress-strai n curve after the peak can easily be obtained.
(11) Con solid ated drained test is aho know n a, slow test.
hl Consoli dated undrained lesion sand can be conducted eas rly in a direct shear rncc hme.
Vl 1lle dense saOtI increases in volume during shear,
(,t) At crit ical void ratio. the volume ch. egc duri n~ ShCilf is maxim um
(I ) T he pore pressure duri ng ,I shear lesi on a normally consolidated clay is neg ative.
(III) The effective Slrel>-" failure enve lope o f a on mlally cons olid ated clay passes through ongm.
(n ) The failur e env elope for a normally t'om.\, lid:lloo clay in terms o f tot al stresses obtained from an
uncousclidared undrmned test is horizont al.
(o) Th e dense sand has a hriule fracture.
(I') V:lI1e .•hear test ca n he cond ucted o n <1l1lypes (If soil.
(q) The unconfined o:tll11 pressinn test can be conduc ted on :\ cuhcsionlcss scil.
(r) The pore pressur e parameter 8 is equal to unity for saturated so ils.
(s) The failure plane mnkcs nn angle of (45 0 + ljI/2) with the major principal plane. where 4I is the ang le of
sheari ng resistance in terms of total stresses
(r) It is eas ier ttl dr aw the modifi ed failur e e nvelo pe than the Mohr-C oulom b envelope .
(/I) Dense sand s lire liilh1e 10 liquefaction. -
IAIls. True . ifl, (!I),(j). (mi. (n ), (a), Ir ), (t) )

c.. Mu lti ple Ch oice Qut's lion.s

I. The shear slrength 01 pla-ne undrained day depends upon
(a ) Intern al friction Ih) Cohesio n
(c) Both (oj and (hI (t!) Neither luI and (bl
2. When drainage is perrniucd throughou t the triaxial test. the lest is know n a...
(a ) Quick test (b) Drained test
(d Consohdared undrained tesl (dJ None of (u). (h) a nd k)
'56 SO IL ME CHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

3. The shear streng th of a cohesicnlc ss soil is

(a) proport ional 10 the angle o f shea ring resistance .
(h ) inversely proportiona l 10 the ang le of shearing resista nce .
(e) proportiona l I\) lhe tungcm of the angle o f shearing resista nce .
lei) None of above .
4. The angle of the failure plane with the majo r princi pal plane is gi ven by
(a) 45 + Q'
Q
(h) 45 + $'/2
Q

Ie ) 45 ~ - Q'f2 (tf) 45 - 0'

where ~. is the angle of shearing resistance.
S. For a heavily over-cxmsolidatoo clay. the pore pressure coeffic ient A, is in the range of
(a) 0.7 to 1.3 (b ) 0,3 10 0 .7
{el - 0.5 to 0.0 (til -1. 0 [0 -0.5 0
6. If the angle of the modified failure enve lope is c'. the ang jc o f shearing resistance ¢I' is given by
(a l cos (j)' = [an «' (bl sin (jl' = Ian n'
(c) tan 41' = sin rl (If) None of "hove
7. Coul omb 's equunnn for shear stre ngth can he rep resented as
(aj c =s+(J tanQ ( h l c = ,~ - O'l<ln¢l
(c) 5 '" 0 + cmn e (tl) .\ '" c - o tanil!
8. For satu rated . normally ccnsohdarcd soils , Skcmpton's pure pressure coeffic ients can be represented as
(0 ) A < I, B = I (h l A > I . B > I
(c) A> I, B< 1 (I1) A< I. B> 1
2
9. ~~e:~u~~~:n~I~~~~~.~:~~~~~~o~e:~~e~,;:~ai7Ple failed at a de viator stress of 200 kN/m when the reD
(a f 200 kN/m 1 (b ) 100 kN/m
2
(e) 300 kN/m
2 (e/) 50 k N/m
1

10. A dry sand specimen was tested in a tria xial mach ine with the cell pressure of 50 kPa. If the deviator stress a
failure W ;lS 100 kPa. the angle of shearing resistance is
(a) 30 a (b1 15a
(e) 45 6 (e/) «Y'
~~ I . t ~2 . ( ~ 3 . ( c l 4 . ( " ~ ~ .~~ l 7 . ( ~ & ~ l ~ I ~I Q ~
NO

14
Compaction of Soils

14.1. INTRODUCTION
Compaction means pressing the soil particles close to each other by mechanical methods. Air during
compaction is expelled from the void space in the soil mass and, therefore, the mass density is increased.
Compaction of a soil mass is done to improve its engineering properties.Compactiongenerally increases the
shear strength of the soil, and hence the stability and bearing capacity. It is also useful in reducing tbe
canpressibilily and permeability of the soil.
Compaction is an entirely differen t process than consolidation disaJssed in chapter 12. It is important to
Dole the following basic differences between the two processes, even though both the processes cause a
reduction in the volume. .
(1) Coosolidation is a gradual process of reduction of volume under sustained. static loading; whereas
cmpecucn is a rapid process of reduetioo of volume by mechanical means such as rolling, tamping and
V1bration.
(2) CoosoIidation causes a reduction in volume of a saturated soil due to squeezing out of water from the
soil; whereas in compaction, the volume of a partially satarered soil decreases because of expulsion of air
from the voids al the unaltered water ccorent (Fig. 14.1).

Cal COMPACTION Cbl CONSOLIDATION

Fig . 14.1.
(3) Consolidation is a process which occurs in nature when the saturated soil deposits are subjected to
stade loads caused by the weight of the buildings and other structures. In coerrest, oompaction is an artificia l
process which is done 10 increase the density (unit weighl) of the soil to improve its properties before it is
pol to any use.
Compactioo of soil is required for the construction of earth dams, canal embankments, highways.
runways and in many other engineeringapplications.This cbapter deals with various methods of compactioo
and their effects 00 the engineering properties of the soil Various other methods of site improvement are also
discussed.
(Stabilisatioo of soilS is discussed in chapter 15).
ass SOIL M ECHANICS AN D FOUNDATION ENOIN EI!RING

I·U. STANDARD I'RO(.iOR TEST

To assess the amount of contraction and the water content required in the field, conpactlon tests arc
done on the same soil in the leborarory, The tests provide a rctatlonshfpbetween the water content and the
dry densi ty. The wate r content at which the maxim um dry densiLy is attained is obtained from the
relatio nships provided by the rests .
Proctor (19.13) used a standar d mould of 4 inches internal diame ter and an effective height of 4.6 inches,
with a capocny o f 1(.'0 cub ic fool. The moukl had a detachable base plate , and a rcmov eele collar of 2 inches
heigh t at its lOp. The soil was compacted in the moul d in 3 equal layers. each layer was given 25 blows of
5 5 pounds ramm er ru Uing through a height of 12 inches. A curve was obtained between the dry density 300
the water content.
IS : 2720 [Part VII) recommends essentially the same specifications <IS in Standard Proct or tes t, with
some minor modifications and mclrific<ltion. Th e moul d recommended is of 100 mm diam eter, 127.3 mm

tl ~~, ~~~~d~

acse plole

to} Fig. 14.2. St.lnJ.1N Procter Test.

height and lOCXJ ml capocny (Fig. 14.2 (0» . The rammer rcoommendcd is of 2.6 kg mess with a free drop of
310 mm ana a race diameter of 50 mm. lbe soil is compocrcd in lhrce layers. Tbc mould is fixed 10 a
detachable base plate. The col lar is of 60 mm height.
If Ihe percentage of so il retained on 4.75 mm steve is more than 20%, a larger mould of intern al dia meter
150 mm, effective heigh t of 127.3 m m and capacity 2250 ml is recommen ded .
Procedure. Ahout 3 kg of air-dried, pulverised soil passing 4.75 mm sieve is taken. Waler is added to
the soil to brin g Its water content to about 4% if the soil is coarse-grained and 10 eoout 8 % if it i'i
nn e-grained . The wa ter conten t should be much less than the expected optimum water content (Table 14.l}
The so il is mixed thoroughly and covered with a wet cloth and len for maturing for about 15 to 30 minutes.
Ta ble 1.1.1. Range of O pt imum Wat er Co nten t
Sand Sil l Clay
6 to 10% 121016% 14 1020%

lbc mould is cleaned , dried and greased lightly. 1be muss of the emp ty mould with l.he base plate. but
wilhout cotter . is taken . The collar is Ihen fitted to the mould . The mould is placed on a solid base and fiDed
with full y matured so il to abou t onc-lhird its height. The soil is compcctcc by 25 blows of tbe rammer, with
 COMPAcnON OF SOILS 35.
a free CaU of 310 mm . (The numbe r of blows requ ired Corthe bigger mould of 225 0 ml capacity is 56 instead
of 25). The b lows are even ly distribu ted over the surface. The soil surface is scratc hed with a spatula before
thesecond layer- is placed. The mould is filled to about two- thirds he ight with the so il and compacted again
by 25 blows. Likewise. the third layer is placed and compacted. The third layer shou ld project above the top
of the mould into the collar by not more than 6 mm.
The collar is rotated to break the bond betwee n the soil in the mould and tha t in co llar. The collar is then
,.s, removed, and the soil is trimmed off flush with the top of the mould. The mass o f the mould , base plate and
lhe compactedsoil is take n, and thus the mass of the compacted soil is determined. Th e bulk density of the
,f
soil is computed from the mass of the compacted soil and the volume of the mould .
'" Represen tative soil sampl es are taken from the bot tom, middle and top o f the mould for dete rmining the
water content. The dry density is computed from the bulk dcn.sity and the wa ter conreru.
Ih
Bulk mass dens ity, P _ ~ gm /m1 . . .(14.1)

where M ::: mass of compacted so il (gm), V ::: volume of the mould (mJ).

Dry densi ty. Pot- ~ . . .(14.2)

where w is the water content.

The soil removed from the mould is bro ken with hand . More water is add ed to the soil so as to increase
the water con tent by 2 to 3 %. It is thorough ly mixed and allowed 10 mature . The test is repeated and the dry
density and the wa ter conte nt are determined.
Co mpa cti on Curve. A compaction curve is plotted between the water content as abscissa and the
ccresponcing"dry densi ty as ordinate (Fig . 143). It is observed that the dry dens ity initia lly increases with
an increase in water content till the ma ximum density 1.9 5
(P.Jo=is attained. With further increase in wa ter conten t, ,,
!be dry density decreases. The wa ter co ntent
coresponctng to the maximum dry density is known as 1-90
the optimum water cont ent (D .W.C.) or the optimum '=
moisture content (D .M.C.). ~
\\
£ 1-85 J!~!.~!
'--Zt'ro -Clir vood
At a wa ter content lower than the opt imum , the soil _ 0

.i'
is rather stiff and has lot of vo id spaces and, therefore, ; \\:,100 'OSOMO"OO ho-
of :: ~:~resis~~'~~e<t=~1:~isCl=! 1~
aM move into densely packed positions and the dry 0
I
I
I
acr :i~b/"o~~=~h~IO~~~~~:lt ~a:~t~c::~~::; 1.75 1 \
density, as it occupies the space thai might have been
I to ~.pied by so lid particles, as further exp lained in Sea. \,J() 6~-::-'---':;"'--:12;-;':\."'0."",,,~.~~;-;:,-
• 20 12
---
t ;s
.1) . For a given water content, theoret ical maximum
tea. density, (P.dl'-mar , is ob tained corresponding to the fig. 14.3. Compocdon Curve.
concition when there are flO air vo ids (i.e. degree of saturation is eq ual to 100%). The theoreti cal maximum
dry density is also known as saturated dry density (pAm' In this condi tion. the soil becom es saturated by
nxIuetionin air voids 10 zero but with no change in water cont ent. 1be soil cou ld also become saturated by

but
is
increasing the wate r con tent such that all air voids are filled . As we are interest ed in the dry density at a
given water cont ent, the latter case not relevan t here. An expressio n Cor the theoreti ca l maxim um density is

moo
wi th
developed below.
From the equations developed in chapter 2, the dry density (Pd) is expressed as
 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEERING

G p.
Pd·~

G p.
As e • wG /S , Pd· 1 + (w G/S) •..( 14.4)
It may be mentioned that compaction methods cann ot remove all the air voids, and, therefo re, the soil
never becomes fully saturated. Thus , the theoretical maximum density is on ly hypothet ical. It can be
calculated from Eq. 14.4 for any value of w if the value of G is known . The line indica ting the theore tical
maximum density can be plaited along with the compaction curve, as shown in Fig. 14.3. It is also known as
zero air void line or 100% saturation line.
Likewise , the lines for other degrees of saturation , say 80% , 90% etc. can be drawn . For exampl e, for S
= 90 %, Bq. 14.3 becomes
G p.

For theoreti cal maximum density, n.. • O. There fore,

(Pd)" _ · 1 ~p;G (same as Eq. 14.4)

Thus, the zero-air void line and 100% sa turation line are identica l.
The lines for othe r percentages of air voids, such as 10% , 20% etc. can be drawn . For example , fo r 10%
air voids, Eq. 14.6 gives

Pd _ o.~ +x wG~w •. .(14.7)

It may be noted that 10% air-void line and 90% sa turation line are rwt ideruic al:
The water content at which the soil is compacted in the field is controlled by the value of the optim um
water cootent determ ined by [he labonl tory compaction test . 1he amount of compecuoo in the field shoul d be
approximately equ al to that in the laboratory, The standard Proctor test desaibed abov e is adequa te to
represent the co mpact ion of fills behind retaining walls and in highways and earth dams where light rollers
are used. In such cases , the optimum water content ob tained from the standard Proctor test can be used as II
control criterion. However, in situations where heavier compaction is required, for example in modern
highwa ys and runways, the standard Proctor test does oct represent the equival ent compaction in \he
laborntory. For such conditions, the modified Proctor test, as described in the follow ing section , is used to
represent the compaction in the field .
(See Chapter 30, Sect. 3O.1~ for the laboratory experiment) .
14.3. MODlFlED PROCTOR TfST
The modified ProCtor test was developed to represent heavier compaction than that in the standard
Proctor test. The test is used to simulate the field condi tions where heavy rollers are used. TIle test was
standardised by the American Associat ion of State Highway Officials and is, therefore, also known as
modified AASHO-t est. 1he Indian Standard Code IS : 2720 (pan VIII) gives the specifi cat ions for heavy
COOl paction based on this test.
In the modified Proctor test, the mould used is the same as in the standard Proctor Lest. However, the I
rammer used is much heavier and has a greater drop than that is the standard Proctor test. lIS mass is 4.89 kg
and the free drop is 450 mm. The face diameter is 50 mm as in the standard Proctor test. The soil is
COMPACTION OF SOllS 361

compacted in five equal layers. eac h layer is given 25 blows. The cornpactivc effort in the modified Proctor
test, measured in kJ/ml of soi l, is about 4.56 times that in the standa rd Proctor lest. Thus, a much heavier
compaction is attained.
(Compactive effort in modified Pactor test w 2700 kJ/m l ; in standard Proctor test = 592 kJ/m~.
If the percentage of soil retained on a 4.75 mm sieve is more than 20% . the larger mou ld of ISO mm
internal diameter, effective height of 127.3 mm and capacity 2250 ml is used. In this case. 56 blows are
required for each layer. The rest of the procedure is similar to that in the standard Proctor test.
The dry densnles arc cbta incd for different water contents and the compaction ca rve is drawn. Fig. 14.4
shows the compaction curve for tbe modified Proctor test (curve No.2). The curve is higher than and to the
left of thai obtained from a standa rd Proctor test (curve no. 1). The heavier compaction increases the
maximum dry density but decreases the optimum water conrem. The percentage increase of the dry density is
between 3 to 18% for most soils; the percentag e increase is more for clayey soils than for the sandy soils.
'.00

fig. t4.4 . Compaction Crves of Standard Proctor Test and Modified Proctor Test.
Fig. 14.4 also shows the zero air-void line. It may be noted that the ma ximum dry density atta ined even
in the mod ified Proctor rest is lower than the theore tical maximum dry densi ty indicated by the zero air-void
line. The line of optimums shown in the figure joins the points ind icatin g the maximum dry density. It is
roughly para llel to the zero air-void line.
14.4. COMPACI1 0 N OF SANDS.
The com pactio n curves shown in Fig. 14.3
and 14.4 are ob tained for soils which contain at
least some percenta ge of co hes ive soils . In case of
pure sandy soils. the effect of water con tent on
the dry density is not we ll defined when the water
~<Jx;mum bU1k1"'i!
content is below the optimum value. There is a
large scattering of the points on the co mpaction
curve. Genera lly. the dry density decreases with
an increase in the water conten t in this range (Fig.
145). The dry dens ity decreases due to capillary
tension in pore water. The capillary tension resists
the tend ency of soil partic les 10 lake a densestate
and hence the volume increases. The pheno menon WOI ... con l ... t ("/' 1 -
is known as the bulking of sand The maximum
bulking occurs at a wcrcr con tent of abo ut 4 to
5%. With further increase in the water content, Fig. 14.5. Camj*:tion ~ for CobCl5ionIC5li Soil.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FO UNDATION ENGINEER ING

the dry density increases as the meniscus is destroyed and the particles arc able to shift and lake a closer
packing . The maximum dry density occurs when the soil is fully saturated. If the water content is increased
beyond this point. the dry densit y again decreases. The coarse- grained soils do not adsorb wate r and arc not
amenable to lubrication. These do not display a distinct optimum wate r content.
For sandy so ils. the compactio n curve is of Little practica l usc. For such soils. the relative dens ity. as
discussed in chap ter 3, is usedas a criterion for measurement of compactn ess (or denseness). The dry density
of the sand is measured in the embankment and its relative density is determi ned if the dry dens ities in the
loosest and densest slates arc: known.
14.5. JODHPUn. MiNI COMPACfOR TEST
The Jodhpu r Mini Compactor test was developed by Prof. Alam Singh ( 1965 ). A small mould of internal
d iameter 79.8 mm (cross- sectional area = 5000 mm1 . effecti ve height 60 mm and a capaci ty of 300m1 is
used. The rammer used is of 2.5 kg mass and is known as the d ynamic rammin g tool (DR I). The mass slides
down a stem through a height of 250 mm and falls over a fOOl. of 40 mm diameter and 75 mm height and
compacts the soil. 'The test is suitable for both fine-grained so ils and coarse-grained soils (minus 4.75 mm
sieve).
The proced ure for cond ucting the test is similar to that in the standard Proctor test. but the soil is
compacted only in 2 layers. Each layer is com pacted by 15 blows of the dynamic ramming tool uniformly
distributed Q\IU the soil surface . 'Thecompective effort is approximately eq ual to that obtained in the standard
Proctor test. It is claimed that the optimum water cooreu and the dry dens ity obtained in the test are almost
equal to that in the standard Proctor test. II is recommended that. for fmc- grai ned sons, a fresh soil sample
shall be taken for each test after allowi ng a su itable maturing time.
14.6. HARVARD MINIATU RE CO MPACT IO N TEST
In Harvard miniature compaction test. co mpaction is done by the kneading action of a cylindrical
tampi ng foot of 0.5 inch (127 mm) diame ter. The tampi ng foot operates throug h a pre-set compression spring
10 give the tampin g force to a predetermined value. The mould used is of 116 inch (33.34 mm) d iameter and
of effective height of 2.816 inch (71.53 mm). The capacity of the mou ld is 1/456 cubic foot ( = 62.4 ml).
lbe number of layers, the tamping force and the number of tamps per layer are selected depend ing upon
the type of the soil and the amoun t of compaction required.
14.7. ABBOT COMPAC110 N TEST
In the Abbot compaction test. a metal cylinder (mo uld) of 5.2 em internal diame ter nod 40 em effective
height is used. The cylinder is clamped to the base. The soil is taken in the cylinder and compacted by a 2.5
kg rammer having a circular face of 5 em diame ter. The rammer is lifted up and dro pped inside the cylinder
through a heigh t of 35 an above the base .
14.8. FACTORS AFFECI1NG COMIJAC110N
The dry density of the so il is increased by compaction. The increase in the dry density depends upon the
following factors :
(I) Water Con tenL At low water coorent, the soil is stiff and offers more resistan ce 10 cornpnction . As
the water content is increased. the soil particles get lubricated . The soil mass becomes more workable and the
particles have close r packing. The dry density of the so il increases with an increase in the water co ntent till
the optimum water content is reeched. At that stage, the air voids attain approximately a cons tant volume.
With further increase in water co ntent. the air voids do not decrease, but the total voids (air plus water)
increase and the dry density decreases, Thus the higher dry ocreiry is ach ieved upto the optimum water
content due to forcing air out from the soil voids. After the optimum water content is reached. it becomes
more difUcuU to force air out and to further reduce the air voids.
The effect of water content OIl the dry densi ty of the soil can also be explained with the help of electrical
doub le byu theory (chapte r 6) . At low water content. the forces of attractio n in the adsorbed water layer arc
COMPACTION OF SOILS

lage, and there is more resistance to movemen ts of the partic les. As the water content is increased. the
electricaldoub le laye r expands and the interpa rticle repu lsive forces increase. The particles easily slid e over
one another and are closel y packed. This results in higher dry density.
(2) Am oun t of Compe crlon. As discussed earlier, the effect of increas ing the amou nt of co mpactive
effort is to increase rbe max imum dry density and to decrease the opt imum wa ter content (Fig. 14.4). At a
water con teru less than the optimum, the effect of increasedcompaction is mo re predominant. At a water
content more than the optimum, the volume of air voids becomes almost constant and the eITed of increased
compaction is not significant. -
II may be mentioned that the maximum dry density docs not go m increasing with an increase in the
compective effort. For a certain increase in the compectfve effort, the increase in the:: dry density becomes
smaller and smaller. Finally, a stage is reached beyond which there is no further increase in the dry density
with an increa se in the compactive effort .
Th e line of optim ums which jo ins the peaks of the compaction cu rves of different com pactive efforts
follows the ge nera l trend of the zero-air void line. 111i.'i line corresponds 10 air voids of about 5%.
(3) Ty pe or Soil. Th e dry de nsity achieved depends upon the type of soil The maximum dry density and
the optimum water content for different soils are shown in Fig. 14.6 . In general, coarse-grained soils can be
compacted to higher dry density than fine- grained soils. With the addition of even a small quantity of fines
10 a coarse-grained soil, the soil attains a much hig her dry density for the same compecrive effort. However,
if the q uantity of fines is increased to a val ue more: than that required to fill the voids of the coarse-grained
soils, the maximu m dry density decreases. A well gra ded sand at tains a much higher dry densi ty than a
poortly graded soil.
Cohesiv e soils have high air voids . These soils attai n a relativel y lower maximum dry density as
compared with the cobesionless soils. Such soils req uire more water than cohesiccjess soils and , therefore, the
optimum water content is bigh . Heavy clays of very high plasticity have very low dry density and a very high
optimum water conten t.
(4) Method or Co mpa ct ion. "The dry dens ity achieved dependsnot only upon the amount of compecuve
effort but also on the method of compaction. For the same amount of compective effort , the dry density will
depend upon whethe r the me thod of compaction utilizes kneadin g act ion, dynam ic action or static actio n. For
example, in Harv ard Miniature compaction test , the so il is compact ed by the kneading actio n, and, therefore, the
2000

'.50

'.4'Ir,---t-- --:.----;~-_,:;_ -__i<-- _:.-

364 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEER)NG

compaction curv e obtained is different from that obtained from the other conven tional tests in which an equal
compactive effort is applied.
Different methods of compaction give their own compaction curves, Consequenny, the lines of optimums
arc also different.
(5) Ad mi xtu re . The compaction chara cteristics of the soils are improved by addi ng other materials.
known as admixtures. The mos t commonly used admixtures are lime , cement and bitumen, as disaJ..'OSCX1 in
chapter 15. The dry density achieved depends upon the type and amoun t of admixt ures .
14.9. EFFEcr OF CO MPACTI ON ON PROPERTI ES OF SOILS
The engineering properties of soils are improved by compaction. 1be desirable properties are achieved by
prope r se lection of the soil type, the mode or placement and the method of oompaction. The effect of
compaction on various soil properties is discussed
below. In the fo llowing discussions, the dry of
op timum means when the water content is less than e

~
' SP E R S E D

: :t~~I: :~:~ ~;pt~~::= when ~

(1) So il structure. The water content at which
FlOC Cl.l.ATED
HIGH COMPtlCTlVE
EFFORT C~VE

~
lSPERSEO
~ 'z t
the soil is compacted plays an importan t role in the ;;
engineering properties of the soil . Soils compacted . LOW COMPACTIVE
• . EFFORT Cu RVE
a t a water conten t less than the optimum water
content generally have a flocculat ed structure, ~ lA'
flOCCULATED

-
regardless of the method of compaction. Soils
compacted at a water content more than the
optimum wate r content usually have a dispersed
WATER CONTENT ( "t.)
structure if the compaction induces large shear
strains and a flocculated st ructure if the shear Fig. 14.7. Soil Struaure in Comprll:ted Soils.
strains are relativel y small.
In Fig. 14.7, at point A on the dry side of the optim um, the wa ter content is so low that the attractiv e
forces are more predominant than the repulsiv e forces. This results in a floccu lated struct ure. As the water
conte nt is increase d beyo nd the optimum, the repu lsive forces ina-case and the particles get oriented into a
dispe rsed st ruct ure. If the compactive effort is increased , there is a corresponding mcreese in the orientation
of the particles and higher dry densities are obta ined . as shown by the upper curve.
(2) Pe nnea bi lity. The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of voids, as discussed in chapter 8.
The permeability of a son decreases with an increase in water content on the dey side of the optimum water
content. There is an improved orie ntation of the panicles and a corresponding reduction in the size of voids
which cause a decrease in permeability. The min imum permeability OCCUn> at or slightly above Ihe optim um
wa ter content. Aner that stage, the permeability slighlly increases, but it always remains much less than that
on the dry sid e of the optimu m. Th e slight increase in the dry dens ity is more pronounced than the effect of
improved orien tation.
If the cornpactive effort is increased, the permeebtllty of the soil decreases due to increased dry dens ity
and bener mentation of particles.
(3) SweUlng. A soil conpected dry of the optimum water ccctent bas high water deficiency and more
random orienlation of particles. Consequently, it imb ibes more water than the sample compacted wet of the
optimum . and has. the refo re, more swelling.
(4) Pore water pressure . A sa mple co mpacted dry of the opt imum has low water con ten t. The pore water
press ure developed for the so il compac ted dry of the optimum is therefo re less than that for the same soil
com pacted we t of the optimum.
(5) Shrinkage. Soils compacted dry of (he optimum shrink less on drying compared wit h those
compact ed wet of the optimum. The so ils compacted wet of the optimum shrink more because the soil
particles in the dispersed structure have nearl y parallel orien tation of particles and can pack more efficiently.
COMPAcnON OF SOIlS 365

(6) Co mpress ibility. The flocculated structure develo ped on the dry side of the optimum offers greater
resistance to compression than the dispersed structure on the wet side . Consequently. the soils on the dry side
are less co mpressi ble.
However, the compressibility of the soil depen ds upon a number of other factors . It increases with an
increase in the deg ree of saturation. The compressibility of a soil compacted on the wet side of the optimum
is also influenced by the method of compaction . If the compaction is of kneadin g or impact type, it creates a
more dispersed structure w ith a corresponding
increase in the comp ressi bili ty, If the
compaction causes very large stresses, the
t
conpeessibtllty increases due to breakdown of lR
the structure and greater orie ntation of the ~ DRy SlOE
particles. til
crxn~ct:r:-~~r::: ;I~i;:~:e~Ie~ a:
stress-strain curve than those 00 the wet side w~
(Fig. 14.8). The modulus of elasticity for the
soils compacted dry of the optimum is 0
therefore high . Such so ils have brittle failure
like dense sands or over-conso lidated clays. AXIAL STRAIN --......
The soils compacted wet of the optimum have .
relatively Ilatter stress-strain curve and a Fig. 14.8. Stress-Stram CUIVe&.
cceresponcing lower value of the modulus of elasticity. The failure in this case OCOJrs at a large strain and is
of plastic type.
(8) Shear Strength. In general, at a given water coorent, the shear strength of the soil increases with an
increase in the compacnve effort till a critical degree of saturation is reached. Wilh further increase in the
conpactlve effort, the shear strength decreases. The shea r strength of the compact ed soils depends upon the
soil type, the moulded water content . drainage conditions, the method of compaction. etc. The shear strength
of the comp acted silts and clays at the moulded water content and at a water content when fully saturated are
quite differen t, as discussed below.
(0) Shear strength at ,moulded water content. Two sampl es are compacted to the same dry dens ity, one
dry of the optim um and the other wei of the optimum, and tested for shear strength. fi g. 14.9 shows the
Mohr -Cou lomb failure envelopes. The soils compacted dry of the optim um have a higher shearstre ngth at
lOW" stra ins. However, at large strains the
flocculated structure for the soil o n the dry
side is broken and the ultim ate strength is E
t~'"
approximatel y equal for both the samples.
On the wet wide, the shear strength is
further reduced if the co mpaction is. by DRY SlOE
kneading action. It causes a greater orienta tion
tcwarcs a dispersed st ructu re than that by !Iiw
stalic compaction methods. :I:
(b) Shea r strength after saturation. Two
samples are compacted to the same dry
'"
density, o ne dry of the opti mum and the other
wet of tbe optimum , and then soaked in water, NORMAL' STRESS (c;;"')---'
without any volume change, to have full .
saturation. The samples a re then tested for Fig. 14.9. Failure Envelopes .
shear strength . The samples compacteddry of the optimum show greeter strength. However , the difference in
the strength of the two samples is much smaller than thaI prior to saturation. The differen ce in the water
deficiency of the two samp les and the conseq uent pore wafer tension is greatly red uced after satu ration.
366 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGiNEERISG

If swelling is permutedduring saturauoo, tbe difference in strength of the two samples is further reduced.
In some cases. the sample compacted on the we t side may exhib it eve n more strength.
The drained shear stre ngth of the two samples is almost equal.
14.10. M E1110DS OJ<' COMPACfION USED IN FIELD
Several methods are used for compaction of soil in field . The choice of the method will depend upon the
so il type, the maxim um dry density required. and econ omic conside ration . Some of the more comm onl y used
conventional methods are discussed below. Other met hods of compaction, such as vlbronotanon, po unding,
are discussed later;
(1) Tampers. A hand-operated tamper (or rammer) consists of a block of iron (or sto ne), about 3 to 5 kg
in mass, attached 10 a wooden rod. The tamper is lifted for ebcor 0.30 m and dropped 00 the soil 10 be
compacted. A mechanicalrammer is operated by compressedair or gasoline power. It is much heavier. about
30 to 150 kg. Mechanical rarnmers have been used uptc a mass of IOXJ kg in SOOlC specia l cases.
Tampers are lL<;(:(I to compact soils adjacen t 10 exis ting struct ures o r con fined areas,such as trenches aDd
behind the bridge abutments, where other methods of compaction cannot be used . Owing 10 very low o utput,
tampers are not econo mical where large quan tities of soils are involv ed . Tampers can be used for alltypcs of
soils.
(2) Rollers . Ro llers of diffe rent types are used for co mpacti on of soils. The compaction depen ds upon the
follow ing factors.
(I) Co ntact P ress ure . In general. the compaction increases with an increase in the contact pressu re. Fa'
a smooth-wheel rolle r. the contact pressuredepends upon the load per unit width and the diameter oC
the rollec. .
(il) Number of passes- 1be compaction of a soil increases with an increase in the number of passes
made. However, beyond a certain limit, the increase in the dens ity wit h an inaease in the nwnber of
passes in no t appreciable. From economy consi deration, the number of passes is gen era lly restricted
10 a reason able limit between 5 to 15 .
(iii) Layer thicknesss, The compaction of a soil increases with a decrease in the thickness of the layer.
However. for economy cons ideration, the thickness is rarel y kept less tha n 15 em .
(il' ) S peed of roll er. The compaction depends upon the speed of the rolle r. The speed should be so
adjusted that the maxi mum effect is achieved .
Types or Rollers
(a) Smoo th-Wheel Rollers. A smooth-wheel rolle r generally consists of three whee ls; two large
wheels in the rea r and one small wheel in the front. A tandem type smoo th-wheel roUer consists of on ly two
drums : one in the rear and one in the front. The mass of a smooth-wheel roller generall y varies be tween 2
10 15 Mg. These rollers are opera ted by internal combustion engines.
[No te , So me aut hors ex press 1000 kg mass as one tonne (It). As tonne is not a standard SI unit, it is
bett er to express 1000 kg as 1 Mg] .
Smooth-wheel rollers are usefu l for finishing operat ions after co mpaction of fills and, for co mpacting
granular base COlJIS(.'S of highw ays. These are not effecti ve foc co mpacti on of deep layers ·o f soils, as the
resu lting compaction pressures induced are low. Furt her. these rollers also cause stranflcet'on in deep layers
due to non -uniform compaction. These rollers are generally used to "seal" the surface 01 the fill at the eoo
of day 's work. to provide a smooth surface to quickly drai n off any rain water.
(b) Pneumatk-tyred ro llers. Pneumauc-ryred rollers use com pressed air to deve lop the requ ired inflatioo
pressure. Tbc contact pressure depen ds upo n the area of con tact and the inflation press ure. The roller
generally consist s of 9 to I I wheels fixed on two axles, with the pneum atic tyres so spaced that a complete
covera ge is obtained with eac h pass of the roller. The rolle rs are available in a wid e range of load sizes. The
gross mass of the roller varies betw een 5 to 200 Mg. However , the rollers with mass more than 50 Mg are
rare ly used. The inflation pressur e varies between 200 10 1000 kN/m2• The rollers are availab le as a
se lf-prope lled unit aswe ll as a towed unit.
COMPACIlON OF SOILS

l be roller compacts the so il primarily by knead ing action . Tbcse ro l lers arc effective for com pacting
cohes ive as well as cobesio nlcss soils. These rollers arc the best type of equipment for genera l use. Ligh t
rollers (mass upto 20 M g) are effective for compacting soil layers o f small thickness upto 15 an . whereas
heavy rollers are useful for layers of thickness upto 30 em.
Sometimes, the rollers are designed to produce a wobble effect, due to wh ich a slighlly weaving path is
tracked. This improves the compaction of the soil. Pneumati c-tyred rollers arc generally provided with a
weight box or ballast box. 1bc box can be filled with balla.·;t to increase the weight of the roller.
(c) Shee p- foo t ro llers. In ancie nt time before the advent of the rollers. it was usual practice to pass a
flock of sheep on the new ly fonn ed soil fill 10 cause its compaction.The sa me principle is used in the design
of sheep -foot rollers.
Th e sheep-toot ro ller consists o f a hollow drum wi th a large numbe r of sm all projections (know n as feet)
on its surface . Th ese project ions penetrate the soil layers durin g the rolling operations and cause com paction.
l be dru ms are mo unted on a stee l frame. The dru m can be filled wi th water or ballast to increase the mass.
Sheep-foot rollers arc available both as a self- propelled unit and a lowe d unit. As rolling Ls done . most of
the weight o f the roller is imposed throug h the projections on Lhe soil. Th e contact pressu re is generally
between 700 to 4200 kN/m 2. Th e roller may sink Into thc soil if the contact pressure is more than the bearing
capac ity of the soiL
The sheep-foot rollers are ideally suited for compaction of cohesive soils. Tbe rollers compact the soil by
a com bination of tamping and kneadin g action . Whcn the rolle r is pa...."'OO for the first time. the projections
penetrate the soil layer and the lower portion of the layer is compact ed . In successive passes, compaction is
obtained in the middle and the top portion of (he layer. This co ntinually rising erred of the com paction is
cal led walking-ou t of the roller.
Th e depth of layer that am be compa cted depends upon the lengt h of the projections and the weight of
the rolle r. Small rollers can compact layers of 15 an thickness, whereas heavy rollers can compact layers of
30 an thickness. In general . the thickness of the layer compacted is kept not more than 5 em greater than the
length of the projection.
(3) Vibratory co mpa ctors. In vibratory compactors, vibrations are induced in the soil during compaction.
The compactors are available in a variety of forms . When the vibrator is mou nted 00 a drum , it is called a
vibratory roller. Th ese rollers are availab le both as pneumatic type and the smooth-wheel type . In a
smooth-wheel type. a separate motor drives an arrange ment of eccentric weigh ts to create high frequency. low
amplitude, up- and-down osc illations of the drum . These rollers are suitable for compacting granu lar soils,
with no fines, in layers up to 1 m thickness. However; if there is appreciable percentage of fines, the thickn ess
has to be reduce d. In a pneumauc-tyred vibratory com pactor. a separate vibrating unit is attached to the wheel
axle. The bal last box is sus pended separa tely from the axle so that it docs not vibrate. These compactors are
suitable for compacting gra nular soils with thickness of layer of about 30 em.
Another form of a vibratory comp actor is a vibrating-plate compactor: In this system, the re are a number
of small pla tes. each plate is ope rated by a separate, vibrat ing unit. Hand - operated vibrati ng plates are also
availabl e. The effect of the vibrating plates is limited to small depths. Their main use is to compact granular
base courses for highw ays and runwa ys where the thickness of layers is small.
Vibratory compa ctors can co mpact the granular soils to a very high maximum dry dcn.s tty,
14.11. I)LAC EI\IENT WATER CONTENT
As the methods used for co mpaction in the field are different from that for com paction in the laboratory,
the optimu m water conten t in the field may 001 be necessarily be the same as in the laborntory. 100
laboratory value may be take n as 8 roug h gu ide for placement wate r con tent in the field. 1be idea l placemen t
water cootcm when the pneumatic-tyred rollers are used ~ approximately equal to the opti mu m water content
as obtained from a standard Proctor test. The placemcn t water conten t when the sheep-foot rollers, smooth-
wheel rollers and vibratory rollers are used, is of the order of the optimum water conte nt obtained in the
modified Proctor test.
for impoctant works, a full-scale test is conducted in the field to determine the placement water content,
368 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

the thickness of layer. mass and speed of roller and the number of passes. Sometimes, in case or small,
unimportant works, the placement water conte nt is taken equal to the opti mum water content of the standard
Proctor lest for ligh t compaction and equal to that of the modified Proctor test for heavy compaction.
How ever. the field wate r content is sometimes ke pi intentionally different from the optimum water ccotem in
order to achieve or to improve a specific engineering property of the soil.
To avo id large expansions and swe lling pressure under pavements and the floors. cohesive soils in such
cases are generally compacted at a wate r con tent mo re than the optimum wa ter content wi th the resulting dry
dens ity less than the ma ximum dry de nsity. The clayey soil in the imperv ious core of an earth dam ia also
compacted on the wei side of the optimum to reduce swelling pressure. On the other hand, the highway
embankments of cohes ive soils are ge nerally compacted at a wercr content somewhat lower than the optimum
water cont ent in order to achieve high shear strength and low compressibility. Like wise, the so il in the oa cr
shells or eart h dams is compacted dry of the opti mum to obtain high shear st rength, high permeebility and
low pore pressure.
A'i discussed earlier, cobesiooless soils do nee exhibit a well- defined optimum water content. For such
soils, tbe maximum dry density is achieved either in comp letely dry conditioo or in completely saturated
condition. In the field, completely saturated condition is preferred for practical reasons to achieve the
maximum compaction.
If the water content of the soil in the borrow area is less tha n the required placement water content, water
is sprin kled over the area. On the other hand. if it is more than the desired value, the soil is excavated from
lhe borrow pit, spread and allowed to dry. However. in wet weather, it becomes rather difficult to decrease
the wa ter content and the work has to be stopped.
14.12. RELATI VE COMPACTION
Th e dry density achieved in the field is compared with the maximum dry density obtained in the standard
1t in the modified Proct or lest. The ratio of the dry densi ty in the field to the maxim um dry
Proct or test or Hl<
density is known as the relative com pactio n or percent co mpact ion. Thus
. . Polin the raeld
Relati ve ccnpacnon - (Pol)......in the labora tory )( 100 . ..(14.8)
For cohesive soils, the dry density of the orde r of 95% of the maximum dry density of the standard
Proctor test (Leo 95% relative compaction of the standard Proctor test) can be achiev ed using a sheep-foot
roller or a pneu matic-tyred rolle r. However. if the soil is very heavy clay, only sheep-foot rollers are effeetM:.
For moderately cohes ive soils, the dry density of the order of 95% of that in the modified Proctor test can be
achiev ed usin g pneumatic tyred roller with an inflation pressure of 600 kN/m2 o r more.
For cohesi onless soils, the dry density of the orde r of 100% or even more of that in the modified Procar
test can be ob tained using pneumatlc-t yred rollers, vibratory rollers and other vibra tory equipm ent.
14.13. COMPACTION CONTROL
The laboratory compaction tests g ive the optimum water content and the max imum dry density. In the
field, during the com pacti on o f the soils. it is essenti al 10 check the dry densit y and the wa ter content in orda'
IQ effect proper quality contro l. Th e geot ech nical engineer bas to ensure that the spec ified amount of
compaction and the desired dry densi ties arc achieved.
Co mpaction con trol is done by measuring the dry density and the water content of tbe compectedsoil in
the field.
(1) Dry Density. The dry density is measu red using the methods discussed in -chapter 2. The core-cnre
me thod and the sand replacement method are commonly used. The nuclear methocs are occasionally used as
these arc non-destructive and req uire no physical or chemical processing of the soil and arc: very ccovenee.
(2) Water Con tent , 1be oven-dry ing me thod of thC determ ination o f the water content take'S24 hours.
Th is method , though very accu rate, canno t be used for contro lling constru ction, as the so il layer from whidl
the sample was taken would be buried by the time the water content is: known . Therefore, the ba';ic
requir ement is that the method used be such that it gives quick results . In the field, the wate r content is
COMPAcnON OF SOILS 369

generally determ ined us ing the sand-bath method, aIrohol method or the calcf...m
carbide method. as discussed in chapter 2. 1be nuclear methods are also bei ng
used irla'em:ingly.
The water con tent can also be detennined indircdly using a Proctor needle
(also known as plasticity needle ). The Proctor need le consists of a rod attached STEM
to a spring-loaded plunger (Fig . 14.10). The stem of the plunger is marked to SLIDI"';
read tbe resistance in newton. A sliding ring on the stem indicates the maxim um RING
resistance recorded during the test. The needle-shank has graduations to indica te
the depth of penetration. The equipment is provided with a series of needle
points of different crosss -sectional areas (0.25, 0.50, 1.0 and 2.5 ern1
to obtain a
wide range of the penetration resistance. For cohesive soils, the needle points of
larger cross-sectional areas are required and for cohcsionless soil, those of
smaller cress- sect ional areas are used. The needle point used should be sud1
that it is neither too small for accu rate measurement nor too large.
A suitable needle point is selected and screwed to the needle shank . After
the soil has bee n compact ed at a given water con tent in the cunpaction lest in
the laboratory, the Proctor needle is forced 7.5 an into it at the rate of about
1.25 an/SI.X:. The max imum force used is found from the compress ion of the
spring . From the know n area of the need le point, the penetra tion resistance per
unit area is compu ted. A number of such measurements are made in the
laboratory during the compecnoe test, and a cal jbretion curve is obtained
between the penetration resistance (R) and the water content, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 14.10. ProelorNeedle.
14.11. It is found that for a given degree oC compaction, the penetration
resistance decreases with an incrcase in water content.
';;0
E
~

10 12 14 16 III
WATER CONTENT ("/.)---
Fig. 14.11. Calibration Curve for Penetration.n;sisll'Inoe R.
Th determ ine the water conten t of the compacted soil in the field, the soil is compacted in the standard
compaction mould in the field in the same manner as was used during tbe calibration of the needle. The
penetration res istance of the rompact ed soil is measured . The moisture content is then obtained tom the
calibration curve.
This method of the detenn ination of the water content is quite rapid and reliable for fine-grained soils.
However. it docs not give accurate results Cor ccoesiontess soils and for so ils having a large percentage of
gravels and stone pieces .
14.14. VlBROFLOTATION METHOD
VibrofiOl:ation is used for compa cting thick deposits of loose, sandy soils upto 30 m depth . A vibroflot
consists of a cylindrical 'tube, about 2 m diameter, fitted with water jets at the top and the bottom . II contains
370 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

~
t
a rotating eccen tric mass wh ich
develops a horizontal vibratory motion.
The vibroflot is su nk into the loose t SAN
0
soil upto the des ired depth using the
lower water jet [Fig . 14.12 (a» . As
~

wI
water comes our of the jet, it creates a
momentary quick condition ahead of
I I
!he vibroflot due to which the shear
I ~
strength of the so il is reduced. The I
vibroOot sentes due to its own mass.

~~t~M~~j
Whe n the desired depth has been
reached. the vibrator is activated. 1be
vibroOot then vibrates laterally and
causes the co mpactio n of the soil in the (a) (b) (e)
horizon tal d irection to a radius of about
Fig. ]4.12. vlbroflctatio n.
15 .m.
The water from the lower jet is transferred to the top jet and the pressure is reduced so that it is just
enough to carry the sand poured at the top to the bottom of the hole [Fig. 14.12 (b)]. Vibration con tinues as
the vibro flot is slowly raised to the surface. Additional sand is cont inually dropped into the space (crator)
around the vibro Oot. By raising the vibronot in stages and simulta neous ly backfilling. the entire depth of the
soil is co mpacted [Fig. 14.12 (c) J.
The spacing of the holes is usually kepi between 2 to 3 m al a grid pattern . The relative density (density
index) achieved for the sandy soils is 70% or more. In soft. cohes ive soils, vibroflotation is not effecti ve. Fa'
cohes ive soils. it can be used to form a sand pile to reinfo rce the depos it and to acce lerate consolidation and
thus improve its engineering properti es.
14.15. TERRA I)ROllE Mh"TIfOD
Terra probe method in many respect s is similar to the vibroflotati on method . The terra probe cons ists of
an open-en ded pipe, about 75 em diame ter. It is provided with ~ vibra tory pile dri ve. The vibratory pile d river
when activa ted gives vertical vibrat ions to the terra probe and it goes dow n. After reach ing the desired depth,
the terra probe is gradually raised upward wh ile the vibrodriv er conti nues to operate. Thus , the soil within and
around the terra probe is densified.
The terra probe method has been successfull y used upto depth of 20 m. The spacing of the holes is
usually kept about 15 m. Saturated soil condi tions are ideal for the success of the method. For the sites where
the water table is deep, water jets are filled to the terra probe to ass ist the penetrat ion and densification of the
soil.
The terra probe method is considerably faster than the vibroflota tic n method. A"o it does nOI require
backfilling of sand, it can even be used at offshore 'locations. However, the method is less effective than
vibrolla tation method. In the terra probe , the zone of influence is considerably smaller and the rela tive dens ity
ach ieved is also lower.

14.16. COMPACTION BY POUNDING

To densif) large deposits of loose , sandy soils. the pounding method has also been recently used . The
method is also known as heav y tamping, dynamic oompaction or nfgn-energy compacnoc. Pounding is done
by dro ppi ng a heavy mass (2 to 50 Mg) from a large height (7 to 35 m) on the ground surface . 1be actual
mass and the heig ht are select ed depending upon the crane ava ilable and the dept h of the so il deposit. A
closel y spaced grid pat tern is selected for the pounding locations. At each location, 5 to 10 poundings are
g iven.
The pounding method is used to compact the soil depos its to a great depth. It is very effective for
densifying loose sand y deposi ts. Recently, the method has bee n successfully used to compact fine-graine d soil
COMPACllOt-l OF SOILS m

deposits as well . 1be depth (D) in metres upro which the method is effective c n be determined from the
following relation :
D - C VMii ...(14.9)
where C = coefficient (0.5 to 0.75 ), M = mass (Mg), JI = height of dro p (rn).
While using the pounding method, care sha ll be take n that hann ful vibrations <Ire not trans ferred to the
adj acent build ings. The radius of inOuence (R) in metres beyond wh ich no harmful vereuons are transmitted
can be det ermi ned from the relation.
R. 13fJVMii .. .(14.10)
when: M =moss (Mg ). and H =height of drop (no).
14.17. COMPACTION BY EXPLOSIVES
• Buried exp losives are sometimes used 10 dens ity cohestontess soils . The shock wave and vibrations
produced by explosives are somewhat similar to that produced by vibratory , compaction equipment. The
method is quile effective when the cohcsion less soil is fully saturated. The shock waves cause liquefaction of
sand, which is followed by densif lcation . In partially sa turated cohesionlcss soils, compressive stresses
develop due to ca pillary action and prevent the soil particles from taking closer positions. The method is not
effective for partially satu rated soils.
The dep th upto which tbe blasl is effective is limited to about 25 m. The uppermost zone of the so il upto
a depth of about I m gets displaced in a random manner and is, there fore, not proper ly densified . This 7.OOe
should be com pacted using the conventional methods by rollers.
Explos ive charges usually consist of about 60% d ynamite and 30% speci al gelati n dynam ite and
ammonite. The charges are placed at two-thirds the thickeess of the stra tum to be: dc:nsified . Th e spaci ng of
the explosive points is kept between 3 10 8 m. Three 10 five blasts are genera lly required at each location.
The radius of influence (R) of compactio n can be determ ined using the relation
R - (MIC)~ .. .( 14.11)
where R = radius of influence (m), M = mass of charge (kg), C constant ( = 0.04 for 60% dynamite)
14.18. PRECOMPRESSION
As disaJssed in cha pter 12, precomp resslcc imp roves the properties of the cohesive soils. In this method,
the: soil is prc:loaded before the app lication of the design loads. Preloading causes settlement before actual
construct ion begins . The preload is generall y is rbe form of an earth fill which is left in place for a long time
so as to ind uce the required seulemera. After the required compression has been achieved, the preload is
removed prior to the construct ion. A monitorin g system cons isting of settlement plates and piezometers may
be used 10 check the progress of settlement.
The precompression method is effective for co mpaction of silts, clays, o rganic soils and san itary land
fills. The preload must be carefully selected so as not 10 cause shear failures in the soil . The stability of the
soil deposit unde r preload shou ld be checked. Sufficient soil data should be collected to predict the rate and
magnitude of the settlem en t. Sometimes, vertical sand drains are used to decrease the time of settlement .

14.19. COMPACTION PI LES

Cohesionlcss soils can be densifled by constructing compaction piles.. A capped, pipe pile is driven into
the soil 1be soil surrounding the pile is compacted due to vibrations caused during driving. The pile is thc:ll
extracted and the hole fonned is backfLIlcd with sand. Th us the compaction pile is fonned. (For more details,
see chapter 25.)
14.20. SUITABlUTY OF VARIOUS METIIO DS OF COMPAcnON
The suitability criteria of various methods of compaction can be summarised as under:
(1) Cohesio nless Soils only. Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for compa cting layers of small thickness
372 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEER ING

in base courses. Vibratory rollers, vibroflotation. terra probe. blasting. com paction piles and
explosives are effect ive for compacti ng deposits of large thickness.
(2) Cohesive Soils only. Sheep-foot rollers are suitable for compaction of cohes ive soils. Precompresstco
is also quite effective.
(3) Both cohesionless and cohesive soils. The following melhods are universal. These can be used for
both cohcs ionIcss soils and cohesive soils.
(I) Tampers arc effective for compacting soils in a cooflned space of all types.
(il) Pnec manc- ryrcd rollers are extreme ly useful for compacting all Iypes of soils.
<"!) Pounding method has a great promise for compacting all types of soils.

ILLU STRATIVE EXA MPLES

lllu.strath'e Ex ample 14.1. A sample of soil was prepared by mixing a quantity of dry soil with 10% by
mass of water. Find the mi1$S of this wet mixture required 10 produce a cylindrical. compacted specimen of 15
em diameter and 12.5 em deep and having 6% air contau. Find also the void ratio and the dry densiry of
the specimen if G = 1.68.
Solution. Air content, a( - V.,IV v - 0.06
V.. _ O.CX; V... lienee V... _ O.94Vv

Thus V.. - O.CX; ( O~) - 0.())J8 V...

\blume or specimen (V) - ;<14 x (15)' x (12.5) - 2208.9ml

Now, with usual notations, V _ vs '" v...... V..
or 2208.9 _ Vs + V... + 0.0638 V... _ Vs + 1.0638 V...
Writing volu mes in terms or mass,
M,
2208 .9 - (2.68 x 1.0) ... tJ1638
(M_)
'i1i'
Substituting M... - 0.10 Mso
M,
2208.9 - (2.68) + 1.0638 x 0.1 M ,

M, - 4606.54 gm. M"" - 460.65 gm

Mas.... or wet soil, M _ M, + M"" _ 4606.5 4 + 460.65 _ 5067 .19

Bulk density, p_ %- _ 5;~8~ _2.294 gm/ml

Dry density, Pd - ~ - 1 2~2~10 - 2.085 gm/ml

Therefore, e _ G p"" _ I _ 2.68 x 1.0 _ 1 _ 0.285

Pd 2.085
Illustrative Exam ple 14.2. 111l' following results were obtained from a standard compaction test on a
sample of soil.

WaterCCll1et11(%) 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22

Mass of wa sod (kg) I.M 1.85 1.91 1.8 7 1.87 1.85

The volume of the mould used was 950 mi. Make necessary calculations and plo t the compaction CUm'
CO MPACTION OF SOILS 373

and obtain the maximum dry density and the optimum wal er content: Also calculate the void ratio, the degree
of saturation and the theoretical maximum dry density (G = 2.70).
Solution. Calcutanons ate shown in tabular Conn.

water rootent (w) 0.12 0.14 0.16 0 .18 0 .20 0.22

Mass of wet soil (M) (ltg) 1.68 1.85 1.91 1..87 1.87 1.85
BuIlt density

p- M IV - o.~o I.n 1.95 201 1.97 1.97 1.95

Dry density
PJ-e( I .+w)
158 1.71 1.73 1.67 1.64 1.60

\bid ratio
e-~ -l 0 .71 0.58 0 .56 0 .62 0 .65 0.69
pJ
Degree of saturation
S _ weG 0.46 0 .65 O.n 0 .78 0.83 0.86

Theore tical mma ximum dry

densil y
2.04 1.96 1.89 1.82 1.75 1.69
(p.,)theomax '" ~
Fig. Ex. 14.2 shows the compaction curve.
2.00
1.90

1::
l ,~
- - - -
,
1.'"
o

,
c
0,
'"0 ceo
W;ater con t ent _ _ _

Fig. E-14.2.
From the plot. (Pd)lZWl - 1.74 gm/mL o.w.e. = 15.2%.
Illustrative Exampl e 14.3. The maximum dry density of a sample by the light compaction test is 1.78
glml at an optimum W!1lU content of 1S%. Find the air voids and the degree of sasumiion: G = 1.6 7.
What would be the corresponding value of dry density on the zero air void line at O.we. ?
. Gp. Gp.
Solution. P. - ~ - 1 + (MilS)
374 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

1.78 _ 2 .67 x 1.0

1 + (0.15 x 267/S)
1.78 + 0.~13 _ 267 or S _ 0.801 or 80.1%

Now Pd. (l;:..)~ e ; (1~:..)O~152.:72:;·O _ 1.78

n" _ O.lXi6 or 6.6%

(yJIOO>m= - 1 ~ P: o - 1 +2'~~15x : ·~.67 - 1.91 g/ ml

PROULEMS

A. Numerical
14.1. A cylindrical specimen of a cohesive soi l of 10 cm diameter and 20 an length was prepared by compaaiCll in
a roould . If the wet massof the specimen ....'35 3.25 kg and its water content was 15%, determine lbe dry density
and the void ratio.
If tbe speci fic gravity of the partides was 270, find the degree of saturation . [Ans, 1.80 gmtml; 050; 81*1
14.2. Th e followin g are the results of a standa rd compaction test performed on a sample of soil.

Water Content (%) 7.7 115 14.6 175 19.7 21.2

Mass of we t soil (kg) 1.7 1.89 2.03 1.99 1.96 1.92

If the volume of the mo uld used was 950 c.c. and the specific gravity o f so il grains was 2.65, make necessary
calcu lations and plot the wa ter conte nt-dry densily curve and obtai n the optimum wa ter content and the
maximum dry density . [Ans. 15%; 1.83 grnImlJ
6
14.3. An earthen embankmenl of 10 m) volume is 10 be constrecied with a soil having II void ratio of O.a> after
compaction. There are three borrow pits marked A. B and C, having soils with void renos of 0 .90. 1.50 au:!
1.80, respectively . 1be cost of excavation and trnnsporting the soil is Rs. 0 .25, Rs. 0.23 and Rs.. 0.18 per m3,
=~r-?~IC:I~~~ volume of soil to be excava(~n!~;~\&~:'I~~ 1~5~lxi~0~3~
B. Descriptive a n d Objective Type
14.4 . Differemiare betwee n consolidat ion and compaction , Give examples.
14,5. Describe Slanda rd Proctor lest and the modi fied Proctor lest. How would you decide the type of lhe test to be
conducted in the labora tory ?
14.6 . What is it com paction c urve? Give Its salient featu res. What is a zero-air void line ?
14.7. What are the facto rs thai affect com paction ? Discuss in brief.
14.8. What is the effect of compaetion on the engineering properties o f the soil? How would yOll decide whether the
soil shou ld be compacte d the dry of opti mum or the wet of optimum ?
14.9. what are the differenl metbocs of completion adopted in the field? How would you select the Iype of roller 10
be uscxl?
14.10. wnre shan notes o n
(a) P1acemenl wate r comem (b) Relative oompaction
(c) Compaaion oontrol (d) Terra probe
(e) Vibronotation (j) Comp<lClionby pounding
(g) Precompressioo (h) Compaction by explosives
14.11. Write whetbe r the followi .lg saatemem are correct or 001. .
( a) Compaaion occu rs under a sustained, static load on a sat urated soil.
(b) The theo retical maxim um dry density can be attained in the laboratory .
( c) The zero-air void line and 100% saturation line are Identical.
COMP ACTIO N OF SO ILS 31S

Id) As the-compaction is inc reased, the optimum water conte-nt inc reases.
Ie) 111 C modern high ways and runwa ys have co mp action equal to [hill attained in a standa rd Proctor test.
(/l vibroflntauon is effecti ve fo r highly co hesive soil.
(g) Th e Proc to r 11l'CdJe can he used to determ ine the dry density achieved in the fie ld,
( 11)The rel ative compncnun is the same as the re lativ e density.
( i) Th e pncumatic-tyrcd rollers can he used for hu th coheaontcss and cohesive soils.
(J) The water comem of the soil in the field is always ke pt equa l to tbe oplLmum water con tent.
(.I:) The soils compacted dry o f the optimum have higher mod ulus of elasticity than tho se 011 Ihe wei side.
(1) The core in an canh dam is gcnt.'rally co mpacted WC'l side of the optnnum
(III) Th e permeability of the soi l dec reases hy co mp ac uon.
( II ) 111e Jod hp ur rnmi-rom pacrur (c st g iv e ~ luwc r dry densit y ( 1'1;111 the s tundnrd Proctor test.

(0 ) In the Jodh pur nuni-c urnp acurr test , kneading action takes place.
(p ) The number of passes made by II roller is generally more than len.
(q) The shea r strength o f a soil always mcreases with an mcrC,lSein compac tion,
(r) In pneumatic tyres. the con tact pressure depends upon the mnanon press ure.
Is) The thicknes s of the layer during C:llmpat.110n is kepi abou t 10 em.
II) Th e smooth-wheel roncrs can be used fo r compacucn of deep fills.
IAIl.<;. True. tc). {i l, (t l, {fl, (Ill ). (r )j
C, Multiple Choice Ques tion s
I. Pneurr unic-tyrcd mllrrs an: useful for com pacting
(ell Cohesive snils (h) Cnh csionle s.-s soi ls
(c} Both (a l alll! (f,) h I) Fu r so ils in co n nncd space
2. vibrotkuanon technique is hest suited for compacting'
(a) Coarse sand and gravels (h) Silts
tej Ctays (d) organic sods
3. Preco mpression method is useful for ,'n IllJl;lc:ting
(0) Sills (/') Cl ays
(c) Org anic soils (d ) All the above
4 , Th e Iinc o r oprtmums gene rally co rresponds to pcrrema ge air void" of a bout
(a) zero pe rcent (h15 perce nt
( c) 10 percent (d) 20 perce nt
S. The range of optimum water contcurs for the standar d procter test for d ayey soils is
(el) 6 1010',," (bl 8 to 12%
(c) 12 to 15'1- (d) 14 to 20%
6. Soil compacted dry of Ihe optim um as compa red ttl that wet of the optimum
(1I) has less per meabilit y ( b) swells less
(e) shrin ks less (d ) has less resistance to co mpression
7. For a Standard Co mpac uon test, the mass of hammer a nd the drop of hammer arc as follow s:
(tl ) 2,6 k g and 45 0 mm (b) 2.60 kg and 3 10 mill
Ie) 4,S kg and 311l 111m Itfl 4 .XQ kg and 450 mm
H. Selec t me correct statement
\<1) Rcla uve compaction is the same as relative density
(b) Vihlll l1uta lion is effective in thc case of high ly cohesive soils
((0) ' Zero air void line' and 100q. s uu mnon lme are identical
rA~I , ( e ~ 2 ,(a ~ 3 , ( ~4 ,~~ ~(dl. 6 , { 4 7 , (M , 8.(~
 15
Soil Stabilisation

15.1. INTRODUCTION
Soil stabilisation is the (X"OCt'iS of improving the engineering properties of the soil and thus making it
more stable. It is required w hen the soil available for coostrudioo is 001 suitable for the intended purpose. III
Us b roadest senses. stabilisation includes compaction, precoesotidation, d rainage and many otber sud!
processes. However. the term stabiUsalion is generally restrict ed to the processes whim alter the soil nuueriaJ
itself for improve ment of its properties. A ce menting material or a chemical is added to a natural soil for the
purpose of stabi lisation .
Soil stabilisati on is used to reduce the permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in earth
structures and 10 increase its shear strength. Soil stabilisation is required to increase the bea ring capacity of
founda tion soils . However, the main use of stabilisation is to improv e lhe natural soils roc the cons uucdon of
highways and airfi elds. The principles o f soil stabilisation are used for ron lrollin g the gradin g o f soils and
aggrega tes in the construction of bases and sub-bases of the highways and airflckts.
So il sta bilisatioo is also used 10 make an area tmfflcable wi thin a short period of time for military and
other emerg ency purposes. Sometimes. soil stabilisation is used for city and suburban streets to make them
more noise-absorbing.
This chaplet deal; with the various methods of soil stabilisation and their effects on the engineering
properties of the soils..
15.2. MECUANICAL !ITAB1LJSATION
Mechani cal slab ilisati on is the process of improving the properties o f the soil by chang ing its grad ation.
Two or more types of natural so ils are mixed to obtain a composite material which is superior 10 any of its
components. To achieve the desired grading. sometim es the soils with coa rse particles are add ed or the soils
with fine particles a re removed .
Mechanical stabi lisation is also known as granu lar stab ilisa tion:
For the purpnseo f mectanicat stabilliatioo. the soils are subdivi ded into two ca tegories :
(1) Aggrq,lItes : Tbese are the soils which have a gran ular bearing skeletoo and have particles of lbc
size larger than 75j.L
(2) Blnders : These are the soils which have particles sma ller than 75$1 size. They do nol. possess a
bearing s1celeton.
The aggre gates consist of strong, well -graded, angular particles of sand and gravel whi ch provide internal
friction and incom press ibility to a soil. The binders provide ccb esico and impervjcoseess to a soil . These an:
com posed o f silt and c lay. The quantity of b inder shoul d be suffICient 10 provide plast icity to the soil, but iI
should not cause swellin g.
Proper blend ing of aggregat es and binders is done in order to achieve required gra dation o f the mixed
sort. The blended soU should possess both interna l fridian and cohes ion. The materi al shou ld be workable
 SOIL SfABIUSATtON m

during place ment. When prope rly placed and compa cted. the blended mate rial becomes mechanically stab le.
The lead-carrying capacity is increased. The resistance against the lempernturc and moisture changes is also
improved .
The mechani cal stability of the mixed soil depends upon the follow ing Iactors.
(1) MechanJad strength of th e aggregate. The mixed soil is stable if the aggregates used have high
strength. However. if the mixture is proper ly designed and compacted. even the aggregates of relatively low
strength can provide good mechanical stability.
(2) M ineral composi tion. The mechanical Slability of the mixed soil depends upoo the composition of
the minera ls in it. The minerals should be weather-resisrara.
Sod ium sutpbates and sodium carbonat es cause large vo lume cha nges due to their hydra tion and
dehydra tion . lhcse are detrim ental to the stability .
(3) Gradation. 1be gradation of the mixed soil shoul d be such that the voids of the coarser particles arc
filled with finer particles so that a high density is obtained. According to Fuller (1007). the maximum density
is achieved if the partic le size distribution of the mixture satisfies the foUowing criterion:
p • (dIDf'" x 100 ... (15.1)
where p = perce ntage of the soil mixtur e passing sieve of size d,
D = maximum particle size.
b
The U.S. Bureau of Public Roods recommends that the value of the expcoeru in Eq. 15.1 shoul d be taken
,1
as 0.45 instead of 0.50.
It is found by experi ence that to obtain sufficie nt co hesion in the mixture. it is necessary to have a greater
propo rtion of the materia l pass ing 75,... sieve than that given by Bq. 15.1. Generally. an ideal mixtu re wou ld
11
include about 25% binder . Th e bask requirement is that the mixture shall contain a fair proportion of different
>f
size particles. It should contain suffICient quantity of fines to provide cohesion. especially in the wearing
>f
surface .
xl
(4) Plostlcity cberectertstlcs. Soi ls wit h high liquid limit and plasticity index are suitable as binders for
soils used for surfacing. Such soils pos.<;css grea ter cohes ion and better moisture reten tion capaci ty. They
xl
provide a better seal against the downward movemen t o f surface wa ter.
For soil'; used in base courses, the requirement of plasti city characteristics are quite different from those:
for su rfacing. The soil in base course shoul d have low plasticity to avo id excessfve aca.un ulation of wa ter and
'8 the resultin g loss of streng th.
As the so il -avai lable at site may seldom meet hath the grada tion and the plasticity chara cteris tics. it
usually becomes eecessery to mix soils from different socrces to obtain the desired mixture. This is nocmally
e. done by trial mixes. As far as possible. the maximum use of locally available soils should be made for
its economy.
ils (5) Compaction . The mech anical stab ility of the stabilised soil mass depends upon the degree of
com pact ion attai ned in the field. Normally...the compac tion is done at or near the optim um water co ntent.
Uses of Mechankal Sta bilisation. It is the s implest method of soil stabilisation. It is generally used to
improve the subgrades of low bearing capacity. It r; extensi vely used in the construction of bases, sub-bases
be and surfacing of roads.
15.3. CEMENT STABILISATI ON
Cem ent Stabilisatioo is done by mixing pulverised soil and portla nd cemen t wit h water and co mpacti ng
the mix to attain a strong material. 1be material obtained by mixing soil and cement is known as soiJ-CenU!nt.
!13l The sou-cement becomes a hard and durable structural material as the cement hydrates and develops strength.
an:
tit 1)pes of Soll-cement
Mitche ll and Freitag (1959) have d ivided the soil -cement into 3 categories.
<<XI (1) Normal Sou-Cement, It consists of 5 to 14% of cement by vol ume. The quantity of cement mixed
b le with soil is sufflciem to produce a hard and dwab le ronstnJdioo materia l The quanl.ily of water used should
378 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

be just sufficient to satisfy hydration requirements of the cement and 10 make lhe mixture workable.
Tbe normal soil-cement is quite weather-resistant and strong. It is commonly used for stabilising sandy
and other low plasticity soils.
(2) Plastic Soil- Cemen t. 'Ibis type of so il-cement also con tains cemen t 5. to 14% by volu me, but it has
more quantity of water 10 have wet consistency similar to thai of plastering mortar at the time of placement.
The plastic soil-cemcra am be placed on steep or irregular slopes where it is difficult 10 usc nonnal
moo- making equipment. It has also been successfully used for water-proof linin g of canals and reservo irs. The
plastic soil-ceme nt can be used for protectio n of sleep slopes against erosive action of water,
(3) Ceme nt-Mcdlfled soil. II is a type of soil-cement thai contains less IMn 5 % of cement by volume.
It is a semi -hardened product of soil and cement It is quire inferior 10 the other two types.
As the qua ntity of cement used is small. it is not able to bind all the soil particles into a cohe rent mass.
However; it interacts with the silt and clay fractions and reduces their affinity for wate r. It reduces the
swelling characteristics of the soil. The use of cement-modified soils is limited.
The following discussion is confined to the fir.>t two types of sotl-cemera.
Fac tors affectin g cement stabilisati on
The facto rs affecting cement stabilisation can be summarised as under:
(1) 1)pe of so il. Granular soils with sufficient fines are ideally suited for cement stabilis3tion. Such soils
can be easily pulverized and mixed. They require the least amount of cement.
Granula r soils with deficient fines , such as beac h sands and wind-blown sands. om aL'MJ be stab ilised but
these soils require more cement. As it i.<; difficult to move road- making equipment over such soils when dry.
it is desirable to keep lhem wet for better traction .
Silly and- clayey soils can produce satisfactory so il-cement but those with a high clay-content arc d ifficult
to pulvense. Moreover, the quantity of cement increases with an increase in clay conten t. The quality of
soil-cement in this case is Dot good, as it may have high shrinkage properties.
Organic matter, if present in coltoidat form, interferes with the hydration of cement and causes a
reduction in the strength of soil-cement. The trouble is more common in sandy soils than in clayey soils. The
soil shou ld be trea ted with calcium chloride to remedy the situation . Sod ium hydro xide is also effec tive in
correcting the ill effects due to organic manor. Sometimes, additioo of a small quanti ty of sill or clay to a
sandy soil may aid in the cement react ion.
(2) Quantity or ce me nt. A well -graded soil requires abou t 5% cement, whereas a poorly graded. uniform
sand may require, abo ut 9% cement. Non-plastic silts require abou t 10% cement, whereas plastic clays may
need about 13% cement.
The actual quantit y of cement required for a panicular soil is ascertained by laboratory tests . For base
courses. samples are subjected 10 durab ility tests for detenn ination of the quantity of the cement required. II
cons ists of 12 cycles of freezing and thawing or 12 cycles of wetting and drying . The maximum volume
cha nge (swellin g plus shrin kage) of 2% is. gene rally permittee.
Sometimes, the quantity of cement is. determined according to the minimum unconfined compressive
strength. Generally, a minimum strength of about 1500 kN/m for clayey soils and of about 5500 kN/m 2 foc
2

sandy soils is. specified. High strength is obtained by decreas ing the water-ceme nt rauo. Th is is done by
increasin g the cement co ntent for the same water content.
As a rough guide, the cement content can be taken as 6% for sandy soils and 15% for clayey soils.
(3) Quantity of Wat er. 1be quant ity of water used must be sufficient for hydratio n of cemen t and
silt-clay cemen t and for making the mix wor kable. Generally, the amount of water asce rtained from
compaction cons ideration is adequate for hydration a<; well
Water usedshould be clean and free from harmf ul salts, alkalies, acids or organic matter. In general. the
WOller which is potable is also satisfactory for soil-ce ment.
(4) Mixing. Compa ct ion and Cu ring. The mixture of the soil, cement and water should be thoroughly
mixed, as the success of cement stab ilisation depends ma inly on tboro ugh mixing. If it is not properl y mixed,
 SOIL STABIUSATION 379

it may result in a non-homogeneous, weak prod uct. However. the mixi ng should nor be continued after tbe
ceme nt has started hydrating, as it wou ld result in a loss of stre ngth,
So il-cement should be properl y compacted. Compact io n is generally done as for so il atone (Chapter 14).
For good resul ts, Ilne- grained soils should be co mpacted wet of optimum . and coarse- grained soils, dry of
optimum. After co mpaction. the surface is finish ed by a rubber -tyred roller.
Soil-cement shou ld be protected against loss of moist ure by providing a thin bituminous coating.
Sometimes, other materials, such as water-proof paper, moist straw or din, are also usee.
(5) Adml xture, To increase the effect iveness of cement as stabiliser , admixtures are sometimes added to
soil ce ment. Admixtures may permn a redUdion in the amoun t of ceme nt required. These may also help
stabilisatio n of soils which are not responsiv e to cement alone.
Li me and calciu m chloride have been used as admixtu res for clays and soils containing harmf ul organic
matter to make them more responsive to cement. Fly ash acts as a pozzo lana and is effective for stabilisation
of dune sand. Sodi um carbonate and sodium sulphates have also been used as admixture.
Construc no n Met hods
The constructioo of soil-cement bases and sub-bases is done using the following met.bods.
(1) Mix-in·pla ce method. In this method of construction, mixing of soil-cement is done at the place
where it wou ld be finally placed . It consists of the following steps :
(i) The subgra de Is cleared of all undesirable materia ls such as boulders, debris. stumps. It is then
levelled to the required forma tion level.
(ii) The levelled subgracc is scarified to a depth equal 10 the proposed thickness of the soil ce ment
(il,) The scarifi ed soil is then pu lverised tin at least 80% of the so il passes 4.75 mm IS sieve . It can be
II done e ither manually or with the help of a machine.
If Pulverisatk>n of highly plastic soil can be done easily if about 4% lime is added to it.
(iv) The pulverised so il is properly shaped to the required grade and the required quantity of cement is
spread unifonnly over the surface. It is then intimately mixed dry with rotary tillers or special soil
mixers.
(v) The required quantity of water is sprinkled over the surface and wet mixing is done till the mixture
has a uniform colour. 1be opera tion should not last longer than 3 hours.
The surface is then property graded using towed graders.
(v,) Compaction is done using suitable methods.. The thick ness of the layer should not be more than 15
em. Compectlon shoul d not take more than 2 hours.
After compaction, the surface is properly finished.
(vi,) The compacted soil-cemen t is moist cured for at lease 7 days by providing a bttuminocs primary
coa t. Alternatively, it is kept damp by frequent app lication of a light spray of water.
The mix-in-place method of construction is quite simple. cheap and easily adaptabl e to different field
condit ions . The main disadvantage is that the mixing is not uniform and high strength can not be achieved.
(1) Ptenr-mt x method
There are two types of plants used in the plant-mix method of constructioo.
(a) SeaUona ry plant. In this method, the excavated soil is transport ed to a stationary plant located at a
suitable place. The required quantity of cement is added to the so il j !l the plant. Mixing is done after adding
water. The time requ ired to obtai n a uniform mixture depends upon the tyIX of soil. The mixed material is
then discharged into dumper trucks and transported bock to the subgraoc. It is spread and properly compacted.
The statio nary plant is useful for obta ining a uniform mix. In this method, the dept h of treatm ent can be
better con trolled. However, lhe method is q uite expens ive as compared with mix-In- place method. The
material has to be compacted as delivered and not as a com plete section of the road. A furthe r disadvantage
is that the work may have to be stopped even after a minor breakdown in the plant.
(b) Tranlllng Planl. A travelling plant can move along the road unde r coesrrccacc. The soil, after
 son, MECIIMlICS AND fOUNDATION ENGINEERING

placement of cement over it. is lifted up by an elevator and discharged into the hopper of the mixer of the
travelling plant. water is added and proper mixing is done. The mix is then discharged on the subgrade and
spread by a grad er. It is then properl y compacted.
The travelling plant method. like stationary plant, is useful for eccurere proportioning and unifonn
mixing. The: depth of trearmera is also properly controlled and a unifonn subgrade surface is attained.
However; the initial C05t is very high.

15.4. LIME SEUJILISATION

Lime stab ilisation is done by add ing lime to a soil. It is useful for stabilisation of clayey soils. When lime
reacts with soil, there is exch ange of ca tlcos in the adsorbed water layer and a decrease in plast icity of the
soil occurs. The resulting material is more friable than the original clay. and is. therefore. more suitab le as
suograoe. .
lime is produced by bwning of lime stone in kilns . The quality of lime obtained depends upoo the parent
material and the production process. 1bere are bas ically 5 types of limes.
(I) High calcium, quick lime (CaD)
(il) Hydrated , high calcium lime [01 (01 1)2]
(iiI) Dolom itic lime (CaD + MgO)
(iv) Normal. hydrated dolom itic lime [Ca (OH):z + MgO]
(v) Pressure. hydrated dolomitic lime [Ca (OH)2 + M&02].
The quk::k lime is more effective as stabiliser than the hydra ted lime; bul the latte r is more safe and
con ven ient 10 handle. Generally , the hydrated lime is used. It is also known as slaked lime. The higher the
magnesium content of the lime, the less is the affin ity for water and the less is the hall generated during
mixing.
The amoun t of lime required for stabilisation varies betwee n 2 to 10% of the soil However, if the lime
is usedonly to modify some of the pbysia>---<:hemical ctarectensdcs of the soil. the amount of lime is about
I 10 3%. 1be following amount may be used as a rough guide.
(I) 2 to 5% for clay grave l material having less than 50% of silt- clay fraction.
(;1) 5 to 10% for soils with more than 50% of silt-clay fraction .
(ii I) For so ils having particle size intermediat e between (I) and ,{il) above, the quanti ty of lime required ~
between 3 to 7%.
(iv) About 10% for heavy clays used as bases and sub -bases.
Ume stabilisation is not effective for sandy soils . However, tbese soils can be stabilised in rom binatioo
with clay. fly ash or othe r pozzolanic materials, which serve as hydraulically reactive ingredients. The ratio
of fly ash to Lime generally varies betwee n 3 to S. 1be fly ash used is abou l 10 10 20% of the soil weight.
Chemical and Physi cal Changes In lime stablllsatlon
When lime reads with wei soil, it alters the nature of the adsorbed layer by base exch ange. Calci um ions
replace the sod ium or hydrogen ions. The double layer is usually depressed due to an increase in the cation
coocentration. However, sometimes the doub le layer may expend due to high PH value of lime.
Ume reacts chemically with available silica and alumina in soils. A natural cement composed of calcium
a lumino silicate complexes is formed , which causes a cementi ng aaioo. 1be reaction de pend'> upon the
effect ive concentration of the reactants and temperature.
In lime stabilisation, the liquid limit of the soil generally decreases but the plastic limit increases. ThUS,
the plasticity iixlex of the soil decreases . The soil beco mes more friab le and worka ble. TIle strength of the
lime-stabilised soil is generally improved. It is partly due to a decrease in the plastk:: properties of the soil and
partly due to formation of cementing material Increase in the unc:oofmed ampressive strength is sometimes
as high as 60 times. The modulus of elasticity of the isoil also increases substantially.
Add ition of lime causes a high ooncentration of calci um ions in the double layer. It causes a decrease in
the tend Cl19' of attract ion of water. Consequent ly, the resistance of the soil to water adsorption , cap illary rise
 SOil srABIUSA110N 381

and volume changes on wetting a dryi ng is substantially increased. TIle lime-stabilised bases a sub-bases
fOffil a wa ter resistanl barrier wh ich stops penetration of rain water. There is an increasein the optimum water
cement and a reduction in the maximum dry density. In swampy areas where the wate r content is abov e the
optimum. application of lime to soil help> in drying of the soil.
I. Cyclic freezing and thaw ing can cause a temporary loss of strength. but because of subsequent healing
action, there is no loss of strength in long run.

Con..tructlon Meth ods

Construction methods used in lime stabilisation are si milar to those used in cement stab ilisat ion.
However, the followin g differences sho uld be carefully noted .
(l) As the reaction in the case of lime is slow. there is no maximum lime limit betw een the additi on of
lime to the soil and the com pletion of com paction. Howeve r. care shou ld be taken to avoid
nt
carbonation o f lime in the process.
(ii) lime may be added in the form of slurry instead of dry powder.
(iii) A rest period of 1 to 4 days is generally required ane r spreading lime over a heavy clay before final
mixing is dolle . This facilitates proper mixing of lime and soil.
(iv) 1be soil-li me is compacted to the required maximum dry density.
After compaction, the surface is kept moist for 7 days and then covered with a suitehle wearing 0031.
Sometimes, the weari ng 0031 is applied soon after compaction to help hold the moisture.
Il.5 . BITUMINOUS STA BI LIS AT IO N
Bitumens are non-aqueous systems of byorccartons that are solubl e in carbo n di-sul phide. Tars are
obtained by the destructive disHllation of organic materials such as coal. As phalts arc materials in which the
primary components arc natural or refined petrol eum bitumens.
Bituminous stabilisation is genera lly done with asphall as binder. As asphaus are norm all y too viscous to
ut De U'SCd direc'.iy. these are used as cut-back with some solvent. such as gasoli ne. Th ese are also used as
emulslcos, but in this form they require a longer dry ing period.
Any inorga nic soil which can be mixed with asphall is suita ble for bituminous stebntsenon. In
ccoesiocless soils, asphalt b inds the soil particles together and thus serves as a bonding or cementing agent.
In cohesiv e sons, asphalt protects the soil by plugging its voids and wa ter proofmg it. It helps the cohesive
soil to maintain low moisture content and to increase the beari ng capacity.
The amount of bitumen required generally varies between 4 to 7% by we ight. The actual amount is
determ ined by tria l
'"
.io Types of soil-bitumen
Acco rding to the llighway Research Board of USA, there are four types of soil- bitume n.
(I) Soll -h itum en (proper). Th is is a water-proo f, cohesive soil sys tem. The best resul ts are obta ined if
the soil sat isfies the followin g criteri a .
us
(a) Passin g No . 4 (4.76 mm) Siev e 50%.
on
(b) Passin g No. 40 (0 .425 mm) Sieve 35 to 100 %.
(c) Passin g No . 200 (0-074 mm) Sieve 10 to 50%.
om
(d) Plastic limil less than 18%.
be
(e) Liquid limit jesss than 40%.
(/J 1be maxim um size of the particle shou ld not be grea ter than one- th ird the compacted thickness of
"- the soil-bitumen.
be
nd
The quantity of bitumen varies from 4 to 7% of the dry weigh t.
(2) Sand-bitumen. This is a bitumen stabilised cohes ionlcss soil sys tem. The san d sho uld be free from
vegetal matter or lum ps of clay. The sand may require Illler for its mechani cal stability. Howeve r, it shou ld
notcontain more than 25% minus No . 200 siev e material (Le. the tpalcrial finer than No. 200 Sieve) for dune
in
sands and not more than 12% in case in other types of sand.
tse
382 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERtNG

The amount of bitumen required varies from 4 to 10%.

(3) Water-Proo fed Cla y Co ncre te. A soil possess ing a good grada tion is water proo fed by a uniform
distrib ution of 1 to 3% of bitumen in this system, Soils of three differen t gradations have been recommended.
For the three gradati ons. the percentage passing No. 200 sieve varies be tween (I) 8 to 12; (it) 10 to 16 and
(iii) 13 to 30.
(4) Oiled ea rt h. In this system. a soil surfa ce consisting of silt-clay material is made water proof by
sprayi ng bitumen in two or three applications. Slow or medium curing bitumen or emulsions are used. The
bitumen penetrates only a short dc~h into the soil lbe amount of bitumen requ ired i\ about 5 lures pee
square metre of the soil surface .
Factors affecti ng biluminou.. stebtltsatlon
(1) Type of soil. Bituminous st.abilisation is very effective in stabilising sandy so ils having little or no
fines. If a cohesi ve so il has the plastic limit less than abo ut 20% and the liquid limit less than 40 %. it can be
effectfvcly stectltscd. 1I0000ever. plastic clays Qlnno( be prope rly treated because of the mixing problems arxl
large quantity of asphalt requi red. Fine-grained soils of the arid regions which have high PH value and motam
dissolved salts do not respond well.
(2) Amo un t of asphalt The quality of the bitumen- stabilised soil improves w ith the amount of asphalt
upro a ce rtain limit. However. if the amount of the asphalt is excessive, it results in a highly Quid mixture
that cannot be properly compacted.
(3) MixJng. The quality of the product improves with more thorough mixing.
(4) Compaction. Tbe dry density of the bitumen-soil depends on the amoun t and type of compac tion. It
also depends upon the volatile content. In modified AASII O test. the maximum dry densit y OCUJrs at 3
volatile cont ent of abo ut 8%. For samp les cured and then Immersed in wate r. the maximum strength occurs
at a moulding volatile content corresponding to the maximum compacted density.
Construction Methods
Construction methods for bituminous stabilisation are similar to those used for soil -cement stabilisation.
However. the following points shou ld be noted.
(1) The optimum volatile co nten t for rom pact.ion i'i gcncrnlly moch greater than that for stabili ty. The
volatile conten t required for thoroug h mixing may be even greater. especia lly for clayey soils. It is, therefore.
necessary to eemte the mix between mixing and compaction and between compact ion and application.
(2) Th ob tain a high stability, the layer method of construction is preferred. Each layer is kept about 5
e m thic k. When the lower layer has dried up. the subsequent layer is laid. The total thickness for bases is kept
between 10 to 20 an.
(3) In the mix-in-place method. the bitumen i... sprayed in several passes. Each layer is partially mixed
before the next pass. This method prevents the ~lumt it)n of the surface of the scbgraoe.
(4) Climatic conditions influence the amount of bitumen that can be applied . as the amount of fluid
(moisture) already present is the soil depends upon the climatic cond itions.
15.6. CnElIIlCAL STABILISATION
In chem ical stabilisati on, soils are stabilised by addin g differen t chem icals. lbe main advantag e of
chemical stabil isation is that setting time and curing time am be controlled. Chemical stabilisation is however
generally more expensive than other types of stabilisation .
The followi ng chemicals have been successf ully used.
(1) Calcium Chloride. When calcium chloride is added to soil, it causes colloidal reaction and alters the
characteristics of soil water. As cajcium chloride i'i deliquescent and hygroscopi c, it redu ces the loss of
moisture from the soil. It also reduces the chances of fros t heave, as the freezing point of wate r is lowered.
Calcium chloride is very effective as dust palliative. A<:, the soils treated with calcium chloride do not easily
pick up water. the method is effective for stabilisation of silty and clayey so ils which lose strength with an
iDCll:3SC in water content.
SOIL STABIUSA1l0N 383

Calcium chloride causes a slight increase in the maximum dry density . However. the optimum water
content is slightly lower than that for the untreated soil. It Closes a small decrease in the strength of the soil.
However. if the compacted soil is put to water imbibition. wate r pick up is reduced and the strength of the
treated soil is greeter than that of the untreated soil.
It may be noted that most of the benefits of stabilisation require the presence of the chemica l in the pore
Iluid. A'i soon as the chemi cal is leached out , the benefit s nrc lost. The performance of treated so ils depends
to a large extent on the g round-water movement.
The construction methods are similar to those used for lime stebilisat ion. The quantity of calcium
chloride required is abou t 4% of the weight of the soil.
(2) Sodium Chlo rid e. The action of sodium chloride L<; similar to that of calcium chloride in many
respects. However, the tcndency for attrnction of moisture is somewhat lesser tban thai of calcium chloride .
When sodi um chloride is added to the soil, crystallisation occurs in the poresof the soil and it forms a dense
hardmat with the stab ilised surface. The poresin the soil get filled up and retard further evaporation of water.
Sodium ch loride also ch ecks the tendency for the formation of shrinkage cracks.
Sodium chloride is mixed with the soil either by the mix-in-place method or by the plant-mix method. II
should not be applied directly to the surface.
The quantity of sodium chloride required is about 1% of the soil we ight.
(3) Sodium Silicate. Sodi um silica tes. as well as other alkali sil icates, have been successfully used for
soil sLabilisation. l bc chemical L'i used as so lution in wate r. know n as waler glass. The chemical is injected
into the soi l Sodium silicate gives strength 10 soil when it reacts with it. It also makes the soil impervious.
It also acts as a dispersing agent . The maximum compacted density is increased. 1bc quantity of the chemical
required varies be tween 0.1 to 0.2% of the weight of the soil.
This me:thod of stabilisat ion is relatively inexpensive. but its long-term stability is doubtf uL The treated
soil may lose strength when exposed to air or to ground water,
(4) Polymers. Polym ers are rong-cnalncd molecules formed by polymerising of certain organic chemicals
called monom ers. Polymers may be natural or synthetic. Resins arc natu ral polymers . Calciu m acrylate is a
commonly used synthetic polyme r. When a polymer is added to a soil, reaction takes place. Sometimes . the
monomers arc added with a cata lyst to the so il. In that case. polymerisation occu rs along with the reaction.
(5) Chrome Lignin. The chemical lignin is obtained as a by- product during the manufacture of paper
(rom wood . Chrome lignin is formed from black liquor obtained during sulp hite paper manufacture. Sodium
bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonat e is added to sulphite liquor to form chrome lignin. It slowly polymcrises
into a brown gel, When the chem ical is added to the soil. it slowly reacts to cause bonding of particles. The
quantity of ligni n required varies fran 5 to 20% by weight.
As lignin is so luble in water. its stabilisi ng effect is not permanent.
(6) Other Chemicals. (I) So me water proofers such as alkyl chloro stlanes, sllico nates amincs and
quaternary ammonium salts, have been used for water proofing of soils.
(it) Coagulating chemicals, such as calcium chloride and ferric chloride. have been used 10 increase the
electrical attraction and to form flocculated structure in order to improve the permeab ility of the so il.
(iii) Dispersant. such es sodium bexa-merapbosphate, are used to increase e lect r ical repulsion and to
ca use d ispersed stru cture. 1be com pacted densn y of the soil is increased.
(iv) Phos phoric acid rom bincd with a Welting agen t can be used for stabilisation of cohesive soils. II
reacts with clay minera ls and forms an insoluble aluminum phosphate.'

15.7. TIIERMAL SU\IIILISATION

Thermal chan ge causes a marked improvement in the properties of the ~i1. Therm al stabilisation is done
either by hea ting the soil or by cooling it.
(a) Heetlng. As the soil is heated. Its water content decreases. Electric repulsion between clay particles
isdecreased and the strength of the soil is increased. When the temperatur e is increased to more than 100°C,
!headsorbed water is driven off and the streng th is further increased .
384 SOiL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

DC.
When the soil is heated 10temperatureof 400°C to 6OO some irreversible changes occur which make
the soil non-plastic and non-expansive. The clay clods are converted into aggregates.
With further increase in temperature , there is some fusion and vitrificati on, and a brick-like material is
obtained which can be used as an artificial aggregate for mechanicalstabilisation.
This method of stabilisation is quite expensive because of large heal inpul. It is rarely used in practice.
(b) Freezing. Cooling causes a small loss of strength of clayey soils due to an increase in interparticle
repulsion . Howe ver. if the tempe rature is reduced to the freezing point. the pore water freezes and the soil is
stabilised . Ice so formed ads as a cementing agent.
Water in coh esionless soils freezes at about ODe. However, in cohesive soils , water may freeze at a much
lower temperature. The strength of the soil increases as more and more water freezes.. This method of
stabilisat ion is very costl y. This method is used only in some special cases . It has been successf ully used to
solidify soils beneath foundations. The method is commonly used when advanci ng tunnels or shafts through
loose silt or fine sand.
Free-Ling may cause serious trouble 10 adjac ent structures if the freezing front penetrates these areas. It
may cause excess ive heaving. The method shou ld be used after considering the above aspects.
15.8. ELECTRICAL STABILISATION
Electri cal stabilisation of clayey soils is done by a process known as electro-osmosis. As a direct current
(D.C.) is passed through a clayey soil, pore water migra tes to the negative electrode (cathode ). It occurs
because of the attractio n of positive ions (cations) that are present in water towards cathode. The strength of
the soil is ronsiderably increased d ue to. removal of water . (For further details of electro-osmosis see chapter
16).
Electro-osmosis is an expensive method, and is mainly used for drainage of cobestve soils. Incidentally,
the properties of the soil are also improved.
15.9. STABILISATION BY GROUTING
In this method of stabilisation, stabilisers are introduced by injection into the soil . As the grouting is
always done under pressure, the stabilisers with high viscosity are suitable only for soils with high
permeability, This method is nor suitable for stabilising clays because of their very low permeabili ty.
The grouting method is costlier as compared with direct blending methods. 1be method is su itable foc
stabilising buried zones of relatively limited extent , such as a pervious stratum below a dam . The method is
used to improve the so il that cann ot be disturbed. An area close to an existing building can be stabilised by
this method.
Types or G ro uting
Depending upon the stabiliser used, grouting techniques can be classifi ed as under:
(J) Cement Grou t ing. A cement grout consists of a mixture of cement and water . If the hole drilled in
the soil is smooth, the water-cement ratio is kept low. Sometimes, chemicals are added to grou t to increase it
fluidity so that it can be injected into the soil .
Cement grout ing is quite effecti ve for stabilising rocks with fissures, gravel and coarse sand .
(2) Clay G ro uting. In this method, the grout used is composed of a very flne-graioed so il (bentonite
clay) and water . The bentoni te clay readily adsorbs water on its surface. The viscosity, strength and flow
cha racteristics of the grout can be adjusted according to the site conditions. Clay grouting is suitable for
stabilising sandy soils .
Sometimes, other chemicals are added to clay grout. Clay cement grout is a mixture of clay, bentonite
and cement. Clay-cement grout is a mixture of clay, bentonite and cement . Clay-chemical grout is a
mixture of clay and sodium silicate. It is effective for medium and fine sands .
(3) ChemIcal Grouting. The grout used consists of a solution of sodium silicat e in water, lq10wn as
water glass. The solution contains both free sodium hydroxide and colloidal silicic acid . An insolubl e silia
gel is formed. ¥ the reaction is slow, calcium chloride is generally added to accelerate the reaction.
SOIL STABI LlSA1lON 385

The method is suitable for medium and fine sands . However, the effect of chemical gro uting Ls not
perma nent.
(4) Chrome-lign in grouting. The grou t used is made of lignosu lphatcs and a hcxavalant chromium
compou nd. Whe n it is combined with an acid, the chromium ion changes valence and the reby oxidises the
ligoosu lphates into a gel.
The method can be used to stabilise fine sand and coarse silt.
(5) Polym er- grouti ng. Various polymers have been successfully used in grouting of Fine sands and sills.
(6) Bitu m inous grouti ng . Sandy and silty soils have been gro uted successfully using emulsified asphalt.
Slow-setting em ulsions are generally preferred, as these can trave l a large distance into the stra tum.
IS.I O. STA BILISATION BY GEOTEXTILE AND FABRICS
1be soil can be stabilised by introduci ng geotextiles and fabrics which are made o f synlhetic materials,
such as polythelene. polyester, nylon. The geotexnte sheets are manufactured in different ttuckncsses ranging
from 10 to 300 mils (1 mil = 0.0254 mm = 25.4 Jol). TIle width of the sheet can be up to 10 m. These are
available in rolls of length upeo about 600 m . Geotextilcs are manufactured in different patterns, such as
woven, non-woven, grid, and hybrid. The woven gcorextnes are made from continuous mono-filament or slit-
film flbers. The non-woven geotextnes are made by the use of thermal or chemical bonding of continuous
fibres and then pressed through rollers into relatively thin sheets. The grids of gcotextncs are made from a
sheet of polymer by punching it and then ctcogarlng it in at least one direction. 111e hybrid geor.extile are
nothing but combin::ltions of woven , non-woven and grid .
The geotextilcs are quite permeable. Their permeabilit y is comparnble to that of Iine sand to coarse sand.
These ar quire stro ng and durable. These are nor affected by eve n hostil e so il environment. The use of
geotextiles in geotechnical and construction engineering has Increased considerably in the last 2 decades.
Gcotex tilcsare being increasingly used for the site improvement, soil stabilisation and various other related
works. Wh ile selecti ng gcotextttes for a particular job, due importance shou ld be g iven to the major functioo
lhat the geotexti le has to perform , as exp lained below.
1. Geot exn tes as separators. Gcotextilcs are commonly used as separators between two laycrs o f soils
having a large difference in particle sizes to prevent migration of small-size partic les into the voids of
large-size particles. The main use as separators is in the const ruction of highways on clayey so ils. As the
particle size of gran ula r base course of the highway is SE
much larger than that of the subgrade (cla yey soil in this ~ BASE COUR
~), it is the usu,at praet,i~ to pr~vj~e an. interven.ing ~Jg;g§ fi~ \iSkD
..:: . . . .... ,' : .. ,. .-.-. " -, . .. ..~
SOli layer of a SOil conta rr ung gra m-sizes intermediate
between tbat of the subgrade and the base cou rse to
prevent migration o f clay particles 'into the base course .
' .';.:~.: '.>. SUB~RAOE ~:
. ., '
.'. ; '.':; :EXTILE
Instead of the intervening soil layer, gcotextile can be h g. 15.I.
provided to serve the same purpose . The size of perforations should be accordin g to the requirement. Thus a
geotextile sheet is used between the subgrade and the base course (Fig . 15.1).
2. Geolextlle as Fllter. It is the usual practice to provide a properly graded filter to prevent the
movement of soil particles due 10 see page forces The filter is so designed that the particl e size of lhe filler is
small enou gh to hold the protect ed ma terial in place, as dlscassed in chapter 10. 1f the filter material is not
properly selected, the particles of the soil move into the poresof the filler and may prevent proper function ing
of the drain age . It ma y also lead to piping.
Gcot ex lilcs . can be used as filters
instead of conve ntional filter. Whe n the
silt-lade n turbid water passes thro ugh
the georcxttte, the silt particles are
prevented from movem ent by the
geotextne. The mod ification in lhe soi l
and void o f the georextne occurs, and Fig. 15.2.
386 SOIL MECHANICS AND FO UNDATION ENGINEERING

after some time an equilibrium stage is attached . For relatively thin gcotcxtile sheet, most of the filtration
occurs within the soil just upstream of the gcotextileIabric. Fig. 15.2 shows the usc of gcotcxtilc as filter on
the upstream and downstream of the core of a zoned earth dam. It prevents the migration of the particles of
the core into the shells.
GEOTEXTILE
3. Ge otexfile as Drai n. A drain is used 10 convey
w ater saf ely from one place 10 the other. As the RETAINING
gcotexules are pervious, they themselves fundion as a WALL
drain. They have a relatively higher water-carrying BACK FILL
capacity as compared 10 that of the surrounding soil.
Drainage occurs either perpendicular to the plane
of the sheet or in-plene of the sheet. In the first case, it
functions primarily as a filter. In the tatter C<lSC, it acts
as -a water carrier. and a relatively bulky geoicxtlle or a
composite system of geotextilc is required . Fig. 15.3 DRAIN PIPE
shows a typical application where gcotcxrilc is used for
drainage behind a retaining wall. Fig. 15.3.
In all the above applications of the gcotextile , the following advantages are genera lly achieved .
(1) The installation is generally easter and faster.
(2) The syste m has greater stab ility.
(3) The quantity of soil 10 be excavated and disposed of is less.
(4) The load on the structure is less.
4. Geotextile a.. Reinforcement for strengthening soli. Gcotextilcs have a high tensile strength. These
can be used-to increase the load-carrying capacity of the soil. Geotextiles arc used as reinforcemen t in the
soil, which is poor in tension but good in compression . The action is somewhat similar to that of steel bars
in a reinforced concrete slab.
Geotextiles when used as reinforce- ~EOTEXTl lE
ment for soils have solved many EMBANKMENT
construction problems on soft and ~
compressible soils. Fig. 15.4 shows the
reinforcement of an embankment with
geotexnjes . The geotextil c.s " have been Fig. 15.4.
used in the construction of unpaved roads over soft soils. These are laid over the soil and the base course of
the road is placed directly over it. When the vehicles pass over the road, the geotextile defonns and iLS
strength is mobilised .
S. Geotexttles used as reinforcement in reta ining walls. Geotcxule can be used as reinforcement in the
construction of canb-retaining structures. Gcotextiles are used to fonn the facing of the retaining wall as well
as reinforcement . Such retaining walls are also called fabric reinforced retaining walls (Fig. 15.5).
r GRANUl AR
:=-GEDTExTllE / / _MATERIAL

L.fj)~~L-====_/ I C -: · ·· :rP~~~~._~, T·~V

•
FOOM (a)
(b)

(0)

(d)
Fig. 15.5. Fig. 15.6.
 SOIL SfABIUSATION 387

The following procedure is used for the construction of the fabric-reinforced wall.
(I) First the ground surface is levelled and the first gco tex tilc she et of the required width is laid over the
surface such that about 1.5 m to 2 m of the sheet at the wa ll surface is draped over temporary
woode n form (Fig. 15.6 a).
(il) Grnn ular material is placed over the geot ext ile sheet and co mpacte d with a rolle r of suitable weight.
(iii) Afte r compocnon. the sheet is folded as shown in Fig. 15.6 (b).
(i v) 'The second gcotextilc:sheet i s placed over the compacted laye r ove r the granula r material and draped
over the wooden fonn as shown in Fig. 15.6 (c), and the process is repeated .
(v) The front face of the wall is protect ed by the use of shotcretc: or gunite. Shotcrere is the cement
concrete with a low wate r content . It is sprayed over the: soil surface at a high pressure. Fig. 15.6 (d)
shows the completed wall
The design of fabric reinforced retaining walls is similar in principle to that of reinforced earth discussed
in the following section.
I S.1I. REINFORCE D EARTI I
The soil can be stabilised by introducing thin strips in it. In reinforced earth, thin metal strips or strips of
wire or geosymbcucs are used as reinforcement to reinforce the soil. The: essential feature of the reinforced
earth is that friction develops between the reinforcement and
I.he soil. By means of friction, the soil transfers the forces
built up in the: earth mess to the reinforcement. Thus tension
develops in the relntorcememwhen tbe soil rna'>.'> is subjected FAa
to shear stfCSSCS under loads. UNIT
,e Th e main applica tion of the reinforced earth is in the
rs reinforced earth wall. Th e wall consists of a facing element.
reinforcement and the: back fill (Fig. 15.7). At the exposed
vertical surface of the earth mass, facing elem ents are used to
provide a SOl1 of barrier so that the soil is contained. Th e
facing units arc genera lly prefabricated from units which are
small and light so that they can be easily transported and
placed in posit ion. These are usua lly made of stee l,
aluminum, reinforced concre te or plastic. These sho uld be
of strong enoug h to hold bac k the back fill. Moreover , these .
.ts should be such that the rein force ment can be easily fastened Fig. 15.7.
to them. The faci ng units generally, requi re a small plain co ncrete footin g at the bottom so that they can be
-ie easily bu ilt.
,n The reinforc emen t is connected to the facing element and extended back into the backfi ll zone. 'lb e
friction developed in the reinforce ment restrains the fac ing elemen t. First a layer o f rein forc ement strips is
pL1CCdat the level ground surface and the backfilling is done with a granu lar so il. The so il with less than 15
percen t passin g No. 200 sieve is used . Th e enti re process o f laying strips and backfilling is cont inued Iill the
required height of the re inforced eart h wall is attain ed.
Gajvantsed steel strips are comm only used as reinfor cement . Bacn stri p is abo ut 50·100 mm wid e and
severa l metres in length. The thick ness is upto 9 mm . So metimes metal rods, wires and geo texti les are used
as rei nforce men t.
Des ign of rei nfo rced earth wall
TIle follow ing assumptions are made :
1. Th e backfill is horizon tal. witho ut any surcharge.
2. Th c earth pressure acting on the: facin g eleme nt is the same as that acts on a rigid vertical faa:
retai n ing coocrere wall .
388 SOtL M ECHANi CS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

3. Rank ine's earth pressure theory for active pressure [discussed in chapter 19) holds good.
4. The failure plane ma kes an angle of (45 0 + tn) with the horizontal, where • is the angle of shearing
resistance of the badcfill material .

height H (Fig. 15.8). When the wall rotates abo ut the point
A away [rom
Let us the backfill
wnsidct . a gn
the desi failure
of aplane AC forms
retaining which
wall AB
makes an angle of (45 + , 12) with the horizon tal. The
0

active pressure acting on the wall at any depth Z below the

soil surface is given by
of 1~\::\:\*'",---'-_
B

:hhlh
C

RANK1~E
FAILURE
SURFACE

p,_yZK. ...(15 .1)

The pressure variation is linear. The total pressure per
unit length of the waIl is given by

p.. - ~ YJP KA .. .( 15.2) A

where K", is Rankine's active earth pressure roefficienl,
t-- »<",,----i •
2
equa l to tan 2 (4s<' + ,12). as discussedin chapter 19. I(A '" ta n C4S'- T )
Let us divide the height H of the wall into small equal fig . IS.8.
heights h as shown in Fig. 15.8. lei Z/ be the dep th of any reinforcing stri p i. The toeat earth pressure acting
on the strip is represe nted by the area ebcd of the press ure d iagra m. The average pressure Pi on the strip is
given by
Pi • YZi KA, ... (15.3)
Let us assum e that the rein forcing strips are placed at intervals of h in the vertica l direction. Let the
spacing of the strips in the direction perpendic ular 10 the plane of paper be .f. Th us one reinfor ci ng strip is
subject ed to the earth press ure on the area of (h )( s). Th erefore , the tens ion in the st rip i is given by
Ti - PI A - (y Z/ KA,)(h )( s) .. .( 15.4)
Using the same procedu re, the tension in other reinforci ng strips ca n be dete rmined . Of course. the
tens ion incr eases as the depth increases. 1be sum of the tension in all the reinforcing strips is equal to the
total earth pressure on a length of s. Thus

L T; - s P.
i _I
... (15.5)
Length of reinforcing strip. Tbe reinforcing strips should extend we ll beyo nd the act ive zo ne into the
backfill to have proper grip length . Th e length of the strip lying between the wall An and the failure plane
AC is not effectiv e for computing the grip length . The eff ective grip length lying on the right-hand side of the
failu re plane A C should be able to provide a suitable factor of safety against fa ilure.
Let us again conside r the reinforcing strip at dep th Zi . If Pi is the frictional resistance o n the rei nforcing
strip of length L~ then
F, • F, T, ••.(15.6)
where F, is the factor of sarcr y (u.w ally taken as 2) and T; is the tensio n in the strip.
If 6 is the angle o f surface friction. then
F J - (y Zj) tan b )( (surface area of strip)
Tbe surface area of the st rip of width b is taken equal to (2 bL,,) a'> the resistance develops on both faces
of the strip.
Thus F, . (y Z,) tan erz .1.) ... (15.7)
Substituting the value of F; in Eq. 15.6 and simpli fying

1 r , T, ...(15.8)
-" - 2 yZ;blanb
SOIL S1ABIUSA1l0N 389

Eq.s. ]5 .7 and 15.8 are applicable 10 rectangular strips. If round bars are used,
L.~ ..•[15.8 (a»)
., Xd yZi lan b
where d is the diam ete r of ibe bar.
If continuous reinforcing sheets are used,

L-~
., 2y Zi tan b
... [15.8 (b»)

The angle of surface friction b depends upon the dcn.s ily and Iype o f the backfill material , It also depends
upon the roughness of the re inforcing st rip. The val ue o f b usually varies betwee n 0.5 • an d .. where, is
the angle of shearing resistance of the backfill materi al,

Cros...-secttonel area of the reinforcing strip

Th e cross -sect ion al a rea of the reinforc ing s trip is det ermined if the allowab le tensi le stress (f,) is known .
The cros..s-secti o nal area is obvio usly equal to the tensile force divided by the allowable tensil e stress. 111u5
A. .!::!. . F,Ti
f, f,
A. • F, (y Zi K. ) h , ... ( 15.9)
f,
Eqs. 15.8 and 15.9 give diffe rent len gths L., and the cross-sectional areas A, for differe nt reinforci ng
strips. For convenience, It is the usual practice 10 adopt the same length and the cross-section for all the
reinforcing smps. Thus the value corresponding to the ma ximu m tens ion at the base of wa ll is used for all
strips. lienee Zj ... 11 for all strips.

PROBLEMS
A. Descrtpttve Bod Ob jective type Questions
15.1. \\ 'ha l is soil stabilisation? What are its uses 1
15.2. Wha l is mecha nical stabi lisation? What are the raccors that alfea the mechani cal stabi lilY o f a mixed soi l?
15.3. Describe in brief cemen! SlObilisation. wha t ere u ie factors mal affect the smbilily of soil cement Discuss
coesuucrtoo methods.
15.4. Discuss the use of lime in s1llbilisation o f soils. Whal arc !he che mical and physical changes which take place
in lime stabilisation ?
15.5. Write a short note on bituminous stabilisation. Whal are different types of soil bitumen ? Descri be the factors
affecling bituminous stahiliSlil ion.
15.6. What are diffe renl types of chemicals used in stabilisation of soi ls?
15.7. writ e short roes on;
(I) Thermal stabilisation (u) Electrical stabilisation.
(i il) Grouling (iv) Georextile.
15.8. w rite whether the following statements ere true or false:
(a) Mechanical stabiliSlllion requires additioo of chemicals to soils..
(b) Ceme nt srabllisa non is more suitable for fine grained soils than ooarse -grained soils.
(e) Lime Slabilisalion is suitable for coarse-grained soils.
(d) Bitummoes stabilisation a n be used for both coarse- grained and fine-grained soils .
(e) The effect of lignin as a SUlhilisationagent is permanent.
(/) Therma1 stabilisation is quite lnexpensive.
(g) EJectro-osmosis is used fOC' Slabilising highly cohesive soil s..
(h) A geotextile is embedded in !he soil to give it S1abiliIY.
(.) Ceeec r groutIng can be used fOC' da yey soils. lAm. True, (d). (g), (11:»)
) 90 SOi L MECHANICS AND FOUND ATI ON ENGIN EERING

8. Multiple Choice Questions

I. Ceme nt stab ilis.-ation is generally used for slabili...ing
(a) Sands (h) SiIL~
(e) Clays (til All the above
2. Lime stabilisation is generally used for stabilising
(a) Gravels (blSanlls
(e) Clays (J) All the above
3. Biturmnons stahilisollio n is generally used for stabili ...ing
la) Sands (b) Sill...
Ie) C lays (d) All the above
4. The following method s of mixing ceme nt in the sta hilisal itm of the soil is genera lly the bes t:
Cu) Mix- in-pl ace method Ch) Suuio nary plant method
(c) Trav e lling plan t method 'd) None of above.
5. For stabilisation Ill" hC"JVY clays. the following method is gene rally mus teffective
(u) Mechan ical stahilisation (h) Th ermal stabilisation .
(c) Chemical stahilisuticn Cd) Electric al stahilis ation.
6. Chemical grouting i~ generally used for
(Il) tin e sands and coar se sits (h) medium and nn e sands
(e ) Coarse sand s (d ) clay s.
7. LIne sta bilisation o f clayey so ils gene rally lead s to
((I) Dec rease in shrinkage limit lb) Decrea se in plastic limit
(e) Increase in liquid limit (If) Floc culation o f particles
8. For the maximum dry densitv. thc percentage of pan icles passmg 7SJ.1 size is ahll U!
(a) .w% (h) 60%
(e) 20% (I{J tlO%
9. The material used for manufacture of gcocextilc i~
(a) Polythcne (b) Nylon
(e) Polystcr (tf) All the above
10. For the des ign of the reinforced earth wall. the follo w ing assumption is TlOI made:
tul The earth pressure disrribunon is the same as in a ri!!id retaining wall
(b) The Rankine theory is applicable
(e) The fail ure plane makes an angle of (4S'" - 41'2) with the horizo ntal
(d) T here is nil surcharge on the backfill
IAn s. J. (a). 2. (e ). J. (d). 4. (c). 5. (c/). 6. (b). 7. (d). 8. (c), 9. (d). 10. (c)}
 16
Drainage, Dewater ing and Wells

16.1. INTRODUcnON
Drainage is the process of removal of gravity wate r (free water) from a soil mass in order to keep it in
a stable con dition . Drainage may be classified into two categories: (.) Surface Drainage. (il) Sub-surface
Drainage. Swface drainage is the method of ccllectioa and diversion of the surface run off. Subsurface
drainage ronsisLs of collection and disposal of the ground water. Subsurface drai nage is. also known as
dewatering. It is p["()(XSS of removal of water from a foundatio n pit when it is situated below the grwnd water
lable or when it is surrounded by a coffer dam .
TIle purpose of dewatering is to keep the excavation dry so ttw concreting can be done. Dewatering is
Itmpor.1l)' if it is done at Ole time of constnJCtion . It is fo llowed by restoration to its ori g inal wa ter table after
the structure has been oornpleted. Permanent dewatering is required for removing subsurface gravitational
water throughout the life of structure. It may be necessary to keep the water away from the structure 10 ched:
dampness or other ill effects. .
Subsurface drainage not only facilitates constru ction, but it also helps in imp roving the propert ies of the
soil. This helps in the stabilisat ion of soils. In case of fine-grained so ils, althoug h the qua ntity of water
removed is not much, improve ment in the properties of the soil i.<; signiflcanr . Subsurface drainag e also helps
in reducing the hydrostati c pressure acting on the base of the structure.
The method of sub-surface drainage to be adopted at a particular s ite would depe nd upon the
characteristics of the soil, the positio n of the wate r table and the time period the sys tem has to operate.
Various methods of sub -surface drainage are discussed in this chapter. Theory of wells is also dealt with . The
methods of surface drainage are outside the scope of this text.

16.2. (NTERCEP'roR DITCHES

Interceptor ditches are used for excavauon of limited dep th made in a coarse soil . These ditches are
constructed around the area to be dewatered . The ditches must penetrate deepe r than Ihe level of the work
area (Fig. 16.1). At suitab le loca tions, sump pits are constructed along the ditch for installation of the pump
to remove the wate r collected.

Fig. 16.1.1ok:fcepCOr Ditdl .

392 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

If the soil is fine sand of low permeability, boil ing may occu r in sumps and ditches . This may be
prevented by placin g nIter layers on the sides and at the bot tom of the ditches and sumps..
Interce ptor ditches are moo econo mica l for ca rrying away the water which emerges o n the Slopes and
near the bot tom of the foundatio n pit. The method can be effectively used for rock formation, grave l and
coarse sa nd. In fine sands and sil ts, there may be sloughing. erosion or quick con ditions. For such soils, the
method is confined to a dep th of 1 to 2 m.
16-1. SIN GLE-STAGE: WELL POINTS
A well point is a perforated pipe abo ut I m long and 5 em in diameter. 'Ibc perforations are covered with
a screen to prevent c logging. A jetting nozzle is provided at its lower rod. A conical steel drive point is fixed

lower end which permits flow of water only in the downward

d_ion during installation. The well point ~ conoecred 10
Ii I
to the 1000ct end of the well point to facilitate installation (Fig. 16.2). A ball valve is also provided . near the

.I.~
the bottom of the riser pipe of the same diameter. Risers of
d ifferent well points are connected to a horizon tal pipe of 15
to 30 em d iameter, known as heade r. The header is connected
to a special ly designed pumping unit. The spacing of the well
poin ts depends upon the type of so il and the depth of water.
Genera lly, it varies betwee n I to 3 01.
Well points can be installed in a drilkd hole, but
generally these are installed by jetting. Water is pumped
through the riser pipe in the downward direction. As it
discharges through the nozzle, it displaces the soil below the
tip. Jetting is contin ued till the required penetratio n of the tip I :
is ach ieved. The advantage of insta llation by jetling is that : I

the water under pressu re washes away soil fines ncar the tip ! : FSl.IClion pori
and leaves a relative ly coarse material. It forms a natural Ball va lve
filter around the tip. The hole formed ncar the tip is filled
with coarse sand. "'----l~t pai l'll
After the well points have bee n installed around the area (oil Eleva tion. fbi 5ec:~lon
10 be dewa tered, pumping is started . Each well point lowers FIg. 16.2.Well PanlS.
the water tabk around it and forms a small cone of depressloe (Fig. 16.3). Various cones of depression join,
and a common drawdown curve is obtained. Tbe water table is thus lowered (Fig. 16.4.)
Well points are suita ble for lowering the water table by 5 to 6 m in soils with a coefficient ci
permeabili ty be tween 1 x Itr to I )C 10-6 mrsec. 1be screen norma lly provided with the well points can
prevent medium sand and coarse sand fron entering the well point. If the stratum to be dewatered cons ists of

Fig. 163 . Well .poinl InstaiLaIiorl.

DRAINAGE, DEWA1ERING AND WEllS 393

flner soilsc a sard • • bas to be provided erouod tbe

well point.
~o.s,
It is essential to continue pumping once it has _ _ _ __ __ _ ..2. ~.!.-_
been started until the excavation is complete. If it is ~ ~
Slopped in between, it may prove to be disastrous.
16.4. MULTI-STA GE WELL POINTS

grea:~~ :~I::I~~~a:e~~ ~;:~o~~:,~ ' - w ell Poin t .:»

In this method, two or more rows of well points are Fig. 16.4. Effcec d Well Points.
installed at different elevations. Fig. 16.5 shows a two-stage well point system.

Fig. 165 . Multi-stagc Well Poinrs.

The installation of well points is done in stages. The first stage well points (marked I) are located Dear
the perimeter of the area. as in a single-stage well point system. Theseare pul into operation and the werer
table is lowered by about 5 m and the area is excavated. The well points of the second stage (marked II) are
then installed within the area already excavated. Water table is further lowered by about 5 m and the
excavation of further 5 m depth is done. Thus the total depth of excava tion becomes about 10 • If required,
the third stage of well points can also be installed to further lower the water table.
The method is useful for excavations upto 15 m depth. Excavations exceeding 15 m depth are generally
dewatered by a deep well system (Sect . 16.7).
16.5. VACUUM WELL PO INTS
Well points cannot be used successfully for draining silty sandsand other fine sands with an effective
size less than about 0.05 mm. The coefficient of pameability of such soils is generally between 1 x 10-5 to
1 )( 10- 7 mjsoc. These soils can be effectively drained by using vaa.rum well points.
For installation of a vacuum well points, a hole of about 25
em diameter is formed around the well point and the riser pipe by !"l. ¥l",,"bv;'.l b/T'Mn~,.I,.\-l.ib­
jetting water under pressure. When water is still flowing, medium
10 COM>e sand is filled into the hole upto about 1 m from the top.
Seat
The top 1 m portion of the hole is then fllled by tamping clay into
it. It fonns a sat of seal (Fig. 16 .6) . Any other impervious
material can also be used instead of clay to form a seal. Well point
Sand ti lle r
spacing is generally closer than that in a conventional system. (Void s u nder v<:I cuum )
When the header is coooected to a vacuum pump, it creates a
vacuum in the sand Iilter around the well point. As the pressureon
the water table is equal 10 the atmospheric pressure, the bead
causing flow is increased by an amount equal to the vacuum
pressure. The hydraulic gradient Increases and it overcomes the
flow resistance in the soil pores. The ground water flows to the
region of vacuum in the well points and drainage occurs.
As the effective pressure on the soil is increased. Fig. 16.6. Vaccum Welt Point
394 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEERING

consolidation takes place. It makes the soi l sti ff. However, the process is stow and it may take sev era l weeks
for the soil to become stiff enough for carrying o ut the excavartoe wortc:.

16.6. SHALL OW WELL SY~"EM

In a sha llow well system, a hole of about 30 an diameter is first bored into the gro und. using a cas ing.
A filter lube of about 15 ern diameter, cove red with a specia l w ire mesh. is the n lowere d into the cas ing. Tbe
casing is gradually withdrawn and suitable m itt materia l is added in to the annu lar space between the casing
and the filter tube . This forms a filter welL A suction pipe is lowered into the filter welL A number of sum
wells may be installed . Tbe suction pipes of all these wells are connect ed to a common header A pumping
unit is attached 10 the header. As the pumping is started, the drainage occurs. TIle suct ioo lift of the well
should not be more than 10 m for its proper wor king.
Shallow well system is rarely used in practice. Well-point systems, as discussed earlier, are more
economical upto a depth of 10 m Ulan a shallow well system.
16.7. n EE)) WE LL SYSTE M
A deep well is about 30 to 60 an in diamete r, bored to a depth of 15 to 30 m . It is provided with a
casing which is perforated one in the pervious zones penetrated. Coarse filter material is placed in the annular
space between the casing and the walls of the hole. 1bc spaci ng of deep wells varies betwee n 10 10 30 m,
depend ing upon thee area to be dcw atered and the locat ion of the water table.
A submersible pump is placed inside the casing ncar the bottom. The pump is driven by a motor mounted
on the top of the cas ing through a verticaj-Shaft (Fig. 16.7). However, if the motor is submersible, it can be
directl y attached to the pump. As the
pump i.s placed at the bottom . there is
no restriction on the heigh t to which the
watcr can be lifted, unlike a shallow
well system.
Deep wells are locatedon the ou ter
periphery of the area to be excavated. A
row of well point is also ins talled at the
toe of s ide slopes of the deep excava-
tion to intercept sccp.:lge between the
deep wells and to prevent sloughing of
the slopes near the toe. Fig. 16.7. Deep 'llkll S)W:m.
As in the case of well point systems, pumping once start ed must be cootinued until the entire excavation
wo rk is completed. If the pumping is stopped in between , there would be 3 rapid developm ent of hydrostat ic
and seepage pressure in the excavation. which may prove to be disastrous .
16.8. HORIZONTAL WELL..t;
Horizontal we lls of abo ut 5 em to 8 em diame ter have been used for drainage of hill sides . These wells
are dri lled into the hill at a slight ly upward slope. A perfora ted casing is installed in the well to collect and
discharge water. Horizontal wells have been success fully installed for horizontal length of 60 m.
Large horizon tal tunnels have also been successfully used to tap deep aq uifers be neath hill sides.
A combined syste m of vertical wells and horizontal wells can be used to drain stra tified soil deposi ts. In
this system, the vertical wells interce pt the aquifer and discharg e the water into the horizon tal well . 1bc water
collected by the horizontal well is discharged at a suitable point.
16.9. ELEClRO· OSMOSIS
Electro-osmosis is a method of drainage of cohesiv e soils in which a direct current (D.C.) is used. When
a direct curren t is passed through a satura ted so il between a positive electrode (anode) and a negative
ekclrode (cathode) , pore wate r migrates (0 the carbode. The cathode is a well point which oollects the water
drained from the soil The water 00110000 is discharged. as in a conventional well-point system .
DRAINAGE, DEWATERING AND WEllS 39'
The phenomenon of electro-osmosis can be explained with the help of the electrical double layer. Cations
(positive ions) ace focmed in pore water when the dissolved minera ls go into solution. These cations move
towards (he negative ly charged surface of clay minerals to satisfy lbe ejectrkal charge. As the water
mo lecu les act as dipoles, the ca tions also attract the negative end of dipoles. When the cations move to the
cathode, they take with them the attached water molecules. In fact, the en tire outer part of the diffuse doub le
layer which is loosel y adsorbed to the
so il particles gets sheared along a (_)
plane. Only the inner most part of the PUMP__
layer about 10 A O thick remains
attached to the particle .
Mg. 16.8 shows an installation in
which electro-osmosis is used. Anodes
are in the fonn of steel rods located
near the toe of the slope of the
excavation. Cathodes arc in the form of
-..
-.. ,-
,-

RfNI OF WEllS
-
ROW OF WEllS
perforat ed pipes, resembling well (CATHODES) (CATHOOES)
points, installed in the soil mass abou t
Fig. 16.8.
4 10 5 m away from Ihe slope of the
cui. The electrodes are so arranged that the natural direction of flow of water is reversed and is direct ed away
from the excavation. This arrangement is required to prevent sloughi ng of the slopes . In many cases, mere
reversing of the dirtttion of flow helps in increasing the stability of the Slope even if there is no significant
decrease in the water conten t of the soil
The syste m requires <bout 20 to 30 amperes of electricity per well at a voltage of 40 to 180. The
consumption of energy is between 05 to 10 kWhlm] of soil drained . Because of Specia lised equipment and
high electricity consu mption. drai nage by electro-os mosis is expensive compared with othe r methods. The
method should be used only in exception al cases when o ther methods cannot be used. It is nonn ally used 10
drain water in a coh esive soil of low permeability (k _ 1 x 10- 5 to 1 x 10-8 m/scc).
Electro-osm osis also helps in increas ing the shear streng th of the cohesive soil.
16.10. PERMANEN T DRAINAGE AFrER CONSTRUCTION
Whe n a usable part of a structure lies below the ground water table, it should be made water proof.
Suitable construclion techniques sbcctd be used. As far as possnne, basemen t walls and floor should be cast
mono lithically . If the joints are provided,these should be as few es possible . All joints shall be providedwith
water stops.
Permanent drainage is done by providing foundati on drains and blanket drains, as explained below.
(a) Foundation Drains, When ground water
flows towards the structure, provisions are made to
carry the water away from the fo undation. Fig. 16.9 G. S.
shows an arrang ement of foundat ion dra in in which
perforated drains are used. The drains are
BACkFill
surrounded by a m ter. The drains shoold be placed
0B~!i":!:. _W
..T...._
at an elevation higher than the bottom of the
IlASDEH'
footing to avoid the possibility of carrying away
fine soil panicles.
The wate r co llected in the dra in is disposed of
by gravity to a nearby storm drain, nullah or any
other dra inage facility located at a lower level. If
Fig. 16.9. Foundation Drain.
no such drain is avai lable, the water is co llected in
a specially cons tructed sump well and pumped out. The dra inage sys tem should be provided with some
periodical cleaning arrangemen t.
'96 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Foundat ion drains arc effect ive when the depth below the water table is not too much. Whcn the water
table is very high. suitab le interceptor drai ns are installed at some distance awa y from the structure to lower

=
the water table in stages .
(b) Blankrt Drains. The blanket

::ns~. ~~~ ~:~~~

consists of coarse sand, grave l and
'~-_.
\\
crushed stones . It provides a highly \
pervious drainage path. The wa ter
coming out of the blanket drain is
collected and drained away by gravity .
Alternatively, it can be coUeded in a
COARS£ SAND
sump pit and then pumped ou t.
Blanket drains are quite effective
Fig. 16.10. Blankel Drain.
in reducing the uplift pressure on the
floor. The possibility of upward seepage flow through the basem ent floor is also considerably reduced.

16.11. DESI GN OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS

The design of a dewatering system consists of the dctcrmination of tbe num ber, size, spacin g and
pene tration of the well points or wells. These parameters de pend upon the ex pected rate of disc harge, the type
of the soil and the drawdown in the wells . Collectors and pumps shou ld have sufficient ca pacit y to serve the
intended porpose.
It is extremel y imponant to establish a fundamental relationship between the discharge and the
correspo nding drawdown. Tbe rate of d ischarge is computed using Darcy 's Jaw. It is assumed that the stratum
is homogeneo us and isotrop ic. in case the stratum is anisotropic, it ts assum ed to have been transformed into
an equiva lent isotropi c stra tum using the method d iscussed in ampler 9. It is further assum ed that the flow
is conti nuous and steady. Equations for the rate of d ischarge and ancsponding drawdown for different types
of wells arc developed in the following sections.
The well may be either gravity well or artesian well. A gravity well penetrates a homogeneous. pervious
stra tum aquifer in which the water table is located . An artesian well penetrates a homogeneous, pervious
stratum wb ich is bo unded by impe rvious strata above and below and in which the piezometric surface is
abo ve the top of the pervious stratum . A com bined artesian- gravity type of flow occurs when the water table
is an artesian well falls below the top of the pervious stratum.
The equations developed may also be used for the de termination of discharg e from wells for irrigatioo
and other purposes. However such wells are comtructed for supplying water and not drainag e. In this text.
the use of wells for drainage is of main conce rn.
r=SIO I
is.u , DISCHARGE FRO M A FULLY PENE:fRATING
SLOT ____'2 !!:!..__:;:: =:._
'When the drainage wells are closely spaced in a straigh t
line, an approximate equation for the discharg e can be ob tained
by cons idering the line of wells equivale nt to a lon g slot. The
_.... --
now in the slot may be gravity, artes ian or combined.
, (a) Gnn'ity "lo w. Fig. 16.11 shows a slot in which gravit y
flow occurs . The slot penetrates the pervious stratu m in which
the water table is located . The stratum is bounded by an
imperv ious stratum at its base. The gravity flow is also know n
as unconfined flow.
The equation for the disch arge is de rived based on Dupu it-
Forchbeime r assu mptions (see chapter 8). Acco rding to one 01 fig . 16.11. Gtavily AOlN in a Slol.
DRAINAGE, DEWA:niR ING AND WEU..s 397

these ass umptions, the hydra ulic gra die nt at an y point is taken eq ual to the tangent of the angle with the
horizontal whim the drawdow n curve makes at that poin t. It is further assumed that the strat um is isotropic,
homo geneous arxl Darcy's low is applicable.
Let us co nside r th e flow throu gh a vertical section of height z located at a distance .r from the slot. From
Darcy 's law, ...
q . kiA

q - k '~ ' (z .y) ... (a)

wh ere y is the len gth of the slo t perpendicular to the p lane of paper .

TransposfngBq. (a~ z dz - ~ dz
Inte gra ting and substituting the boundaryconditions, .r =0, z =n and x =L, Z = H.

[t ]"
2.
_ !L [I i;
ky
...(6)

[11' ~ h']_ ~
q .k(H2~h2) . Y ...(16.1)

The draw cown level at a vertical secti on at a deaaoce x ca n be obtained from Bq. (b).

[H - ~ [It
lI' - z'.~(L -I) .. .(16.2)

Substituting the value of q from Eq. (16.1),

11' _ z' _ 2(L - I) . k(lI' -h') . Y
ky 2L ,
11' - z' _ ¥ . (11' - h') ... (163)

As the flow at the face of the slot is almost vertical. Dupuit Fordlheimer ass umption is not strictl y valid.
The actual drawdown level is given by the following equation

11' _ z'. ¥ [lI'-(h + h.)'] ... (16.4)

W~~
The value of the height hi depends upon the ratios

(b) Artesian Flow . Fig . 16.12 shows artesian flow in

T
1
the slot. The artesi an flow is also known as confmed
flow. In field , such a condition occurs when closely H
spaced wells are inst alled ncar arxl parallel 10 the bank of
a river such thai the pervi ous stra tum is exposed.
lbe equation for discharge can be deri ved as in the
caseof gravit y flow. Ijow ever; in this case,the area of flow is
equalto(r x y)andnot(z x y ).Whcrer isthcthidmessof
the perv ious stratum. Tberefore, Eq. (a) becomes Fi.g 16.12. Ar1e5ian Row in a Slot.
398 rol l MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

q'*'(~)'(IXY)
dz • ....'L· ""
*'Y
Integra ting and substit uting the boundary cond itions.

[Iii.' • *~Y [x fo ... (e)

(II - h) • ty (L - 0)

q - 4!- (II - h) ... ( 165)

The drawdown level at a distance .r from the slot can be obtained from Eq. (c). as

[It' - *~Y lxt

(II - I) _ ty (L - x)

Substinni ng the value of q from Bq. 16.5,

II _ I _ (11- hl(L - x) ... (16.6 )

(c) Arteslen-Gruvlty Fluw. Fig. 16.13 shows an artesian gravit y type of flow. The flow ncar the slot is
grav ity flow, wher eas that away from the slo t is artesian flo w. Let La be the distance o f the po int at which

Tt

1
Fig. 16.13. Artesian-Gravity Row in a.SlOL
the flow ch anges from artesian flow to grav ity flow. The d istance La can be det erm ined by equating the
discharge in the grav ity Oow portico to that in the artesian flow portion.
From Eqs. 16.1 and 16 .5,
*(1 - h') y. *'y(" - t)
2L G L - La
(L - LGHi' - h'> • 2L G I (II - t)
LG [21 (If - I) • (i' - h'>l _ L (i' - h'>
L L (1 - h') .. .(16.7)
0 - 2rll_ ? _ h'l
DRAINAGE, DEWAlERING AND WEllS 399

kIt' - h' )
From Eq. 16.1. q. 2L . Y
G
Substituting the value of LG from Eq. 16.7,

q
.J..Ii....=...Jf
2L (t'-h')Y
. (21If -t' -h')

ky(21If - t' - h' )

q - 2L . . .(16.8)

Eq. 16.8 can be used for the detenniDation of the discharge.

The drawdownlevels can be obtained as under.
(i) Gnlvlty Dow portion (x ~ LG )

From Eq. 16.3, t' _ i' • (LG - x) (t' _ h')

LG
or LrI/ - i' ) • (LG - x)(t' - h')
LGi' - xlt' - h') + LGh'

z• . ;t (?- - h2) + h2 . ..(16.9)

(il) Artesian Dow portion (x :t 4;)

(If - I)[L - LG - « - LG))
From Eq; 16.6, If - z - (L _ L )
G

z . (x (LL~t) ,) + If ... (16.10)

Hi.IJ. DISCHARG E FROM A PARTIALLY PENETRATING SLOT

When the thicknessof the stratum is 100 large for full penetration of the slot, a partially penetrating slot
is used. The flow in a partially peoerrenng slO1 can be gravity flow or anesian flow.
(a) Gravity now. (fig. 16.14). The discharge qp can be computed using the results of model studies
conducted by Cbepman (1956).

r... SI1JT
GS

~;;=1
l~ ~L-" l ;11"'" , ; , ; ; ; , ,;, ; ' Ii
Fig. 16.14. Partially PenellalingSlot (GravityRow).

qp • [ 0.73 + 027 (If ~ h) 1~ (Ii' - h') ...(16.11)

The symbols are given in Fig. 16.14. As before,y is the length of the slot perpeodlcojar to the plane of
P'!"".
400 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Tbe maximum residual head (hD) dow nstream of the slot is g iven by

hD - h [ 1-;:' (II - h) + 1 1 ...(16.12)

Bqs. (16.11) and (16.12) are valid for the ratio LIB equal to or greater than 3 . It may be noted thai hD is
great er tha n h.
(b) Artesian flo", . Fig. 16.15 shows artesian flow in a part ially penetrating slot of depth W. The

discharge q, is given hy (Barron.T ~=~1

Tr~u H

11Lm7m=,~::::: 1
Fig . 16.15 . Parti ally Penetnlti ng Slot (Alrmian Flow .)

q, • k I I v: E~ h) ••.(16.13)

where E... is the extra-len gth factor, which depends upon the ratio WIt and LIt (Fig . 16.16) .
a

, t ·o .~
y
, ~ t-
.!La
t
. /

"e--
.>
.o
coos 001 co, ..
£A/H~
o-so
" s.c

Fig. 16.16 . Variation of Extra- Le ngth Factor.

The maximum residual headhD on the downstream o f the slot is given by

bo » EA (H - h) + h . ••( 16.14)
L + E...
~ in the case of gravity flow,the head bo is greater than that at the slot.

16.14. DISCHARGE IN A SWT FROM BOTII SIDES

In most of the practical cases, the flow towards a slot is from both sides and not onl y from ooe side. The
equ ations for discharge from a slot from both sides are given below .
DRAINAGE. DEWATERING AND WEIL.'i 4tH

(a) Fully Pen etrat lng Slot . The discharge from a fully penetrating slot from Lo th sides is twice the
discharg e from one side. Equation s developed in sect. 16.12 can be used.
For gravity flow, Eq. 16.1 gives the discharge from one side. Therefore, the discharge from both sides is
given by

q -k
(
-J/' L_- h') . y ... (16.15)

For artes ian now, Eq. 16.5 a m be used to give the discharge from both sides as

q '" 2/(t Y Yl- h) .. .(l6.I h)

(b) Partially Peue tranng Slot, Chapman (1956) gave the following equations for the discharg e of a
partially penetrating slot from both sides.

For gravity flow, e-.» [ 0.73 + 0.27 ell J~ h) l¥ (IP - 11 2) . .. (16.17 )

In case of artesian now. the d ischarge is given by the equation,

2kl r(lI-h)
. . .(16 .18)
qp " L + A'
where A L<; a factor, which depends upon the rarto (Wll). as given in Fig. 16.17.
W = de pth of slot in the aquifer, and t = thickness of aquifer.
All oth er notations are the sa me as in Sect.
16.12.
0
16.15. WELL HYDRAULICS , »>
Wells and commonly used for the dewatering ./'
2
of ground water. A well is a circular hole of a
suitable diamet er made in an aqu ifer. A.. the , V
pumping is done from the well, a cone of O. , /
depress ion is created all around the well. The o.
s
/
equations for disc harge can be developed using ( }':!.)
Darcy 'S law. However. the main use of wells is to c.a
I' !
sup ply water for drinking, irrigation and other o. /
purposes. Grou nd wate r is nn important source of ;11
water. It is exploited through open wells, tube
wens , springs and horizo ntal galleries. 9
Ground water is the WOller that falls as 0
ts
precipitation and Ihen infiltrate s the soil below the
water table. The ground water reservoir is formed
). - - "'
in the voids of the water-bearing strata, known as Fig. 16.17. Variation or x.
aquifers. These aquifers act as conduits for transmission of ground WOller. As the discharge from wells
depends mainly on the permeabi lity of the soil, pumping oul tests as discussed below are frequently used to
determin e the coefficient of permeabili ty of the soil, as explained in chapte r 8.
As already expla ined, aquifers are mainly of two types. (I) Unconfined aquifers. (ii) Confined aquifers .
As in the case of slots, the now in a well may be gravity, or artesian or artesian-gravity. The equations for
discharge are dev eloped in the fo llowing sections.
As aquiclude is a so il formation such as clay which contains water, but which is not capable of
transmitting or supplying adequate quantit y of water. An aquifu ge is a mass of rock or an impervious
formaLion which neither transmits nor stores any water.
 SOIL MECtl ANlCi AND FOUNDATION ENGiNEERING

16.16. TERMS USE D IN WELL HYDRAULICS

v arious techni cal terms used in we ll hydraulics are defined below.
(I) Specific Yield. Tbe specific yield (S1') of an aquifer is defined as the ratio of the volume of wate r
drained by gravity to the total vo lume of the aqu ifer. It is usually expressed 3S a percentage. Thus
S • Volumeofwaterdrainedby.gravity )( 100
y Total vo lume of the aquifer

Sy. V;"Y X 100 . . .(16.19)

The total volume of water in an aquifer dependsupon porosity. However; a high value of porosity docs
not necessa rily ind icate that the aquifer will yield large volume of water . The quantity of water which can be
obtained from the aquifer is that which flows under gravity. Therefore, it depends upon the pcnneability and
hence specific yield. The specific yield is always less than porosity. It is sometimes called effective porosity.
Specific yield of most of the aquifers, such as sand and gravel, varies between 15 to 30% .
(2) Specirlc Retention. The specific retention (SR)of an aquifer is the ratio of the water retained in the
soil after drainage to the 10131 volume of aquifer. It is also expressed as a percentage. Thus
S .. Volumeofwaterrctained x 100
R Total volume of the aquifer
V••
SR - V x 100 ...(16.20)
when a sat urated mass of soil is subjected to drainage. some water is not drained as It is retained in the
pores o f the so lt due to molecular and capillary forces. lbc amount of water retained depends on grain size.
grai n shape a nd d ist rib ution o f pores. The specific retention is high for soils with small pores, such as clayey
soils.
For a sa turated soil. the tota l volume of wa ter V... is equal to poros ity (n) limes the total volume of the
aqu ifer (Y). Th us V - nV
B UI V -V,..y +VooR

v " - -v- -
V... V... + Wo.R
y
Therefore n·
n .. Sy + SR '.. .(16.21)
Thus, the poros ity of the stratum is equa l to the sum o f the specific yield and the specific reten tion.
(3) Storage Coefficien t. The storage coefficient is defined a.s the vol ume of wa ter released (or stored) by
an aquifer per unit surface area per unit change in the component of the head norm al to the su rface.
In an unconfined aquif er, the storage coefficie nt corresponds to its specific y ield. The storag e coefficient for
a umr tbick ncss of the aquifer is equal to the specific yield, provided gra vity drain age is comp lete . In a confined
aquifer, the storag e coefficient also depends upon the compre ssion of the aquifer and the expansion of the
cont ained wat er when the pressure is decreased during pumpin g. Typ ical va lues of sto rage coe fficient for
uncon fined aquifers range from 0.0 2 to 0.03 a nd that for con fined aquifers range from 0 .00005 to 0.005. The
actua l values can be obtained from the pumping ou t tests.
(4) Transmlssfbillty Coe fficien t. Th e coeffi cient of transmissibility (1) is define d as the rate of flow of
wa ter through a vertical strip of aquifer of un it width and extend ing to the fully saturation height under unit
hydraulic gradient. Obviously, the coefficient of transm issibility in a confined aquifer is equal to the product
of the coefficient o f permeab ility and the thickness I of aquifer.
Th us T • k x t ... ( 16.22)
2
Its units are m tscc or cm 2/sec.
lhe coe fficient of transmiss ibility o f a well ·in an unconfined aqui fer is equa l 10 the product of !be
ccefficiem of permeabltny and the average saturated th ickness t... Thus
DRAINAGE, DEWATERING AND WElLS 403

T _ k )( t. . . .( 16.23)
when t. _ (If + h)12 where // is lhe height of the original water table eoov c the impervious stratum
and h is the height of water in the well aner drnwdown.

16.17. DlS CIIARGE }"ROM A FU lLY PE NETRATI NG WELL

The water table is initially horizon tal. When the pumping is stan ed, the wate r table is lowered ncar the
well and a co ne of depression is formed. The drawcown at any point is equal to the vert ical intercept between
the origin al wa ter level and the depressed water level. The flow may be gravity, or artes ian. or artesian-
gravity. The equat ions for d ischarge for all these types of flows are given below.
(1) Gravity How. Grav ity flow occurs in an unconfined aquifer (sec Fig. 8.8). Thi s type of flow has
ejready bee n discussed in chapter 8 when describin g the methods for the determ ination of the coefficient of
permeability in the field. However, for completeness of the treatment, the equations are repeated here.
;tk(H 2 _ h2 )
Eq. 8.23 can be writte n as q - lo~ (R/r...) .•.(16.24)

= =
where II depth of aquifer measured below the water lable, h depth of water in the well.
R II: rodiuo; of influence. r... = radius of well, k ;;; coefficient of permeability.
100 elevation z of the drawdown curve at a rndial distance I' from the well can be computed from the
equation
z' _ q!og,(, / ,.) + h' . ..(16.25)
xk
The drawdown at a radial distance I' can be computed from the equation

lP - i - -!i tog, (Rlr ) ...(16.26)

If there are two observation wells .ll radial dista nces 1'1 and rr , and if the depths of wate r in these wells
are h i and h2> respectively, Bq. 16.24 can be written as
xk(hi - h~)
q - log. (,,I,,) .. .(16.27)
Bq. 16.24 can be written in terms of the effective length of the strainer (L). Let d be the drawdown at
the weU. ie... H-h = d
Thus H+h_d + 2h

There fore , q • M (/[0:, ;;lX~)- h)

Md(d + 21<)
q - log. (R/,. )
As the effect ive length L of the stra iner in the well is equal 10 h,

q • ~:i~R~'~) .. .(1628)
(2) Artesian Flow. The artesian flow occurs in a c:onfined aquifer (see Pig. 8.9) . Eq. 8.26 developed in
chapter 8 can be written as
hb(H- h)
.. .(16 .29)
q - log, (R/ r ...)
where, k =coefficie nt of permeability, I = thickness of aq uifer.
1/ : depth of the base of the aquifer below the piezometric surface,
h :: depth of water in the well, R :: radius of influence, r...= radius of well.
The elevation z of the draw down cu rve at a radial distance I' from the well is given by
 SOIL MroeHANTcs AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

z • ~ log..(r/ r...) + h ... (16.30)

The d rawdo wn al that dis tance is give n by

11 - z _ ~ Jog, (/U r) ••. (1631)

Some times, Bq. 16.29 is written in tenus of the coefficient o f transmissibili ty (1) and the drawdow n (d).
Using Eq. 16.22 and taki ng (II - h) equa l to d.
2."T.Td
. . .( 1632)
q. 1og.(R/r.)
If hi and 11 2 arc the dep ths of water in two observation wells situated at dista nces r , and r2 • Eq. 16.29
becomes
2d / (h, - h ,)
.• .(16.33)
q » log, (rl" rl)
(3) Artesian . Grnvity Flow. Fig. 16.18 shows a well in which ertcstan- gravi ry flow OCCUI'S. As already
explained. the flow is gravity type ncar the well and artesian type away from the well

P. s.: PIEZOMETRIC
SURFACE

____

r
~..e~. -

~7777777777rl
fig . 16.18. Ar1aian-Grnvity R ow.
The discharge can be obcained from the following equation developed by Musket (1937),
1tk(2 t ll - r_h2)
... (16.34)
q . log, (R/r,J
The e levation z at a radial distance r can be determ ined from the fo llowing equation.
DRA IN AGE, DE WATE RI NG A N D WElL<; 405

(a ) Gravity Flow. Fig . 16.19 sho ws a partiall y penetrating well with gravi ty flow. The discharg e is given
by the following equation .

Fig. 16.19. Partially Penclnlting Well (Gravity R ow ).

2.'"tk(H 211 - h)
qr - [W1 log, [x WI2r...) +
0H.1] ... (1637)

where H'1JI is the height of the drawdown curve at a distance of 2H from the well and W = depth of
penetration of the well in the aquifer . The other notauocs are the same as in the preceding sections..
(b) Artes ian Flow . Fig. 16.20 shows a partially penctraung well with artesian flow. The discharge is
given by the follow-ing equation.

Fig. 16.20. Partially Penetrating Well (Artesia n Flow ).

qr- 2xl~j;7R~r~1 C .. (16 38)

where C i s the correction teeter for partial penetration. It is equal to the ratio of the discharge from the
partially penctraungwell to that for a fully penetra ting well for the same drawdown.
The value of C C3n be obtained from the follow ing equation given by Kozeny (1933).

C_ .'!: (1 + 7";;;;
I 2W
= .w
2t
x 180)
;t
...16.39)
where W = depth o f penetrations in the con fined aquifer.
The other notatio ns are the same as in the precedin g sec tions.
16.19. INTERFERENCE AMONG WELLS
\VIlen two or more we lls are loca ted close to one anothe r. the ir draw down curves intersect wi thin their
zones of influence . Consequently, the d ischarge in the individua l well is occrcescd. Th e phenom enon is
known as interference: among we lls. The disch arge from an ind ividual well depends upon the spacing of the
wells and their orie ntation .
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENG INEERING

(a) Artesian Wells .

(i) Two wells. Fig. 16.21 shows two artes ian wells having a spacing of B. The dotted lines [curves (I )
and (2}) show their indiv idual cones of influences . The combined cone of influence is show n by the
curve-S . The discharge through each well is given by

B __
(1) Drawdown tor weo ll no . 1 (3)Compos ite d rawdown
(2) Orawdo wn tor well no. 2
Fig. 16.21. 1nfc lfc ~ncc among Wens .

2Jtkt (H - h)
••.(16.40)
s »
log,
( 11' )
Br
w

where R is the radius of i~fluence (R > > B).

All other notations are rbe same as before .
(;1) Three wells In the sam e line. If there are three identical wells in the same line havi ng a spacing of
11, the discharge through the two end wells is given by
2Jtkl(H - h) log. (BI,.)
. .. ( 16.41)
q - 2 log. (RIBj log. (BI,.)+ log. (Blu.)log.(RI,.)
The discharge through the middle well is given by
2dl(H - h) log. (Blu.)
. . .(16.42)
q» 21og.(RIB) log. (Bh.) + log. (Blu.) log.(R I ,.)
(il l) Three wells funning a tria ngle. If there are three identical wells located at the apexes !>( an
eq uilateral triangle, with side B, the discharge from each well is given by
q » 2 . kI (H - h) . .. (16.43 )
log. (Ifill' '.)
(6) G ra vity Wells. The d ischarge from gravity wells can be oblained by using the equations given above
for the artesian wells and making the following substi tution :
(WI2J) for H and (h' /2J) for h.
For example, the discharg e from each well when the two wells are spaced B apart is obtained from Bq.
16.40 as
q. 21tkt(lfl'1~ _ h2/ 2J)
log. (11' I B, . )
~k.(H2 _ h 2)
. . .(16.44)
q. log.,(R 2/rw B)
DRAINAGE, DEWATERING AND WEUS 407

16.20. SI'IIERICAL F LO W IN A WELL

The equations developed in the preceding sections arc for radial n ow. Fig. 16.22 shows a well which
penetratcs upto the top surface of the con fmed aquifer. 1bc no w in the well is spherical. In this case, the

--:.:::..:=..=-_- - - - - -
--- ...................
,...",=~_"';:;
G .,~

:-~~:::-~"'-~- - r
H

Fig. 1622 Spherical Row.

equatioos given in the preceding sectionsdo not apply as the now is
1
1101radial and the Dupuit assumpt ion is
DOl valid.
The discharge in the case of spherical flow is given by
q - 20 "'.(11 - h) ",(16,45)
where r .. is lhe radius of the we ll.
The discharge in case of spherical now is much less as compered to that in a fully penetra ting well. As
the wells wil.h sphcrica l Ilcw arc not very effective, these arc rarely used in practice.

16.21. DISCI lARGE FROM AN OPEN WELL

An open well is evertlcat hole of a large d iameter 2 10 10 m. It is of shallow depth , and it draws water
only from one pervious stratum. The well penetrates to such a depth below water table that there is at least
a water depth of 3 to 4 m even in a dry season. Generally, ibe depth of an open well is limited to 30 m. The
sides of the well may be lined with bricks or stones . In case of an unlined well, the discharge is from the
bottom and sides . However, in the case of a lined well, it is mainly from the bottom of the well. The
discharge capacity of an open well is generally limiled to 0.004 cumccs, because thc well can be excavated
to a limited depth . Moreover. the water can be withdrawn only lit a small veloc ity. If the velocity is greater
than th~ critical velocity , the soil grains may be dislodged and subsidence may occur.
Open wells may be dug, bored , drilled or driven. Large diameter open wells arc generally dug manually
or mechanically.
Safe yield of an open well is the rate of flow at which the water percolates into the well under safe
maximum working head . As the water is pumped out, the water level in the well falls. The difference between
the water level in the well and the original water table is the depression head. The c ritical depression head
occurs when the velocity is so high as to dislodge the
soil particles. The safe maximum working bead is usuall y GS
taken as one- third of the critical depression head. 1-~'::'::- - -
The yield from an o pen well is determined by the H ...........
following two methods : (I ) Pumpmg test at constant '"
level, (2) Recuperation test.
1. Constant level Pumping test, In this method, the
water level in the well is de pressed by pumping our
water till the maximum safe depressio n head is reached .
The rate of pumping is 50 adj usted that the water level in Fig. 16.23. Pumping Ta; I.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND fOUNDATION ENGINEERING

the well remains corsram (Fig 16.23 ). At that stage . the rote of withdrawal is equa l to the percolation rate.
The rate of pumpin g per hour gives the yield per hour of the well at a particular drnwdown.
The discharge is generally expressed as
q- Kx ll
q _ (K/A) x A )( II ... ( 16 .46)
where q = discha rge (m)/hr). K = Coostam, depending upon the soil. A = Cross-sccnooal area of the cavity
of nov.' at the we ll bottom (m1 . It is generally taken as 4/3 times the actua l cross-sectional area of the well
bonon, II depression head .
The ratio K/A is the speci fic yield of the open well (m)/hr) per m 2 of the area thRlugh which wate r
perco lates under I m of depression head. {The val ue of KIA given by Marrier is equal to 0.25 for clay, 0.5
for fine sand and 1.0 for coa rse san d.]
[Note. The speci fic yield of tube well is not the same as that of an open well.]
2. Recuperatjon 'lest. In a recupe ration
test, the water level is depressed to a level ' ' ''''_
' '''''''''''"'''''''''''''''''''''''''f7r---'-;7p''hi&t;="",
be low the norma l . leve l by pumpi ng. As the
pumping is stopped, water level in the well
starts rising. The lime required for the water
level to recu pera te is noted. l h c equation for
the d ischarge is derived be low.
Let A -A be the wate r level befor e the
pump ing and 8-8 be the water level when the
pump ing is stop ped (Fig. 16.24). ut ili be tbe
ocpressice head when the pumping is stopped.
and II be the depression head at a lime t after
the pumping is stopped. Let 112 be the Fig. 16-24. RecuperationTe.q.
depression bead at a time T after the pumping is stopped.
Volume of water ente ring the well whe n the head recuperates by dl 1 is given by
dV _ A - dll ...(a)
whe re A = Cross -secti o nal area of the we ll botto m.
Th e volume of water entering the well in time dt d uring wh ich head recuperates by dJ1 is 31'>0given by
dV - q ds .. .(b)
where q = rate of discharge in the well
As the rnte of dis charg e depends upon the depre ssion head . it a m msc be written as
q • K· II
'l b~ ~ _m~ ...W
From Eqs. (£I) and (c).
K lIdt _ _ Adll ...(d)
Th e min us sign indica tes that the head decreases as time 1 increases .
Integrn ting Eq. (d) between the limits (I = O. 11 = ll j and t = T. // - //z) •
!i f.dl _ _/!.!3.!!!!.
A 0 1 li t II

~ . T. [1og. lIt~ - log. (11,111,)

K 1
A - T log, (1/ 1/ //2) .. .(16.47)
DRAINAGE, DEWAIERING MOD WEUS

Know ing the values of 11\. 112 and T, the value o f the speci fic yield (KIA) can be rom puted. Once the
value of KIA has been detennincd, the discharge can be ob tained from Eq. 16.46 for any othe r depression
head II as
q - (KIA) )( A )( /I
Although recuperation test is not es reliable a') the ronstan t level pumping method, it is used when it is
diffiaJlt to regulate the rate of pwnping to attain a conslan l water lever in lhe well req uired in the constant
level pump ing test.

16.22. ADVERSE EFFECTS 0)<' DRAINAGE

As the water is dra ined our from the so il. the neutral stress decreases and the effective stress is increased.
The increased e ffective stress may cause conso lidation settlement Therefore, the struct ures alread y exlsnng in
the zone of influence: may experience undesirable settlement. This undesirab le effect can be minim ized by
artificial recharge i:e: by pumping water into the ground ncar the exist ing structures through a system of well
points. Thus a constant grou nd wate r level is maintained near the strudurcs.
Anothe r adverse effect of the drainage is that cavities arc formed in the soil. These caviti es ma y COllapse
after some time and may cause undula tion in the ground. This adverse effect is minimise d by providing
suitably design ed filters to check flow of soil alon g with water .

ILLUITRAllVE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Exumple 16.1. A slot is made in an l.U1c on[ured aquifer to drain WQter. The flow to the slot
occurs from both sides. If lhe water table is at a height of 12 m abo ve the base and the drawdown is 4 In,
[md the discharge pe r metre length, assuming that the distan ce of the slot from both sides is 100 m. Take
k - 5 )( lO~mlsec.

q .. k ( IP ~ 11
2
Solut ion. From Eq. 16.15. ) • Y

-' (12 8
.. 5 )( 10
2
~ -
2
) )( I - 4 )( 10-' mJ zsec

1IIu.stra tlve E xumple 16. 2. A well ftilly penet rates an uncon[med aquifer having a saturated thickness of
10 /II . If the radius of the well is 10 em, and the drawdown is 3 m, determine tile discharge. Take the radius
of influence as 3()() m and the coefficient of pe rmeability as 8 )( 10..... mlsec.
xk(lP _ h 2 )
Solution. From Eq. 16.24, q .. log, (Rlr...)
2)
.. x )( 8)( 1O~(l02 7 .. 00 16 .l/ .•
q log, (3C.XJ/O .10) . m SlX:
IIIustralive Example 16.3. Calc ulate the discharge from a fully· penetrat ing tube well, having the
following particular :
(I) Thickness of con[me d aquifer = 25 m
(iI) Tube well diamete r = 30 em
(iit) Drawdown =3 m
(iv) Radius of influence = J50 m
(v) CoefJicient of per meability = 30 m/day

Soluli~. From Eq. 16.29. 9 _ 2 ~~ !Z/;.lh)

2 x )( 30 )( 25 )( (3)
log, (150/ 0.15)
410 so u, MECHANI CS AN D FO UNDATION ENGlN EER ING

_ 2046.5 m3/ day • 0.0237 m 3/ sec.

Illustrative Example 16.4. A tube well is driven in a confined aquifer of 25 m thickness located 20 m
below the ground surface. The water table is 15 m below the ground ~rface. If the discharge of the well is
0.05 mJ,sec wh en the depres sion head is 10 m, find1M diameter o/ the tube welL Take the radius a/influenc e
as 300 m and k • 3 )( lIr mlsec.

Solutlun. From Eq. 16.29. q » 2 ~~ ~Z/~.)h)

1og.(RI,. ) • 2 ' kJ ~ - h )

lo!k(R lrw ) _ 2x x 3)( ~~~ j( 25 x 10 _ 9.42

R/r", • 12332.58
T... • 300/12332.58 • 0.0243 m
1lI1Nnl;tive Example 16.5. A fully penetrating well draws water from a confinedaquifer of thickness 12 m
and of permeability 1.5 )( ur
J
mtsec . If the dischar ge is 0.03 m
J
tsec;
compu te the drawdown at 30 m from
the centre of the well. Take R/r... = 2000.
Solution. Eq. 16.31, 11 - z - ~ log, (Rlr ..)
0"':10
2. x 1.5 -' x 12 lug. (2IXXl) . 2.017m
lllustratlve Example 16.6. Fig. £ ·16 .6 shows an artesian-gravity well with a rooms of influence of
is 30 em, comp ute the discharge. Talrek: = 5 x ur' mlse c:
300 m. If the diam eter of the well

Fig. E-16.6.
2
Solution. From Eq. 1634 . a » d (21H - i' - h )
log. (RI,.)
• :It )C 5 x tlJ' (2 )( 12 )( 15 - 122 - g2) _ 00'79 ' I
q log. (300/0.15) • • m sec.
Dlustratlve Example 16.7. A .well 25 em diameter partially penetrates a corflnedaquiferby 9 m. lIthe
total thickness of the aquifer if 10 m and the discharge is 0.04 mJIsec. compute drawdown at the well: ToJre
R :: 200 m, and k = 4 )( HT } m/sec.

Solution. From Eq. 16.38, qp - 2:tl:i~R~T~) C

where C is given by Eq. 16.39 as
DRAINAGE, DEWA1ERlNG AND WEllS 411

c. ~ (I + 7~ cos xW • llOJ)
t 2W 21 n:

• .2.. (I +
20
7~
2x9
co; 1t)( x 9 180) _0.649.
2)(20)(x
2x )( 4 )( Io--J)( 20 (H h»)( 0.649
Therefore,
qp • log. (200/0.125)

H _ h _ 0.040.;~·378 _ 0.905 m

Illustrative Example 16.8. Two tube wells fully penetrate 12 m Ihid coefined aquifer and are 150 m
apart. The wells have following particulars : -
(I) Diameter = 30 em
(ii) Depression head = 4.5 m
(iii) RLJdius of influence :z 300 m

(iv) Coefficient of penneabilily = 1.5)( 10-3 mls«.

Determine the discharge from each well and compare it with for 00 imerference.
2dt(H - h)
Solution. From Bq. 16.40. q. 1ug.(R'IBr.)

2 x )( 1.5 )( 10-3 J( 12 x 4.50 _ 0.0613 m) lsec

1og.(300'/150. 0.15)
For no interference, Eq. 16.29 gives
2xkt(H -h)
q. lug. (Rlr.)
2n: x 1.5 x 10-) J( 12)( 4.50 _ 00669 ' I
lug. (300/0 .15) . m sec
Percentage reduction is discharge
• (0.~.~0613) • 100 • 8.l71l>
llIustntive Ellample 16.9. Determine the diu:harge from a well with spheriaJl flow and having the
followingparticulars :
(i) Thickness of confmed aquifer II:: 10 m

(il) Radiusof influe"ce = 100 m

(iii) Radiuso{ well = 0.1 m
(iv) CoejJicient of permeabilil}' .. J )( 10-4m/sec
(v) Drawdown =3 m
What would have been the discharge if the well had penetrated the coofmed aquifer fully ?
Solution. From Bq. 16.45. q » 2xkr.(H - h)
or q - 2x x lo-t x (0.1 x 3) - 1.88 x 100000m)/scc
If the well had penetrated fully, the discharge would have been given by Eq. 16.29 as,
2xkt (H-h)
q • lug. (100/0.1)
2n x I~ x 10 x 3 0"'" a
q - 10&.(100/0.1) - V.29 x I rn l sec
The ratio of the discharge in spherical flow to that in a fully penetrating well is given by
412 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

r .. ;:'~7 - lL'i . 7%
i.e. the discharge in spherica l flow is about 7% of tha t in radial flow.
Illustrative Example 16.10. Iksj~ an open well in coarse sand (specific yield = 1.0 m lhrlm under J 1

unil drawdown) fo r a yield of 0.003 m Is, when operated under a depression head of 3 m.
So luti on. From Eq. 16.46. q .. (K/:"> lie A lie II
or OJXJ3 x 60x 6Q . 1.0 x Ax 3 orA _3.6 m
If dw is the diameter of the well.
(11:/4) x (d.. i ..
3.60 or d.". .. 2.14 m
Illustrative Example 16.11. During a recuperation test, the waler level in an open well war depressed
by 2.4 m whidr recupe rated by an amoun1 of 1.5 m in 60 minutes. Determine the yield from the well of 3 m
diamete r unde r Q depression head of 3.0 In.
Solution. From Eq. 16.4 7. ~ .. t log., (Hl/lJ~
~ .. + tog, (2.40/0.90) .. 0.98 1
From Eq. J6.46, q .. (KIA) lie A x II
.. 0.981 x ;t/4 x (3f x 3.0 .. 20.80 mJ/ hou r

.'RonLEMS

A Numerical
16.1. A SIOl is made in a confined aquifer 2 m thick to drain wafer. The flow to the s101occurs from both sides. If

~gt~l~m:~I:r ~g:::~~:X~dcs~s~;; ~ndT:~ :r:~o~ ~.find the dj~:g~.~Ii=j

16.2. A 30 em di~ter well penetra tes 20 m be low the water table . The draw down at 100 m is 0 .50 m and that at
30 m is 1.10 m. If the discharge is 100 lil!sec, detenni ne the transmissibllhy of the aqu ifer.
2
[Aus , 0.032 m /scc.)
16.3. A well penetrate s an unconfin ed aquifer having a saturated de plh of 90 m. When the drawdo wn is 10 m, the
discharge is 4 lit/sec. Determine the discha rge when the dcawdown is IS m. Take the radius of influence the
same in both the cases. (An.s, 5.82 lil/scc)
16.4. A well is su nk: through a layer of sand of thickness 12 m lying overan tmpervtocs stratum. When the water was
pumped at a ccos tant rate o f S m1lminute, the water levels in the obse rvation wells si tuated at a distance: o f 15
m and 30 m from the pump well were 2.9 m and 2.7 m below the ground water table, respectively. Find the
permeabillry of the sund. [An s.. 5 rom/sec]
16..5. Find the coefficient of permeabilit y of an unconfined aquifer o f thickness 18 m when a well of diameter 20 em
discharges 50 rnzscc under a depression head o f 45 m. Take the radius of Influence as 300 m.
[Ans. 9 x 1O~ mIsec)
lUi. Calcutare the discharge throogh a fully penetrating lube wett of the following particulars :
(I) Thickness of con fined aquifer " 25m
(is) Diameter of the well " 2S em
(iiI) Drnwdown " 3 m
(i v) Coefficient o f permeability " 0 .29 x 10- 3 m/sec .
( v) Radius of infl uence " 200 m
(A ns. I&Sllitl5ec.J
16.7. A fully penet rating well of diamete r 30 em draws warer from a confined aquife r of permeability 2 x 10-3 mlsec
and thickness 12 m. If the steady di~ge is 0.03 cumecs. com pute the drnwdown at 10 m from the cen tre of
the well. Thke radius of influence as 500 m. [A ns. 0.778 m]
DRAINAGE, DEWATERING A ND WEllS 413

16.8. A fully pe netroting wel l of diamele r 30 em draws wa ter from a 25 m thick amfined aquifer. 1be steady state
drawdown 81 10 m and 50 m were ob5aved 10 25 m and 050 respecuvety. D .:termine the ste&dy..stage
dischar ge. Take i = 1.5 x 10-) msec. [Ans. 29.26 litlsec]
2
16.9. Design an openwell in a fine sandy soil (specific yidd ::: 05 m)OOJrlm under unit depres.sioo hc'ad) to yield
0 .004 cumecs unde r a depression head o f 3 m. (Ana. 3.5 m dia]
16.10 . Calcu lalc the ave rage yield o f an open well of 3 m dia meter from the recupe ration ICSIwherein the water level
is dep ressed to the extent of 2.0 m and recuperati on rate is 1.0 m per bour. The allowabl e depression head in
the well in 3 m. [An s. 14.69 m)/brl

D. Descriptiv e a nd Objective Type

16.11. Wha t do yo u know about draina ge of soils? What are its uses ? What are its ill effeets?
16.12 . Explain the working of a singlc-&lage we ll point system . What are ilS limitation ?
12.13. Write sha n DOles on :
(a) Mcln-seage well point sys tem.
(b) v.tcuumwcl l points. .
(C) Deep well system .
16.14 . What is elcetro-osffiC6is? What are its advantages and disadvantages as compared with the oonve ntional drainage
s)'Slems?
16.15 . what is the function of permanen t drainage systems installed after construetion? Describe in brief the foundalim
drains and blanket drains.
16.16. Differen tiate bet wee n
(a) A slOl and a well
(b) Gravity flow and artesian now
(c) f ully penetrating and partially pcneuatlng slots.
(d) Coeffi cic nt of penneability and trensmissiblllty coefficient.
(eo) An ope n well and a tune well
(j) Specific yield and specific retenrlon.
16.17. Derive the expressi on fot discha rge from a fully' penetratin g slot when the flow is
(a) gravity flow (b) artesian flow (c) anesilU1-gravity flow.
16.18. Derive the expression fot discharge from a fully-pene trating well in
(a) a confined aquifer (b) an uncon fined aquifer.
16.19. What do you understand by spherical flow? Wb y this type: of flow is DOC used in praa ice?
16.20. What is metual Inrertereece of wells? How can this he avoided?
16.21. How wo uld you de!ermine the yield o f an open well ?
16.22. Which of the followin g statements are lrue?
(a) Bcctro-osmosis is generally used for coarse-grai ned soils .
(b) 111e discharge from a slot is doubled if the now a ID occu r from both sides.
(c) In a co nfined aquifer , when the well full y penetrat es the aquifer. the flow is artesian .
(d) A do uble-stage well point can be for lowering the water table by 10 m.
(eo)Fo undati on drains are more e ffective than blank et drai ns if the depth below the water table is nOi moch.
(j) An ope n well gives more discha rge lhan a tube we ll.
[Ans..True , (b). (c). (d) . (eo)]
C. Multiple C hoice Questi ons
1. for low ering the water cable by about 10 m, the followi ng method is generalt y !he IIlOSI suitable .
(a) Well -point method. (b) Sha llow wel l system
(c) Deep well points (d) grecioe-osrcosls
2. Vacuum well poine are genera lly used for drai ning
(a) Coarse sands (b) fine sands and silty saDds
(c) Sills (d)Oays
3. In a shallow- well system . the suc tion lift is usually limited 10
414 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOU NDATIO N ENG INEERING

(al 5 In (hl 10 m
(to) IS m Cd) 20m
4. J::c::Of lranr.mi ~si b i l iIY coetlk :~lc~/SAX
Ie) cm-1/!>CC (d) None of above
S. The radius or influence of the gravit y wells is generally assumed as
((j) 100 m ( h ) )00 m
(e) fooO m (d) ~) m
6. TIle sped fie yie ld (If an open well in coarse san d is ahoul
(a ) 1.00 11;1 ( b) 0.5 11;1
Ie) 0.2511;1 (d) 5.0 li; 1
7. Select the incorrect suucme m
(al The co nfined aquifer is bounded at Ill p and bonum by impervious str-dea.
Cb) The pressu re of water in ~ co nfined aq uifer is greate r than armospheric pressure
(Cl The aquifer is a fully saturated str.uum
(d) A lube well starts flowing by itself in a confined aq uifer
8. In a rube well driven in a confined nquifcr if the d mwdown in doubled , the discharge increases
(uJ 4 limes Cb) 2 times
(e) 8 lime s hI) 16 umes
9. The fo rma tio n which con tain-s water hut is nlll able to transmi t il is called
la) an aquifer (hi An aquid udc
(c) an aquifuge 1(1) none of nhove
10. Electro-os mosis for a clayey soil generally leads In
(a) Decr ease in shea r st rength (f,) Incre ase in shear r.lrcnglh
ter tocrease in water co ntent (d) Increase in plasncity
I A n.~ I. la). 2. Ih) . 3. (bl. 4. (bl. S. lb). 6. (a) . 7. (d) . 8. (b). 9. (bl. 10. fbI]
 PART-II

EARTH-RETAINING STRUCTURES
A ND
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

17
Site Investigations

17.1. INTRODUCT ION

Si te invesnganons or subsurface explorations are done for obtaining the information about subsurface
conditions at the site of proposed ronslruction. Site investigations in one form or Ihe other is generally
required for every big engineering project . Information about lhc surface and sub-surface: features is essential
for the design of structures and roc planning construction techniques.
Site investfgancos consist of detennining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site, Laking the soil
samples and determining the engineeri ng properties of the soils. J( also includes in-situ testing of the soils.
Site investigations are generally done to obtain the information thai is useful for one or more of the
followingpurposes.
( 1) To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.
(2) Th determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
(3) To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
(4) To establish the ground water level and to determine the properties of water.
(5) To predict the lateral tanh pressure against retaining walls arx1 abutments.
(6) To select suitable construction techniques.
(7) To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
(8) To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction materia l.
(9) To investiga te the safely of the existing structures and 10 suggest the remedial measures.
The relevant information is obtained by drilling holes, taking the soil sa mples and dctenn ining the index
and engineering properties of the soil. In-situ tests are also conducted to determi ne the prope rties of the soils
in natural conditions. 111ischapter discusses various methods of sub-surface explorations and in-situ testing.
41. SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN EERING

17.2. PLANNING A S UBS URFACE EXI)LO RATI ON PROGRAMME

A sub-surface exploration programme depends upon the type of the structure to be buill and upon (he
variability of the strata at the proposed site. The extent of sub -surface explorat ion is closely related to the
relative cos t of the investigation s and that of the entire project for which it is undertak en. In gene ral, the more
detailed the investiga tions are done, the more is known about the sub-surface cond itions. As a result. the
greater economy am be achieved in the consuuction of the project because the element of uncertainty is
considerably reduced. However. a lim it is reached w hen the cost of investigations outweighs any saving in the
cost of the project , and it tocreases the overall cost. It would 001 be cronomical to have investigations beyond
that limit.
The e xtent of investi gations would also depend upon the loca tion of the project . A small h-ose in an
already buill-Up area wo uld nor require much exploration. On the other hand, if the house is to be built in a
newly developed area, a detailed lnvcsrlgatlon would be required to .ascertain the tocatlon of different soil
strata and their physical characte ristics. If a multi-storeyed building is (0 be co nstructed, extensive sub -surface
explorations would be necessary. These buildings impose very heavy loads and the zone of influence is also
very deep . It would, therefore, be more desirable to invest some amo unt on sub-surface exploration than to
ovcrdcsign the build ing and make it cost lier.
Plann ing of a sub-surface exploration programme is a dilfJcult task. Bes ides a thorough koowted ge of soil
engineering, it requ ires experience and engineering judg ment. Sometimes, the exploration programme hac; to
be changed as the investigations progress. As the var iability of the soi l strata is found (0 increase , the extent
of investigations is a lso increased. On the other hand. if the site is found to be underlain by uniform deposits,
the extent of investigations is decreased.
In general, the aim of the investigations should be to get the maximum information that is useful in the
design and cons truction of the project at a minimum cost. The cost of site investigations geoerany varies
between 0.05 to 0.2 % of the total cost of the entire structure . In some unusual ronditions, the cost mav be
~u~ol%. -
17-1. STAGES IN SUB-SUR}'ACE EXPLORATIONS
Sub-surface explorations nrc generally carri ed out in three stages:
(1) Reconnaissance. S ite reconna issance is the first step in a sub-surface expl oration programme . It
includes a visit to the site and to study the mnps and othe r relevant reco rds. It helps in deciding future
programme of site invcstlgatlons. scope of work, methods of exploration to be adopted. types of samples to
be taken and the laboratory testing and in-situ testing.
(2) Prelimina ry Exploratlonsv Tbe aim of a preliminary exploration is to determine the depth, thickness,
extent and composition of each soil stratum at the site. The depth of the bed rod: and the ground water table
is also determined.
The prelim inary explorations are gene rally in the form of a few borings or test pits. Tests are conducted
with cone penetromet ers and so unding rods to obtain information about the strength and compresslbtllty of
soils .
Geophysical methods are also used in pre liminary exp lorations for locat ing the boundari es of different
strata .
(3) Detailed Explorations, The purpose of the detailed explorations is to determine the engineering
properties of the soils in differen t strata. It includes an extensive boring program me, sampling r.oo testing of
the samples in a laboratory.
Field tests, such as vane shear tests. plate lood tests and permeab ility tests, are cood ucted to determine
the properties of the so ils in natural stare. The tests for the determinati on of dynam ic properties are also
carri ed OUl, if required .
fo r complex projects involving heavy structures, such as bridges. darns, multi-storey buildings, it is
esse ntial to have detailed explorations . However, for small projects, especially at sites where the strata are
uniform , detailed investigations may not be require. The design of such projects is generally based on the data
collected during reconnaissance and prelimina ry explorerjons.
SI"J"E INVESfI GAll0 NS 417

17.4. RECO NNAISSANCE

The geotechnical engineer makes a visit to the site for a careful visual. mpeetion in recoenetsseoce . The
information about the following features is obtained in reconnaissance.
(I) The general topography of the the site. the existence of drainage ditches and dumps of debris and
sanitary nus.
(2) Existence of settlement cracks in tbe structure already buill ncar the sne.
(3) The evidence of land slides. creep of slopes and the shrinkage cracks.
(4) The stratification of soils as observed from deepcu t", ncar the site.
(5) Th e location of high flood marks on the nearby building and bridges.
(6) The depth of ground water table as observed in the wells.
(7) Existence of springs. swa mps, etc. at the site.
{8} The drainage pattern existing at Ihe site.
{9} Type of vegetation existing at the site. The type of vegetation gives a clue 10 the nature of the soil
(10) Existence of underground water mains, power conduit , etc. at the site.
In addition to making site visits. the geotechnical engineer should study geological maps, aerial
photographs. toposheet, soil maps and the blue prints of the existing buildings. Maps and publications of
various agencies give a lot of infonnation about the geologic character of the ami.
The geotechnical engineer should also get infonnalion about the type of structure to be built and its
proposed usc. In the case of a multi-storeyed building. the infonnation ebcor the col umn loads and their
approximate locations should be obtained. In tbe case of bridges. the sp;m le ngth and the load earned by the
piers and abutments should be ascertained In the case of a dam, the geotechnical engineer should get
information about the type of the dam. its height, base width and other sa lient characteristics.
The inform ation obtained during reconnaissance is helpful in evolving a suitable sub-surface investigation
programme.
17.5. nzrru 0 .. EXI'LO RAll0N
The depth of exploration required at a particular site depends upon the degree of variation of the
subsurface data in the horizontal and vertical directions. It is no( possible to fix the number, disposition and
depth of borings without making a few preliminary borings or soundings at the site. The geotechnical
engineer having a long experience and good engineering judgment may give some guidelines.
The depth of exploration is governed by the derth of the influence zone. The depth of the influence zone
depends upon the type of the structure. intensity of loading. shape and disposition of the loaded area. the soil
profile, and the physical characteris tics of the soil. 1be depth upto which the stress increment due to

~ T ,,
_ _6

rr 1·5 6
j
BORE HOlE----.o""""""U

Fig. 17.1. Depth or Exploration.

418 roll MECHANICS AND FOUNDAJ10N ENGINEERING

superimposed loads can produce significant settlement and shear stresses is known as the significan t depth.
The dept h of exploration should be at least equal to the significant depth.
The significant depth can be dctenniocd using the method discussed in cbaptcr 11. The significant depth is
ge nera lly take n as the de pth at which the vertical stress is 20% of the load intensity. Accord ing 10 the abov e
criterion. the dept h of exploration shou ld be abo ut 15 times the widt h of the square footing (fig. 17.1) and about

Fig. 17.2 Depth of Exploration fOf Oosely-spaced Footings.

3.0 limes the with of Ute stri p footing . However, if the footings are closely spaced . the whole of the loaded area
acts as a raft foundation. In thai case, the depth of boringshould be at ICOlSI. 1.5 limes tbc width of the entire
loaded area (Fig. 17.2). In the case of pile foundation . the depth o f exp loratio n below the tip of bea ring p iles is
kept al leas t 1.5 times the width of the pile group. .
However, in the case of friction piles. the depth of
exp loration L<; taken 1.5 time..s the width o f the pile
group measured from the lower third point (Fig.
173).
It is more logi cal to relate the increasein stress
to the in-sit u stress. Th e de pth o f explorati on is
usually take n upto the level at wh ich the increase

r---- 71
in stress is l{lOlh of the in-situ stress before the 8(JlE
application of the load. HOLE o
When the foundations are taken up to rock. it
shou ld be ensured that large boulders are not
mistaken as bed roc k:.. Th e minimum depth of core
bori ng into the bed roc k should be 3 m to establish
it as a roc k. 1·5 B~B-+j

lJl
In case of multi-storeyed buildin gs, the depth
of exploration can be taken from the foll owing
formu la (Sowe rs and Sowers, 1970),
D - C(S!,", .•.( 17.1)
where D = dep th of exploration (m). C = consLant, Fig. 173. Depthof F.Jtplorntion for Friction Piles.
equal to 3 for light steel buildings and narrow concrete bu ildings. It is equal to 6 for heavy steel build ings
and wide concrete buildings. S = number of storeys.
If loose soil or recently deposited soil or a weak stratum is encountered. it should be explored thoroughly.
Explorations shou ld be ca rried to a depth at which the net increase in the vertical stress is less than the
allowable beari ng pressure of the soil .
fo r two adjacent footings. each of size B x L , spaced at a clear spacing A. IS: 1892-197 2 sugg ests that
the minimum dep th of boring should be 1.5 B whe n A <l: 4B; and it should be 1.5 L when A < 28. Fer
adjacen t rows o f such footings, the minimum recomme nded depth of exploration is 4.5B when A < 28 ; it is
n
3.5 when A > 2B and it is 1.5 B when A ~ 48.
 SITE INVESflGA1l0NS 419

For explorations of deep excavations, the depth of exploration below Ihc proposed excavation level
should be at IC:1SI 1.5 times the depth of excavation. In ruse of road cuts, it is taken at least equal to the width
of the cut.
In case of road Fills,the minimum depth of boring is 2m below the ground surface or equal to the height
of the fill, whichever is greater.
In case of gravity dams, the minimum depth of boring is twice the height of the dam.
• 17.6. \ATE RAL EXTENT OF EXPLORATIONS
.Tbe lateral extent of exploration and the spacing of bore holes depend mainly on the variation of the
strata in the horizontal direction. The exploration should be extensive so as to reveal major changes in the
propertiesof the sub-surface strata.
For small and less important buildings, even one bore hole or a trial pit in the centre may suffice. But
for compact buildings. covering an area of about 0.4 hectares, there should be at least 5 bore holes, one at
the centre and four near the comers (Fig. 17.4).

r-----&----i
: I
--I
,,
,,
i
o
( ' 7 - -----fl:!)
t
___J

Fig. 17.4. Fig. 17.5.

For large, multi-storeyed buildings. the bore holes should be drilled at all the comers and also at
Important locations. The spacing between the bore holes is generally kepi between 10 to 30 m, depending
upon the variation in the subsurface conditions and loading (Fig. 175.).
For highways, subsurface explorations are usually carried out along the proposed centre line or along the
propose ditch line. The spacing of bore holes usually varies between 150 and 300 m. If the sub-strata is
erratic. the spacing may be reduced to even 30m.
In case of concrete dams, the spacing of bore holes generally varies between 40 and 80 m.
17.7.OI)EN EXCAVATION MI<..JHODS OF EXPLORATION
In this method of exploration, an open excavation is made 10 inspect the sub-strata. The methods can be
dividedinto two categories: (1) Pits and Trenches, (2) Drifts and Shafts.
(1) Pits and Trenches . Pits and trenches are excavated at the site to inspect the strata. TIle size of the
pit should be sufficient 10 provide necessary working space. IS : 4453-1%7 recommends a clear working
space of 1.2 m x 1.2 m at the bottom of the pit. The depth of the pit depends upon the requirement of the
investigation as already discussed.
Shallow pits up to a depth of 3 m can be made without providing any lateral support. For deeper pits,
especially below the ground water table, the lateral support in the form of sheeting and bracing system (Fig.
17.6) is required. I\s the depth of the pit increases, its oost increases rapidly. For depths greater than 6 m,
bore holes arc more economical than open pits.
4]J) SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Deep pits shoold be properly ventilated to prevent

accumu lation of dead air. If water is encount ered in a pit.
it sho uld be su itably dewatered .
Trenches are long sha llow pits. A" a trench is GS
continuou s over a con siderab le length, it provides
exposure alo ng a line. The trenches are more suitable
than pits for exploration on slopes.
Test pits and trenches can be excavated manually or
mecha nica lly. Adeq uate precautions shou ld be taken
2·0
rm
STUDFRAME"'\

Veet ical
sh e e ~i"9 50mm
thic
against possibl e accidents due to caving of the ground .

t
(2) Drifts a nd Sha fts. Drifts are horizontal tunnels
made in the hill -side 10 determine the nature and
structure of the geological formation . IS: 4453--1980
recom mends that a dri ft should have the minimu m clear
dimensions of 1.5 m width and 2.0 m height in hard
2·0
rock . In soft rock, an arc h roo f is more advantageous m% 1
than a flat roof. If the grou nd is unable to stand of its
ow n, supports have to be provided to carry the load of
the roof and tbe sides of the drift .
Drifts are usefu l for establishing the minimum
excavation limits to reach sound rock and for locating
1 SECTION
r PIT
~OT TOM OF

D
faults and shear zones and burial channels in the river
section . However, drifts are generally expensive . These
are used on ly when othe r methods do not provide the
required informati on . Drifts are also known as adits.
Sh afts are large size vertica l holes made in the
geological format ion. These may be rectangular or
circular in section. The minimum width of a recta ngular
shaft is 2.4 m and for a circular shan, the minimum
d iameter is 2.4 m. In weak groun d, the sides of the shaft Fig. t1.6.
should be properly supported . Deep shafts should be properly ventilated . Shafts are used to reach a particular
SIrota at a depth of 4 m Of more. Shafts are also used to extend the exploration below the river bed already
done by means of tunnels.
17.8. BORI NGS FOR EXPLORATI ON
'When the dep th of exploratio n is large, borings are used for exploration. A vertical bore hole is drilled in
the ground to get the information about the sub-soil strata. Samples are taken from the bore hole and tested
in a laborat ory. The bore hole may be used for conducting in-situ tests and for locating the water table.
Extensometers or pressure meter may also be installed in the bore hole for the measurement of deformatioo
in the sub-st rata.
Depending upon the type of so il and the puqnoe of boring. the following methods are used for drilling
the holes .
(1) Auger Boring (2) Wash Boring (3) Rotary Drilling
(4) Percuss ion Drilling (5) Core Boring .
A few holes are drilled during the prelimina ry investigation. In the detailed invesligations, a large number
of holes are drilled to thorough ly investigate the sub-soil strata.
Th e results of boring are presented in the form of boring-lo g and sub-surface profiles (Sect. 17.22).

17.9. AUG ER BORING

An auge r is a boring too l similar to one used by a carpenter for boring holes in wood . It consists of a
SITE IN VESTIGATIONS 421

shank with a cross-W.ise handle for turning and having centra '- T
tepered feed screw [Fig. 17.7 (a)]. The auge rs can be operated
manuaUy or mechanically.
The hand augers used in boring are abou t 15 to 20 an in
diameter. 1bese are suitable for advancing holes upIo a depth of 3
to 6 m in soft soils. The hand auger is attached to the lower end
of a pipe of about 18 mm diameter. The pipe is provided with a
cross-arm at its top . The hole is advanced by turning tbe: Q'05S-
arm manuaUy and at the same time applying thrust in the
downward direction. When the auge r is filled with soil, it is take n
cot. If the hole is already driven, anothe r lype of auger, kno wn as
post-hole auger [Fig. 17.7 (b) ] is used for taking soil samples.
Mechanical augers are drive n by power. These are used for
i T
f
making holes in hard strata to a great de pth. However, for depths
greater than 12 m, even mechanical augers becom e inconventlcnt
and other methods of borin g are used .
Continuous flig ht augers are speci al type of mecha nical
augers which are provided with a cent ral hollow tube. Whe n the 10J lo J
bole is advanced , the ce ntral tube is kept plugged . As the auge r is
turned into the ground, the cu ttings rise to the surface through the Fig . 17.7. Augen!.
spiral During sampling, the plug is rem oved and a sample r is inserted Cor taking the sam ples. Th e main
disadvantage of using a ronti nuous flight auge r is that it becomes difficu lt to ascertain the depth from which
tbe cuttings com ing on the gro und have bee n removed.
Auger boring is generally used in soils which can stay open without casing or drilling mud . Clays, silts
and panially saturated sands can stand unsupported. lU soils whim cannot stand unsupported, especially fIX
saody soils below water table, a casing is normally required. For such soils, the method of auger boring
becomes slow aor expensive. Auger bOring cannot be used when there are large cobbles, boulders or other
obstructions which prevent drilling of the hole.
Auger borings are particularly useful for subsurface
investigations of highways. railways and ai r fields, where the
depth of exploratioo is small . The investigations are done quite CABLE-
rapidly arxl econo mica lly by auger boring. (Attached to
The main disa dvantage of the auger boring is that the soil wi nch )
samples are highl y disturbed. Further, it becomes difficull to
locale the exact changes in the soil strata.
17.10. WASIl BORING
TUB
In wash boring , the hole is drilled by first driving a cas ing,
about 2 to 3 m long , and the n Inserting into it a hollow drill rod
with a chisel-shaped chopping bit at its lower end. Water is
pumped down the hollow drill rod. whic h is know n as wash p ipe.
Water emerges as a strong jet through a small open ing of the CA5'NG
chopping bit. The hole is advanced by a oombinati on oCmopping
action and the jetting action. as the drilling bit and the
accompanying water jet disintegrate the soil. Th e water and the
chopped soil panicles rise upward through the annular space Blr
between the drill rod and the casing. The return water , also
known as wash water, is laden with the soil cuttings. It is
collected in a tub through a T-shaped pipe fixed at the top of
the casing (fi g. 17.8). F"18. 17.8. Wash Baing.
422 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The hole is further ad....anced by alternately raising and dropping the dlopping bit by a winch (nor.
shown). The swivel join t provided at the top of the dri U rod facilitates the turning and twisting of the rod.
lbe pnx::cssis continued even below the casing till the bole begins 10 cave in. At thai stage, the bottom of
the casing can be extended by providing additional pieces at the top. However. in stable, ccoestve sons, the
casing is required only in the lnp portion. Sometimes. instead of a casing. special drilling fluids made of
suspension or emulsions of fat clays or benton ite combined with some chemica l additives are used foc
supporting the walls of tbe ho le
The wash samples collected in the tub do DOt represe nt the so il in its true condition. There is complete
break down of particles by chopping action. There is also m ixing of the particles and th e loss of fine particles
in transportation. ' (be samples are of lillie pract ica l use. However , SOOle indicat ion abou t the changes in strata
is provided by the react ion of the chopping bit as the hole is advanced. It is also indica ted by a change in
colour of the wash water.
The wash boring is mainly used for advancing a hole in the ground. Once the hole has been drilled, a
sample r is inserted to obtain soil samples for testing in a laboratory,
The equipment used in wash borings is relatively light and inexpensive . The main disadvantage of the
method is that it is slow in stiff soils a nd coarse-grained soils. It cannot be used efficientl y in hard soils. rocks
and the soils containing boulders. The method is not suitable for laking good quality undisturbed samples
above ground water table. 8S the wash water enters the strata below the bottom of the hole and causes an
increase in its water content.
17.11. ROTARY DRILLING
In the rotary drillin g method. the bore hole is advanced by rotating a hollow drill rod which has a OJtting
bit at its lower end. A drill head is provided at the top of the drill rod . It consists of a rotary mecha nism and
an arrangement for applying downward pressure.
As the drilling rod is rotated, the cutting bit shears off chips of the material penetrated. A drilling fluid
under pressure is introduced through the drilling rod to the bottom of the hole. 1be fluid carries the ccutngs
of the material penetrated from the bottom of the hole to the ground surface through the annular space
between the drillin g rod and the walls of the hole. Tbe drilling fluid also cools the drilling bit. In case of an
uncascd hole, the drilling fluid also supports the walls of the hole.
When the soil sample is required (0 be taken, the drilling rod is raised and the drilling bit is replaced by
a sampler.
Rotary drilling can be used in clay, sand and rocks . Bore holes of diamet er 50 mm to 2(X) mm can be
easily made by this method. The method is not well adapted for use in materials containing a large percentage
of particles of gravel size and larger. The particles of this size start rotating beneath the drill rod and it
becomes difficult to advance the hole.
17.12. PERCUSSION DRILLING
The percussion drilling method is used for making holes in rocks. boulders and other hard strata. In this
methods. a heavy chise l is alternately lifted and dropped in a vertical bole. The material gets pulverised. If
the point where the ehise l strikes is above the water table. water is added to the hole. The water forms a
slurry with the pulverised material, which is removed by a sand pump or a bailer at intervals. Pcrcussicc
drilling may require a casing. Percussion drilling is also used for drilling of tube wel ls.
l bc main adva ntage of percussion drilling method is that it can be used for all types of materials. It is
particularly useful for drilling holes in glacial tills containing boulders. One of the major disadvantages is that
the material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows of the chisel. It is no( pos....ible 10 get good
quality undisturbed samples. Further, the method is generally more expensive than other methods. Moreover,
it becomes dim~lt to detect mtnoc changes in the properties of the strata penetrated.
17.13. CORE DRILLI NG
TIle core drilling method is used for drilling holes and for cotai ning rock cores. In this method, a ron:
barrel fitted with a drilling bit is fixed to a holk:Jw drilling rod. As the drilling rod is rolalcd. the bit edvacces
SITE I NVESIlG ATIONS 423

and cuts an annular hole around an intact core lbc core is lhcn removed from its bol.tom and is retained by
a core liftcr and brought to thc ground surface. 'W<lter is pumped continuously into the drilling rod to keep
the drilling bit coo l and to carry the disinteg rated material to the ground surface.
The core drilli ng may be done using either a d iamond studded bit or a coning edge ro ns isting of chilled
shot. The diamond drilling is supe rior to the o ther type of drilling. but is costlier. The core barrel may consis t
of a single tube or a double tube. A doub le-tube barrel g ives a good quality sample of the rock .
17.14. TYPES or SOIL SAMI'LES
So il samp les are obtained during sub-su rface exploration to determine the engin eeri ng properties of the
soils and rocks. Soil samples are genera lly classillcd into two categories :
(1) Disturbed sa m ples. These arc the samples in which the natural structu re of the soil gets disturbed
during sampling. However, these samples represent the composition and the mineral con tent of the
soil. Disturbed samples can be used to determine the inde x properties of the soil, such as grain size.
plastic ity cnemcrcrtsucs. speci fic gravi ty.
(2) Und istur bed sa m ples. These arc the sam ples in which the natural structure of the soil and the water
content arc retained. However, it may be mentioned tbat it is imposs ible to gct truly undisturbed
sample. Some d is turbance is inevitable during sampling , eve n when the utmost care is taken. Even
the removal of the sample from the ground produces a chang e in the stresses and causes
distu rbances .
Und istwbcd samples are used for de term ining the engineering properties of the soil, such as
compressibility, shear strength. and permeability. Some index properties such as shrinkage limil can also be
determ ined. The smaller the disturbance , the greater would be the reliability of the resous.
17.15. D&S:IGN FFAllJRES AF}' ECnNG TIl E SAMPLE D~IURBANCE
The distu rbance of the soil depe nds mainly upon the following des ign features :
(I) Area ratio. The area ratio is de fined as
A _ Maximum cross-sectional area of the CUllingrog e x 100
, Area of the soil sample
Fig. 17.9 shows the lower portion of a sampler. The area ratio can be expressed as
oj -oj
A, _ ~ x 100 . .. (17.2)

where D 1 = inner d iameter of the cutting edge,

D z = outer diamete r of the CUlling edge. J-- 04--i
For obtaini ng good quali ty undisturbed samples. the
area rauo should be 10 perce nt or less (Hvorsfcv, 1949) .
(2) Inside cleara nce. The inside clearance is defined S AMPLING
TUBE
c, _ D} ;;1 D j
)( 100 •.. (17.3)

where D} = inner diamet er of the sampling tube.

The inside clearance allows elastic expansion of the
sam ple when it enters the tube. It helps is reducing the
CUTTING
frictional drag on the sam ple. For an undisturbed sa mple. EDGE
the inside clearanc e sho uld be be tween 0.5 and 3
percent.
(3) Outside clearance. The outside clearan ce is
defined as Fig. 17.9. Soil Sampler.
424 &l IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Co • D 2;. D. )( 100 . . .(17.4 )

where D. = ou ter diameter of the sam pling tube.

For reducing the driving Iorce, the outside clearance shou ld be as smal l as possible . Normally. it lies
bel ween 7-eTO and 2 percent.
(4) Ins ide wa ll friction. The friction on the inside wall causes distu rbance of the sam ple. The inside
surface of the sampler should be smooth. It is usually smeared with oil before usc to reduce friction.
(5) Design of non -return verve. The non-return valve provided on the sam pler should be of proper
desi gn. It shou ld have an ortgce o f large area to allow ai r. wa ter or slurry to escape quick.ly whe n the sample r
is driven. It should immediately close when the sampler is withdrawn.
(6) Method of appl)' i n~ force . Tbe degree of dist urbance de pends upon the method of applying force
durin g sa mpling and upon the rate o f pene tration of the sample r. For obtain ing undisturbed sam ples. the
sampl er should be pushed and nor driven .
17.16. SPLIT-SPOON 5.-\MI'LER.,,)
The most commonly used sampl er for obtaining a disturbed sample of the soil is the standard split-spoon
sampler tftg. 17.10). If consists mainly of Lhrcc pan s (I) Driving shoe. made of tool-steel, about 75 mm long.

T
ISOmm

t
"O ~

Oriving shot'
t
1~1
~~::-::::; T
Fig. 17.lU. St:m<hnl Split Spoon S,1mp ler. Fig.17.11. Spring; Co re Ca tcher.
(ii) stee l lube abou t 450 mm lung, split longitudinally in two halves, and (iii) coupling at the top of the lube
about ISO mm long. The inside diameter of the split lube is 38 mm and the outside diameter is 50.0 rom. The
coupli ng head may be prov ided with a check valve and 4 venting ports of 10 mm d ia 10 improve sam ple
recovery . Th is sample r is also usee in conduc ting sta ndard penetration test (Sect. 17.22).
After the bore hole has been mauc. the sampler is attached to the drilling rod lind lowered lntc the hole.
SITE lNVESIlGATIONS 425

S ecti c n a _o
Pig. 17.12. Scraper Bucket Sampler .
The sample is collected by jacking or forcing the sample r into the soil by
repented blows of a drop hamme r The sampler is then withdrawn. 111C
split lube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling ..md the
sample is taken out. It is then placed in a conta iner, scaled, and
transported to the laboratory.
If the soil encountered in the bore hole is fine sand and it lies below the
water table, the sampl e recovery becomes difficult. for such soils, a
spring-core catcher device is used to aid recovery. As the sampler is lifted,
the springs close and fonn a dome and retain the sample (Fig. 17.11).
While taking samples, care shall be taken to ensure that the water
level in the hole is main tained slightly highe r than the piezometric level
at the bottom of the hole. It is necessaryto prevent quick sand conditions .
The split tube may be provided with a thin metal or plastic tube liner
to protect the sample and to hold it together. Aller the sample has been
collected, the liner and the sample it contains arc removed from the lube
and the ends are sealed.
17.17. SCRA PER nuclU... SAMPLER
If a sandy deposit contains pebbles, it is not possible to obtain samples
by standard split-spoon sampler or split-spoo n Simpler fitted with a spring
core catcher. The pebbles come in-between the springs and prevent their
closure. For such depos its, a scraper bucket sampler can be used.
A scraper bucke t sampler consists of a driving point which is
attached to its bouom end (Fig. 17.12). There is a vertical slit in the
upper portion of the
sampler. A'S the .1-
sampler is rotated . the 1Smm

corer the sampler through the slit. ~~~~~eO~"l:;lc~):~ T Ba ll check

ill
filled with the scrapings, it is lifted. Although the sample
is quite disturbed, it is still rcprcscmanvc.
A scraper bucket sampler can also be used for
obtaining the samples of cohestonlcss soils below the
water table.
17.18. SIIUllY TUDES AND 1111N-WALLED
SAMPLERS
She lby tubes are thin wall tube samplers made of
seamless stee l. The outside diameter of the tube may be I
~~:~~ :ls~~el~m~~; ~~~it:~~~~~I~:C: 7~~~:
The bottom of the tube is sharpened and bevelled. which
acts as a cutt ing edge [Fig. 17.13 (a) ]. The area ratio is
less than 15% and the inside clearance is between 0.5 to

3%. Fig. 17.13 (b) shows a thin-Walled sample r (IS :

~~~~~::;~~ ~~::f~ha~~ ~~et~U~; t;~~ ~~el~i:~~~r ~~~ 1

clayey soils. The diameter generally varies between 40 and
125 mm, and the thickness varies from 1.25 to 3.15 mm.
1
1 m
I
I
I
1

(b)

Fig. 17.13. (II)

o {a}
ShelbyTube, (b) Thin-walled Sampler.
426 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The sample r tube is aUachcd to the drilling rod and

lowered to the bonorn of the bore hole. It is the n pushed into
the soil. Cue shall be taken to posh the tube into the soil by a
continuous rapid motion without impact or twisting . 1be tube
should be pushed to the length provided for the sample. At
least 5 minutes afte r pushin g the tube into its final position.the
tube is turned 2 revolutions to shear the sample off at the
bottom before it is withd rawn . Tbe tube is taken out and its
ends are sealed before transport ation.
Shelby tubes are used for obtaining undist urbed samples of
clay .

17.19. PISTO N SAM PLER

A pisto n sampler consists of a thin-w alled tube with a
pi"ton inside. The piston keeps the lower end of the sampli ng ~l7m\Jl.--- P i s to n

tube closed when the sampler is lowe red to the bottom o f the
ho le [Pig. 17.14 (0)] . After the sampler has been lowered to the
desi red depth. the pisto n is prevented from moving downward
by a suitable arrangement. which differs in differe nt types of (0 '
piston samplers. The thin tube sampler is pushed past the
piston to ob tain the sample [Fig. 17.14 (b)J. The piston rema ins
in c lose contact with the top of ' tOO sample.
Tbe presence of the piston prevents rapid squeezing of the
soft soils into the tube and reduces the dis turbance of the
sa mple. A vacuum is crea ted on the top of the sample , which
helps in retaining the sample. During the withd rawal of the (b'

samp ler. the piston provides protect ioo against the water
Fig. 17.14. PislOfl Sampler.
pressure which otherwise would have OCOJm:d on the top of
the sample.
Piston sa mplers ere used for getting undisturbed soil samples from soft and sensi tive clays .
17.20. DENISON SAMI'LER
Th e Denison sampler is a do uble-walled sam pler. The out er barrel rotates and OJIS into lhe soil. The
sample is obtained in the inner barrel. The inner barre l is prov ided wit h a liner. It may also be provided with
a basket-type core reta ine r.
The sample r is lowered to the botto m of the drilled hole. A downward force is appli ed on the top of the
sam pler. A fluid under pressure is introduced lhrough the inner b arrel to cool the coring bit when the outer
barrel rotates The fluid returns through the annular space between the two barrels. The rotation of the outer
barrel is co ntinued till the required length of the sample is obtained.
The Denison sample r is main ly used for ob taining sa mples of stiff to hard cohes ive soi ls and slightly
cohes ive sands . Howeve r, it cannot be used for gra velly so ils, loose coh esionless sands and silts below ground
water table and very soft cohesive soils.
Th e Denison sampler gives a sample 5 f (140 mm) in d iameter and 20 inches (508 rom) long. Care is
needed in adjusting the speed of rotation, the pressu re on drilli ng bit and the Velocity of wash water wben
drilling in soils and very friable rocks.
17.21. IIAND-CAR VED SAMPLES
Hand-carvcd samples am be obtained if the soil is exposed . as in a test pit, shaft or tunnel. Hand-carved
samples are also known as chunk samples.
The soil should have at least a trace of cohesion so that it can stand unsupport ed for some lime. To
SITE I NVESI1GATIONS 427

80'

fig. 17.15. Hand-Carved Sample .

obtain a sample. a column of soil is isolated in the pit. 1bc soil is carefully removed from around the soil
column arxl it is properly trimmed. An open-ended box is then placed over lhe soil column. The space
between the box and the soil column is ftlled with paraffin. A spade or a plate with sharp edges is inserted
below the box and the samp le is cut at its base (Fig. 17.15). The box fined with the soH sample is removed.
lL is turned over and the soil surface in the box is trimmed and any depression is filled with paraffin.
A chunk sample may be obtained without using the box if the soil is cohesi ve. A column of soil is
isolated . The bloc k of soil is carefully removed from the soil colu mn w ith a sharp knife. The chunk sample
is then coaled with paraffi n wax to prevent loss of moisture.
Samples from opcn pits can etso be obtained by pressing a sampling lube provided with a CUll ing edge .
The soil surro unding the outsi de of the tube is care fully removed while the tube is being pushed Into the soil.
Hand-carved samp les me undisturbed.

11.22. STA NDARD l'ENI=.'ltATION TFSf

The standard penetration test is the most commonly used in-situ test, especially for cobcsionlcss soils
which can not be em ily sa mpled . The test is extre mely useful for oe term lning the relative density and the
angle of sheari ng resistance of cohesion less so ils. It can , also be used 10 determine the unconfined
compre ssive strength of cohesive soils. .
The sta ndard penetration lest is conducted in a bore hole using a standard split-spoon samp ler. described
in Sect. 17.16. Whcn the bore holc has been drilled to the desired depth. the drillin g too ls are removed and
the sampler is lowered 10 the bot tom of the hole . The sampler is driv en into the soil by a drop hammer of
63.5 kg mass falling Ihrough a height of 750 mm at tbe role of 30 blows per m inule (IS : 2131-19(3). 1bc
number of hammer blows required 10 drive 150 mm of the sample is counted. The sampler is furthcr driven
by 150 mm and the number of blows recorded. likewise. the sampler is once again funhcr driven by 150
mm and the numbe r of blows recorded. 'Ibc number of blows recorded for the first 150 mm is disregarded.
The numbe r of blows recorded for Ihe last two 150 mm intervals are addcd 10 give the standard penetration
number (N). In other words, the standard penetration number is equa l to the number of blows required for 300
mm of penetration beyond a seating drive of 150 mm.
If the numbe r of blows for 150 mm drive exceed s 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is discontinued .
The standa rd penetratio n number is corrected for dilatanc y correction and overburden correct ion as
explained below .
(a) Dillltancy Correcnon, Silly fine sands and fine s.1nds below the water table develop pore pressure
which is oot easily dsstpated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration
number (N).
Tccaghi and Peck (19G7) recommend the followi ng correction in the case of silty fine sands when the
observed va lue of N exceeds IS.

The corrected penetration number. N~ - 15 + t (NR - 15) ... (17.5)

where N R is the recorded value. and N~ is the corrected value.

If NR s 15. N~ - NR
428 SJIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(b) Overburden Pressure Correction. In granular soils, the overburden pressure affects the penetration
resist.nnce. If the two soils having same relative density but d ifferen t confining pressures are tested, the one
with a higher ccoflmng pressuregives a higher penetration number . As the ronfining pressure in cobestoetess
soils increases with the depth, the penetration number for soils at shallow depths is underestimated and that
at grea ter depths is overestimated. For unIformity, the N-v alucs ob tained from field tests under differen t
effective ov erburden pressures are corrected to a standnrd effective overburd en pressure .
Gibbs and Holtz (1957) recomm end the usc: of tbe follow ing equation for dry or moist clean sand.

N~ • NR x Oo~70 ... (17.6)

where NR = observed N·valuc. He :: correct ed N·value, 00= effective overburd en pressure (kN/m1
Eq. 17.6 is appli cable for iio :s 280 kN/m2 ,
The ratio (N/NR) should lie between 0.4 5 and 2.0. If (N/NR ) ratio is greater than 2.0, He shwld be
divided b y 2.0 to obtain the design value used in fUKIingthe bearing capacity of tbe soil.
Th e correct ion may be extended to saturated silly sand and
fine sand aflcr mod ifying the NI( acco rding to Eq. 17.6, i.e. N e -"--
NR
-
I. e I. 20
obtained from Eq. 17.6 woul d be take n asNR in Eq. 17.5. 00
'"
Thus the ovelburden correction is appli ed fi~ and then
the dilatancy correction is applied.
V
Peck, Hansen and lbombu m ( 1974) give the chart for
0
/
correction of N-v alucs to an effect ive overburden pressure of
96 kN/ m 2, Accord ing to them.

N _ 0.77 NR log (1~5) fa 00 or; 24 kN/m 2 .. . (17.7);r Kl0

1/
00 IkN/m2)

Fig. 17.16 show s the correction diagrnm . At 00= 0.0. the

value of N I NII. is 2.0.
The correcuoe give n by Bazaraa (1967). and also by
rso
I
Ped; and Bazaraa (1969). is one of the commonly used
corrections. According 10 them,
4N.
N - 1 + 0.
0418
00 if 00 < 71.8 kN/m
2
... (17.8)
200
I
Fig. 11.16. Overburden Correction Diagram.
4 NR . _ 2
and N - 3.25 + 0.0104 00 if "0 > 71.8 kN /m .. .(17.9)

and N _ HI( if 00 - 71.8 kN /m 2 ... (17.10)

Corretanou of N with Engineering Properties
1be value of the standard penet ration number N depends upon the relative density of the cobesioeless soil
and the unconfmed compressive strengt h of the cohes ive soil . If the soil is compact or stiff, the penetrati on
number is high.
The angle of shearing resistance (¢i) of the oohesionless soil depends upon the number N. In general, the
greater the N·va tue, the greater is the angle of shea ring reststence (Fig . 17.17). Table 17.1 gives the ave rage
values of • for different rang es of N.
The cons istency and the unconfmed shear strengt h of the cohesi ve so ils can be approxim ately detennined
from the SPT num ber N. As the correla tion is not dependable, it is advisabl e to determin e the shear stren gth
of the cohesive soils by conducting shear tests on the undisturbed samples or by conducting in-situ vane shear
test (Sect. 17.24) . Tabje 17.2 gives the approxim ate valu e of the uncon fined shear stren gth for d iffere nt ranges
of N. 1be unconfmed com press ive strength can also be determined fran the following relat ion.
SITE INVESIlGATIONS 429
70

eo /
/
t, 0

V
0 /
/ V
0

0
-:
V
0
I/
0
18 ]Q as ae
"
Ang~ 01
14
slwar ing rl's;s lancl' (~'J

Fig. 11.11. Varilltion of t' with N.

q.. _ 125 N . . •( 17.11)
2
where q.. is unconfined compressive strength (kN/m ).

Table 17.1. Correlation between Nand $

N Denseness 01>

1>-4 "' oy'-""'" ~-32"

4-10 Loose 27"-35"'

10-30 Medium 3<JO-4O'
3<>-50 Dense )S-45°
> SO Very Dense > 45°

Table 17.2. Correlation between Nand qu

N Consistency u kN/m~
0-2 Very se n <25
2--4 So" 25--50
4-<l Medium 50-100
8-15 Stiff 100-200
15-30 Very Stiff 200-400
>30 n ard > 400

17.23. C ONE PENETRATION TESTS

Sounding methods are frequently used to determine the penetration res istance and the engineering properties
of the so il. The soun d ing methods mainly cons ist of the cone lest and the standard penetrati on test (Sect. 17.22) .
The cone test was developed by the Dutch Gove rnment, Soil Mech anics Laborat ory at De lft and is.
430 SOIL MECHANICS AND FO UNDATION ENGIN EERIN G

therefore. also known as Dutch cone Test. The lest is conducted either by the static method or by dy namic
method. as discussed below.
(a) Static Cone penetration teste The Dutch cone has an apex ang le of 60 D and an overall diamete r of
35.7 mm, giving an cnd area of 10 00 2 (Fig. 17.18).
For ob taining the cone resistance, the cone is pushed downward at a steady rate of 10 mm/sec through a
dep th of 35 mm each time. 'lbe cone is pushed by applying thrust and not
by drivin g.
After the cone resistance has been determ ined. the cone is withdrawn.
The sleeve is pushed on to the cone and bolh are driven together into me
so il and the combined resistance is also detcnnined. TIle resistance of the
sleeve alone is obtained by sobuacnng lhe cone resis tance from the
combined resss ranee.
A modification of the Dutch cone penetrometers is the Refined Dutch
cone. II has got a friction sleeve of limited length above the cone point. It 16 mm dio
is used for obtaining the point resistance of Lhe cone and the frictional
resistanceof the soil above the cone point .
For effective use of the woe penetrat ion test. some reliable calibra tion
is required. This cons ists of comparing the rcsulus with tbose obtained from
conventional tests conducted on undisturbed samp les in a labora tory. It is.
a lso convenient to compa re the cone test results with the sta nda rd
Fig. 17.18. Dutch Cone.
penetra tion tes t results. As the standard penetra tion tests have been more
commonly conducted in the past , good correlation studies are available between the SIT number (N) and the
engineerin g properties of the soil (Sed . 17.22). If the cone penetration results are related to the SPT number
N, indirect rorrela tion.s are ob tained betwee n the cone te a results and the engineering prope rties of so il.
The following relations hold approximately good between the point resistance of the cone (qJ and the
standard penetration number (N).
(t) Gravels q( = 800 N 10 HXXJ N ... [17.12(.)]
(il) Sand" qe = 500 N to 600 N .. .[17.12(. )]
(iii) Silty sands qe = 300 N to 400 N ... [17.12(. )]
(iv) Silts and clayey silts q( = 200 N ...[17.12(.) ]
2
when: q" is in kNlm
(b) Dynamic co ne Test. The lest is conducted by driving the cone by
blows of a hammer. The number of blows for driving the cone through a
specified distance is a measure of the dynamic cone resistance.
Dynamic cone tests are performed either by using a 50 mm cone
without be ntonite slurry or by us ing a 65 mm cone with bentonite slurry 60 mm djo
(IS : 4968-pa rt I and n· 1976). The driving energy is given by a 65
kg-hammer falling through a height of 75 an. The number of blows for
every 10 an penetration is recorded, The number of blows required for
30 em of penetration is taken as the dynamic cone resistance (N".,,). If the
skin friction is 10 be eliminated. the test is conducted in a cased bore
'Slurr y
hole.
When a 65 mm cone with ben tonite slurry is used, the set-up shou ld
have arrnngcments for circu lating slurry so thai the friction on the driving
rod is e liminated (Fig. 17.19).
The dynamic cone resistance (N e", ) is correlated with the SIT
number N. The followi ng epproxlmate relations may be used when a 50
mm diameter cone is used. Fig. 17.19. Dyna mic Cone TC$t.
 SITE INVEST IGATIO NS 431

N rlw - I .5 N for depths upto 3 m [17.13{a)]

N~ • 1.75 N for depths between 3106 m (I7.13(b)]
NeM - 2.0N for depths greater than 6 m •. (17.13(c)]
The Ce ntral Uuilding Researc h Institute, Roorkee, has developed the following correla tion betwee n the
dynamic cone resistance (Nf,,;,) of 65 mm diame ter cone wit hout using ben tonite slurry and the SJTf n umber
(N)
He".. to 1.5 N for depths upto 4 m ... [17.14(a)1
HeM - 1.75 N for depths between 4 to 9 m .[ 17.14(b) ]
Neb<- - 2 N for depths greeter than 9 rn [17.14(c))
The above relations an; a pplicable for medium to fine san d.

17.24. IN-SITIJ VANE SnEAR TEST

In-situ vaoe-sbcer lest is conducted to det enni ne the shear
strength of ,'1 cohesive soil in its natural rendition. The apparatcs
used is similar to one used in a laboratory [Chapter 13). 11consists
of four blades. 100 mm (or ISO mm or 200 mm loog), auected at
right angles to a steel rOO. The steel rod has a torque-meas uring
device at its top. The height-diam eter mtlo (II/D ) of the appnrntus is
generally equa l to 2 (Fig . 17.20) .
Fo r conducting the test, the shear-vane is pushed into the g round

..: at the bottom of the bore hole . When a torque is appliedthrou gh the
handl e et the top of the rod, the soil is sheared along a cy lindrical
sur face. Th e to rque required to shear the cylinder of the soi l is
meas ured by means of a spring balance. The undrained shear
strengt h s, of the so il is determi ned from the equation developed in
chapte r 13.

V 0"""""
T
. . .(17.15)
s.. - :t(rr JlI2 + & /6)
where T = torque applied, 1I ::: height of the vane,
D = d iameter of the so il cy linde r sheare d. fig. 17.20. In-situ VaneShear TCSI.
The vane-shear test is ext remely usef ul for determ ining the in-situ shear strength of very soft and
sensitive Clays, for which it is d ifficull to obtain undisturbed samples. The test can also be used even for
determining the shear streng th of stiff, fissured clay s . Howeve r, the method cannot be used for sandy soils.

17.25. IN-SITU TESTS USING A I'RESSURE MET ER

Menard developed a press ure meier, or sub-soil deforme ter, whi ch can be used for determining the
stress -deformation charec tens ucs of the soils in the ra ruml condi Hons. The pressure meier consists of an
innatoo1c cylindrica l probe which is connect ed to a water TCSCrvOir (Fig. 17.21). 1be prcoc is inserted into the
bore hole and it is inflated by applying water pressure. '[b e probe presses against the unlined walls of the
bore hole. As the pressure is increased, the soil deforms. The volumetric deformation of the bore hole is
obtained by OOling the fall in water level in the water reservoir.
Fig. 17.22 shows a typical pressure-volumetric strain curve. The soil is initially in elastic phase but it
enters the plastic phase at high pressure. After the plas tic stage, the re is no cnangc in the volume with further
increase in press ure. The pressure-defo rmation data obtaine d from the test may be used to determine mod ulus
of deformation , undra ined shear st rength, nngte or shearing resistance and othe r engineering prope rties of the
soil. IS : 1892-19 79 describ es the use o f pressure meter.
432 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

ELASTC

IE
Gua ", cell
Pr obe'
(mea suring c e ll) PRESSURE (p) _
Guard cell

Fig. 17.21. Pressure Mete r. Fig. 11.22.

17.26. OBSEUVATION OF GROUND WATER TABLE

The ground water level affects the pore water pressure and hence the shear strength of the soil. As the
ground water level changes seasonally, it becom es necessary to establish the highest and the lowest water
level for the proper des ign of structures, The depth of the ground water Lable is usually determined in an
exploratory investigation.
In soils of high permeabili ty. the level of ground water in a bore ho le stabilises in about 24 hours. The
depth of the water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated tape in the bore hole. The depth can also be
measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circci t. As soon as the ope n ends of the leads touc h the water
in the bore hole, the circuit is com pleted. It is indicated by glow of the indicator lam p.
In soils of very low permeability , the ground water level docs not
steblllse even after several weeks. Fig. 17.23 shows the Casagrande
piezom ete r com mo nly used Cor the determina tion of the water level in such
soils. It cooslsts of a Norton porous tube attached to a plastic tube. TIle
porous tube is carefully placed on a cushion of sand in the bottom of a cased
bore hole such that it extend'> below the casing. The lower end of the porous SAND
lube is plugged with a rubber stopper At the top. the porous lube is
surrounded by sand, There is an impermeable seal of bentonite clay above
the sand. The sand surro unding the porous tube should be kept satu rated
during and after the installatio n of the piezome ter. The ground water table is
determined from the level of the water in the plastic tube. 111e top of the
plastic tube is kept above the ground surface for this purpose.
For de termination of the wate r level in silty soils, Hvors1ev (1949) gave PLASTIC
the followi ng method . The water is bailed out from the bore hole to a level TUBE
below the expected ground water table. The rise of water level in the bore POROUS
TUBE
ho le is noted at differen t time intervals (Pig. 17.24). The figure shows the
me in water level at the time' • 'I.' - '2 and , _ I) . let hi. h2 and h ) be SAND
the height of the water level above the level 0----0at time AJ. UJ and 361.
The time interval At is selected depending upon the type of the soil. The
height of the wate r rebl e above the levels 0-0. 2-2 and 3-3 is calculated
from the following equat ions. Fig. 11.23 Casagra nde Piezometer.
SITE INVEsriGAll0NS 433

Go .S .

Casing

__ _ _ _ Sl.~~ _

-f~_ __ _ _ 23
h,
__ _ _ _ _ 1

h,
__ _ _.0
t:I O

Fig. 17.24.

/fo = height above level 0 - 0

h;
- hI - h2

112 = he ight abo ve level 2 - 2

~
- h i - h2
hj
and /I ) = height above level 3 . 3
- h2 - hJ
.•. (11.16)

TIle depth of the water t<ble is taken as the average of three levels given by heights Ho- 112 and H J Le.
level of the water table is given by
- ~ [(level 0 - 0 + Ho) + (leve12 - 2 + Hi) + (level 3 - 3 + 11)) ...(17.17)

17.27. GEOPUYSICAL MI ·: TIIODS

A number of geophysical methods are used in preliminary invest igations of sob-soil strata. The methods
can be used for the locat ion of d ifferent strata and for a rapid evaluation of the subsoil charact eristics.
However, the methods are very approximate. For detailed and reliab le investigations, the convent ional
methods of driving a hole. taking a sam ple and testing it in a labora tory. as already described. must be
resorted to. The geophysical methods can be broadly divided into the two categories : Seismic methods and
Electrical resistivity methods . descri bed in the following sect ions.
17.28. SEISMI C METIIOllS
lhe seismic method s are based on the principle that the elastic shock waves have different velocities in
different materials. At the interface of two d ifferent materials. the waves get partl y reflected and partly
refracted. Seismic method s of sobsurface explorations generally utilise the refracted waves.
The shock wave is crea ted by a hammer blow or by a small explos ive cha rge at a point P (Fig. 17.25).

1
Theshock wave travels through the top layer of the soil (or rock) wi!.ha velocity VI. depe nding upon the type
of materia} in layer-l. Tbe observa tion of the first arrival of the waves is recorded by geophones located at
various points, such as A, B, C. The geopho nes convert the ground vibration into electrical impulses and
transmit them to a recording apparatus (not shown).
The basic equations of the refraetioo survey are derived based on the assumption that the subsurface
strata are such that the velocity of the shock waves increases as the depth increases . In other words, it is
assumed that V) ;> V2 ;> Vt in Fig. 17.25 . At geophones located close to the point of impact. such as point
A. the. direct waves with velocity VI reach first.
434 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 17.2.';' Sc:i..-.mie mclhod.

At points which are located away from the point of impact. such as point B. the refracted waves reach
ecrtrcr than the direct waves. Th ese waves start from point P. travel with velocity VI in the upper layer, get
refracted at the interface. move with much higher veloci ty Vz in the second layer. emerge agai n at tbe
interface and travel back 10 the gro und surface er a !OYIcr velocit y VJ in the upper layer.
At points furthe r away from the point of impact . such as poin t C, the waves which are refracted twice.
once at the interface of the layers I and II. and once at the interface of the laye rs 11and Ill , reach earlier.
For the dcrcrmtnauon of the thickness of different layers, a distance -time graph is plotted (Fig . 17.26).
Th e time (I) of arr ival of the first impulse at various geophon es is taken as ordinat e and the distance (X) of
the geo phones from the poin t of impact P is taken as abscissa. Obviously, the veloc ity in any layer is equal
to the reciprocal of the s lope of the correspo nding line. The Slopes of the various lines are determined and
the co rrespo nding veloci ties computed,

YJ= t a n 0(3

;1
\2

\,
~:
~ ~ '"""'"+ - - __o:----L---o-

Fig . 17.26.
Upro a certain distance XI . the direct waves in the layer I reach first. At this point, the nrst two lines in
Fig. 17.26 intersect, which indicates that the direct wave traveling a distance Xl with a velocity VJ and the
refracted wave travel ing with a ve locity VJ in distance 2}11 and with a velocity of V2 in distance X I reacIl
simu llancously, where H I is the thic kness of the layer I. l b us

~. 2 Jl I + ~
VI VI V2
...,-

SITE INVESTIGATIONS '35

or III _(V2V,- VI) . !!2 ...(17.1 8)
Eq. 17.18 gives reliable results when t~ waves are produced by a sinusoidal force and not by impact .
The follow ing empirical equation gives more reliable results for impact shock.

//1 . Xl
"2 ·~
V~ ...(17.19)
Likewise. the lhickness of the second layer (N,) ic; obla ined from the distance X 2 correspoodie g to the
point of intersect ion of the second and the third line in Fig. 17.26 . It is given by the relation

X2·~
112 • O.85H1 + "2 V ~ ...(17.20)
The procedure is rontinued if there are more than three layers.
The type of ma terial in va rious layers can be determined by comparing lhc velocities obtained with the
standard velocities given in Thble 17.3.
Table 17.3. Velocities in Dirre~nt Types of Strata

Lao" Loose L"""

Typeof SMd Hard
gravel sand sand
Oranue Shale
Rod/Scil Stone Clay (Wet) (11</) (dry)
4000 1500 1300 600 500 500 2<0
lHod l}' ID ID ID ID 10
(mlsec) 6000 3000 3000 "
1500 1000 1500
io
600

Urnltatlon of the seismic methods

(1) The methods cann ot be used if a hard layer with a greater seism ic velocil y overlies a softe r layer
with a smaller seismic velocity .
(2) The methods cannot be used for the areas covered by concrete, asphalt pavements or any other
artificial h3rd crust, having a high seismic velocity .
(3) If the area con tains some unde rground featu res, such .as buried cond uits, irregularl y dippi ng strata ,
and irregular water table, the interpretation of the results becomes very dlfflcclt.
(4) If the surface layer is frozen, the method cannot be successfully used, as it correspcocs to a case of
harder layer overlying a softer layer.
(5) The methods require sophisticated and costly equipmen t.
(6) For proper interpretations of the seismic sUlvey results, the services of an expert are required.
Despite abov e limitations, the method is extremel y useful for the determination of the thickness of
various strata and their charact eristics . 1bcse surveys are useful for cotatntng preliminary inform ation about
the types and depths of variousstrata at a given sne.

17.19. ELEcrRICAL RESlrnVTIY METIIODS

The electrical resistivit y (P) of a cond uctor is expressed as
p - RAIL ... ( 17.2 1)
where R = electrica l resistance (ohms), A = area of cross-sea ion of the conductor (cm1,
L = length of conductor (em) , p = electrical resistivity (ohm- centimeter).
(It m.ay be noted that the electrical resistivity is the reci procal of condu ctance .)
The resistivity of a material depends upon the type of material. its water conten t and the coecc mraticc of
dissolved ions and many other factors. Rocks and dry soils have a greater resistivity than saturated clays.
Table 17.4 gives approximate values of resistivity of different rocks and soils.
 436 SOI L MECHAN ICS AN D FOUND ATIO N ENG INEFR ING

Table 17.4. Restsuvtty of Differen t Rocks and Soils

Saturated
T)'fJeo{ Sound 1VcaIJI('rt'd Clayey day
GrQ~'f.' 1 Sand
rock/soil ~k Rock sand and silt
1500 1500 500 200 2
Resis livity to to to to
> 5000 '0
(01lm -m) 2500 4500 1500 500 IOU

The electrical resistivity methods are of the following two types:

(0) Electri cal pronlin g Method . The method is aL"O known as the resistivity mapping method Four
electrodes are used at a co nstant spaci ng a (Fig. 17.21). To cond uct the lest, four electrodes, which arc usually
in the fonn o f metal spikes. are driven into AMMETER
the ground. The two outer electrodes are
known as current electrodes. The two
inner electrodes are called fOlcntial
electrod es. The mean resistivity of the
strata is detennined by applying a D.C.
current to the outer electrodes and by
measurin g the vo ltage drop betw een the =IF"""""""""""T"""=~~ E
CURRENT
lECTRcn:
inner electrodes. A current of 50 10 100
milliamp is usually supplied.
'th e mean resistivity (p) is given by
the formula Fig. 1727. Electrical Profiling M elllOd.

, -- /- 2~ aV
.. .(17.22)

where I = current su pplied. a :: spacing of electrodes, and V = voltage drop.

Eq. 17.22 gives the mean resistivity upto a depth of a below the ground surface, as the dCplh of current
penetration below the groun d surface is appro ximatel y cqU31to the spacing of electrodes. The elect rodes are
mo ved as a group. and different profile lines are run across the area . The test is repeated after changing the
spacing and again determining the mean resistivity uplo the dept h equal to the new spacing. 1bc elcetrods are
moved as a group along different lines. as before.
The me thod is useful for estab lishing bo undaries between differen t strata. The method is generally used
for loca ting sand and grav el deposits within a fine-grained soil deposit.
(b) E lecfr-lcu l So un ding Meth od . In this
method, the electrode system, consisting of four
elect rodes . is expanded abou t a fixed locatio n. say ~ F IX E D LOCATION
P, in Fig. 17.28 . 111c spacing in the first selling is
Q1. w hich is increased 10 Q2 in the secon d set ting
t- al+all~l~ I SETTrM;
and to Q3 in tbe th ird selling. The spacing is thus
gradua lly increased to 3 distance equa l 10 the i
}-a2""""'t-ar -t- a2--1 II SETTING
,,
depth of exploration. As tbe depth of the curren t
penetration is equal 10 the electrode spacing. the
changes in the mean resistivity is correlated 10 the r---a3--+-- a~--;----"3----l III SETTING
cha nges in st rata at that location.
The met hod is use ful in studying lhe changes
in the st rata with incr easing depth at a po int. The Fig. 17.28.Electrical Sounding method.
. meth od ca n indicate sub-surface vartauon when a hard layer overlies a son layer or vice-versa. II can also be
used to loca te the wa ter table.
SITE INVESTIG ATIONS 437

Limitation of the electrica l l'1.':SisU"Uy methods .

(I) The melhods aJ'C capable of detecting only the strata having different electrical resisti vity.
(2) The results are considerably influenced by surface irregularities, wetness of the strata and electrolyte
concentration of the ground water.
(3) As the resist ivity of differe nt strata at the interface changes gradually and not abruptly as esscmec,
the interpr etation beco mes difficu lt.
(4) The services of an expe rt in the field are needed ,
Norwnhstandtng abo ve limitations, the method is extremely useful for the determinat ion of the average
conditions in different strata upro a depth of 30 m or so . The method is very rapid and econom ical for
preliminary investigat ions .
17.30. SUB-SOI L INVES11 GA110N RE PORT
A sub- soil investiga tion report should contain the data ob ta ined from bore holes, site observa tions and
laboratory resu lts. It should abo give the rerommendations about the suitable type of foundation, allowable
soil pressu re and expected seutemems.
It is essential to give a complete and OEPllf 1m ) SOL T'r'PE N
p,
accurate record of data collected. Each bore hole
c.c r--.-'--r-,-"-.--,
should be identified by a code number. The ' 00
locenon of each bore hole should be fixed by r.c ZO'!,

measurement of Its distance or angles from ) ,0 10 S'J

~N lm2
some permanent Icarure. All re levant data for 4.0
the bore hole is recor ded in a boring log (Fig. 5.0 ' 0
17.29). A boring log gives the desc ription or
classification of various strata encountered at 6·0
different depths . An y add itional inform ation tha t 7·0
is obtained in the field, such as soil cons istency, 11-0
unronfi ned co mpress ion stre ngth, standa rd s-o
pcoctration test, cone penetration lest, is also 10·0 "'-"""-_ _--'-_-'--_-'-_ ' ---1_-'
indicated on the boring log. It should also show
2
the water table. If the laboratory tests have been Fig . 17.'19. Boring Ing. ( I tJrn~ = 10 kN/m ).
conducted , the infoonation about index properties. compressibility, shear strength, permeability, etc . should
also be provided.
The data obtained from a series of bore ho les is prese nted in the form of a sub -surface profile (Fig.
17.30). A subsurfaceprofile is a vertical sect ion through the ground alo ng the line of ex ploration. It indicates
the boundari es of d ifferent strata. alon g with their classification. It is important to remember that condilions
between bore holes are estim ated by interpo lation, which ma y not be correct. Obv ious ly, the larger the
number of holes, the more accc rme is the sub-surface profil e.
The site investigation report sho uld conta in the discussion o f the res ults. The discussion should be clear
and concise The recommendations abo ut the type and depth of foundation . allowable soil pressure and
expected seulcmcnts shou ld be speci fic. Th e main findi ngs of the report are give n in conclusions.
A soil explora tio n repo rt genera lly consists of the following.
( I) Introduction, which gives the scope of the investigation.
(2) Description of the proposed structure , the location and the geological conditions at the site .
(3) Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the numbe r of borings. their location and
dcptbs.
(4) Deta ils of the methods of exptorauon.
(5) Gene ral description of the sub-so il condit ions as obta ined from in-situ rests, such as standard
penetration lest, cone test.
(6) Details of the laboratory test conducted on the so il samples obtained and the resul ts obta ined.
438 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

DEPTH (m)
o LOOSE SAND

• SANOY SILT:
-; -. :

." . ' . ' ~ ~ N S ~': SAND.:. ... . .

r-:
'. _ . ;

:/:':.'.;:.:~~+,~ ::>;.;:;>..~~.':'::::'
Fig. 1730 . Subsurfece Profi le.
(7)Depth of the gro und water table and the changes in water levels.
(8)Discussion of the results.
(9)Recommendation about the allowable bearing pressure , the type of foundation or structure.
(10)Conclusions. The main fmdings of lnvesngauoes should be clearly Slated. It should be brief but
shoul d mention the salient points.
Limitations of the investigations should also be briefly stated.

PROBLEMS

A. Descriptive a nd Objec tive Type

17.1. What do you un dersta nd by site inves tigation? Whal are the different purposes for which site inVCSlig arions an:
done?
17.2. What is reconn aissance ? What type of Information is obtailll.-d in reco nnaissance? Wbat is its use ?
11.3. How would you decided the depth of exploration and the lateral extent of the investigations?
17.4. Describe open e xcavation methods of exploration . What are their adva ntages and disadvantages ?
11.5. Descri be various rrerbods of drilling holes for subs urface investi gations .
17.6. What do you understan d about disturbed and undislUfbcd samples? How would you obtain undisturbed sampla?
17.7. Wha t are the factors that affect the sample dist urbance? How are these effects minimi sed?
17.8. Describe the split-s poon sampler . What is its usc?
17.9. DiSOlSSvario us types of soil samp lers for obtaining undisturbed samples,
17.10. How would you ootaln a hand-carved sample?
17.11. Discuss stand ard penetration test. What are the various correcnonst What is the importance of the lest in
geotechnical engineer ing?
17.1Z. Describe cone penetration tests. How these tests differ from standard penetration test ?
17.1.3.. How would you oondUC! an in-situ vane shear test? What is its use ?
17.14. Discuss the various methods foc determining the level of the ground water table.
17.1~. Describe , in brief , various geophysical methods . Discuss their limitations and uses.
17.16. Describe the salient features o f a good sub-soil investigati on report .
17.11. Write whe ther the followin g statements are true ()( false.
(a) A d isturbed samp le is oot a truly representative sam ple.
(b) An undisturbed sample is absolutely undisrurbed,
(e) The samples obtai ned from wash wate r of wash bori ngs are distulbOOsamples .
(d) Th e sample ob taiDe<l by a split spooo sa mpler is an undislutbed sample.
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
'"
It') The: standard penermuon lesl IS more useful for cohcsicntess soil rhan cohesive so ils.
VJ The static cone rest is more useful for cohesive sous than cohestontess soils.
(gol Dilatancy correction of SPT number i~ done for clayey soils.
(II) In-situ vane shear test is extreme ly useful for obtaining the shear Mrenglh (If very son cchestve soils.
(I) The Casagrande piezometer is used for dctenn ining the water level in coheslcntess soils.
iJ) Seismic methods can he used if the seis mic velocity of dif ferent strata incre ases as the de pth is Increased .
Ikl Geo physical method s are usef ul for preliminary inves tigat ions.
(Il A soil profile gives an accurate profile of d ifferent strata.
(m ) A hllnng lug rrnhcnres d iffe rent strata along the depth of a bore hole.
(A ns. True, (a ). (e), (el . V). (/d , /j) , (/;), (Ill)]

B. Multi ple Choice Que stions

I. The standard penetration test i ~ usefu l 10 meas ure
(ul shea r Mn:llgth o f soft days
Ihl shea r streng lh of sands
(e) consistency of days
Id) None orabove.
2. Por an Ilndhturhe..J "i\mple, the area runo of (he samples should he
.tl) zero (h) 10% or less
tel IO'*- to 20~ (d) more than 20%
3, In-suu vane shea r test is used 1\1 measur e she ar slrenglh of
lUI very so il a nd sens itive- clays
( h) stitf uud fissured days
(el sandy S\lil~
(til All the-above-
4. 111C seismic re fraction met hods cuunot he used if the wave veloc ity in the tower layer is .... lhal in the upper
layer.
(til greater Ih;111 lhJlessthan
(t"! more than fo ur limes (./) more than uucc
5. Select the incorrect statement:
For a goud quality soil sample.
(ul The area nuio slloul d be low
(bl Th e cutting edge should be: thkk
Ie) The inside clearance sboujd be small
(til The t1utside clearance should be:small
6, If the act ual value o f the stand ard pe nenatio n number (N) is greater than 15 for line sa nds be low wate r lable,

: ,; ;:rr:T~ ';'~~ 'j' N ;,

(b) 15- - , -
( N + "J
k ) 15 + (N~ 15 ) (11) 15 + ( 15 ; N)
7. The height- dia meter reno fllr the in-situ vane is
(a) 1.0 (hI 1.50
(e) 2.00 {til 3.0
lAos. I. (h), 2 (bl. 3. (a). 4. (b). 5. (hI, 6. (c), 7. (e) )
 18
Stability of Slopes

18.1. INTROD UCnON

An earth slope is an unsupported . inclined surface of a soil mass. Earth slopes are fonned for railway
formations, highway embankments, earth darns, cana l banks, levees, and at many other loca tions. fig 18.1
shows some of the examples of ea rth slopes.

SIOP. ~SIO""~
r.;«~fl >«', "''IlWAYTRACKJ>(\\
(a) (b)
~ SI 0P t'
~ -""""'-----'-Slope ~
(c) CANAL

(d) EA~..TH DAM

Fig. 18.1. Earth Slopes .

The cost of earth work wou ld be minimum if the slopes are made steepes t. However . very steep slopes
may not be stable. A oornpromise bas to be made between economy and safely, and the slopes provided are
neither too Sleep nor too fiat. In other words, the steepest slopes which are stable and safe should be
provided .
The failure of a slope may lead to loss of life and property. It is. there fore , essential to c heck the stability
of pro posed slopes. With the development of modem methods of test ing of soils and stability analysis. a safe
and economica l design of a slope is possible. 1be geotechnical engineer should have a thorough knowledge
of the various methods foc checking the stability of Slopes and their limitations .
The failure of a soil mass occurs a100g a plane or a curved surface when a large mass of soil slides with
respect to the remaining mass. In general, there is a downward and outward movement of the soil mass. A
slope failure occurs when the forces causi ng failure are grea ter than the shearing resistance (shear strength).
developed along a critical surface of failure. The Iactoes leading to the failure of slopes may be classified into
two categories.
STABILITY OF SLOPES 441

(I ) The factors which cause an increase in the shear stresses. The stresses may increase due to weight
of water causing sa turation o f soils, surcharge loads, see page pressu re or any other cause. The stresses are
also increased due to steepening of slopes eithe r by excavation or by natural erosion.
(2) The factors which cause a decrease in the shear strength of the soil. Tbe loss of shear strength may
occur due to an increase in water content, increase in pore water pressure, shock. or cyclic loads, weathering
or any other cause.
Most of the natural slope failures occu r during rainy seasons, as the presence of water causes both
increased stresses and the loss of strengt h.

IS.2. BASIS OF ANALYSIS

The soil mass ml.N be safe against slope failure on any conce ivable surface ecross the slope. Although
Uie methods using the theory of elasticity or plasticity are also being increa'>ingly used , the most common
methods are based on llmning equilibrium in which it is assumed lhat the soil is at the verge of failure. The
methods of limiting equilibri um ere statically indeterminate. As Ihc stress-stra in relationships along the
assumed surface arc 001 known, it is necessary 10 make assumptions so that the sys tem beco mes statically
determin ate and it can be analysed eas ily using the equations of equilib rium . Th e following assumptions are
generally made.
(1) The stress system is assumed to be two-dimensiona l, The stresses in the third direction
(perpendicular to tbe section of the soil mass) are taken as zero .
(2) It is assumed that the Coulomb equation for shear strength is applicable and the strength parameters
e and 4'are known.
(3) It is furthe r ass umed that the see page cond itions and water levels are known, and the correspo nding
pore wate r pressure can be estima ted .
(4) Th e co nditions of plastic failure are assumed to be satisfied along the critical su rface. In o ther w ords,
the shearing strains at all points of Lhecritical surface are large enough to mobilise all the available
shea r strength.
(5) Depe nding upo n the method of analysis, some additional essumpocos are made regarding the
magni tude and distribution of forces along va rious planes.
In the ana lysis, the resul tant of all the act uating forces trying to cause the failure is determined. An
estimate is also made of the ava ilable shear strength. The facto r of safet y of the slope is dete rmined from the
available resisting forces and the act uating forces.

18.J. DIFFE RENT DEFINmONS OF FACTORS OF SAn:IY

Three different definitions of the factor of safe ly are used.
(1I) Factor of sa fety wllh respect to shea r strength
In co mmon usage, the factor of safe ty is defined as the ratio of the shear stre ngth to the shear stress
along the surface of failure. Th e factor of safety as defi ned above is known as the factor of safety with
respect to shear strength.

Thus . .. (lS.I)

where F, = factor =
of safet y with respect to shea r strength, s shea r stre ngth,
t' ", = mo bil ised shear strength (equal to applied shear stress ).
Bq. 18.1 can be written in terms of the cohesion intercept and the angle of shear resistance as
F,.~ ... (IS .2)
c.. + alan ...
where e.. '" mobilised cohesion, +.. '" mob ilised angle of shea r resistance, (j = effective pressure.
Rearra nging Eq. 18.2,
442 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

-F; + a~~ 41_ e".'" olan ,,,,

Therefore. c". - c/F, (18.3)
and Ian +••
Ian +/F, (18.4)
Eqs. 18.3 and 18.4 indicate that the factor of safely with respect to the cohesion intercept and that with
respect to the angle of shearing resistance arc equal to the factor of safety with respect to lhe shear stre ngth.
(b) Factor of safety with respect to cohesion
The recto- of safety with respect 10 cohesion (F..) is lhc ratio of the available cohesio n intercept (e) and
the mobilised cohesion intercept.

Thus ... (18.5)

where c = cohesion intercept, ClIO = mobilised cohesion intercept,

F.. = factor of safely with respect to conestee.
(e) Fact or of sa fely wllh respect to friction
1be factor of safety with respect to frictio n is the ratio of the available frictional stre ngth to the mobilised
frictional strength. Thus

F. - :t~nnlp~
F• • t~n:... •. .(18.6)

where F. :: factor of safety with respect to friction , • = angle of shearing resistance,

'''' = angle of mobilisedshearing resistance.
For small angles, Eq. 18.6 QlO be expressed as
F• • 1- ...([18.6(a)]
t.
In the analysis of stability of Slopes. generally the three factors of safety are taken equal, te:
F. - F~ - Ft. However, sometimes when greater reliance is placed on the parameter 41 than the parameter c,
the facto r of safely with respect to co hesion is taken grea ter than that with respect to friction. In such a case,
the factor of safely with respect to friction is usually taken as unity Le. +'" - ,.
18.4. lYrES OF SLOPE FAILURES
A Slope may have anyone of the following types of failures .
(1) Rotation ul fa ilure . This type of failure occ urs by rotation along a slip surface by downward and
ou tward move ment of the soil mass (Fig. 18.2). The slip surfa ce is ge nerally circular for homogeneous soil
cooditions and non-circular in case of non- homogeneous conditions. Rotational Slips are further divided into
3 types.
(a) Toe failure . in whic h the failure occurs along the surface thai passes through the tee {Fig. 18.2 (a»).
(b) Slope failure, in which the failure occurs along a surface that intersects the slope above the toe [Fig.
18.2 (b)J.
(e) Base failure , in which the failure surface passes below the toe [Fig. 18.2 (c» .
The slope failure occurs when a weak: plane exists above the toe. 1be base failure occurs when a weak
stratu m lies beneath Ihe toe. If a strong stratum exists below the toe, the slip surface of the base failure is
tange ntial 10 that stratum. In all other cases. the failures are generally toe failures. Toe failures are most
com mon.
(2) ThanslaUo na l Failure. A consta nt slope of unlimited extent and having uniform soil properties at ee
 srxnnrrv or SLOPES 443

{c) Bose tenu re

Fig. 18.2 Rotational Perture.

same depth below the free surface is known as an infinite slope. In practice, the slopes which arc of
#~ =~ii~O:I:rce~:~n~~~ ~ :~~~e t:~~ditiOnS on all verticals are adequately represented by average

Fig. 183. Translatlonal Failure.

Translational failure occurs in an infinite slope along a long failure surface parallel to the slope (Fig.
18.3). The shape of tbc failure surface is influenced by the prcscn~ of any hanl stratum at a shallow depLh
below the slope surface. Translational failures may also occur along slopes of layered materials.
(3) Compound Failure. A compound failure is a combination of the rotational slips and the translational
slip (Fig. 18.4). A compound failure surface is curved al the two ends and plane in the middle portion. A
compound failure generally occurs when a hard stratum exists at considerable depth below the toe.

Fig. 18.4. Compound Failure.

(4) Wedge Failure. A failure along an inclined plane is known as plane failure or wedge failure or block
failure (Fig. 18.5). It occurs wben distinct blocks and wedges of the soil mass become separated.
A plane failure is similar 10 translational failure is many respects. However, unlike translational failure
which occurs in 2Il infinite slope, a plane failure may occur even in a finite slope consisting of two different
materials or in a homogeneous slope having cracks, fissures, joints or any ot.berspecific plane of weakness.
(5) MiK-elhlDeoUSFailures . In addition to above four types of failures, some complex types of failures
444 SO IL MEC HANI CS AN D FOUN DATION E NGINEERING

PLANE OF WEAKNESS

~
::;;~
Fig. 18.5. Wedge Failure.
in the fonn of spreads and flows may also occurs.
18.5. STADllX1Y or AN INFINITE SLOPE OF CO HESIONL ESS SOI LS
The stability criteria of an infinite slope of cohesiooless soils will depend whether the soil is dry, or
submerged or has steady seepage, as explained below.
(1) Dry Soli. Fig. 18.6 (a) shows a section of an infinite slope having a slope engle of i: Let us ronsider
the prism ABeD of the soil. with the inclined length AB equal to b. The horizontal length of the prism is b
cos L The height of the prism is 11 (Fig. 18.6 (b» .

:rJC
. b
T? H

c 0 C
T"" Ca)

r -tnI C~) ~
"~.
o~ Cc)
0 s-

I'l g. 18.6. Infinile Slope in Of)' Sand.

Volume o f prism per unit lengt h _ Hb cos i
Weight of prism per unit length, W - 1 (lib cos r)
The weight of the prism can be resolved into the normal component N and tangential components T 10
plane CD.
 STABIurY OF SLOPES 44'
Th us N .. W oos i _ 1 lib CX)tS2 j
T .. Wsini .. y Jl b rosi sini
Tbe nonnaI and shear stresses are given by

a _ ~ _ Y Hb;:s2 i _ y ll cos 2 j (18.7)

1:" ~ _ Yfl b cr;isin i _ yHcosi sin i (18.8)

The shear stresses 1: tend to mu se the shear failure along CD. This tendency is opposed by the sheari ng
resistance developed along the plane CD. As the soil is dry, there is no pore water pressure .
Therefore, S - a tan.p' _ a tan .p'
s _ (y Hcos2 "tan , '
The factor of sa fety against shear failure is given by
F _!", (yHcos2 ,) tan t '
, 1: y H caii sin i

F, - ~
tan i ... (18.9)
Eq. 18.9 indica tes that the slope is just stable when " _ i. The factor of safet y is greater than unity when i
is less than , '. For the slope angl e i greater than (I", the slope is not stable.
It is worth noting that the factor of safety of an infinite slope of a ccheslontess soil is independent of the
heig ht H of the assumed failure prism.
The angle " in Eq. 18.9 should correspond 10 the actual relative density of the soil, As the soil in the
surface layers is in a relatively loose stale, the angle " corresponding to the loose state is generally taken.
Eq. 18.9 can be represen ted graphically [Fig. 18.6 (c)] . The ordinat e PQ is equal 10 a tan . ' and
represents the shear strength. 1be o rdinate P i Q represe nts the shear stress 1: equal to a tan i: Obviously, the:
facto r of safety is given by

F, _~ .. ~_~
(2) Submerged Slope. If the slope is submerged unde r water, the normal effective stress and the shear
stress are ca lculated using the submerged unit weigh t and oot the bulk unit weight as was used for dry so il.
Thus, from Eqs. 18.7 and 18.8.
o _r' Jl ros 2 i (18. 10)
and 1: _ l 'Jlsinirosi (18.11)
where y' is the submerged unit weigh t.
J~ Theref ore. the factor of safely is given by
F _ !. _ (y' J1ros 2 ,) tan +'
, 1: l ' Hsinirosi

F, • ~ .. .(18.12)
Comparin g Eqs. 18.9 and 18.12, it is observed that the: factor of safety of a submerged slope is the same
as that in dry conditi on.
(3) Steady Seepage along the slope. Fig. 18.7 (a) shows an infinite slope with steady seepage parallel
to the surface. Fig. 18.7 (b) sho ws a free-body d iagram ofthe prism ABCD of the so il. The forces acting on
the vertical s ides of the prism due to water and so il are equa l and opposite and , therefore. cancel. The weight
of the prism W is taken correspondin g to the satu rated conditions.
446 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

Therefore. w; y,.. Hb cce i

H e WCX'Lii_y_ IIbcas2 i
T .. W sini . y,." I1 b sin i oos ;
At the base o f the prism , there is an upward force duc
to water pressure (u). g iven by
u .. ywll cai2 ;
Uplift force , U .. (YwllCUi 2l)b
Th us. the net norm al force N is given by
N .N - U - y_Hbca.2 ; - (ywlfcos2 ,) b
or N _ 't'blf cos 2 t. where y' is submerged unit weight.
The e ffect ive stress is given by nnw
(j .. ~. y' Il ca. 2
j ll~
Shear strength, s - (j tan 4" - y' II cos i tan "
2 ,"
The shear stress is given by
't . f. y,.. lI sin; ros;
Fig. 18.7. Sleady Seepage along the Slope.

The refore, the factor of safety is given by

F,.,!.., y' 1I ~2;. tan ~'
't y,.. H SIO I cos I

F.=~
y"" tan I
••.(18.13)

As the submerged unit weight y' is about o ne-hal f of the saturated unit weigh t, the factor of sa fety of the
slope is red uced to about one-half of that corresponding to the condi tion w hen there is no seepage. 1be angle
" in the wet cond ition of a cohesionless soil is approximately the same as in dry condi tion .
18.6. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF AN INFINITE SLOPE OF COHESIVE SOILS
The stab ility analysis of an infmite slo pe of cohesiv e soils is similar to tha t. in the case of cohesicn tess
soils, with one basic difference that the shear strength of a cohesiv e (c - , so il) is given by
$ . c' + otan,'
(a) Dry Soil. Taking values oCo and 'r from Eqs. 18.7 and 18.8. we have
s _ c' + (y 110062,) tan +'
't -lHros; sini
Therefore , the factor of safety F, is given by
2
F _ c' + (yHcos ') tan t '
.•. ( 18.14)
, l l1 cos i CX'Lii
Thus, the factor ' of safety of an infinite slope in cohes ive soils depe nds not onl y on .' and i but also 00
y,lI and c'.
Fig. 18.8 represents a graphical method for the detennination o f the factor of safet y. Tbe line RP2
represents the failu re envelope . Whe n the slope angle; is less than " , the Slope is always saf e as shown by
lintfOP I • When the slope angle ;2 is greater than .', the slope line cuts lhe failure envelope. At point P, the
slope is just stable. For normal stress greater than (hat indicated by point P, the shear stress is greater than
STABIUfY OF SLOPES 447

the shear strength a nd the slope is not stable .

k; the normal stress 0 depends upon the
beight II of the slope, an expression for Ihe height
can be found when the slope is j ust stab le.
Therefore, equat ing the shear stress and the shear
stre ngth ccerespoodtng to point P,
y lloos ;si ni _ c' + y lf oos2it:.mcp'

yll rosz.(Sin i; -
cos
I t:.mcp' ) - c'
II _ c'
y(tani - tancp')ros 2 ;
The height at which the Slope is just stable is
known as the criti cal height (II~). Th us
Fig. 18.8. Infi nite Slope in Cohesive Soils.
lIt _ e' ... (18.15)
y (tan; - tan cp') oos2 i
For heights less tha n the critical height, the factor of safety is given by Bq, 18.14.
(b) Submerged Slope
As in the case of cohesionless soils. the normal and tangential components of the weight are taken for
submerg ed unit weights and not for bulk unit weig hts. Th us. from Eq. 18.14,
F _ c' + y' llcos 2 i1an p '
... (18.16)
• y' llcos isi n i
The va lue o f " in Eq. 18.16 shou ld be taken rorrespofld ing 10 the sub merged conditions, which may be
quite different from thai in dry cond ition in case of cohesive soils.

(e) Stead y Seepage along the Slope

The case is similar to tha t for a cobcslontess soi l. In this case, the factor of safety is given by
c' + 1 ' lloos 2 i tan q/
F, - y,,,,lfcosi sin i .. ( 18.17)
Th e cri tical height is obtai ned co rresponding to a factor of safety of unity. Th us
e' + y' lI , cos2 i tancp' - y,.. H,oosisini
II~ cos2 i (y,,,,tan i - Y'tan cp') _ c'

II _ c' (18 8
t (y.... lan i -y'lan<p') ~ i . . . . 1)
Sometimes, Eq. 18.18 is wrinen as

If, - ~' .. . (18.19)

7_ [tan i- (t) tan.' ]"'" i

Eq. 18.19 indica tes that the effect o f the angle of shearing res istance q.' is redu ced as compa red wi th Bq.
18.15 o f the dry soil.
18.7. WEDGE FAILURE
A wedge failure occurs when a soil deposit has a specific plane of weakness. 1be stratified deposits
generally fail along the interlace . Fig. 18.9 shows a so il mass resting on an inclined layer of impcnneable
soil. There is a tendency of the upper mass 10 slide down ward along the plane of con tact AB.
 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 18.9.
l h e force trying to cause sliding is the tang ential com ponent T of the weight (W) alo ng the p lane of
contact.
T-W~na ...~
where a is the angle which the plane AB makes with horizontal , W is the weight of wedge per unit length
perpendicular to the plane of paper.
The force tending to resist the sliding depe nds upon the cohesion c and the frictional force and is given
by
S - cL + (wcos cj tao e ...(b)
where L is the lengt h of (he failure surface AB.
The factor of safety against sliding is oor..ained from (a) and (b) as
F _ c L + (Wc:oo a ) lan ep
.. .(18.20)
, W sm a

18.8. C UL MAN N' S ME'I1IOD

Cu lmann's method is used for the approximate stability analysis of homogeneous slopes. A plane failure
surface pass ing through the toe is assumed. A plane failure surface is DOt a correct assumption for a
homogeneous soil However, it is a simple failure mechanism and is described for purpose of illustration arx1
for determ inatioo of the approximate val ue of the factor of safety.
Let us consi der the equilibri um o f the triangul ar wedge ABD formed by the assu med failure su rface AB
(Fig. 18.10) The wed ge is in equilibrium under the three forces :

,~m ~c
R ~~()~lt<f>
<90 - <)

" W

(0< - ....)

Fig. 18.10.
( 1) Weight of the wedge (W).
(2) Cohesive force (C) along the surface AB.
(3) Reaction R. The reaction R is inclined at angle f_ to the oonnaL
The triangle of forces is also shown in figure. 1be magni tude and direction of Wand C are known . The
direct ion of R is also know n. The weight of the wedge is give n by
SfABIUIT OF SLOP£S 449

1
W -Z1L (If) . (.l - a)
sin ; slO ...(0)

and C _ c",L

where H = height of slope . c'" = mobilised cohesion. 4'.. = angle of mobilised friction,
and L = length of failure surface AB.
[Note. Area of a triangle ADD = ~ d b sin A where d and b are the length of sides DA and AD,
respecuvely.]
C s in (a - +.) sin(a -4'.J
From the Jaw of sines, ...(e)
W -sin(,,, +'X)O) - ~

Substi tuting the val ues of Wand C from Eqs. (a) and (b) in Eq. (c).
e. L sin (a - , .. )
. ..(d)
1I 2y L (H/sin l) sin (i - a) - ~

or (~) - t coseci sin (i - a) sin (a -.pm) scc4'm .(18.21)

The kft -hand side of Eq. 18.21 is known as the stability number (5,,). The most dange rous plane is that
for which the angle a is such that the stability number becom es a maximum; Le..
d (S. ) _ 0
da
t [sin (i - a) sin (a - 'fl. )] - 0

sin(i - a) cos (a - .pm) - sin (a - $",) cos (i - a) - 0

Ian (i - a) _ Ian (a -,,,,)
; -a-a-.p.
(i + t .)
a,.--2- •..(e)

where c, is the critical slope angle.

From Eqs. 18.21, taking the value of ~ from Bq, (e).

1 .
- 2'coscc t sec t. SUl. (i-t_) .(i-t.)
- 2- sin - 2-

- i1 rosec .
I sec . ...
[ i - ws (i -
2
t..> 1

(Yiic. )...... - 1-ws(i-t..>

(4 sin i cos 4'..)
...(18.22)

( 4c",sin;cos.p",
.. .[18.22(0)]
I 'y[1-ws (l -t.)J
where H is the safe height of slope .
The Culmann method gives reasonably accurate results for homogeneous slopes which are vertical 0(
450 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

nearly vertical, The critical surface foc general slopes is rl()( a plane and. therefore . the crit ical s lope: u, has
linle practical use for such slopes.

18.'. , . - 0 ANALYSIS
In case: of fully saturated clay under undrained conditions. the stability of the slope can be cbecced in
terms of total stresses. Such a condition occurs in slopes immediately after constroction. In this case. 4'.. :::: 0
and c e c....
Tne failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc AB (Fig. 18.11). TIle figure shows a failure surface
with centre 0 and radius r (i.e. DB ::: OA = r).

Flg.18.11.
The total weight W above the failure surface causes instability. For equilibrium, the shear stre ngth to be
mobilised along the failure surface can be expressed as

~~.~-~
where F is the factor of safety.
Taking moments about 0.
Wx s ; (c'/F)L..r ... (18.23)
where Lt> is the length of arc AB and d is the lever arm of W about O.
F _ c"L Q ,
Thus ••.[18.23(a)]
W. d
If a tension crack develops and water enters the crock, the hydrostatic pressure force P w acts on the
portion Be of the arc at a height of hl3 from C, where h is the dep th of tension crack. equal to 2 c'/'Y (see
chapter 19). The arc length in that case should be taken equal to AG. Eq. 18.23 may be modified accordingly.
18.10. FRJcnON CIRCLE METIIOD
1be friction circle mclhod is useful for the stability analysis of slopes made of homogeneous soils. In this
method, the slip surface is assumed to be an arc of a circle.
(a) Dry Soil
Fig . 18.11 shows a circular failure surface ABC of radi~ r with its centre at O. The three forces acting
on the sliding wedge AERD are given below :
(1) Weight (W) of the sliding wedge.
(2) Cohesive force C devel oped along the slip surface AED.
(3) Reaction R on the Slip surface.
STABIUfY OF SLDPES 451

The reaction R is inclinCd at ang le +.. to the normal to the slip surface. As the dircaion of the normal
changes. the direction of R ajso changes . With tbe centre as 0, (I small circle, known as [riclion circle, is
drawn with a rudius r sin . .... All lines wh ich arc tangent 10 the friction circle make an angle 41.. with the
nonnal of the slip surface. These lines represe nt the direction of the combined normal and mobilised frictional
forces on lhe slip surface. The value of +... is obtained from Bq. 18.6, alter choosing a value of F.. Th us the
reaction R is tangential to the fric tion circ le.
[Note. Actuall y, the reac tion R is tangentia l to the friction circle of a slig htly larger radius of K r sin
'm. where K is a factor with a valu e grea ter than unity, as it is evident lhl:lt the two reactions dH [Fig. 18.12
(0)] intersect sligh tly outside the friction circle of radiu s r sin qJ",. Howcv e], this discrepancy is generally
disregarded).
The cohesive force C". is equa l to c'" L", where c,.. is the mob ilised cohesion and L", is the length of the
circular surface arc. It is conv enien t to replace this fo rce acting along the arc by an equivale nt force C acting
along a line. The force aloog arc AEB is also equal in magnitude 10 the force c'" )( L e where L, is the length
of the chord AB. TIle line of action of this force can be dc tennined by taking moments of the actual force
and the equivalen t force about O.
(L e )( c,..) )( a • (c,.. )( L.J )( r
L.
a .. r r; ... (18.24)
Obviously, the distance 0 is greater than r as L", > Le.
The intersect ion of the weig ht IV and the cohesive force C", establishes a po int P through whictl the

,., (b)

~~
.'
". '
o F.
,,'
Fig. 18.12. Friction Circle Melhod.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

rcacnon R must act. The direction of R is ci"ltained by drawing a line tangential to !.he e-circie. The forces
e", and R C3n be determined from the force triangle.
Fig. 18.12 (b) shows the force triangle. The weigh t vector IV is drawn first. The triangle is completed by
drawing the vectors R and Cm along the directions already established. From the force triangle, the value of
the cohesive force em is determined. 111e mobi lised cohesion is equal 10 the cohesive force Cm divided by the
length of the chord L r • Th us
c. ...(18.25)
e", - Y;
The factor of safety with respect 10 cohesion is given by Eq. 18.5.
If the value of Fe obtained from Eq. 18.5 is not equal ( 0 the assumed value of F.. the analysis is
repeated. The procedure is repeated after taking another trial surface. 1be slip circle which gives the
minimum factor of safety (FI) is the most critical circle. Generally. the analysis is repeated 3-4 limes to
obtain a curve between the assumed value of F. and the compncd value of F... as show n in fig. 18.12 (c).
The factor of safety with respect to shear strength F I is obtained by draw ing a line at 45°, which gives
r, • F• • F•.
For u purely cohesive soil. $ = 0 and the friction circle reduces 10 3 point The factor of safely is
determined from the resisting moment due to C 300 actuating moment due to W (Sec Sect. 18.9) .
Sometimes , the factor of safery with respect to friction (F,> is assumed to be unity and the factor of
safety with respect to only cohesion is obtained . .
(b) Submerged slope
The above discuss ion refers 10 intergranular (effective) forces only. If the soil is dry and there is no
submergence . the dry unit weights are considered. U the soil is submerged, the submerged unit weight is used
when calculating the weight of the wedge (lV) . The neutral forces acting on the wedge are given below:
(1) Neutral part of the weight, W.. • V'i", where V is the volume of the wedge.
(2) water pressure (lI) acting on the slope AD.
(3) Resultant water pressure (Us) acting on the curved surface AER.
The three neutral forces are in equilibrium among themselves and do oot draw upon the shear strength ()(
the soil
(c) Sudden drawdown cond iUons
When the water standing on the slope AD is suddenly and quickly remov ed, the water pressure force (U)
disappears. However. if there is no time for drainage to occur from the soil in the slope, the soil remains
submerged as before and the neutral part of the weight (W,,) is still acting. Thus, the equilibrium of the neutral
forces is disturbed. although the equilibrium of the tntergranutar forces remains unaffected .
'!11C equilibrium of the neutral forces C3n be maintained only if the soil can mobilise additional cohesion
(c..) such thai the addit ional cohesive force c.. I..., the neutral part of the weig ht (W..) 300 the new resultant
water pressure (Us) are in equilibrium. 1be additional cohesion can be determ ined by drawing another force
triangle::.
The total cohesion mobilised (c...· ) in this case is equal to the cohesion mobilised for Intergranular forces
and that for neutral forces.
c,.: - c.. + c.. ... (18.26)
The factor of safety with respect to cohesion is given by

.. .(18.27)

Thus the factor of safety of the slope is considerably reduced during sudden drawdown condit ions.
SfABlurY OF SU>PES 453

18.11. STABILITY CIIARTS

The stab ility number (5,,). as defmed in Sect. 18.8, is given by

s, .. ~ .. F~~ 11 . ..(18.28)

The reciprocal of the stability number is known as stability foetor: The stability number is a
dimensionless quan tity.
Taylor dctenn ined the values of S" for fmite slopes using the Crictioo circle method. Slopes that are of
simple sections and of bomogeoeces soils may be analysed using the slope stabili ty charts given by Taylor.
The charts are prepared indicating the stooili ty number , and slope angle i for various values of ql.. (Fig.
18.13). Then: are 5 paramet er. viz eM' y. JI, i and 'P... However. if +..
= 0 (purely cohesive soils). a sixth
0·35

UI ~ 0'3 0
"
U~I~ 0·25
VI

2
C
0·20

0.15
.'
~
:a 0·10
b'l 0·0

0.000 30 4Q 70 80 90
SLOPE
Fig. 18.13.
parameter Dr becomes also important (Fig. 18.14). The parameter Dr depends upon the deplh of the hard
stratum below the top of the slope, and is given by
Dr _ Depth of hard st~~;h~:~o:ot: top of the slope

When the slope is steep, the failure surface passes through the toe , whereas for the flatter slope. the
failure extends below the toe. The chart in Fig. 18.13 is based on the most critical circle passing through the
toe of the slope.
For slope angle i greater lhen 53°. the roe failure occu rs. For i s 53°. and small values of 19... a more
critical surface may pass hclow the Inc.
"Thechart in Fig. 18. 14 is applicable for~... = O. In soils with ~'"= 0 and the slope angle less than 53°.
the failure surface ex tends below the toe as deep as possib le. The stability number also depends upon the
parameter D
U... "

(1) The stability number can be used 10 determine the factor of sa fety of a given slope. For the known
values of i and 'P_ lhe value of stability number (S..) is determined from the chan in Fig. 18.13 (or Table
18. 1) and the factor of safely is determined es
454 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

F _ .!'... _ _ c - ... (18.29)

~ c", 5.yll
If ql", • 0, the chart in Fig. 18.14 (or Table 18.2) is used to determine the stability 00. (S.) for the given
val ues of i and Df" 1be chart can also be csed to determine the distance nH from the toe where the slip circle
cuts the horizontal line .

,•
c,
c.,
0.'
v;; 0.1 7
I." ')
8 ~~~ J--- 0 _
<=';3°

-.
~ ::: 'rc-P '
-, -
1/ X
~ \t?< n.l>1 ~~ »>
.: -- - I', 1/
~3

0. '

0.'
, /
' 1/ / ~:
[X -: -
,:'
----
0.'
I / 1.,7
~ 0 .1

0.' ;/ /
0.0
0 1,
, I , ,
0, - -

T-E...
1 '\"
T

Uw l u ll lin ll''' lo r Sn Us ," do sn"d li nn

ChOIn dotl"d lines lor n lo r Sn
Fig. 18.14. Stability Chart (t.. - 0).
(2) The stability cha rts can also be used to determine the steepes t slope for a given factor of safety. In
this case, the stability number is computed from the relation

S" - F ~H
For the computed valu e of S,. • the value of i is read from the stability chart for the given value of fm.
Tab les 18.1 and 18.2 give the values of stability numbers.
Thble 18.1. Stability Numbers (see Fig. UU3)

~- ....-
o-
0.261
s-
0 .239
1"
0 .218
tS-

0.199
20-

0.182
25-

0.166
75- 0 .219 0 .195 0.173 0 .152 0.134 0.117
0.191 0 .162 0 .138 0 .116 0.097 0.079
45- (0 .170) 0.136 0.108 0.083 0.062 0.044
30- (0 .156 ) (O.UO) 0.D75 0046 0.025 0 .009
IS" (0. 145) (0.068 ) 0.070 (0.023) - -
(Note. Figures In brackets are fot the mosr dangerous Circles through tbe toe whe n a more dangerous arde eXists
below the toe].
STABlUfY OF SLOPES
'"
Tabl e 18.2. Stabil ity Numben Cor Co hesive soi Lli (41. . . 0)
lind i :so 53 0 (see FIg. 18. 14)

~ 1.0 1.50 2.0 3.0 ~

,,"
.,. 0.181
0.164
0.181
0.174
0.181
0.177
0.181
0.180
0.181
0.181
W" 0.133 0.164 0.172 0.178 0.181
225 " 0.113 0.153 0.166 0.175 0.181
IS" 0.083 0.128 0.150 0.167 0.181
75" 0.054 0.080 0.107 0.140 0.181

The following points should be carefully noted.

(I) If the factor of safety with respect to friction F", is unity, +.... +.
(2) If the facto- of safety with respect to shear stren gth is required , a trial and error procedure is adopted.
A value of F. is assumed, and tbe value of +..
is used 10 detecmine Fe from the stability chart. If Fe is not
equal to assumed value of F.. another- value of F", is assumed and the procedure is repeated. AI. least 3-4 trials
are required to obtain a curve between f ", and F.. and 10 get the correcI value of Fe from the curve, as shown
in Fig. 18.12 (e).
(3) For a submerged slope, the stability number is computed using the submerged unit weigh t (y'). The
angle of shearing resistance should also be for the submerged cond itions .
(4) For a sudden drnwdown case, the stability number is computed using the saturated unit weight ("i~d)'
The weighted angle of internal friction as obtained below is used for fInding out the stabil ity number.

tan +•• .L ( _pi Ian q>') ...(18.30)

. y~.. •

or ~•• .L
y_
~•• .L
y,.
(£)
F.
..[18.3O(o)J

where . ' is the effective angle of internal friction.

(5) For purely fridional soils, the cohesio n intercept (e) is zero. As the stability number reduces to zero,
the stability charts cannot be used for such soils.
(6) The values of shear strength parameter (c and +) should be obtained from the tests conducted in the
laboratory simulatin g the drainage cond itions in the field. For example, for checking the stability of a slope
of cohesive soils just after the constructions, the relevant drainage coomions are unconsolidated undrained
conditions For long term stability, conso lidated drained conditions are relevant.
18.12. SWEDl sn CIR CLE w,.. UOD
The actual shape of a slip surface in tbe case of finite slopes is a.uvilinear. For conve nience, it is
approximated as circular. The asswnpc.ioo of a circu lar slip surface and its app1icationfor stability analysis of
Slopes was developed in Sweden . The melhod is known as the Swedish circle method or the melhod of slices.
Pig. 18.15 (a) shows a slope. Let AB be a circular surface with radius r and centre O. The trial failure
wedge above the slip surface is divided into vertical slices by drawing vertical tines, as shown . The slices are
usually of equal width, but not necessarily so. In case of non-bomoge neous slopes where the slip surface
passes through more than one type of material, a vertica l line is always located at the point where the slip
surface passes from one material to the other.
Let us consider the equilib rium of one slice (say, No. 4). The slice is in equilibrium under the following
forces.
456 g)IL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERIN G

'0' 'b'
Fig. 18.1S. Swedis h Circle Melhods.
(1) Weight (W') acting vert ically through its centre of gravity .
(2) Cohesi ve force (C) acting along the curved surface in the direction oppos ite to the direction of
probable movement of the wedge.
(3) Reaction (R) at the base inclined at angle 4' 10 the normal, assumin g the slippage is imminent.
(4) Reactions 00 lhe two verti cal sides of the slice due 10 adjacen t slices. Howeve r, in the Swedish circle
method, it is assumed tha i lhe rcectloes on the two sides are equal and opposite and are. therefore,
in equ ilibrium and do not affect the stability of the slice. Accordingly, only the first three forces are
conside red for the anal ysis.
The weight W is resolved into its norma l component (N) and tangential corn pooent (1). Let us take the
moments about the centre of rotation 0 of all the 3 forces.
Actuating or overt urning moment, M o - T x r ...(a)
The moment due to N-eomponenlS is zero, as those components always pass through O.
Resisting moment, M R _ (C AL) x r + R (r sin lfl) •••(b)
where tiL is the length of the curved surface of the slice.
Resolving the forces is radial direction.
N-Rcos4l or R _Nloos+ ... (c)
R sin+. Hem. ...(d)
From Eqs. (b) and (d). M R - (C A L ) r + Nrtan. ...(e)
The factor of safety for the slice is equal to the ratio of the resisting moment (M,J and the ove nu ming
momen t (M o). Th us
F _ r[ch.L + N tantl _ c h.L + Nlant
, Tr T
The facto r of sa fety of the enti re wedge is given by
F, _ 1: c tiL ;T1: Ntant ... (183 1)
srxunrrv OF SLO PES 45'

cLtJ+ tan~IN
If c and +are constan t, F, - ~T ... 18.32)

where L" = length of the entire slip surface _ I /1 L

The components N and T are determinei by drawing force triangles as shown in Fig. 18.15 (b). If the
angle a which the normal makes with the vertical ti measured, the compone nts can be compet ed as under.
N -Wrosa,. aod T -Wsin o.
lbe length tiL of the arc is given by b sec a. where b i\ the width of the slice.
Therefore . Eq. 18.31 can be writ ten as
F. _ 1: c b seca;;s<:~ a) tao • ... (18.33)
II may be noted that the tangential component T may be negative Leo in the direction opposite to lhat of
movement for some of the slices near the IDe.
The procedure can be summarised as under :
(I) lake a trial wedge and divide it into 6 to 12 vertical slices.
(2) Determine the weight of each slice and its line of action .
For convenience, the weight is generally taken proportimal lo the middle ordinate of the slice and it is
assumed to have line of its action through the middl e of the slice.
(3) The weigh! is resolved (analytically or grapb.ically) into normal and tangentia l ccnpceeras.
(4) The OJrvW length tiL of each slice is measured or computed.
(5) The factor of safely is determined from Eq. 18.33 or Eq. 18.3l.
1be c:akulations are generally done in a tabular form. 1be stabili ty analysis is repealed for a number of
trial surfaces. The circle which gives the minimum factor of safety is the most critical circle .
Loca Uon or M O&. Critical Ci rc le
In order to reduce the number of trials lo locale the most aitical circ le. the FeUenius line AB can be
draw n (Fig. 18.16). Fellenius has show n that the centre of the most critical circle lies on this line. For
drawing the FtUenius line AB. the point B is located at a depth II and at a distance 4.5 If from point P at
the toe of the Slope. where JI is the height of the slope . The point A is loca ted by drawing two lines PA and
QA. where PA makes angle a with the slope line PQ and QA makes angle ~ with the horizo ntal at Q. The
angles a and P are obtained from the table given in Fig. 18.16. The angles depend upon the slope.
The centre of the most cri tical circle may lie anywhere on the line AB or its extension. The centres of

Stope

,,'

Fig. 18 .16. Fclleniua Une.

4'" SOIL M ECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

trial circles are taken or. this line show n as 0", 0 and 0 '. The factors o f sa fety obtained whe n these were the
trial centres are generally plotted a'O, normals to the line AB lo obtai n a cu rve of F•. The centre cxxrcsponding
10 the minimum factor of safety indicates the most critical circle .
For a purely cohesive soil <+ - 0), the point A itself represen ts the: centre of most critical circle.
The Swedish circle method is a general melhod of slope stability analysis. It ca n be used for coo-
homogeneous soil masses, stratified deposits. fully submerged or partl y sub merged conditions. The method is
also applicable when seepage occurs and pore ~ develops in the soil messes. as explained later.
However, the method is necessarilyan approximate one. as it neglects the effect of forces ring on the
sides of the vertical strips. Forunately. the method errs on the saf e side. ie: the faaor o f safety .b tained is
generally less than that obtained from the more accurate methods. seen as Bishop's method, whim also
ronsidcr lhe forces o n the sides of the vertical strips.
Use of N·C une an d T-C urv e
The values of VI and I T in Eq. 18.31 can also be dete nn ined by drawin g N and T curves. The sector
AnD (Fig. 18.17) has bee n divided into 6 slices having equal width . The weight W of eac h slice is
proportional 10 its centra l ordinat e (Le. height at mid-w idth), shown dotted . The weight of each slice is

Fig. 18.17. N and TcUl'o'~.

resolved graphically into nonnal and tangential componen ts by drawing a normal 10 the slip circle..Ihrough the
po int where the cent ral ord inate of the slice intersects the circle, and draw ing the force triangles (sbo\l.rn
doucd) .
A horizontal base line is selected and N components of the various slices are pkKled dirccI.ly below the
vc:rticaI lines of the seaor. The extremities are jo ined by a smooth curv e, and thus N-QJTVe is obtain ed .
Likewise, T-cerve is obtai ned . II may be noted that Tl'·r om ponc:nt in this case is negative and plotted below
the base.
Now TN • AN x Y ... (18.34)
where A...· = area of the N-diagram (m1. y = unit weight of soil.
STABILITY O F SLOPES 459

Likewise, 'L.T• AT x 1 ... (18.35)

[Note. If AN and AT are measured in an z, they are multiplied by 2 where x is the scale (1 em = .x
metres)].
The areas AN and AT can be measured by' means of a planimeter or by using a graph paper.

Use or Rectangu lar Plot

Prof. Alam Singh (1962) devised a simple method for determination of J:N and 1:T without using a
planimeter. Let Zl. Z20 '" Zs be the end ordinates of the 6 slices shown in Fig. 18.17 (a). Let b the width of
each slice. The total weight 1:W of the sliding wedge may be written as

+- z
.)+ (Z.- 2+Z-s) + (Z-s2+- 0)]
IW .by [( -02+- Zl) + (Z
- l+
2Z-,) + (Z,
- +2Z,
- ) + (Z
-,2

or I W .. by [ZI -+ Z2 -+ Z3 -+ Z4 -+ Zs] ... ( 18.36)

If the last slice is of smaller width equal to m x b, the above expression L~ modified as

1: W .. by [ ZI + Z2 -+ Z3 + Z4 + ( ¥) Zs ] .. .(18.37)

The value of 1:W can be determined by drawing a rectangular plot of width b and having boundary
ordinates Z 10 Zz ••• etc. as abscissae. In the case of last slice being of width mh, the last ordinate is multiplied
by (1 + m)/2 before plotting. The area of the diagram is proportional to 'L.W.
If the vertical ordinates are resolved along the normal and tangential directions, the N.components and
Tcomponents are obtained. Tbe rectangular plot of N-components is then drawn, laking the width of the plot
equal to the width b of the slice [Fig. 18.18 (b)]. The normal components N I , N 20 etc. are plotted as abscissae.
Likewise, the rectangular plot of T-components is drawn. In T-plot, as Tt component is negative. it is
plotted in the opposite direction. The net area of T- plot is shown hatched [Fig. 18.18 (e)]. The values of

b
(S)

1<. I ':t'
I ' 's' ,>
1 »"-"",

'16z' :,". 1\ Z"t '\" ..

" ~r'Nz
•
~t' 0~ L.>{;
T2 -"I'!

--l N, t-N2 - - t - ~~--f-- NC ........ Ns~

II (b)
r"-~O'

~
I~'-T-PLoT (d ......,I- T, (NEGATIVE)

Fig. 18.18. Rectangular Plots.

460 SOILMECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERlNG

1:N and IT are obtain ed using Eqs. 1834 and 18.35. where 'I is the unit weight and AN and A T are the areas
of the N·plot and T- plot, respectively.
lbc reaangular plot method greatly simplifies the calcatatioos for determinations of the areas of N and
T· diagrams. II may be noted that the weig hts in the rectangular plot are proportional to end ordinates. and
no t the mid-ordinates.
18.13. STAB1LflY OF SLOPE UNDER STEA DY SEEPA GE CONUmONS
lbc stability of slopes of an earth dam is investigated for the steady seepage coodinoes, sudden
drawdown conditions and during construClion conditK>ris. The steady seepage condition is coosi dceed in this
section. When lhe reservoir on the upstream of the dam is filled, water starts seep ing lhrough the dam . After
sometime, the steady seepage conditions arc established and a well-defined phreatic line is formed. The soil
below the phreatic line is saturated and subjected 10 pore water pressure.
On the upstream slope , the see page forces arc directed inwards and hence: tend La increase the stability.
However, on the down-stream Slope. the direction of the seepage forces is such that they decrease (be
stability. TIle steady seepage condition is, therefore, cri tical for the downs tream slope of an ea rth dam. Fig.
18.19 (a) shows the downs tream slope of an ea rth da m prov ided w ith a horizontal filter 81 its toe. The now
net is draw n using the methods discussed in Chapter 9.
The boundary pore pressures acting on the slip surface are obtained from the flow net. Fig. 18.19 (b)
shows the enlarged view . The pore pressure u l at pci nt-t where the first equlpoeential Ilne (h/9) cuts the slip
surface is equal to the vert ical dis tance between the point-I and the point P where the equipot entia l line
intersects the phrea tic line As the pore press ure acts norma l to the surface. a line eq ual to Uj is draw n normal
to the slip surfa ce al point -I . Likewise, the pore pressure u2 at polnt-z is found . The port pressure diagram
is then drawn joining the extremities of all these lines. 1bc pore pressure diagram is shown hatched in Fig.
18.19 (b). Eq. 1832 can be used to determine the factor of safety . However, in this case the total weight of
the slice is due to bulk\.u nil weight above the pbreeuc line and the saturated un it we ight below the phreatic
line. Th e N-compo nent of the weigh t is reduced due (0 pore pressure belo w the phrea tic line . Therefore.
o

..
8h

(b) EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES

Fig. 18.19. Steady Seepage Conditions.

 SfABIUry OF SLOPES 461

F _ cia + tan:: (N - U) ... (19.38)

where W is obtained from the area of the pore pressure diagram using a plaimctcr or by rectangular plot
method. It represents the total force due to pore pressure .
Alternatively, Eq. 1838 can be written as
F, _ 1: c !J.i + 1:I;U]: - un tan . ...(18.39)
where u is the average pore peesscre 00 the slice and I is the curved length of the base of the slice.
(Note.I-!J.L - bseca).
18.14. STABILITY OF SLOI'E UNDER SUDDEN DltAWDOWN CONDmONS
The critical condition for the stability of the upstream slope of an earth dam is when there is a sudden
dmwdown in the reservoir upstre..'lm. If the soil is of low permeability, no appreciable change in the saturation
level inside the slope takes place when the reservoir level goes down. The weight of water which is still
present in the soil tends to cause sliding of the wedge, as the water pressure which was acting on the
upstream slope to balance this weight has been suddenly removed. According to another interpretation, the
shearing resistance of the soil is considerably reduced due to pore pressure existing in the soil, whereas the
disturbing force due to saturated weight of the soil remains the same .
1be flow net for the sudden dmwdown condition can be drawn using the electri cal analogy method
(Chap. 9). and the pore pressur e acting on the base of the various slices detecmined . The stDbility of the slope
is investigated using Bq. 18.38 or Bq, 18.39. However, the method is not convenien t.

Fig. 18.1£1.
The pore water pressure (u) can also be estima ted using Skempton pore pressure coefficients (Chapter
13). Fig. 18.20 shows the upstream slope of a dam. The pore-water pressure at any point I' before drawdowo

1
is given by
"" - l.(h + h. - h') .••(18.40)
where h = height of soil above P, h", = height of water column above P,
and h' = loss of head due to seepage, indicated by the equipotential line passing through P.
II is assumed that the total major principal stress (01) at P is due to the weight above.
When there in a drnwdown, the major principal stress decreases by
!J.01 - -l",h...
and the change in pore water pressure is given by
!J.u. O!J.o! - -Bl.h...
where B i<;; the overall pore pressure coeffi cient, related to coefficie nts A and B, as

Ii • B [ 1 - ( 1 - A) ( 1 - ~~)1 ...(18.41)
462 SOIL MECHANICS AND FO UN DATION ENGINEERING

Therefore. the pore water pressureat P immediately after drawdown is given by

u.~+Au.~~+~-~-i~~
or u • Y. [h + ho(1 - Ii) - h'J .. .(18.42)
The value of B is slightly greater than unity. A ccoservatlve value of 'jj equal to unity is generally taken .
Thus u • Y. [h - h'l ... (18.43)
Thus the pore water pressure u at various points on the slip surface is determ ined.
The factor of safety is then oblained from Eq. 18.39 .

Approximate method
An approximate alternative method for investigating the stability of the upstream slope under sudden
drawdown conditions is to consider the saturated unit weight of soil (or calculating the driving forces
(i.e. .I 1) and the submerged unit we ight for calculating tbe res isting forces (i .e. IN ') in Eq. 18.32.

Thus F, _ d . + ~~" ~ N ...( 18.44)

In other words, it is assumed thai the full pore pressure acts even after the druwdown and the soil is fully
saturated.
Below the drawdown level. es lhe water pressure on the slope is still acting. the submerged unit weight
is used for both the driving forces and the resisting forces. This is similar 10 the case of a submerged slope
as discussed in Sea. 18.5.
If the Slope material bas high coefficient of pcrmeeeility, it drains as fast as the reservoir level goes
down, tben both the driving and resisting forces are calculated using the bulk unit weight.
If the slope material is of medium permeability, the saturation line moves downward lit a rate depending
on the permeability of the soil. A series of flow nets can be drawn for different positions of saturation line
and the corresponding pore pressures detennined and the fador of safety is estimated.
18.15. STABILITY OF SLOPES DURING CONSTRUCTION
When an earth dam is buill of the soil of low permeability, excess pore pressures develop in the air and
water voids due to compaction carried out during oonstruaion or due to its own weight. Th e pore pressure
developed depends upon the placement water content , method of compaction, weight of the overlying layers
and the rate of dissipation of pore pressure during construction.
When the placement water content is more than the optimum and there is no proper drainage, initial pore
pressure at any point may be as high as 100 percent of the weights of the overlying layers . An estim ation of
initial pore ~ may be made using Bishop's method of predicting pore pressu re. Accord ing to wh ich, the
pore pressure (u) at any point can be written as
u-uo+.6.u . . .(a)
where Uo:: initial pore water pressure, and .6.u = change in pore water pressure .
In terms of the change in total major principal stress .6.01' Eq. (a) can be written as
u _ flo +B A.01
where B is the overall pore pressure coefficient.
The-increase in total major principa l stress A 0, is approximately equal to the fill pressure (yh). Thus
u - .. + Ii (y h) •.. (18.45)
As the soil is partially saturated when compacted, the initial pore water pressure (uo) is generally
negative. The actual values of Uo and B
depend upon the placement water content . For high water content ,
Uo may be zero. Thus
u _ Ii
(y h) .•. (18.46)
The value of B
in Eq. 18.46 must be thai corresponding to the stress cond ition in the dam . It can be
detennined from undrained triaxia l teste;o n compacted specimens with pore pressure: measurements.
STABILITY OF SLOPES 463

Altern ativ e method

TIle pore pressure during oonstruction can be de termined from Hilf' s equation :
ll. P. V.. . •.(18.47)
h~ V...

when: P.. := air pressu re in the voids of a soil mess after initial compaction (absolute pressure).
V. = vo lume of air after initial compaction, in percent,
V... = volume of wate r after initial compaction, in percent.
he "" Hen ry' s constant of so lubilit y of air in water by vol ume ( "" 0.02 at 20 0 q
and u = pore water pressure when the soil mass has been consolidated to complete saturation.
When the so il is not conso lidated to com plete saturation, the pore press ure can be determined using the
following equation:

... (18 .48)

where 6. = embankment co mpress ion, in percent , of the origina l total em bankm ent volum e.
A graph is gene rally plott ed betw een the effective stress 0 and the percent co nso lidation 6., from th e
results of conso lidation tests co nducted on the sampl es. The va lues of u are obt ained from Eq. 18.48 for
differe nt values of 6.. Th e total stress is give n by

A plOl is then mad e between the tota l stress 0 and the pore pressure u: This plot is used for the
detcnnination of pore pressures at various po ints in the dam during const ructi on from the values of the total
stressc, Ob viously. the lotal stress at any poin t in the dam is equal to the bulk: unit weight multiplied by the
depth of the soil above.

18.16. BISHOP'S SIMPUFIED MF:IllOD

The cooventional Swedish circle method (Sect. 18.11) satisfies only the overall moment equation of
equilibrium . It neglects the moment equilibrium of the individual slices. It also disregards the effect of the
forces acting 00 the sides of the individual slices and, therefore. only approximates the force equilibrium of
eachslice . Methods o f analysis which sausfy aU the equilibrium equations are complicated and 00l convenient
to use.
Bishop (195 5) gave a sim plified me thod of ana lys is wh ich consid ers lhe forces on the sides of each slice.
The requirem ent of equilibrium are applied to the slices. The factor of safety is defined as thc ratio of the
maximum shear stre ngth (s) possessed by soil on lhe trial su rface to the shearing resis tance mobilised (or",).
Thus F. - sit'", .•. (18.49)
The forces acting on L:IC slices lire given below [Fig . 18.2I(a)J.
(I) Weight of slice , W _ 't h b, where h is the ave rage height.
(2) Normal force on the base, N' - N - ul, where u is the pore pressure, and 1 is the length of the base
(=bsec a) .
(3) Shear force on the base. T • 't ,. I.
(4) Normal forces on the si des EI and E2.
(5) Shear forces on the s ides Xl and X2.
(6) Any external force acting on the slice.
The prd>lem is statically indeterminate. 1b solve the problem, a number of simplifying assumpdcos are
made regarding the interslice fOf'CCS Xb X2t E I andEz.
Fig. 18 .21 (b) shows a slope. laking moments aboul O.
ITT - I'W Tsina
 SOlI..MOCllANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGlNEERING

I- .-oj

~t "W t w
"\
~- '2 l ;buc<
H =H -Ul

ioc\t{;N-UI
,.,

Fig. 18.21.

DUI T -1:",l -f;X l

'Ibcrctoee, If; x 1 x T. IWx TX sin o.

or F•• I~S~~ • ICc'I +W~i~/')I

or F • I c'1 + t3n t ' IN' where N' . 01 .. .(1850)

• I Ws in a
Eq. 18.50 is exact. However; approximcuons are introduced in the determination of the normal
component N . In the oonvcntional Swedish circle mclhod, the resultant of irucr-sllcc forces is Inken as zero.
lbcrcfore , N' • !y COSa - ul

Thus, F• • c' LtI ... tanI.~~~:ro.sa - ul)

c' L. + tan+'E(N - U)
F,' ET (sameas Eq. 18.38)
In Bishop 's simplified method, it is assumed that the rc:sull8nt forces OIl the sides of the slice arc
horizontal, l.e.X1 - X2 .. O.
Resolving the forces in the vertical direction,
W. N'cos a + u/rosa + Tsino. + Xl - X 2

Substituting T .. f.; x I and Xl - X 2 .. 0, we have

W. N cos o. + ulcosa ... Cd' + ~tan+') sino.

W. Ncosu.+ ulcoso. + £j.:f sino. + !f;tan"sina

''Or N' (cas a + ¥- SinO. ) . W _ ul coso. _Cl:~n.a

SfADlurY Of' Sl.DPES "'5

lV- ul ros a - e' lsin a

F.
...(185 1)
rosa + ~ sin a

Substituting the above value of N' in Eq. 1S.50.

w_u/ = a_C'ISi.aj
~ c'I+ ""'.'~ [ cos o +
!"!!.£F.
F, sm c

LWsina

1 , tan$' (lVscc u - ul- -C'IUma

,- )
F- j
, - -. - L c b scca+ ,
LW s,ma
[ 1 + ton ¢IF~a n a

• __ 1_ ~ [{C'b"", a _ C' lta. ato~ "/F' } + to••' (wscc « - Ul) ]

1: lYSin a I + tan tF~an a I + tan ¢I~:~m a

1 [ { c' bseca(1 + tan a tan 4l'IF,) - c' bsccatanaT}.

- 1:Wsma )( 1: 1 ta0t'tan a
+ F,

'+ tan t' (lVscca - u b seca) ]

I + tan.~~na

• __ 1_ ~ [ c'bseca + tan+'(Wseca ubsec al ]

LlVsioa 1 + lant~~a 1 + tant;.~na

• _ 1_
1: W sin a
~ [I C'b + (w - ub)tan ~'1 soc a
1 + tan ¢l~~ana
1
~ J... [c'b + (W- ubl""'.']
m.
F, - .IWsina
.. .{l 852)

where m a = (1 + tan +' tan alF, ) cos a ...{IS53)

Sometimes, the pore pressureu is expressedin terms of pore pressu re ratio Til" In that case,
u _ r. y h _ T. (Wl b)
Eq. 1852 gives the factor of safety of !he ass umed failure surface . As the factor of safely (F,) appcas
on both the sides, a process of success ive approximation is required . A value o f F, is assumed and the
analysis is done. The value computed from Bq. 1852 is com pared with the assumed value . If the two values
466 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

differ; the process is repeated till convergence. As the convergence is rapid, only 34 trials arc required. A
computer may also be used.
The etfed ive stress analysis is generally done, but the total stress analysis is also possible. The factor of
safety determined by Bishop' s simplified method is an underestimate and, therefore. it errs on the safe side.
The error is generally less than 2% and not more than 7% even in an extreme case.
18.17. OTIIER METIIODS OF ANALYSIS
A number of investigators have developed different methods for the analysis of slopes. The methods are
similar in nature to the Bishop methods but differ in handling of interstice forces.
(1) Spencer (1967) assumed that the forces on the sides of the slices are parallel [Fig. 18.22 (a)]. The
method satisfies the requirementof equilibriumof forces and moments.
(2) Morgenstern and Price (1965) developed a method in which all boundary and equilibrium conditions
are satisfied. The analysis imposes normal and shear forces on the sides and also includes water pressu re
effects [Fig. 18.22 (b)] . The method satisfies the requirement of equil ibriu m of forces a nd mom ents which aCI
on a slice . The failure surface may be of any shape . .

,
{} ,
'1
'o!_U, , ~~=::l
1

x
_ _ ',

~ ~
'0) 'b )
Fig. 18.22:
The soil mass above the failure surface is divided into sections by a number of vertical planes . The
problem is made statically determinate by ass uming a relationship between the forces E and X on the vertica l
sides, as .
x; ;' [ (x) £
where [(x) is an arbitrary function descri bing the pattern in which the ratio XIE varies across the soil. The
value of the scale factor ).. is obtained as a part of the solution along with the factor o f safety.
The values of the forces E and X and the point of application of E can be determined at each vertical
boundary . For any assumed value of [( x), it is necessa ry to check that the solution is ph ysically reasonab le
and no shear failure or tension develop within the soil mass above the failure surface. As thc choice o f {(x)
does nOI influence the computed values of the facto r of safety by more than 5%, for convenience [ (x) is taken
as unity. The analysis involves a complex process of iteration for the values of ).. and F 6 • The usc of a
computer is essential. However, slope stability charts which simplify the solution have been develo ped for the
design office use.
(3) Bell (1968) deve loped a method in which all the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied. The so il mass
is divided into vertical slices. The failure surface may be of any shape . The statical det ermin acy is obta ined
by means of an assumed d istribution of normal stresses along the failure surface. The soil mass is co nsidered
as a free body, as in the case of the friction circle method.
(4) Cous ins (1978) developed charts which have application to a wide rang e of field probl ems. The charts
are quite convenient. as these deal in easily calculated parameters. Cousins charts are based upon the friction
SfABIut:Y OF SlDPES 467

circle method of analysis discussed earlier. However. the charts are for a general case. Tbese can be used fer
the evaluation of loog-rerm stabili ty analysis in terms of effea:ive stresses. Tbe charts can be used even in
case of tension cracks.
(5) Stab ilily charts for the analysis of earth dams und er sudden drawdown condi tions ha ve been
developed by Morgenst ern (1963).1be charts are based upon an effective stress analysis using the method of
slices.
18.18. IMPROVING STABILTIY O F SLO PES
The slopes which are suscepti ble to failure by slidin g can be improved and made usable and safe . Various
methods are used to stabilise the Slopes . The methods generally involv e one or more of the follo wing
measures, which either red uce the mass which may cause sliding or imp rove the shear strengt h of the soil in
the failure zone.
(1) Slope flattening reduces the weight of the mass tend ing to slide. It ca n be used wherever possible.
(2) Providing a berm below the toe of the Slope lncreeses the resistance to movement. It is specially
useful when there is a possibility of a base failure.
(3) Drainage helps in reducing the seepage forces and hence increases the stability. The zone of
subsurface water is lowered and infiltration of the surface water is prevented.
(4) Derslflcation by use of exp los ives, vibrofIotation, or term probe helps in increasing the shear
stre ngth of cohcsionless soils and thus increasing the stability.
(5) Consol idation by surcharg ing, electro-os mosis or other methods helps in increasing the stabilit y of
slopes in co hes ive so ils.
(6) Grouting and injection of cement or other compo unds into specifi c zones help in incre asin g the
stability of slopes .
(7) Shee t piles and retainin g walls can be installed to provide lateral support and to increase lhe stability.
However, the me thod is quite expe nsive.
(8) Stabilisation of the soil helps in increasing the stability of slopes.
In the interest of economy. relatively inexpensive methods, such as slope flatte ning and drainage control,
are generally preferred.

ILL USTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustra uve Example 18.1. A long natu ral slope in an overconsolidated clay (c' _ 10kN/m 2, " _ 25°.
T_ • 20 kNlm2) is inclined at ur
to the horizontal. The water table is at the surface and the seepage is
parallel to Ihe slope. If a pl ane slip had deve loped at a depth of 5 m below the surface, determine the foetor
of safety. Take t; _ 10 kNlm J •
c' + y ' l/ros2i wnt'
Solutio n. From Eq. 18.17, F, - l, .. H rosisin i

_ 10 + (20 - 10) x 5 x ooi lO° lan 25° _ 1.90

20 x 5 x cos 100 sin 10°
, Dlustratlve Exam ple 18.2. A vertical CUI is madein a clay deposi ({c = 30 kNlm 2, " = 0, y = 16 !Hlm J) .
Fin the maximumheight of the cut which CDn be temporar ily suppo rted.
Solution. From Eq. 18.28, S" . F~ ~ H

Taking F~ • 1.0, S" • 1.0 x ~6 x H ...(a)

From stability ch an (Fig . 18.13 or Thble 18 .1), S" _ 0.261.
Substituting the val ue of S" in Bq. (a),
468 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

H .. 1.0 lC l~x 0.261 .. 7.18m

Illustrative Example ItU. A cut of depth 10 m is made in a cohes ive soil deposi t (c = 30 kNlm 2, .. =
J
o and y = 19 kNlm ) . There is a hard stratwn under the cohesive soil as a depth of 12 m below the original
ground surface . If the required facto r of safcty is 1.50, determine the safe slope.
Solution. In this case, Drll = 12 m and H = 10 m. Therefore. D, .. 1.20.
From Eq. 18.28, s, .. Fe ~ H • 15 )( ~ x 10 - 0.105
From Fig. 18.14, fo r 8" = 0 .105 and D, = 1.20. we have i :::; 15°.
illustrative Example 18.4. Determ ine the factor of safery with respect to cohesion f or a subme rged
embankment 25 m high and having a slope of ·#r.
(c = 41) kN/m 2, .. - 100and' Y6" = 18 kNlm J) .
Solution. From Bq. 18.28, using submerged unit weight,

S. • F< x (18 409 .81) x 25 • o.gs ... (e)

For, = 10° and j = 40°, Table 18.1 gives S" = 0.097 by interpolation.

Therefore, 0.097 = O'i~5 or Fe :::: 2.01.

lllustrative Example IS.5. Determine the foetor of safety with respect to cohesion if an embankment 25
m high and having a slope of 40° is subjected to sudden drawdown. (c :: 40 leN/nI, ~ :: 10°, 1,01 :: 18
kN/m l) .

Solution. From Eq. 18 .30, tan q.... .L (-F~ tan ~')

l,at +
Taking F.:: 1.0 , tan claw. (18 ~t81) (tan 10°) or +w • 4.59°

From Table 18.1 (or Fig. 18.13), Sit :: 0 .13 for 'Pm :: 4.59° and-i = 40° .
From Bq. 18.28, using saturated unit weight,

0 .130 - F x
c
~ x 25
Fc - 0.684 < 1.00
1·50
The slope is not safe.
Illustrative Example 18.6. Determine the factor of
<,
safety with respect to shear strength of a slope 10 m high and '·40
luning an inclination of 40° of a soil with c :: 30 kN/m 2, cjl::
ur and 1 = 19 kN/m •
J
0
X
Solution . The factor of safety is obtained by trial and
error. Let us assume F If' = 1.30 for the firs t trial. /
From Eq. 18.4, tan +.. . ~ _ la~;: ~1/'
.:
1-10
or +m_ 7.72°
From Thble 18.1, for ~m _ 7.72° and i-40°, 1{l
S" _ 0.115 100 1-10 1 20 1·30 11,0 1·50
Ft --
From Eq. 18.28, 0 .115 - F ~ II
c Fig. E·I S..
STABILITY OP SlDPES 469

0.115 • F )(
c
~ )( 10 or F c - 137
Likewise, for F. =
1.40. the value of F c is. found to be 1.32 and for F. =
1.20. the value of F c is
ccrnputed as 1.44. Fig. E-18.6 shows the plot betw een F c and F.- The line drawn at 45° cuts the plot at the
required point.
From the plot, Ft - F ff - F, - 1.34.

E-J8~~:~:-:;:,,~,:r;;,~~~i~ai;~ ;;~
: 20° andy .: 17 1cNIm).
: :;;:;a7J: ~:,~::=le~~~i::S~ ~~~~g.
~2·86m--l
• B

Fig. £ -18.1.
Solution. Weight of triangular wed ge AnD,
w. ~)( 2.86 x 2.5 x 17 _ 6O.8 kN

Sliding fora: T =cornpcoent of W parallel to the plane An

_ W sin 25° _ 25.7kN
length of plane AB. L • 2.5/ sin 25° - 5.91 m
Resistance to sliding, S _ cL + (Woos 25°) tan ,
• 6.0 x 5.91 + 60.8 x 0.906 x 0.364 - 55.51 kN
Factor of Safety , F, _ ~ _ 5~~71 _ 2.16

Illustrative Example 18.8. A vertical cut is made through a bomogeneous sotl mass (c: 20 kN/m2, 4' = 20",
Y = 16.5 kJV/ml ). Using Culmann:S method, determine the safe depth of the cut, laJdng a/actor of safety of2.0.
(b) Also determine the safe depth using stability charts.
4c", sin i cos 4'",
Solution. From Eq. 18.22 (a).
H • 1 [1 - CDS (i - t.J]
Now c/Ft _ 20/2 _ 10 lcN/m 2
C", _

tan. _ _ tan +n _ tan won _ 0..364~ - 0.182 or +. - 10.31"

Therefore, H - 1~~[~0_~~~~1~~3~~;] - 2.91m

(b) For i = 90", t = 10.31", we have S. = 0.217 (See Table 18.1)

Therefore, H - ye;. _ 16.5 ~~.217 - 2.79 m

470 SO IL MECHA NICS AND FOUND A11 0N ENG INE ERING

Iltustranve Example 18.9. An unsupportedslope is

shown in Fig. £·18.9. Determine the factor of safety
against sliding for the trial slip surfoce: Take c = 50
2
kNlm • and. '"O. The weight of the wedge ABD is 2518
leN and acts at Q horizontal distance 0/11 m from the
verlicalAO.
L... 2 ~~ 24 x 65

T
Solution. Length of arc All,

.27.21 m
Actuating moment, Mo .. 2518 x 11 14m
.. 27698kN-m
Resisting moment , M, .. c Lo r .. 50 )( 27.21 )( 24
.. 32652 kN-m
Therefore, faa or of safety F~ (_ F,)

• ~;: • 1.18
1 Fig. E-18 .9
Alternative method
The factor of sa fety can be determ ined from the mobilised cohes ion (ClIO)' According to this method,
e...L. r .. 27698

e", .. 27.;~6~ 24 .. 42.41 leN

Therefore, F r .. clc", .. 50/42.41 .. 1.18
IIIustmllve Example 18.10. Fig. £-18.10 shows Q slip surface with Q radius of 22 m in a slope with a
height of 14 m and an angle of inclination of 45". If 41... '" 15",1 = 18 leN/m l and c = 40 leN/m l , determine
the factor of safety with respect to cohe sion usin g the fr iction circ le method.

twi' IS·
'( &18 . N/ ml
c; 40 hN/m 2

Fig. E-18.l 0.
STABIUfY OF SLQPES 471

The weight of the sou wedge is 1500 leNand it acts at a horizotUal distance of 103 m from A.
Solution. r sin • • 22 x sin 15 ° - 5.7rn .
The friction circle is drawn with a radius of 5.7 m.
(2:l'l: x 22/360) x 64
From Eq. 18.24. Q. ' L.
L;- X 22 x 2 x 22 x sin 3ZO - 23.20m
A line is drawn parallel to the chord at a dislancc of 23.20 m. 1be total cohes ive force passes through P
whictl is at the intersection of the vert ical line through Iv. The react ion R also passes tlvough P and ;S
langeotiaJ to the friction circle.
The figure also shows the force triangle.
Fromthe force triangl e. C = 600 kN
<: - f - ~2 - 25.7 kN/m
1

From Eq. 18.5, F~ - t. :'7 - 1.56

illustrative Examf.le 18.11. Fig. E-18.11 shows a trial slip surface through a soil mass (c '" 20 leN/m2,
~ ::: 30°, 'Y::: 20 leN/m). Determine the factor of safety using Swedish circle method.

T
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUND ATION ENGINEER ING

SoluUon . The slid ing wedge is divided into 6 vertical slices of equal width of 2 m . The calcalaucos are
shown in Ulbular fonn below.
Table Example 18.11.

Weight (W)
Slice T : Wsin a N il Wcos a
No. AI'erage WeightW (kN) (kN)
ordillo.te Width Volume
(kN)
I.
2
3.
0.9m
24 m
3.6 m
2m
2m
2m
1.8 m
4.8 m3
72m3
36
96
144
..
0

19"
0
15
46.9
36
94.8
136.2
4. 45 m 2m 9.0 mJ ISO 29" 87.3 157.4
J
5. 4.0m 2m 8.0 m 160 4ZO 107.1 118.9
6. l.80 m 2m 3.6 mJ 72 55" 59 413
11" 3153 kN I N " 584.6 kN

[Altcmartvety, from diagrams. I T = 320 leN and IN = 580 kN]

Length of arc, L" - (2:1t )( 12/ 360 ) )( 71" - 14.86 m.
From Eq. 18.32, £ 6 _ cL" + : ; f I N

_ 20 )( 14.86 ;1'; 30° )( 584.6 _ 2.01.

Ill ustratlee Example 18.12. Determine the fac tor of safcry of the slope shown in fig. £-18.12. The slip
surface pa~ses througl1 lWO layers of soils. The pore water on tilL slip surface is shown by the Jotted line.
Take y,.,"" 10 leN/mi.

T
rI
Fig. & 18.12.
SIADIun' OF SLOPES '73

So lutlOlL The slidi ng wedge is divided into 8 slices of equa l width 4 m. One vertical line is drawn at the
interface of the layers between slices (T) and (8). The weigh t of each slice is determined from the area of the
slice in the layer and the oom:sponding unit weight of the so iL
The pore water pressure is determined as the vertical ordinate of the dotted line above the curved surface .
The calculations are shown in tabular form.
Total length of arc (LJ • (2 1t x 28/3(0) )( 75 • 36.63 m
Length of arc in I-layer • (36.63 /75) )( 6S • 31.75 m
Length of arc in It-layer • (36.63n5) )( 10 • 4.88 m
1: (N - "1) in I layer (l SI to 71h slice) :;: 2388 k:N
1: (N - ul) in II layer (8th slice) = 198 kN
From Eq. 18.39. F,. 1:c AL + 1:I(~ - uf) tan +
0 0
F, • (30 )( 31.75 + 25 )( 4.88) 17:188 )( tan 20 + 198 t30 10 • 1.81

ill ustra ti ve Exam ple 18.13 . Find the f actor of silfety against sliding for the slope shown in Fig. £-18.13.
using Bishop 's simplified method.

n loytr
c;s40kNlm2
• ~ 20"
'II ~19 k Nl mJ

t loyer
, .0
b Jcf
't ~ 21kNI..,3

Fig. E-t8.13 .
Solution. The slip circle has bee n d ivided into 5 slices; the fU'Sl four slices are in Laye r I. The width of
the first slice is 5 .6 m and thaC of other slices is 6 m.
Ca lculations are done in tabular form. Tbe value of mo in column (11) bas been comp uted using Eq. 1853.
m.:.. - (I + tao,'tan alF,)oos a
For first trial, F, is assumed to be 1.20.

I-'- [c'b + (W- ubj tan,')

From Eq. 1852, F, - m. W sin a
 J:!

Table Example 18.12.

"'.._
Weight (W)
u a
[
_ b sec a " N .W
a
N·ul T
'" WsinQ
"''''.
S/iaNo. 000
Average Weight
mares (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
ordi1Wlt: (bi (m.f) W(IcN)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
1. 1.60 m 4m 6.40 128 1m _1 50 4.14 41.4 123.6 82.2 - 33. 1
2. 4.6 m 4m 18.4 368 3m - 5' 4.0 2 120.6 366 .6 246.0 - 32.1
3. 6.8 m 4m 272 544 4.2 m 3' 4.01 168 .4 543 .2 374.4 + 28.4

4. 7.1 m 4 m 28.8 576 5.2 m 10' 4.06 211.1 67 1.6 4605 + 118.4
104m 4m 6.6 106
----;;sz
5. 6.0 4m 24.0 480 5.0 m . 9' 4.23 211.5 712.9 501.4 + 2455
3.6 4 m 14 .4 274
- 754 ~
6. 4.2
4.8
4 m
4 m
16.8
.9.2
336
365
4.2m 28' 4.53 190. 3 618 .8 4285 + 329 .1
"El
------:rot ~
f,J
7. 1.6 4 m 6.40 128 1.8m 38' 5.08 91.4 386.4 295 + 3035
4.8 4m 19.2 365 ~
~ "
8. 2.6 4m lOA 198 0 4.' 5.75 0 198 198 + 142.4
IT _ 1102.1
i
~
~
~
~
z
o
 STABILITY OF SLOPES 47l

Slice ffi'ight (lit)

Q c' ub W.sina ma (W - ub)
No. Aver age
onWwt,
"'m' "''"''''
(b) (m )
J
Mob'ght
f'NJ (6) (7) (8)
tan .'
(9) (10) (11)
tan
(12)
+'
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1.
2.
3.
...
2.6

'.2
5.6
'.0
'.0
14.56
39.60
37.2il
"".8
831.6
1812
- 2"

23"
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0577
0577
0577
-10.7
.. 130.0
.. 465 .6
0.984
1.063
1.101
176.4
479.8
687.'
3.' '.0 21.60 410.4
f---
1191.6
4. 3.0 ' .0 18.0 378 37" 0 0 0577 +716.3 1.088 7443
8.0 '.0 48.0 912
f--wo
5. '.4 ' .0 38.4 119.6 55" 4.0 0.0 0364 + S91.6 0.820 2655
1: 19S8.8

1 [ 1 1 1
- 1958 .8 0 .984)( 176.4 + 1.063 )( 47 9.8 + 1.107 )( 687.6

1 )( 744.3 + 0.82
+ 1.088 1 (40 )( 6 + 26S.5) 1
• 1.30
The assumed value of F, is not correct . The process may be repeated afta taking F, "" 1.25.

PROBLEMS

A. Numerica l
18.1. 'Whal inclination is required where a filling 12 m high is to be OOIlSO'1Jded having a factor of safely of 1.251
=
The soil has c 20 tNJm •
2,
=
IS", Y = 17.0 tNlm). The stability number for +-
= l r is equal 10 0.063 when
the slope is 30" and 0.098 when lhe slopeis 4S". lAm. 36;.

I
18.2. A cutting of depth 10 m is to be made in soil which hes c = 30 tN/m2, T = 19 tN I'm3 and • = O. There is a
hard stratum below the original soil s wfaa: al a depth of 12 m, fi nd the safe slope of culting if the factor of
safely is 1.50. For Dt= 1.20,5" K 0.143 for i = 30" and 5" • 0.101 for i = IS". [Am. 1r].
18.3. A vertical cut is to be made In clayey soil for which tests gave c '" 30 tN /m 2, 1 = 16 !tN1'm3 and 4' = O. Rod
I the maximum height for which the CUi may be temporarily unsupponed. For 4''" 0, and i '" 90", the value of
the stability number is 0.261. [Ans. 7.18 ml
18.4. When is me factor of safety for a 45° slope 12 m high in a d ay (c = 50 !tN/m2, y • 18 kN/m3 and = 0) +
having a rock. stratum at a depth of 12 m below the toe? For Dt'"' 2.0 and i .. 4S", the value of 5" is equal to
0.177. [ARs.1.3)
18.5. Determine tbe factor of safety wilh respect to cohesion only for 8 s ubmerged embankme nt 2S m high wbose
upsceamface bas an inclination of 4S". 100 soil has the following properties;c z 40 kNlm2, +.,
10",16" = 18
kN/m3. The relevant stability number is equal to 0.108 . (Aos. 1.85)
18.6. What is the factor of safety if the embanlcmcnl in Prob. 18.5 experiences the effect of suddendrawdown 1 For
.... '" 4S aDd; = 4S", the value to the stability number is 0.136. lAos.. 0.65]
2,
18.1. A CUi 10 m deep is to be made in a stratum of cceeerve soil (c = 3S tN /m 1 = 18.5 kNlm) and = 0). The +
bed rod: is located IS IIIbelow the original ground surface. Detennine the factor of safety against failure if !be
slope is 30", For Df = 1.5 and i = 30", the stability number is equal to 0.164. lAos. 1.15]
18..8. An ernbanbncnl 10 m high is indincd 81 3S" 10 the horizontal. A stability analysis by the method of slices gave
the fol.l<N.'ing forces;
476 OOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Vi _ 900 kN, rr a 420 tN , 1:V .. 200 tN .

If the le ngth of the failure arc is 23.0 m, find the factor of safety . The soil has c '" 20 kN/m 2 and. so 15°,
(Am. 154)
18.9. A dam of homogeneous section is 25 m high with upstream slope of 2 S lO 1.0 and downstream slope of 2 to
1. There is a 12 m long borlzootal filter at the doINnsUum end. Taking 8 free board r:J. 3 m (i.e. water depth22
m), determine the (a) factor of safety ci downstream slope under steady seepage renditions. (b) faaor of safety
of upstream slopeunder sudden drawndcrND conditions.
18.10. For the dam in Prob . 18.9, determine the factor of safety of downstream slope under steady seepag e cond ition
using Bishop's simplified method.
18.11. A 40'"slope is excavated lO a depth of 8 m in a deep layer 0( saturated clay (c '" 70 tNh1:? and • = u, y = 19
kNlm\ Determine the factor of safety for me trial failure surface sOO.vn in Fig. P. 18.11. (An&. l.87]

T
8m

Ag. P. 18.11
18.12. Determine the faaor of safely d. the slope given in Prtb . 18.11. U the soil has c = 20 kN1rn2; • :: 15-, T = 20
kN/m3, Use !he friction cirde met hod .

n. Descriptive and Objective TYpe

18.13 . What are the assumpt ions mal are generally made in the analysis of the stability of slopes? Discuss briefly their
validil y.
18.14. What are different factors of safety used in the Slability o f slopes ?
1&.15. What are differenl types of slope failures?
18.16. Derive an expression for the factor of safety of an infinile slope in a coheslcelesssoil.
What is the effect of steady seepage parallel 10 the slopeon the Slabilil)'?
18.17. Discuss me method for cheddng the stability of an infinile slope in a cohesive soil. What Is critical heig ht?
18.18. DescribeCulmann's melhod foc lbe stability analysis of homogeous $lopes,. Whal are its Jjmilations?
18.19. Discuss !he friction tilde melhod [or the stability analysis of slopes. Can Ibis method be used for purely
cceesve soil?
18.20. What is a stability number ? What is its utility in the analysis of stability of slopes? Discuss the uses of stability
charts.
18.21. How a slope is analysed using Swedish circle method? Derive an expression for the factor of safety.
18.22. Describe Bishop 's simplified IDClhod. what an: its advamagcs over cmventlooal Swedish circle method? Derive
an expression for !he factor of safety.
18.23. Discuss the various methods for improving !he stabilil)' of slopes.
18.24. Write whether the following statements are true a' false.
(a) The friction circle method can be used for a non - homogeneous soil mass.
(b) The stability numberscan be used for the aMlysis of purel), oohcsionlesa soil slopes.
(c) The fadOr of safety of an infinile slope of a cohesive soil depend5 upon &he helgbl H of the slope.
(d) Culmann 's melhod ~ thallhe failure surface is • plane .
(e) The upsueam sloped an canh dam is crirical during audden drawdown axKfirione.
(f) Bishop's sim pified method considers all the forces acting on the IIideaof the slices.
(g) In Bishop's simplified method, a process of successive approximations is required.
(h) The lotal srress analysis can be used for Ihe stabilily of slopes.
STAJHUTY OF SLOPES 477

CI1 The convcnuonal Swedish circle method alway!> em. on the sate ~itle.

IAn.s, True. k) . Ct/), k). <.~). (II) . (i)J

C. Multiple Choice Quest ions

I. The method of slices fo r the stability Il f slope
(tl) can be used for st rat ified so ils
Cb)can he used when seepage occurs aOl.lthe pure pressure CXlsls within the so il.
l") giH~S lhe factor of satcry baSl,.'t..I on moments and nn! !he forcess,
(J) All the above.
2. Taylor' s stability charts arc based 011the total sucsscs u....ing Ihe
tal rncuon cncle mcthooJ
(h) me thod 111' slices
(c) ~" = 0 1ll\;I!Y.1S
{ eI) no ne ot thc above
J. In sl"h ility analysis. the term mohili",,'d shear stre ngth is referred to as
lal shC<.lf streng th
lb) maximum shear sires....
(e) applied shear -Mess
(d) none o f the above .
4. Bishop's ximplined method of slices salisli~
((I) o nly the mo men t. equilib rium
(b) on ly rhc vertical force s equilib rium
(e) on ly the hori n llltal forces equilibrium
(til all the slalies equations. except the horizontal forces r-'quiltb rium.
S. The 1i1llowing eoumpnon is nl1l made foc lhe tricuo n circle mcthod of slope :>lability analys is:
tal Pncnon is fully mobilised
(b) Total 1ioItes.." ana lysis IS applicable
k) Th e (C!>UII,1ll1 is I,mgemial 111 the friction ci rcle
ttl) Th e res ultan t pass c'1> through th..: cent re 0 1 fri ction ci rcle
6. The fucror til' sa!i:ty III an infinite slo[lC in a ~and dc posu is 1.732. If the ang lo: uf sheari ng resista nce is 30°. the
safe ~Iorc i~
(a) 19.45° (h) 75.4°
lcl l!\.4° (d) 71.60
7, Idenlify lhe Incorrect suncmem
TIle 1iol,mility of ,I sfope i\ decreased b)'
(tI) Removal Ill' a pan of slope by excavation
(bl Shuck caused by an eunbquake
(c) Pure wate r press ure in the so il
(d) Prov iding a berm ;11 the toe
K. For the computauon of N-com poncnt for sudde n drawdown conditions by approximate met hod . the weigbt is
(al Saturated unit wcigh t (h) Su bmerged unit weig ht
(c) Bulk unit weight (til Dry unit weig hl
I A ~I .~2.(a~3.(~4.~~(~~~~~L~
 19
Earth Pressure Theories
19.1. lNTRODUcnON
As discussed in the preceding chapter, a soil mass is stable when the slope of the surface of the soil mass
is flatter than the safe slope. At some locadcos where the space is limited, it is not possible to provide flat
slope and the soil is to be retained at a slope steeper tha n the safe one . In such cases. a retai ning structure is
required to provide lateral support to the soil mass . Genera lly, the soil masses are vertica l or nearly vertical
behind the retaining struct ure. Thus , a retaining wall maint ains the soil at different elev ations on its either
side . In the absence of a retaining wall. the soil 00 the higher side would have a tendency to slide and may
not remain stable.
Tbe des ign of the retaining structure req uires the determination of the magni tude and line of action of the
lateral earth pressure. The magnitudeof the lateral earth pressuredependsupon a number of factors, such as
the mode of the movement of the wall, the flexibility of the wall, the propert ies of the: soil, the drainage
ccodi roos. It is a soil-structure interaction problem , as the earth prtsslR depends upon the flexibility of wall .
Tbe earth pressu re theories which coosidcr soil-structu re interaction are romplicated and req uire a com putec.
For conven ience, the reta ining wall is assu med to be rig id and the soil-structure interacti on effect is neglected.
The lateral earth pressure is usually oompu ted using the classical theori es proposed by Coulomb (1773)
and Rankine ( 1857) . The general wedg e theo ry proposed by 'Ierzaghl (1941) is mo re general and is an
impro vem ent over the ear lier theories. How ever, the thoocy is quit e oomplica ted.
The design of rigid retaini ng walls and flexible retaining wens,such as sheet pile w alls and bulk heads.
is discussed in the next chapter.
19.2. DIFFERENT TYP~ OF LATERAL EARTII PRESSURE
Latera! earth pressures can be grouped into 3 categ ories. depending upon the movem ent of the retaining
wall with respect to the soil retained . The soil retained is also known as the backfill.
(1) At -rest pressure. 'The latera! earth pressure Is called at-rest pressure when the soil mass is not

" "~
PR
(:
"
RE

~EMEHT ~
ACTIVE
PRESSURE

LEF T
Cb
l-

Fi, . 19.1.
EAR11t PRESSURETHEORlES

subjected 10 any lateral yielding or movement. This case occurs when the retaining wall is fumly fixed at its
lop and is not allowed to rotate or move laterally. Fig. 19.1. (a) shows the basement retaining walls which
are restrained against the movement by the basement slab provided at their tops. Another example of the
at-rest pressure is thaI of a bridge abutmenl wall which is restrained at its lop by lhe bridge slab . The er-rest
condition is also known as the elastic equilibrium. as no pan of so il mass has failed and attained the plastic
equilibrium.
(2) Acti ve pressu re . A stal e of active pressure occurs when the soil mass yields in such a way that it
lends to stretch horizon tall y. It is a sta te of plasti c equilibrium as the entire soil mass is on the verge of
failure. A retainin g wall when moves away from the backfill. there is a stre tching of the soil mass and the
active slate of earth pressure exis ts. In Fig. 19 .1 (b). the active pressure develops on the right-hand side when
the wallmoves towards le ft.
(3) Pass ive pressure, A state of passive press ure exists when the movement of the wall is such that the
soil tends to compress horizontally. It is anoth er extreme of the limiting equilibriwn coediuon, In Fig. 19.1
(b), the passive pressure develop> on the left-side of the wan below the ground level, as the soil in this zone
is compressed when the movement of the wall is towards len. Anothe r example of the passive earth prtssure
is the pressureacting on an anchor block.
Varia tion or Pressure
Fig. 19.2 (a) shows the variation oCearth pressure with lhe wall movement. Poin t B represents the case
when there is no movem ent of the wall. It ind icates the ar-rest press ure.
Point A in Fig. 19.2 (0) indicat es the active pressure. When the wall moves away from Ihe backfill [Fig.
19.2 (b)] . some portio n of the backfill locat ed immediatel y behind the wall tries to brea k away from Ihe rest
of Ihe soil mass. Th is wedge-shaped portion, known as tbe failure wedge or the slid ing wedg e, moves
downward and out wards. The lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall is a minimum in Ihis case. The soil is
at the verge of failure due to a decrease in the lateral stress.
The horizon tal strain requ ired to reach the active slate of plastic equilibrium is ve ry small l..ambeand
Eor th pt fS SUr e

+
lill _

(b}Actrve (c)Possi~

Fig. 192
 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Whitman (1969) have show n that in dense sand. the horizontal strain required is about 0.5%. For example,
for a wall of 5 m height, a movement of 0.025 m would deve lop active earth pressure.
Point C in Fig. 19.2 (a) indicates the passive pressure . when the wall moves towards the backfill [Fig.
19.2 (e)], the earth pressur e increases . The fa ilure wedge moves upward and inwards. The maximum value of
the earth pressure is the passive earth pressure. The soil is at the verge of failure due to an increase in the
lateralst.ress.
Lambe and Whitman (1969) found that very Inue horizo ntal stra in (about 0.5%) is required 10 reach
one-half the maxim um pass ive pressure in densesand, but much mote borizootal strain (about 5% in dense
sand , and 15% in joose sand) is required to reach the full passive pressure. However , their data are based 00
the triaxial shear test results and the magnitude of the horizontal strains required in the field may be
somewhal differen t.
It may be summarised that the sta te of shear failure corresponding to the minimumearth pressure is the
active state an d that rorrcsponding to the maxim um earth pressure is the pass ive state . These are the two
extreme co nditions of plastic equ ilibrium . For all intermediate states when the soil is not in plastic
equilibrium , it is said to be an elastic equilibrium . The at-rest condition is a special case of an elastic
equ ilibrium when the slate of stress correspondsto the condition where there is no movement It indicates the
in-situ cond itions .

19.3. EARnI PRESSURE AT REST

1be earth pressure at rest was d iscussed briefly in Chapter
11. Howev er, the empbesisthere was o n the determination of the
horizontal stresses in the soil mass. The expressions for earth
pressure at-rest would be used in this crape- for the
determination of the magn itude and line of action of the tOla!
forces due to eartb pressure on the retaining structures. Tbe
methods for estimation of the coefficie nt of earth pressure at rest ' - - - - - - - '
(Ko) have been discussed in chaJlfer n . Fig. 19.3.
Fig . 193 shows a retaining wan in which no movement takes place . The vertical effecttve stress at point
A at a depth Z is given by
0, • y l - y. l. ... (19.1)
The horizonta l Imergran utar (effcaive) stress can be obtained using the cocffici ent of earth pressure at-rest
(X'o), which is equal to the ratio of the horizontal stress 10 the vertica l stress ,

Thus

0, • K" 0, - K" (yl - y.l;) ... (19.2)

The stress 0" is usuall y represented as fJo, indicating the lateral pressure at rest.
Thus Po • Ko 0" .. .(193)
It may be noted that the coefficient of lateral pressure at rest (/(Q) relates the effective stresses. Thc total
lateral pressure (P",) is equal to the sum of the intergranuler pressure (pg) and the pore water pressure (u).
Th us P", • Po + u ... (19.4)
In Fig. 193, the lateral pressure at depth Z is, therefore,
p, • K,,(yl - y.l.) + y.l. ... (195)
As Eq. 19.5 indicates, the pressure d istribution is triangular with zero pressure at the top (Z = 0), and the
maximum pressure at the bottom of the wall.
Fig. 19.4 (a) shows the pressure distribution when the soil is dry. The pressure at the bottom of the wall
at depth H is given by
EARll! PRESSURE TIl EORIES <8.

'0) ,.)

,,,
Fo r act ive pr nsl"Irt. $<.bs l ilulf Ko lor "c o nd lor po uive
J)rt s surt • SUb51ill,ltt Kp for K.o .

Fig. 19.4.

Ph - Kol/f
The total pressu re force per unit length of the wall is given by

p- fo KoFdZ

P-~l("y1f .. .(19.6)
In Fig. 19.4 (b), the depth of water table is at depth d below tbe surface. The: pressure at depth Z > d is
givenby
P.· I(" [yZ - y.(Z - d)J +y.(Z - d)
P. - I(" yd + l("y'(Z - d) + y.(Z - d)
The pressure at the botto m (Z = If) of the wall is given by
P, - Koy d + l("y'(If- d) + Y. (11 - d) ... (19.7)
The total pressure force (P) call be determined from the pressure distribution diagram .
If the water table is at the ground surface [Fig. 19.4 (c)]. the pressure at the bottom of the wall is given
by, laking d = 0 in Eq. 19.7,
P• • I("y ' If + y.1I .. .(19.8)
The resullant pressure (P) acting on the wall is determined from the pressure dislribution diagram .
The poiilt of application of the resultant pressure P is determined from the pressure distribution diagram .
For triangular pressure distribution. it acts at height /f13 from the base.
I!U. RANKINE'S EARTII PRESSURE TIlEORY
Rankine (I SS?) eonsi ce red the equilibrium of a soil element wilhin a soil mass bounded by a plane
surface. The following assumptions were made by Rankine for the derivat ion of eart h pressure .
 son. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

(1) The soil mass is homogeneous and semt-innnire.

(2) The soil is dry and ccoesionless.
(3) The ground surface is plane. which may be horizontal or inclined.
(4) The back of the retaining wall is smooth and vertical:
(5) The soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium. i:e.• at the verge of failure .
Expressions for tbe active earth pressure and the passive earth pressure arc developed as explained
below:
(a) Active Earth Pressure. Let us ronsider
an clement of dry soil at a deptb Z below a
level soil surface [Fig. 19.5 (a)] . Initially, the
element is at-rest conditions, and the horizontal
pressure is given by r
0,," ~o~
where 0 .. is the vertical stress at C, and 0", is the
horizontal stress at C Of course, 0 .. .. y Z.
'Thestresses 0" and 0 .. are, respectively . the
minor and major principal stresses, and are
indicated by points A and B in the Mohr circle
[Fig. 19.5 (b)].
Let us now consider the C3SC when the
vertical stress remains constant while the
horizontal stress is decreased. The point A. shifts
10 position A ' and the diameter of the Mohr
circle increases . In the limiting condition, the
point A shifts 10 position A" wben the Mohr
circle [marked (3)] touches the failure envelope.
The soil is at the verge of shear failure. It has
attained the Rankine active state of plastic Cb)
equilibrium . lhc horizontal stress at that state is
the active pressure (p..). Fig. 19.5.

Fig, 19.6 shows the Mohr circle when active conditions are developed . Point E represents the active
cond ition. From the figure.

...
...(aJ
Also
.•.(b)
10 EAR:rn PRESSURE THEORIES 483

FromEqs. (0) and (b), ~ • 11: s: '~,

oc P. - ( : ~s~:t,) (J~
'" P• • K. y Z .. .(19.9)
where K" is a coefficient, known as the coe fficient of activ e earth pressure. It is a function of the angle of
shearing resistance<.').and is given by
K _ 1 - sin , ' _ t302 (4 50
II 1 + sin , '
_ t:.)
2
..(19.10)

Foeexample, if t ' = 30", K" - t c;y

Bq. 19.9 am be used to determine the active earth
pressure on the retaining wall. The pressure distribution
is similar to one shown in Fig. 19.4 (a) in which Ko is
substituted for Ko-
Fig. 19.7 shows the failure planes. These are inclined ~
at (450 + . '12) to the major principal plane whim is
horizontal,
_0- When the wall moves away from the back Illl, the
failure wedge moves downward and the resisting force '"V
due 10 the shearing stren gth o f the so il is developed in
the upward direction along the failure plane (Fig. 19.8). Fig. 19.7
The resisting Icece causes a decrease in the earth pressureacting OIl lhc wa ll. The decrease in earth pressure
continues till the maximu m resistance hes been mobilised . The earth pressure does 001 decrease beyond th is
point and the active slate is reached and the soil has attained plastic equilibrium .

-
Movement 0 1 wall

Fig. 19.8.
(b) Passive Ea rth pressu~
The passive Rankine state of plas tic equ ilibrium can be exp lained by cons idering the ele men t of soil at a
point at a depth of Z below the soil surface (Fig . 199 (a)] . As the soil is co mpressed latera lly. the horizoma l
stress (0..) is increased . whereas the vertica l stress (o w) remains constan t. Fig. 19.9 (b) shows the Mohr circles.
The circle-t indicates the insitu ccodiuoo , in which point A iooicates the horizontal stress and point B.
verrcal stress . With lateral com pressing of the soil the horizontal stress Increases until it reaches a limiting
value greater than the vertical stress, indicat ed by point A " and the Mohr circle (marked (3)] touches the
failure envelope. The expressi on for the passive pressure P, ca n be obtained as follows . Fig. 19.10, shows the
Mohr circle at failure.
484 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 19.9.
Now PI' - DC + CE. OC + CD .. DC + OC sin.'
PI' - OC( 1 + sin,') ...(a)
Also 08 - DC - Be .. DC - CD .. DC - OCsin +'
a. .. De (! - sin,') ... (b)

Fig. 19.10 .

From Eqs. (a) and (b), ~ .. ~ : :: : :

pp- ( ~ : ::~ :: )o.

or Pp .. Kp"t Z . ..(19.11)
where Kp is the coefficie nt of passive earth pressure, given by

Kp .. ~ : : : :: ..
2 0
100 (45 + +'12) ... (19.12)
for example, if .' .. 30", Kp .. 3
Tbe coefficien t of passive pressure (Kp ) depends upon , '. The pressure distribUlion is similar to thai shown in
Fig. 19.4. in whtch Kp is substitut ed for ~
EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES -es

The angle which the failure plane makes wit h the major principal plane is equal to (451) + 4"/2). As the
major principal plane is vertical, the failure plane make an ang le of (45 - 4"/2) with the horizontal (Fig.
19.11) which is the minor principal plane.
When the wall moves towards the back fill, the latera l ea rth press ure ' increa ses beca use the resistance
builds up in Ihe direction towards the wall. The pressure reaches a maximum value whe n the full shearing

"V
Fig, 19.11. Ag . 19.12.
resistance has been mobi lised (Fig. 19.12). Furt her movement of the wa ll docs not increase the pressure, and
the passive slate is reached and the so il has atta ined plastic eq uilibriu m.

19.5. RANKINE'S FARm PRESSURE WIlEN TIlE SURFACE IS INCUNED

Two stresses are called conjugate st resses when the direc tion of one stress is parallel to the plane on
which the other stress acts. Ra nkine assumed that the vertica l stress on an elem ent of the soil within the
inclined backfill and the lateral stress on
the vertical plane of the element are -----'
:~~eth::r:~te~s~:risw~~~el ~~ ~b ::::::::f..",0IV- ' 'u"

1
the inclined backfill
Let us consider an element of soil at
depth Z below the soil surface incl ined at Z
angle j to horizontal (Fig. 19.13). 'Jbe
angle i is known as the angle of surcharge,
The intensity of vertical stress (o~) on the
clement is given by
o, • '( (Z bbCOS i)

or c, - 't Z cos i ... ( 19.13)

The other conjuga te stress is the
lateral stress (o j .
It may be mentioned that the vert ical Ag. 19.13.
stress c, is not the principal stress, as a shear stress also exists on the inclin ed plane at the top of the element.
Likewise, the lateral stress Ox is also not a princi pal stress. A relationship between the latera l pressure and the
vertical stress can be obta ined for the active and passive cases as given below.
(a) Active Earth Pressure. Fig , 19. 14 shows the Mohr circle corresponding to the active limiting
4116 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

OA='V
OB=I&

O~~"---++--~---f.=-

Fig. 19.14.
conditions. The vertical stress o, is represented by the line OA making an angle i with the horizontal. At any
depth. the value of o, is constant and equal to that given by Eq. 19.13.
If the lateral expansion of the soil is sufficient to induce the state of active plastic equilib rium. the Mohr
circle must pass through A and it should be tangential 10 the failure envelope . The origin of planes P 5
obtained as the point of intersectio n of OA with the Mohr circle. As the reader wo uld recollect (chapter 13).
the odgtn of planes is located by drawing from the point representing a stress (vertical stress. in this case) a
line parallel to the plane on which it acts (plane inclined at i, in Ihis case). A vertical line through P ruts the
circle at B below the o-exe. The conjugate stress. which is the active pressure (PJ . is represented by DB.
Numerically. the conjug ate stress is also equal to 0 1'.
P.. DB 01' OD - DP
From the figure, ... (aJ
0:- (jA -OA' ·OD+DA
The ratio p/o~ is known a'> the conjugate stress ratio.
Now OD - OCrosi ••.(bJ
and DA _ DP = vPC' - DC'
BUI PC - Fe - DC sin,'
and IX - DC sin;
~~"""'---,-,-,,--,--"C'>
Therefore.
...(e)

From Eq. (aJ,

.. .(d)

or
EARlH PRESS URE TIfEORIES 487

Z Z
cos; _ " COS i _ COS .'
or P.. - cos; + Vcosz; _ c::ooz . , (yZCOSI)
or P.. • K..yZ ",(19.14)
where K. is the coefficient of active pressure. given by
ca>; _ "rcos
-"""'j---cos
-"-:
.,
.•. (19.15)
K.. . cos r « cos; + " CO'>2; _ cxysz.,
In must be noc.ed that P.. is parallel 10 !he inclined surface.
For Ihc special case, when i = 0
X_I-sin.'
(same as Eq. 19.10)
.. 1 + sin,'
The conjugate stress in that case become principal stresses, as a~y ctsccssed.
DI ~lon or rallure planes
The inclination of the major principal plane is indicaled by the line PE in Fig. 19.15. It makes an angle
9) with the horizontal . 1be lines PF and PI'" indicate Lbefailure planes. 1be failure plane PF makes an angle
a l with the horizontal

Fig. 19.1 S.
From the triangle PEG, the ex terior angle , 8/ 1 • a ) + 8t
or at - 8/1- 8!
where 8/1 is the angle which the failure plane PF makes with the major principa l plane, and is equal to
(450 + , '12).
Thus 0
at - (45 + " 12) - 81
In the triangle OPe, the exterior angle '¥ is given by

"p - 28 1 +; or 8 1 Y -

Therefore, QI _ (45
0
+ "12) - (y) .. .(19.16)

The angle "p is obtained from the triangle PeD as

488 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

. CD Desio; OCsini sin;

smlp. CP .. ----cF" - Desio,' .. sin.'
o _I ( 'in 1 ) 00 0 ( 19.1 ~
'P . sm sin ,'
The other failure plane PF' makes an angle (12with the horizontal, which is given by
(12- Bf2+ 8 1
a, - (45' + .'/2) + ('I' - .)12 0 00( 1 9.1~

(b) Passive EMrth Pressure. This case is similar 10 the one for the active case wil.b one basic difference
that the vertical stress is the smaller of tile two conjugate stresses. In Fig. 19.16, OA rcprcsenlS the vertical
stress (o~). The point P shows the origin of planes, and DB represents the passive pressure,From tbe figure,

OA= by
OB=rt-

Fig. 19.16.
l!E. DB OP OD+DP
o, -ill-OA" ·OD-DA
Now OD .. OCoos;
and DP _ DA _ ,,"(A ='---'(:::DC)=' • " (FC)' - (DC)'
-:-C)

• " (OC'in.)' - (OC'in~'

Vsin2!'9 ' - sin2 i
.. DC
!!£.. DC COS i + DC ,,',-'in".::-'-_-,,-'°n''-;I
Therefore,
o, .. OCcos i _ DC Ysin2 , ' _ sin2 ;

cos; +" 2 2
sin lp' _ sin j
cos; _" sin2 tp' _ sin1 ;
cos; +"cost; _ cos '
cos i _ " ca>2 j _ COS2 1Jl'
2rp

005 1+ "'oos....,,ri ---005....'"p""

Pp - ("{ZOOSl) cos; _ " ros2 j _ calcp'
pp .Kp"{Z
 BAR1li PRESSURElliEORIFS

where Kp is given by

.7) Kp • COS I
. cosi
cos I _
+"V 2i

cns2i _ cm2ep'
2
oos _ coo !J?' ...(19.20)

Forthe special case, when ; • 0

K • .!....:!:....!! (same as Eq. 19.12)
p 1 - sin .'
8)
Incllnatlo n or fail ure planelJ.
co
~1
In Fig. 19.17, the line PH ind icates the major principal plane, and the line PE shows the direction of the
-e, minocprincipalplane. The minor principal plane makes an angle 0:2 with the horizontal. From the triangle
/'CO. 2ll,-'i'+1

tolAX'lR
P. PLANE

fig. 19.17.

B, - (~)
The inclination of the failure plane PF with the horizontal is equal to az, ootained from the relation
Bf,-a,+ll,
where 8/1 is the angle whictt the failure plane PF mekes wi1b the minor principal plane
Thus ~ .. 8/1 - 82

or a, _ (45' - ,'12) - (~) . ..(19.21)

The angle ~ is cbtained fran the trianglePCD as

sin 'V . ~ . ~~ ; . ~s:~· . s:~·

...
't' •
. -1 ( sin
SID
Siaq.'l) .. .(same as Eq. 19.17)

The other failure plane PE' makes an angle a 1 with the horizontal. given by
a l·8h+~

a, • (45' - . '12) + ( 7) ... (19.22)

(c) Press ure Distri bu tion. Fig. 19.18 shows the pressure distribution when the so il surface is inclined at
490 OOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 19.18.
an angle L The lateral pressure is parallel to the soil surface. 1be maximum pressure occurs at the botton of
the wall and is given by p. where P _ ptJin active case and p .. PI' in passive case.
From Eq. 19.14, ptJ .. K.. YII
2
P.. " cos; cos; - V cos ; - emi t' "(II
cos; + Vcos2 ; _ ca. 2 . ,

Total active pressure. PQ .. i K. r IP .. .(19.23)

likewise, PI' .. Kp 111

PI' '' cos I cos; + "cost; - 00'>2,' y/l

cos; - YCX'lf,zi _ cos2"
Total passive pressure, PI' .. i x, TIP .. .(19 .24)
For soils below the water table. the submerged weight l' should by used instead of bulk unit weight y.
(d) Inclined Back orwau. Sometimes,we come across a retaining wall with an inclined back [Fig. 19.19
(0»). Rankin e' s theory can be used to determi ne the earth pressure with some modificaUa;!. A vertical plane
AC is taken through A and the active pressure PQ is determined 00 this vertical plane from Rankine's theory.
The total pressure Pion the wall is the resul tant of the pressure P a and the weight W of the so il wedge ABC .
Th us

Pl·~

f A
Cal Cb) C<)

Ag.19.19.
EARllI PRESSURE TIlE ORIES 491

It acts at a height of 1//3 from the bottom.

In case of the wa ll with an inclined back and the backfill with a surcharge ang le i {Fig. 19.19 (b)}, the
active pressure P" is inclined 10 lhe vert ical plane AC at an ang le i, and the total pressure PI is the resultant
of the pressure P" and W. Fig. 19. 19 (e) shows the retaining wall with it back. inclined towards the backfill.
In this case, the verti cal plane AC is on the other side of the bact. face, and, therefore, W is imaginary.
19.6. RANKINE'S FARTII PRESSURE IN CO IlESIVE SOILS
Rankine's original theory was for cobeaontess 1
soils. II was extended by Resa l (1910) and Bell
(1915) for co hesi ve soils. 1bc treatment is similar
to that for cohcsionless soils w ith one basic
difference that the failure env elope has a co hesion
inlereept c', whereas thai for oohcs ionl css soils is
zero.
The following treatment is lim ited to the case
E C
when the baclcfill is horizontal.
(a) Active Case . Fig. 19.20 shows the Mohr L~~
circle in which point B indicates the vertical stress I;'cot~l
and point E shows the act ive pressure . The failure
.,~" --001
envelope is tangemlal to the circ le. Tbe Fig . 19.20.
relationship between P.. and 0 .. ca n be obtained as under .

From tria ngle FCD, sin +' - ~ - FO e;> DC

., . (01 - 03)1 2
sm+ - c'cot,,' + (01 + 0,J)/2
(°1 ; °3) _ (°1 ; (3) sin t ' + c' CCIi .. '

f (1 - si n.') - T (1 + sin.') + C'alS.'

a • 1 - sint' a _ 2c'ros " ...(a)
3 I + sin.' 1 1 + sin ,'
or 03- 0113n 2 (45° - q.'/2) - 2c' 180(45 0
t'/2) -

As 03 is equal 10 the acti ve pressure (P,,) , and 0 1 is equal 10 the vertical stress 0 .. (- 'Y Z), Eq. (a)
becomes
. (~) z- :Ie'cos.'
P" 1 + sin,' Y, 1 + sin ,

p" - K tI 'YZ - 2 c' ..f"K; ...(19.25)

where K" • ~ : :: : : • lan (45
2 0
- . '12)

It can be shown thai 1 ~i:' "- tan (45

0
- +'12 ) • ..f"K;
Eq. 19 .25 ind icat es = 0, the ecdv e pressu re is given by
that at Z
P. - - 2r! VK. ...(19.26)
lhe negative sign sbows thai the pressureis negative, Le. it tries to cause a pull on the wall. This tensile
stress decreases with an increase in depth, and it becomes zero at a depth Z~ . given by
492 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

0- KdlZe - 2 e' VK;.

2e'
Z, - YIK;; ...(19.27)
The depth Zf is know n as the depth of tecsile aack:. TIle tensile stress eventually causes a a-ack 10 from
alon g the soil -wall interface .
The pressure at the depth 11 is given by,
P.. . X"yH - 2c 'YK;.
Pressure Distribution
Fig. 19.21 sbows the pressure distribution against the retaining wall . The tota l pressureon the retaining
wall of height H is given by integration of Eq. 19.25 as

fig. 192 1.

p.-!, (K..yZ-2e'IK;;)dZ
r , - x.1!f- - 2e' IK;; II .. .(19.28)
Eq. 19.28 is app licable before the forma tion of crack
After the occurrence of the tensile creek, the force on the wall is caused only by' the pressure from
Z • Zf to Z = H, I e, tensile stresses are neglected .

Thus p. - t (1I - Z,)(X.yll - 2e'IK;;)

Substituting the value of Zf from Eq. 19.27,

e, - t (11- y~) (yIlX.-2e'IK;;)

p• • tyH' K.. - 2<' IIIK;; + 2( <,)'/y ...(19.29)

It acts at a he ight of (11 - Ze)/3.
For 4> ." 0, Eq. 19.29 red uces to

p.' t yH'- 2e'll + 2(e ')' / y .. .(19.30)

For soils below the water table, the submerged uait weight y ' and the correspon ding value of . ' and c'
should be used .
Critical height ut' unsupported nrtlcal cut,
As shown in Fig . 19.21, lhe pressure is negative in the lop region . II becomes zero at a depth Ze- If the
EARTH PRESSURE T HEORIES 493

wall has a height of 2Z e• the total earth pressure is zero. This height is known as the critica l height (He).
H, .2 Z, .. .(193 1)
If the height of an unsupported vertical cui is smaller than /le. it should be able to stand . However. the
conditions in unsupported vertical cut are different from those ncar a retaining wall. In Ihe vertical cut, the
lateral stress is everywhere zero, whereas in the retaining wall. it varies from - 2e' ..rK; to + 2e VK;. Because
of this diffcrence in the stress condition, the safe height of the vertical cut is slightly smalle r than Ib.'!tgiven
by Bq. 19.31.
Substituting the value of Ze from Eq. 19.27.
He - 2 X 2 e'/( ., VK;,) - 4e'/(.,VK;,) .. .(19.32)
For t' - o, He - 4 e'l., ... (19.33)

(b) Passive Case

An expression for the passive pressure in a cohesiv e so il can be dete rmined by referrin g to Fig. 19.22 .
The Mobr circle has been drawn such that the point lJ represents 0" and point E as Ppo In tria ngle FCD,

Fig. 19.22.
. , CD (01 - 03)12
sin ¢I - CF- c' cot, + (01 + 03)12
(01 - 03) - (01 + 03) sin 40' + 2 c' cos 40'
01(1 - sin.') - 03 (1 + sin,') + 2c'cos 40'
i!.....!....!!!
2c'rost'
°1 - (1 _ sin $') + 1 - sin 40'
OJ
2
Pp - 0"tan (45° + 40'/2) + 2c' tan (45 0 + $'12)
Pp - yZKp + 2c' VK; ...(19.34 )
where Kp = coefficient of passive pressure . given by

r, _ tan2 (45 0
+ 40'/2) _ ~ : ::~ : : ... (19.35)
The failure plane makes an angle of (45 0 + ,'/2) with the vertical (major principal plane) and of (45 0
40'/2) with horizontal (minor principal plane).
Pressure dist ribution
Fig. 19.23 shows the pressure distribution obtained from Bq. 19.34.
494 SOIl. MECHANICS AND FOUNDAll0N ENGINEERING

----jYHKp+ 2C',!Kp I--

Fig. 1923.

Whcn Z =O . Pp - 2c'..nc;
When Z = 11, pp . yHKp +2 c' YK; ...(19.36)
The lRSSUl'e. unlike act ive case. is positiv e throughout the dept h. The lotal press ure on the retai ning wall
of height 11is given by

p, .. kll(y llKp) + 2c 'YK;)( II

PI' - x, l lP/2 + 2e' 1fYK; ...(19.37)

19.7. COULOMB 'S WEDGE TIlEORY
Coul omb (1776) developed a method for the determination of the eanh pressure in which he considered
the equilibri um of the sliding wedge wh ich is formed when the movement of the retaining wall lakes place .
As discussed before. in the active case, the sliding wedge moves downw ard and outward relative to the
back fill. whereas in Lhc passive case. the sliding wedge moves upwards. The lateral pressure on the wan is
equal and opposi te 10 the reactive force exerted by me wall in order to keep the sliding wedge in equilibrium.
Th e anal ysis is a type o f limiting equilibriu m method :
The followi ng assum ptions are made :
(1) The backfill is dry. coheslonlcss, homogeneous , isotropic and ideally plaslic material.
(2) The slip surface is a plane surface which passes through the heel of the wall .
(3) The wall surfa ce is rough . 111e resultant earth pressure on the wall is inclined at an angle l) to the
nonnal to the wall, where l) is the angle of the friction between the wall and the backfill.
(4) The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body.
111e magnitude of earth pressure is obta ined by considering the equilibrium of the slid ing wedge as a
who le.
In Coulomb 's theory, a plane failure surface is assumed and the lateral force required to maintain the
equilibrium of the wedge is found using the principles of statics. The procedure is repeated for several trial
surfaces . The trial surface whic h gives the largest force for the active case, and the smalles t force for the
passive case, is the actual failure surface. 111emethod readily accommodates the friction betwee n the wall and
the backfill , irregula r backfill, sloping wall, surcharge loads, etc. Although the initial theory was for dry,
cohes lonless soils, it has now been extended to wet soils and cohesive soils as well. Thus Coulomb's theory
is more genera l than the Rankine thC<Xy.

19.8. COULOMB 'S ACflVE PRESSURE IN COIIESIONLESS SOILS

Fig. 19.24 (a) shows a retaining wall with an inclined back face and a slop ing dry granular backfill, In
active case, the sliding wedge ABD moves downward, and the reaction R acts upward and inclined at an angle
" with the nonn al.
The sliding wedge ABD is in equilibrium under three forces:
EARlli PRESSUR E THEO RIES 495

,'" lbJ
Fig. 19.24.
(1) Weight of the wedge (W).
(2) Reaaion R on the slip surface BD.
(3) Reaaion P. from the wall
J[ may be noted that , at failure ccoditions, the shearing resistance on the failure surface is fully mobilised
and the reaction R has the maximum obliquity. It is therefore inclined at an angle .' to the noemallo the failure
plane. Furthe r, p. acts upward, and it is.inclined at an angIe b with the norma l as sbown in Fig. 19.24 (a).
Fig. 19.24 (b) shows the force triangle. As the magnitud e of one force (viz. weigh t W) and the directions
of all three forces are known, the forc:e triangle can be com ple ted. TIle magnit ude of p.. is det ermined from
the force trian gle. Th e pressure act ing on the wall is equal and opposite to P4"
1be procedu re is repealed after assuming an other failure surface . Th e surface that gives the maximum
value of p. is the criti cal failure plane, and the corresponding force is Ihe active force.
Coulomb's method does nor give the point of application o f the resultant earth pressu re (P.;). TIle point
of application is found to be approximately et the poinl of Intersection E of the back of the retaining wall
with a line CE drawn from the centroid C of the fail ure wedge and parall el 10 the failure surface. As this
procedure is cumbersome, for convenience, the pressure distribution is sometimes assu med 10 be hydros tatic
00 Ihe back of the wall, and the resultant pressure P tl is assumed 10 act at one-t hird the height o f the wall
from the base.
The following points should be carefully noted while using Co ulomb's theory :
(1) For most practical C3SCS. the backfill moves down relative 10 lhe wall in the active case. and,
therefore, the active force P" is incli ned at angle b below the norm al a'> shown in Fig. 19.24 (a).
However, if the wall is supported on a soft. compressible soil . it may settle 10 such an extent that the
movement of the wall will be downward relative 10 the backfill and the relativ e movement o f the
wedge will be upward . In such a case, the force P. would be inclined at an ang le b above the normal
10 the wall.
(2) The angle 0 is the friction angle between the soil and the wall It may be determine d by means of a
dired shear test. For concrete walls, II is generally taken as 21341'.The val ue o f b cannot exceed If,
because in that case the failure will occur in soil.
1£ the friction angle b is zero. and the wall is vertical and the groun d surface is horizontal. the
Coulomb method gives identical results with the Rankine method .
(3) Coulomb 's theory ass umes the failure surface to be a plane . 'The actua l failure surface is slightly
curved . Fortu nately, for the active case. the error is · sme u, and therefore the failure surface may be
assumed 10 be plane wi thout any sign ificanl mar.
496 sou, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Expressio n for Active Pressure

From Fig. 19.24 (b). using the law of sines,
P, W
sin (a - , ') - sin (180° - P+ b a + +')

P, • sin (180'!'~P(~ 6" !1a + +1 .•.(a)

where p• • totalactivepressure force.

The weight W of the wedge ADDam. be determined from Fig. 19.25 as

rH

J~ fig. 19.25.

W.~)(BE)(AGXl

Taking AG . m. and BE = L. we have W - ~L x m )( 't

w; k(m x l)(BG + GEl .. .(b)

Now AB - H/sinp .
From triangle ABG, £i-. sm(l80' - (P + a ll · sin(p + a)

Therefore, m _ AB sin(j} + u). HSi~~p+ a) .•.(c)

BG m
From triangle ADO,
sm(p + a - 90') sm(p + a)
BG. msin(~ + a - 9O°)/ sin(j} + a) •..(d)
GE • _ _m__
From triangle AG E,
sin(900-a+i) sm(a-i)

or GE _ m sin ~~~a- _0;,)+ I) .. .(e)

Substituting the values of m, BG aDd GE from Eqs. (c), (d) aod (e) mEq. (b1
W = -21 . ~ [ sin<p+u -9O") Sin (9QO -a + i) ]
sin p . y x ", sin (13 + a ) + III sin (a - '1
EARllI PRE5.c;URE TllEORIES 497

or w. l lr y sin(1l +a)2 [ sin <a + a-90°) + sin (90 ' - a + I) 1

2 sin2~ si n (l~ + a) s in{u - I)

Substituting the above value of Win Eq. (a),

P . ! Ify sin(l3 + 0) 2 )( sin {a -,')
" 2 sin2 p, sin ( IBO'"-f'+b-a ++')

Sin (l\ + a -90°) sin (90" - n + .) 1

)( [ sin(jJ ... a) + sin(a I)
The active pressure force p.. will be a maximum when the failure plane makes an angle a with the
horizon lal such thai

~.o
Mullcr-Brcalcu gave the solution, which is qu ite complicated. The maximum value of P" thus obtained is
Coulomb's ecuve force, given by

p• • } K" y If .. .(1938)
where K. = Cotoomb's active earth pressure cccfficiera, given by
2
K. • sin (Il + . ') 2 •••(19.39)

. 2 A • (A _
sin p sm l'
b) [
1 + V sin (IJ _ 6) sin (~ + I)
0]
• / ,io <t' • b) , in <t' -

The line of actio n of p.. will be at a height of 11/3 above the base of the wall and it will be inclined at
an angle {) to the normal drawn to the back of the wall.
19.9. REHBANN 'S cossr nucn ox FOR AcnVE PRESSURE
Rchbaan (1871) gave a graphical method for the determinat ion of the tolal active pressure accord ing to
Coulomb's theory. It is based on Poncetcr's solution (1840), nod is, therefore, also known as Poncelet's
method.

A g. 19.26.
498 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 19.26 shows the graphical construction. The line BD is drawn at an ang le ~' to the horizontal. The
line BL, drawn at an angle 1Pw ith the line RD. is known as the earth pressure line. The angle 'l' is equal 10
(~ - b).
A scmi-circl c BMD is drawn on BD as diameter. The line AH is drawn parallel to BL, intersec ting the
line BD at 11. A perpendicular JIM is drawn at H, intersecting the semi-circle at M.
With B as centre and BM as radius, an arc MF is drawn, intersecting DD at F. The line FE is drawn
parallel to BL, intersecting the ground surface at E.
With F as centre and FE as radius, an arc is drawn to intersect BD er N. The line BE represents tbe
critical failure plane .
The total active pressure P" is given by
P" _ 'I (areaoflriangleNEF)
P" - 'f (112 lC NF )( x) ...(19 .40)
where x is the perpendicular distance EG between E and BD.
Proof. The proof of Eq. 19.40 is as under:
The triangle BEF and the force triang le in Fig. 19.24 (b) are similar. The refore,
EF
r, '" BF
W or Po " W
(EF)
!iF . ..(a)

From triangle EFG, iF '" sin tj), or EF .. .e ccsec e ...(b)

Now M -~-m-~ -~ -~ -W-OO+&

BF _ BD - x cot ('f - i) + x cot tj)
BF .. L - x cot (4" - i) + x cot tj) ... {e}
where L = Length of BD.
Now W _ 1 (volume of triangle ABE)
Taking unit length of the wall,
W - Y ( area of triang le ABE)
_ Y [a rea of triang le ABD - area of triangle BED]

W-l~xLxm-lxLx~·tlL~ -~ •••(<1)
where m is the perpendicular distance from A to BD.
From Bqs. (a), (b), (e) aod (d),

P a '" ~ 1 L (m - x) x [L _ x cot~~;:f + x cot 'tV] •••(e)

In Eq. (e). subst ituting cosec \j) .. C

and cotW-,)-cot'l'-d, •..if)

Po · t1 L (m - x) (L ~xdx)
For max imum value of r., iJa:,. .. 0
(L - dx) (me - 2<:%) - (m -x) ex (-d). 0
or mL - 2xL + dx'- _ 0
0' mL-xL - x L - d r

~ (m - x) - ~ (L - dx)
 EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES 499

,0 Substituting the value of d from Eq. (f),

o
~ (m - x) - i [L - x rot (t' - i) + x rot ~]
Using Eq. (c), T -T-~)(BF
Area of triangl e ABD - Area of triangle BED = Area of triangl e BFJ
or Area o f triangle ABE = Area of ltiangl e BEF
In other words, for the maximum value of P." the failure plane BE should be such thaI the triangles ABE and
BEF have equal areas .
Let us examine whether Rehbann's ronstrud.ion satisfies the above ailerion. From the properties of the
citcle,
BH )( liD _ (11M)2
Adding (B1I)2 10 both sides,
(8H)' • BH • HD - (HM)' • (Blf)'
BH (BH • lID ) , (BM)'
BH)( BD - (BFP
or BH/BF - BF IBD ... (1)
As All is parallel to EF, triangl es Bill and BEE are similar .
'Iberefcre, BHIBF - BI/BE .. .(u)
From Eqs. (~and (u), . BFIBD, BI/BE
i.e: JF is parallel to AD.
Thus,the figure AlFE becomes a parallelogram.
Therefore. the perpe ndicular from point A on the diagonal JE and the perpendicular from point F on the
same diagonal would be equal in length . Consequently. the erees of triangles ABE and BFE which have the
same baseBE woukl be equal It proves that Reboam's construction satisfies the required criterion.
Expression for total pre5SUJ"e from Rehbann's constmctton
From Bq. (Q~ p. ' W. (EFIBF)
- y (area of triangle ABE) )( EF IBF
or P Q - Y (area ofl riangle BFE» ( EFIBF

- Y )( t )( BF )( x )( EF/BF

or PQ-txy)(EF)(X .• .(19.41)

PQ - tx 't x NF )( x (same as Bq. 19.40)

Bq. 19.41 can be written in terms of various angles.
Frdm similar triangles EFD and AHD ,
EF AH
w'Ai)
a
(EF)' _ (AH~ED) .. .(iu)

From triangle flAB,

AH AB
sin ( l BO° _ P _ ,') - sin ",
500 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

AH .. AB sin ~rn ~--U

Bl/~
Ali .. sin'P

BH .AB~
sin,,!,
BD ~
From triangle AnD,
Ali · sin(¢l' - i)

BD -AB~
sin ($' - i)

*'"
'{be ratio AD/ED can be writte n as

AE ;V
ED
'" ~+ 1 .. !fv + 1

~=~ + 1

From Rehoann's construction, 811)( BD .. Bl·..:.2

BF = vBll x DD

iif5 . ~ BlUDD
Therefore, ~ .. villl/BD + 1

From Eq. (iii). Ep2 _ (A/1)2 )( (ED/AD)2

Ep2=AFr x 1
(~DlIIDD + 1)'
Substituting the value of AN, Bll and ED,

EF"AIi'[~]'X 1
sin'!' [
V~
sm1p
.~+1
sm(~ + I)
]'

From Eq. 19.41, substituting AD .. H cosec ~ and.r - EFsin1p,

P(I ",}y (HoosccP)2sintl')( [SinBn;P')f

1

Pa '" ~
Iv
K" 'I HZ
sine$' + 6) sin (p' - I) + 1 ]'
sin 1.jlsin (P + I)
.. .(same as Bq. 19.38)

where K .. coscc213 5m 2 (13 + cjl')

o

sin [ .. / sin w +
.. 'I' V
~)sin(p' .-
sln'l'sm(f} + I)
i)
+ 1
j'
EARnI PRESSURE THEORIES SOl

2
K" _ sm (P ... t ') 2 .. .(same as Eq. 1939)

sin2 ~ sin(P _ b) [ 1 ... Vsi?(t' ... b)s~<t' - oj

sm(~ - b)sm(~ ...
I)

19.10. CULMANN'S CO NSTR UCIlON FOR ACI1VE I'R ESS URE

Rchbann's constructk>n becomes inconvenient when lhc slope angle; approoches the angl e ¢I'. Culmann
(1866) developed a method wh ich is more general tha n Rehbann' s method. It can be used to dctennine
Coulomb's earth press ure for ground su rface of any configuration, for various types of surcharge loads and
for layeredback Illls. Ul lman n's const ruction is. in faa, lhc method of construction of the force triangle in a
rotated orientation . 1be proced ure cons ists of follow ing ste ps :

Fig. 19.27
(1) From point B (Fig . 19.27), a line BD is drawn at an angle .' to the horizontal. As the weight of the
wedge is plotted along this line, it is also known as the weight line.
(2) A line BL is d rawn at an ang le "p with the line BD, such that "p - P - b, whe re Il is the angle which
the back face makes wi th the horizontal and b is the angle of frict ion.
(3) A failure surfa ce HF is assumed. and the weight (W) of the failure wedg e AllF is comp uted.
(4) The weight (W) of the wedge is plotted along ED suc h that BP = W.
(5) A line PQ is drawn from point P parallel to BL to intersect the failure surface BF a t Q.
(6) The length PQ represe nts the magnitude of P" requir ed to maintain equili brium for the assu med
failure plane.
(7) Several other failure planes liF", BF', DP" " etc. are ass umed and the procedu re repea ted . Thus the
points Q", Q', Q"', ere. are loca ted .
(8) A smoothcurve is drawn joining the points Q", Q, Q' ,Q" " etc. The curve is known as CuII1IiUIIJ ~ line.
(9) A line (shown dott ed) is draw n tangential to the Ullm ann line and parallel to ED . Po int T is the
point of tangency .
(10) The magnitud e of the larges t val ue (P_) of P" is measured from thc tang en t point T to the line BD
and parallel to BL. It is equal to Cou lomb's act ive prcssun: (P.).
(ll) The actual failure plane passes through the point T (show n dolled).
meet of UnlConDSurcharge or Lln e load
Cujmann's method can be easily extend ed to include the e ffect of unifoon surcharge or the line load
applied to the backfin. Each such load th.:u falls within the assu med failure wedge is included by adding it to
the weight of the failure wed ge.
502 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 19.28 .
Fig. 19.28 shows the modification when a line load q' acts on the backfill. The Culmann line upto point
Q is similar to the case when there is no line load. However, at point Q. it becomes discontinuous , a<l
suddenly the loa d of the wedge is increased due 10 line load q'. In this case , tangents are drawn to the two
segmentsofthc curve, aoo the value of Po is determined. The value of (Pa + Ii.P J is measuredfrom the line
BD to the maximum point on tbe Culmann line thaI includes the line load.
is.n. COULOMB 'S ACTIVE FARm PRESSURE FOR COHESIVE SOILS

'q
The Coulomb wedge theory can be extended 10 cohesive soils. In addition to the three forces (W, Pa and
R) considered for the cohesion less soils in the preceding sections, there are two more forces , namely, (1) the
cohes ive force C acting on the failure plane BE (Fig. 19.29), (2) the adhesive force Co acting on the back. of
,

~ ~

Co

c
0' '"
Fig. 19.29.
the wall. In all there are 5 forces which keep the wedge in equilibrium . The resultant pressure P t on the bad
of the wall acts at an angle (» to the normal .
The force polygon for the 5 forces is shown in Fig. 19.29 (b). The magnitude of W is determined from
the weight of the wedge ABE. The magnitudes of C and Co are respectively c x BE and c.. x AB where c
and c.. are unit cohesion and unit adhesion . Knowing the directions of all the five forces and the magnitudes
of 3 forces, (he force polygon is comp leted as shown.
The total pressure p .. on the wall is the vector sum of PI and C... By analysing several trial wedges, the
maximum value of p .. can be determined.
 NO EARTH PRESSURE mEORIES 563

The resultant pressure P, is assumed to ad on the back of the wall at the point ofinterscclion of a line drawn
parallel to the cri tical surface and passing through the centre of gravity of lhe wedge. with. tile back of the wall .
Forconvenience, sometimes it is taken at a point at one-uurd the height of the wall from its base.
Note. (1) Sometimes, the resultant pressure 00 the wall is taken as maximum value of PI' wilhout
combining it with C...
(2) In cohesive soils. tension cracks deve lop to a depth of Zr It is generally assumed thai upto depth of
tension aack. no cohesion, adhesion or friction ects.
19.12. TRIAL WEDGE MEnIOD
The trial wedge method assu mes that the rupture surface is plane . The mal wedge mclhod is a genera l
method which can be used to compute ecuve pressureand passive pressure for both Rankine's condition and
Coulomb's condition. The method can also be applied 10 the cases when the soils arc co hesive . The trial
wedge method for co mputing Coulomb's ac tive pressure for cohesio nless soils is discussed below.

int

JT~a
as
_0
ne W ,

b /: (Pa}max

nd ' - PRESSJRE
be / lOCUS
la )
of
l b)

Fig. 19.30.
In Fig. 19.30, the line BF shows an assumed failure plane . TIle wedge ABF is held in equilibrium by the
reaction R aaing on the rupture plane BF and the force p... The force p. acts at obliquity b below the normal
10 oppose the movement of the wedge . The reectloe R acts with obliquity t ' below the normal.
Theforce triangle abc is shown in fig . 19..30 (b). The value of p. is determined from the force triangle
as the distance be.
Another trial surface, such es BF' is assumed and the force triangle a b' c' is drawn. A common vertical
line for the weights is take n for all the force triangles. The value of p. is again determined.
The procedure is repealed, taking several trial planes, and the corresponding force triangles arc drawn and
the values of p. determined in each case.
A curve, called pressure locus (shown dotted) i<;, drawn through tbe points of intersections c, c' , etc. of
p. and the ccerespooding R. The maximum pressure vector (P.Jrnas. gives the magnitude of the Coulomb
x aaive pressure, The failure plane cocrespond ing to this vector is the actual failure plane. However. it is
difficult to located the failure plane precisely.
The above procedure is general. Various modifications can be made as unde r.
(1) If the active pressure corresponding to Rankine's conditi on is required. the plane AB on wh ich the
pressure is computed is vertical. 1be resultant pressure on this plane is parallel to the groun d surface.
The rest of tbe procedure remains unchan ged.
(2) If the ground surface is irregular, the trial wedge method can still be used. Of coarse, there would
be some diffk:ulty in calculating the weight Wof the wedge.
 roll MECHANICS AND fO UNDATION ENGINEERING

(3) The method can also be used to determine the activ e pressu re agains t tile back of the wall if the back
fill carries a surc harge load dist ributed over the ground surface or a line load acting OIl the fill. The
weight of the wedg e would includ e all such loads .
(4) If the soil is cohesive , the force polygon wo uld also include the cohesive force C on tbe failure plane
and the adhesive force ell on the wall.
It may be noted that the trial wedge method does flO( give the point of application of P<r The pressure
variation is ass umed to be triangula r and it is ass umed that P" acts at one- third height. Howev er, in irregular
ground surface, the pressure variation is not triangular and it would result in some error.
19.13. COULOM B'S PASSIVE £A ImI PRESSURE FOR COIIESI ONLESS SOILS
111c failure surface: in Coulomb's passive
state is assumed to be a plane. Fig. 193 1 shows
the case when the passive conditions develop. In
th is CUSC, the failure wedge moves upwards . The
directions of Rand Pp which o ppose the
movement are also shown. The reactioo R acts
ar " 10 the normal in the downward direction
and the reaction pressure Pp acts at an ang le b to
the norm al in the downw ard direct ion.
The procedu re for comp uting Coo tom b's
passive pressure is simi lar to o ne for the act ive '------'= = -':1''''---
case (Sec t. 19.8) However, there is one basic
difference . In this case, (he critical failure 10)
(b)
surface is that which g ives (he min imu m va lue
« r; I'ig. 19.31.

Fig. 19.31 (b) shows the force triangle. Th e value of Pp is determined from this trian gle. The procedure
is repeated after assuming a new trial failure surface. The minimum value of Pp is the Coulomb passive
pressure . Using the peocedore similar to that for the active case, it can be shown that the passive pressure is
given by

...(19.42)

w here
,in'(P - +') , •••[19.42(a))
·2Ao . (R b) [ I _
~ p . ~p +
V sin (t' + b)sin(+' +
~( ~ +~~nW +ij
il l
Th e res ultant passive press ure Pp acts at a height of 1//3 measured from the bot tom of the wa ll. It would
be inclined at an angle b to the: normal, as shown in Fig. 19.3 1. However, when the retaining wall moves
up relative to the soil , the friction angle 0 is measured below the norma l and 0 is said (0 be negative . The
negative wa ll friction prod uces a val ue of passive pressure lower than thai for the usual positive wall
fricti on.
It is wo rth noting that the wall friction decreases the activ e pressure, but it increases the passive pressure.
Moreover, the wall friction has a greater influence on the passiv e press ure than on the active pressure. When
b exceeds II.J .', Coulom b's assumption of plane failure surface is not j usn flcd in the passive casco It gives
much greater value of PI' compared to that obtained for the actual curved surface . As the passive pressure is
gcnernll y required to provide the stability to a retai ning wa ll subjected to the active pressure on the other side,
tbe higher value of PI' obtai ned from the plane fail ure surface in unconscrv ativc or unsafe. Fo r such cases, the
failure surface should be taken as a logarithmic sp iral or a circular arc as explained in Sect. 19 .14.
10 BARnI PRESSURE111EORlES sos

:;:k Rehbcnn's construcuon. Rchbann's oonstruction can be used for lhe determination of the passive
pressure. tlowcvcr, in this case, the +-line is drawn til an angle -,' (i.e. below horizonta l) to intersect the
extension of ground surCoce at point D.
Culmunn method, Tbc Culmann method and trial wedge method may also be used. From a series of
scverul force triangles corresponding to the various trinl surfaces, a pressure locus or a Culmann line for
passive pressure is obtained . The Coulomb pcssfve pressure is the minimum value of pressure so obtained.
19.14. PASSIVE PRESS URE DY Un: n UCfIO N C i RC LE MI=.IHOD
As discussed above. {he rupture surface cannot be assumed 10 be a plane in the passive case, especially
when b > t 'l3. as it gives unsafe values of lhe passive pressure. The actual rupture su rface resembles more
closely a log-spiral in such 0 case. 'Icrzaghi's general wedge rbcory (1943) can be used 10 determine the
passive pressure.However. the method is quite involved and beyond the scope of this text. The friction circle
method is somewha t easier and is descr ibed below for both cohcsion less and cohesive soi ls.
(a) Coheslonlc:ss Soil
The lower portion flF of the slip surface DFD is assumed 10 be an arc of a circle which joins, without
break, the plane slip surface FD [Fig. 19.32(a)]. The plane slip surface portion FD is inclined at (450 - , '/2)
10 \he horizontal. It is assumed that the upper portion CFD of the slid ing wedge ADD is in Rankine's passive
o

tirtl.

T
1

(0'
Ag. 1932 (Q), (b) and (c) '"
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDlffiON ENOINEER1NG
""
stare of plastic equilibrium . Planes AF and DF are the boundary failure planes of the Rankine 's passive zone
MD. The plane FD is tangential 10 the circular arc BF al F.
Let USconsider the eq uilibrium of the free body AllFe [Fig . 19.32 (b)]. The body is in equilibrium under
4 forces.
(1) Weight Wof the free body AllFe of soil
(2) Rcsultanl pressure P due 10 Rankine's passive zone CFD.
(3) Reaction R 00 the curved surface.
(4) Passive force PI"
The friaioo circle method uses the concept that the reaction rorce R acting along the failure arc acts at
an angle .' with the normal. and is therefore tangential 10 a circle of radius, sin .' drawn at the centre of
the failure arc. Thus the result ant reaction R is tangential to the friction circl e. Actually, R is tangential to a
circ le of radius K r sin ,', where K is a facta slightly greater lhan unity, but for convenience K is taken as
unity.
The Rankine passive pressure P acts on plane CF at a height of h!3. where h is equal to the heigh t CF
and is gi ven by P = iKpy h2.
The passive pressure P, acting on AB is also assumed to aa at a height 1/13. where H is the heigh! of
the wall .
The weigh t W of the wedge AllFe is determined from its area and the unit weight of lhe soil.
Koowin g the magn itudes and directioos of Wand P, their resultant S can be determined as shown in Fig.
19.32(c). Now the sysltm is reduced to 3 forces, namely, PP' R and S. The three forces must meet at a point
Q for the equili briwn [Fig. 19.32(b»). Knowing the directions of P, and R and the magnitude and direction of
S, the force triangle o m be drawn and the value of P, competed,
1be procedure is repeated for vario us trial surfaces and the value of P, determined. The minimum value
of Pp thus ob tained is the requiredpassive pressure. Of course , the pressure acting on the wall would be equal
and opposite to P, so found.

(b) Cobesfve Soli

For a c----+soil . the ana lysis is done in two pans :-
(1) First Pp is detennined as in the case of cohesiontess soils , as explained above .
(2) Addit ional pressure Pp is detennined considering only the cohesive and adhesive forces, as described
below.
The total passive force in this case is (Pp + P,'>. The minimwn value of the force (Pp + P,') is the
required passive pressure. It is determined after evaluation of P,'.
Fig. 19.33 (a) shows a retaining wall with a cohesive fill. The free bodyABFC is in equilibrium under
the additional forces Pp ' , C, R' andr;
The Rankine passive force P, due to cohesion on the plane CF of height h is given by
r, - 2 c VK;h
It acts at the mid-point of CF.
The passive pressure P,' acts at the mid-point of the face AB at an angle 6 to the nonnal.
The force C is equal to the swn of the cohesive forces parallel to the chord BF of length Le •
e _ c » L"
The force C is located at a distance a from the centre , given by
a _ rL.,IL"
where L tl is the length of the arc BF.
The adhesive force C... on the wall is given by
10 EARTH PRESSURE TItEORIES 507

at Fritli on cir cle

)f
a
lS

'--./2
F

)f

l·
u
.f ~)

fb)
Ai . 19.JJ.
C..,-c""xAB
where c'"is the adhesion aloog the wall.
From the force diagram [Fig. 19.33(b)J. the resultant C of the force C and the wall coh esion C... is first
determined.
The resultant P/ of the forces C and Pc is then determined as shown. Point (1) in Fig . 19.33 (a) shows
lhe position through which P/ passes.
Now the forces PI'" P/ and R' are considered. Point (2) indicates the position through which the three
forces act 11 lies at the Inrersection of P/ and PI'" The directioo of R' is now determined as it passes through
po int (2) and is tangen tial to the friction ci rcle. Once the direa.ion of R' is determined. the force polygoo in
fig. 19.33(b) is completed and the value of PI" is determined.
The total passive pressure is equalto the sum o f PI' and Pp'. whe re PI' is the friaional part as calaJlalcd
for cobeslceless soils and PI" is tbe cohesion part.
The above procedure is repealed taking different failun: surfaces. The failure surf ace which gives the
minimum value of (PI' + P,:> is the required surface . Thus the passive pressure force is found .

19.15. DETERMINATION OF S IIEAR STRENGTII PARAMETERS

Retaining wall proble ms represen t plai n strain conditions in which intermediate principal stress has a
 son, MECHANICS AND FO UNDATION ENGIN EERING

value in-between the major and minor principal stresses . The angle of internal friction (,') used in the
compu tation of lateral earth pressure should correspond to the plan" strain condition. As the determination of
this angle in the laboratory is difficult, the angle of friction is ! determined from the triaxial tcst and II
correction is applied .
Bjenurn et a1 (1961) foond that the angle of intcmal friction in plain strain (+p) is about 10% more than
that in the convecucoel triax ial test (+,).
Meyertx>f (1963) gave the following relatim for +".
~p - (1.1 - 0.1 ~) ~, .. .(19.43)

where B is the width and L is the length of retaining wall

Shear strength peram etes c and + in terms of either total stresses or effective stresses may be used
according to the actual drai nage cond itions . How ever, as in practi ce most back fills are of gran ula r pervi ous
materials, ccosolica red-drai ned condi tions exist and the cohesion intercept is generally zero .

ILLUS'rnATIVE EXAMPLES

I1hlStrative Example 19.1. Determine the lateral earth pressure or rest peT unit length. of the wall sho wn in
J
Fig. E·19.1(a).Alw de1ermine the location ofUle resultant earth pressure: TakeKo- I-sin" andlw . 10 JcNlm •
Solution. K o • 1 - Sill . ' • 1 - sin 30° - 050.
At point B 0, • 2 )( 17 • 34 kN/m 2, u• 0
Po. Ko 0, .. 0.5)( 34· 17kN/m2
At point C a, • 2)( 17 + (19 - 10) )( 2 • S2 kN/m 2
Po. 0.5 52 .. 26kN/m 2
]I(

u .2)( 10. 2OkN /m 2

Fig. &19.1 (b) shows the pressure distributioo diagram. The diagram bas been divided into tour parts.
Let P"P20PJ and PI, be the total pressure due to tbcse parts. Thus

. '=30°
Y:11k N/m 3
T1m
01
, ': )(f
t (l)
y. ,,19 kNl m 3
>0' r 1 17.0
III
19.°1
<'l
20.0

Fig. &-19.1.

PI • ~ )( 17 )( 2 • 171cN. P2 • 2 )( 17 • 34 kN

PJ • ~)( 9 )( 2 • 9kN. PI, • ~ )( 20 )( 2 _ 20kN

Thtal p. BOkN
The line of action of P is deltrnlined by taking moments about C.
PZ. 17]1( 2.667 + 34)( 1.0 + 9 lC 0.667 + 20)( 0.667
Z _ 4S.3 + 34;; 6 + 13.3 _ ~6 • 1.23 m from base.
£ARTII PRESSURE TIlEORIES

Illustrative Exampl e 19.2. Determine the active pressure on the retaining wall shown in Fig. £ ·/9.1 (a),
J
TaU lw '" 10 IrNl m •

~
'
+'~JSO .
Y:l1kN lml
T
F n.s

'0)
r 0'
~!:~:!.l1(b~ 25 I
Ag. E-19.2.

Solution. From Eq. 19 .10, ~ • ~ : :: : :

For the upper layer, I(, • ~ : :~ ~~: • 0 .271

For the bott om laye r, KI> • ~ : : : ~: • 0.238

At point B 0 : • 2.5 )( 17 • 42.5 leN/m t , u • 0

PI> • 0.271 )( 42.5 • 11.5 leN/m t
Below the interface, p . is given by
p., • 0.238 x 42.5 • 10.1 !tN/m t
At point C a, • 2.5 )( 17 + 2.5 )( 8.0 • 62.5 leN/m t
u • 2.5 x 10 _ 25 leN/ mt
PI> - 0.238 x 62.5 _ 14.9 kN/m t
Fig. E-19 .2 (b) shows the pressure distribution.
1be forces P b P» p) and P 4 are determined from the pressure distribution diagram.

Pl · t x 2.5 x 11.S - 14.4k.N. P t - 2.5 )( 10.1 .. 253k.N

p) - t x 2.5 x 4.8 • 6.0 kN. P4 - t x 2.5 x 25 - 313 kN

Tala! p. 77.0 kN
Takingmoments about C,
z_14.4 )( 3.33 + 25.3 x 1.25 + 6.0 )( 0.833 + 3 1.3 )( 0.833 _ 1.44m
77.0
illustrati ve Example 19.3. Determine the active pressure on the wall shown in Fig. £·193, using
RiurJdne:t theory.
Solution. From Eq. 19.1S,
K• • ens i x ens ~ - .Joos i - ens t '
2 2
cos I + vros/i _ ca. 2 . ,
oos IS· _ vens2 ISO cos2300
K.. - 005 ISO x 005 150 + vOO52150 _ 0052300 - 0.373.
". SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

,.

'.
T
'",
"'=30·
'1'=1' kN / mS

'13 m
...l
Fig. £-19.3 .
1
From Eq. 19.23. p. - t K. YH 2 - t )( 0.373 )C 19.0 x (4)2 - 56.7 kN

lbe active pressureacts at a heighl of 4/3 m and inclinedat 15° 10 normal

,
Illustrative Example 19.4. Determine the stresses at the
top and the bottom of the cut shown in Fig. £·19.4.
Also determ ine Ihe maximum depth of potential crack and
the maximum depth of unsupported excavation. · ' ~ 12°
e . 20 kNl ml
Solution. From Eq. 19.25. p.. - K.. Y Z - 2 c' ViC • • IS kNlml

_~ : ~:;: _
when:

Thus
K. _ /

AI top Z = O,
::~ 1~;0
p" - 0.656 )C 18l - 2 )C 20 )C vo.636
p._ll.81Z _32,4
P. _ - 32.4 kN /m 2
0.656

I -1 14 .8 ;-

At bouom Z :: 4, P.. _ 14.8 kN/m 2 Fig. £- 19.4.

From Eq. 19.27, depth of aadc,

Zt- ~~ _ 2_~ _ 2.74Sm

y y X" 18 vO.656
From Eq. 19.32, maximum depth of unsupported excavation,
4c'
H,. yVK;; .S.490m
U1ustrath'e Example 19.5. A 5 m high retaining waIl is shown in Fig. £-19.5. Determine the R.ankUtt
active pressureon the wall (a) Before the formation. of the crock. (b) After the formation of the crack.
0
Solution. X _ I - sin.' _ 1 - sin 30 _ 0333
• 1 + sin.' 1 _ sin 30°
From Eq. 19.25, p.. - X.. yZ - 2c' VK;,
p.. - 0.333 )C 17.5Z - 2)C 5v'O:N
P• • 5.83 Z - 5.77
At top, Z = 0, p.. __ 5.171cN/ m2
AI point B, where P. _ 0 .0,
E.AR1li PRESi UR£ ntEORIES 511

LJ} c.)

Fig. E·19.5 .
5.83Z - 5.77 - 0 or Z - 0.99 m
At bottom Z c 5 m, Po - 5.83 x 5 - 5.77 _ 23.38 kN /m 2

Before formation of crack

Negative pressure, PI - tx 0.99 x 5.77 - 286 k.N

Positive pressure, P2 - t x 4.01 x 2338 - 46.88kN

Net Pa - 46.88 - 2.866 • 44.02 kN

Line of action of Pa is determin ed as under, by taking mo ments about C.
Z_ 46.88 x 4.0113 :w~o~ x (4.01 + 0.67) _ 1.12 m

The same resuk would be obtained using Bq. 19.28.

After ronn a tion of Crack
After the formation of the crack. the negative pressure is eliminated. The pressure distribution is given
by tbe area bed.

Pa - t x 23.38 x 4.01 - ".6.88kN

It will act at a height of 4.0 1/3 m 000ve base
Alternatively, directly from Eq. 19.29,

P" - t't IP x, - 2e' H VK; + 2 (c·)2/"f

-t x 175 x 52 x 0.333 - 2 x 5 )( 5 {"'([J33 + 2 x (5)2/ 175

or Po - 72.84 - 28.85 + 286 _ 46.8SkN .

IlIustnr.Clve Enmple 19.6 . Determ ine the Rankine passive force per unit length of the wall showrl in Fig .
£· J9.6. The water table is at the level 01 B. Take "f... = 10 tNl;?

Solution. From Eq. 19.12, K, - ~ : : ::

For top layer I. (kph - ~ : : : ~: - 3.00

For bottom layer n, (Kph _ ~ : : : ;:: _ 2.37

S12 SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

I
. ',.30 0 T
fr
c:' "o
B 't" l6kN lm 3

"
. ',,24"
c:' ,, (I kN lm 2
""'9 kNl m 3

~4~-l0~

'0' !OJ

FIg. E-19.6.
From Eq. 1934, Pp • x, Y Z + 2e ' VK;
At poin t A , z v n, pp.O.

AI point B, Z . 2 m, a.. . 2 x 16. 32kN/m 1

Top layer. Pp • 3 x 32 _ 96 kN /m 1
Bottom layer. Pp _ 32 x 23 7 + 2 x 10 x V2Ji _ IM .6 kN/m 1
AI point C, a.. - 2x 16 + 2 x (19 - 10) _ SOkN/m 1
Pp _ 50 x 2.37 + 2 x 10 Vf37 _ 149.3 kN/m 2
u _ 2 x 10 _ 2OkN/m2
Fig. E-19.6 (b) shows the pressure dislribution.
Total pressure P - PI + P2 + P3 + p.

-t x 2 x 96 + IM .6 x 2 + 4- x 42.7 x 2 + t )( 2 x 20 - 371.9 kN

D1ustratlve Examyk 19.7. DetermiM W: Coulomb active force on tM retaining wall shown in Fig.
E-19.7. y - 17.5 kNlm .

fig . &.19.7.

Solution. From Eq. 1939, K sin' (p + . ')

• - sm'p. sm(p-6) [1 +
lG EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

2 0
K. .. sin (75 + 30°) :z

m
. '75° . M5° _ 20°) [1
~\' +
V '"'(30°.20")'"'(30° - 151]
~~o_~.~.+15'

K. .. 0.933 2 .. 0.548

0.933 x 0.819 [1. Vo.:~9XxO;~91

From Eq. 19.38, r, - ~K.1H'
or P" .. ~ )( 0.548 )( 17.5 ]I( (5)2 .. 119.9 kN

This will act at a height of 513 m and inclined at 20° 10 normal in the direction shown. TIle reader should
note tbat the direction of P" is equal and opposite to that on the wedge, as discussed in Sect. 19.9.
illustrative Example 19.8. Determine the active thrust on the retaining wall shown in Fig. E-19.8. The
backfill is cohesionless (.' = 30·, 'f = 19 kNlmJ• () = 20°).
Solullon. The method of trial wedges is used (Sect. 19.12). Several trial planes such as B-1, B-2,
B-3, 8-4 are chosen. The sliding wedge is in equilibrium under the three forces Jv, R and P,,' The weights
of the wedgesare computed es given below .
WcdgeABl. WI" (6]1( 312) x 19.0 .. 171.0kN
Wedge AB2, W2 .. (6 )( 612) )( 19.0 .. 3420 kN

\Vedge ABJ, W) .. t )( 2 l( 9 x 19.0 + 342 .. 513 tN

WcdgeAB4, W4 .. t x 2 lC 9 ]I( 19.0 + 513 .. 684 tN

I 3m 3m

f'm
1 c.)

j rIB. &19.8.
s.. son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. & 198 (b) shows the force diagrams drawn along the common we ight line. The pressure locus is
shown dotted .
The maximum thrust is given by p. • 178.5kN
Illestreuve Example 19.9. Determinethe active thrust on Ihe retainingwall shown in Fig. £- 19.9, w ·
Cu/mann ~ method.

• :ls"
Y :20kNlm)
~ : 90"
':0

L
Fig_ £-19.9.
Solution. The line BD i1 drawn at an angle of 35° 10 the horizontal, and the line DL a1 an angle 'P =
to the line BD.
lnlhiscase, ,!,.~-6.90·-0.90·
8--1,8--2,8-3. andB-4 are the four assumed mal failure surfaces. Tbe weights are ca lculated as
WI - t)( 2 )( 6 x 20· 120kN

W2• t)( 4 x6 lie 20. 240kN

w;\-t)( 6)f 6 x 20 - 360kN

W.. • i x 8 )( 6 )( 20 • 480kN

The weighl (Wo) of wedge ABO , upto the line load, is 180 kN.
The weight including line load, Wo - 280 leN
The weights arc plotted aloog the line BD. .
From each of the points so located on BD, lines are drawn parallel to BL to cut the
assumed failure surface. On the failure plane 00, two points e and e' are obtained, one for wedge without
line load and one for wedge with the line load.
Culmann's line is drawn joirung the points a, eo ~, b, C. d. It is a discontinuous curve because of the
load. A tangent is drawn to the Culmannline such lhat it is parallel to BD. From the point or tangency, a
EF is drawn parallel 10 BL. The length or EF gives lhe required PtI'
PI l · 1 5 6 k N
li NG EARTII PRESWRE l 11EORlES 515

>sis PROBLEMS

A. Numeriml
:sing 19.1. ~:;n:~ ~V~~~b~~:DCci~l~r~run~orv::c:~ning wa114 m hig~A::~~ ~~j
19.2. For tbe retaining wall in Prob. 19.1, determine the active pressure per unit run. [Aos. 56.7 kN}
19.3. Delerminethe active pressure and passive pressure, using Coulomb 's theory. on the wall shown in fig . P. 193.
[ADS. 73 IN. 1413 WI

Fig. P-193.
19.4, A relaining wall has a vertiCll back and is 8 m high. The bock face orthe wall is smoodt and the upper surface
of the fill is horizonlal. Determine the thrust on lbe wall per unillength. lake c = 10 kN1m2• y = 19 kNfm and
3

• = 20". Neglect tension. (ADS. 1813 kN]

3
19.s. Arelaining wall with a vertical smooth bact. is 8 m high. II supports a CXlhesionless soil (y z: 19 kNfm , • ;; 30").
90" The surface of the soil is horizootaJ. Determine the thrust 00 the wall. [ADS. 202.7 kN]
19.6. IJtotennine the resullanl thrust 00 the wall of. Prob. 19.4 if weep holes are blocked and water builds up behind
the wall until the water table is 3 m above the base cl the wall. fAns. 2043 kN)
:ler: 19.7. A relaining wall is 7m lIigh, wi th its bact face smooth and vertical. II retains sand wil h its surface horizontal.
Using Rankine's !hcoJy, detcnnine active eartb pressure al the base when the backfill is (a) dry, (b} sarurared
3
and(e) submerged, with water table 81tbe surface. lake y " 18 kNtm and • ;; 30°, lIM ;; 21 kNfm .
2
[Am. 42 kNfm2• 49 kNfm2• 25.7 kN1m )
19.8. A vertical retaining wall 10 m high supports a cc besloetess soil (y = 18 kNfml . The upper surface of the bad:
fill rises from the crest of Ihe wall at an angle of IS" with the horizontal. Dctennine the IOta! active pressure by
Culmann's method and chcd:: the pressure obtained by Rehbann's construction. Take . .. 30° and b ;; 20°.
[A ns, 333.5 kN]

B. Descriptive and Objective Types

19.9. Whal aredifferent types of earth pressure ? Give examples.
19.10. Defineearth pressure at rest Show tbe earth pressure distribution on II retaining wall. assuming the soil is dry.
19.11. \\'hal are the assumptions of Ranlc.ine's theory? Derive the expeseroosfor active pressure and passive pressure.
19.12. Derive liD expresslon fOf aaive pressure when the ground surface in inclined.
mg 19.13. Whatlife the assumptions in Coulomb's theay? Compore Rankine's theory and Cou lomb 's theory.
'be 19.14. Describe Rebbann's o:mtruaion. What is its use?
19.1S. DiscussCulmann's method £or the detennination of active earth pressure.
in e 19.16. Explain the trial wedge method .
.ine 19.17. How would you detennine passive pressure when 6 :0- 1/3 '9'1
lU I. Write whether the £oIlowing SIBlemettlSare true.
(a) The active ~ Is the mi nim wn pressure which develops whe n the wall nxM:S away £ran the fill.
 SO IL M ECHANI CS AN D FOU NDATI ON ENGINEERING
'"
(h) Th e shear resistan ce developed along the failure surface is a minimum when the active conditions develop.
(e ) Th e Ran kine pressure is always normal 10 the wall surface.
(eI) Culmann's con structio n is more general than Rehbann's cons tructio n.
(€ ) Culm ann's cous rrucuon can he used even for passive cas e.
if) Co ulomb's theo ry always gives co nservat ive results.
(xl For 41' = 30", the pass ive pressure is three limes the active pressure . accordi ng to Rankine's theory.
(I,)111e act ive pressure increases if a dry soi l become s submerged.
(;) The basem ent walls are generally designed for at-rest pressure,
(AIlS. True , (a). (1;), (d) . (~), (;)J
C. Multipl e Choice Questions
I , The incti natiun of the failure plane behind a vertica l wall in me passive pressure case is inclined to the
horizonta l at
(a) 45° - ~ (h) 45° - ill
k) 45° .~ (d) 45°. ill
1, The yie ld of a retaini ng wal l required to reach plastic equilibrium in active case is
(a) more than l)jal in the passive case
(h)1ess than tha t in the passive case.
Ie) equal to that in the passive case.
(II) None uf above .
3. The active eart h pressu re coefficient K" generally refe rs to
(a) e ffective slrcs~s (h) total stresses
(e) neutral stre!o.~ (d) All the above
4. Th e active pressu re caused by a co test ontess backfill o n a smoot h vertical retaining wall may be reduced by
(a) co mpacting the hackfill.
(b) providi ng a surcharge load on the backfill.
(e) saturalin& the bac kfill wnh wate r,
(dJ None of the above.
5. Th e 1111011 active pressure atter the de velo pment of tension cracks is eq ual to

(a' 1 YH Ka - ~..' H ..Jl(;

2

(h11r H2Ktl + 2t·' J/ ..JI(;/

{t'11 YH! KII- 21" H{K;; - 2 ¥

(til l yH2 Ka _ 2c'H..[f(; + ~
2 Y
6. The radiu s ofthe friction circle is equalto
(alR sint (~Roos.
(e ) R Ian. (tl) R •
7. ~:}a 1~n~~;17/un;hurgl: o f 120 kN/~:)i ~~gl~~~m~n the backfill with 41' = 300. the increase in pressure is

(c ) 40 kN/m
2 (tl) 120 kN/m
2
[AIlS. 1. (a ), 2. (h) 3, (a). 4 , (a ), S, (d), 6, (a ), 7. (e)J
~ ING

elcp.

t. (i))
20
Design of Retaining Walls and Bulkheads

20.1. INTRODUcnON
(0) Des.lgn or Retaining Wull", Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting the soil
masslaterallyso that the soil can be retained at different levels on the two sides. TIle lateral earth pressures
acting on the retaining walls have been discussed in the preceding chapter. The types of retaining walls and
their design features are explained in this chapter. However. the design is limited to the determination of the
shear forcesand bending moments. Actual structural design is outside lhe scope of this text,
(b) BuIkheads. Sh eet pile watts, ef' bulkheads, are spoc:ial type of earth retaining structures in which 9
eauinuous wall is constructed by joining sheet piles. Shed. piles are made of timber. steel or reinforced
by ccocete and consist of special shapes which have intcck)ckjngarrangements. Sheet pile walls are used fef'
water front structures. canal locks, coffer dams, river pexecnoc, etc. Sheet pile walls ere embedded in the
groond to develop passive resistance in the front to keep the wall in equilibrium. Various types of sheet pile
walls and theiranalysis and design are discussed in this chapter.
20J. tyPES OF RETAINING WALlS
The mostcommon types of retaining walls are classified as under:
(1) Gravity Retaining Walls. These walls depend upon their weight for stability [Fig. 20.1 (0)]. The
walls are usually constructed of plain concrete ef' masonry. Such walls are not economical fIX large
heights.
(2) Seml-Gravlty Rdalnlng Walls. The size of the section of a gravity retaining wall may be reduced
if a small amount of reinforcement is provided near the back face [Fig. 10.1 (b)]. Such walk are
known at> semi-gravity walls.
(3) CantUever Retalnlna Wal ls. Cantilever retaining walls are made of reinforoed cement concrete. lbe
wall consists of a thin stem and a base slab cast monolithically [Fig. 2O.I(c)J. This type of wall is
foundto be economical upto a height of 6 to 8 m.
(4) Counlerfort Reta ining Walls. Counterfort retaining waljs have thin vertical slabs, known as
oounterforts, spaced ecross the vcttical stem at regular intervals [Fig. 2O.1(d)]. The counterforts tie
the vertical stem with the base slab. 1l1us the vertical stem and the base slab span between the
• (c») counterforts. The purpose of providing the cou.nterforts is to reduce the shear force and beDding
moments in the vertical stem and the base slab . The counterfort retaining walls are eoonomical for a
height more than 6 to 8 m.
[Note: Counterfortsare on the side of the back: fiU].
20J. PRINCIPLES OF TIlE DESIGN OF RETAINING WALlS
Before the actual design. the soil parameters that influence the earth pressure and the bearing capacity of
the soil must be evaluated. These include the unit weight of the soil, the angle of shearing resistance, the
518 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

'0) (d)
Fig. 20.1 . Different Types of Retaining walls.
cohesion intercept and the angle of wall friction . Knowing these parameters, the lateral earth pressure and the
bearing capacity of the soil can be determined. Methods for the computation of earth pressure have been
discussed in chapter 19. The bearing capacity theories are explained in chapter 23. With the earth pressure
known, the retaining wall as a whole is checked for stability.

1
Fig. 20.2 shows a retaining wall with a smooth
back face and no surcharge. The active pressure
PQ acts horizontally, as shown. The front face of
the wall is SUbjected to a passive pressure (Pp )
below the soil surface. However, it is doubtful
whether the full passive resistance would develop. H
Moreover, often Pp is small and thereforeit may be

li
neglected. This gives more conservative design .
The weight W of the wall and the active
pressure PI:'have their resultant R which strikes the
base at point D. There is an equal and opposite
reaction R' at the base between the wall and the
foundation. For convenience, R' is resolved into the
vertical and horizontal components (R~' and RH ' ) .
Prom the equilibrium of the system,
UNO DFSIGN OF RETAINING WAlLS AN D BU LKHEADS

Rv' • W. and RlI' ,. PI>

The lhird equation of equilibrium, namely the moment equation. is used to C'etermine the eccentricity e
R:
of the force relative 10 the centre C of lhe base of the wall. Obviously, by taltlng moments about the toe,
R~' xi . W x a - P" (HI 3)
x. W x a -R:''' x HI 3 •••(20.1)

wherei is the distance of the point D from the toe.

Thus, eccen tricity, e • bl2 - i ... (20.2)
where b ::: width o f the base.
For a safe des ign , the following requi re ments must be sa tisfied .

(1) N. Slidin g
The wall must be safe against sliding. In other words,
~ Rv > RH
wbere Rv and RH are vertica l and horizontal romponeots of R. respectively. The factor of safety against
sliding is given by
F, _ • Rv ••.(203)
RH
where Il ::: roefficient of friction between the base of the wall and lhe soil ( = tan 0).
A minimwn factor of safety of 1.5 against slid ing is generally recommended.
(%) No Overturning
The wall must be safe agalrst overturning about toe. The (actor of safety against overturning is g iven by

F• • ~MR ... (20.4)

~Mo

where IMR ::: sum of resisting moment about toe.

the and :rM o :::sum of overturning moment about Loe.

In Fig. 20.2, Fo • P~xxH~3 . .. (205)

Thefactorof safety against overturning is usually kept between 1.5 to 2.0.

I
H
(3) No bearing capadty failure
The pressure caused by R v at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the
soil.
Thepressuredistribution at the base is assumed to be linear. 1lle maximum pressure is given by

p~ • 1;: (1 + F,e/b) ... (20.6)

l The factor of safety against bearing failure is given by

F• • : :

where q... '" allow able bearing pressure.

...(20 .1)

A factorof safety of 3 is usually specified, provided the settlement is also within the allowable limit.
(4) No tension
Tbereshould be no tension at the base of the wall When the eccentricity (e) is greater than bl6. tension
52. SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

develops at the heel. Tension is not desirable. The tensile strength of the soil is very small and the tensile
crack would develop. The effective base area is reduced. In such a case, the maximum stress is given by

Prna ·
4(b-2e
3" Rv ) .. .(20.8)

20.4. GRAVITY RITAlNING WAUS

As in design of all other structures, a trial section is nrst chosen and analy sed . If the stabili ty chccb
yield unsat isfactory results, the section is changed, and rechecked. Fig. 20 3 shows the genera l proportion d
a gravity retaining wall of overall
height H. The top w idth of the stem
should be at least 0.3 m for proper
placement of concrete in the stem. The
depth (D) of the foundation below the
soil surface shoul d be at least 0.6 m.
The base width of the wall is gener all y
between 0.5 H to 0.7 Hi with an
average of'2JIl3 .
The earth pressure can be
computed using either Rankine' s theory
or Coulomb's theory. For using
Rankine's theory, a vertical line AB is
r1 30
1
Pa (RANt<INE )

drawn throu gh the heel po int A. It is

assumed that the Rankine active
conditions exist along the vertical line
AB. However, the assumption for the
Fig. 203 . Gravily waIJ-Rankil'lt Presscre,
development of Rankine's coodilions
along AD is theoretically justifJed only if the shear zone bounded by the line A.C is not obstructed by the stem
of the wall. where AC makes an angle 11with the vertical, given by

" - (45
0
+ i/2) - . '/2 - sin-I ( s~n~, ) .•.(20.9)
where i is the angle o f surcharge.
The angle a which the line AC makes with the horizo ntal is given by,

a - (45 0
+ 2
1:) i . -I
-2'+sm
( sin; )
sin .' ... (20.I~

Wh en j = 0, the value of a is eq ual to (45 0 + , '/2) (Fig . 20. 4).

Whil e check ing the stab ility, the weigh t of soil
(W6 ) above the hee l in the zone ABC should also be
taken into consideration, in addi tion to the ea rth
1
pressure (PtJ) on the vertica l plane AB and the
we ight of the wall (We)'
, 1
1
1
Co ulom b's theory can also be used fo r the
determi nation of earth pressure (Fig . 205). As the , 1
1 1
Coulomb theory gives directly the lateral pressure
:-,:--~
on the bad:: face (PtJ), the forces 10 be considered 1/
are only PtJ (Coulomb) and the weight of the wall
(We)' In this case, the weight of soil (W6 ) is not to
1---::;..... ..-T1 ./ 45
0
_ f
be considered separately.
Once the forces acting on the wall have been FIg.2iI .4.
ING DFSIGNOF RETAINING WAllS AND &ULKHfADS 521

sile determined . the stability is checked using the procedure

disrosscd in the preceding section. For coavenieece, the
scaion of the retaining wall is divided into rectangles
3.8) and triangles for the axnputation of weigbt and the
detaminalion of the line of action of the weights. P. (COULOMB)
Seml-anvlty Retaining walls.. The bese width of
cIt.s the semi-gravity retainin g walls is slightly sma ller than
of that of a corresponding gravity wall The rest of the
design procedureis the same as that for gravity retaining
walls.
10.5. CANTIL EVER RETAINI NG WAL LS
Fig. 20.6 shows a cantilever retaining wall. The .
general proportions for an overall height of H are also Fig. 20.5. Gravlly wall--Coulomb Pressure.
shown. The top width of the stem is at least 0.3 m. The width of the base slab is kepi about 21113. The width
of the stem at bottom. the thickness of the base slab and the length of the toe projection. each is kept about
O.l H.

T 30'
1

Pa (RANKIN!

9)

3)
Fig. 20.6. Cllntilcver Retaining wall.
The eart h press ure is comput ed using Rankine 's theo ry on the vertical plane AB, provided the shear zone
bounded by the line AC is not obstructed by tbe stem of the wall The line AC makes an angle" with the
vertical given by Eq. 20.9.
Fig. 20.7 shows the forces acting 00 the wall. The Rankine pressure p. acts at an angle i with the
borizontaL It is resolved into the vertical and horizontal components P vand p".
as sbown, The passive
pressure Pp is also shown. but generally it is neglected. For coevemence , the weight of soil (W~) over the slab
is divided into two pans(I },and (2). Likewise, the weight of stem is divided into two parts (3) and (4).

(G) Factor or sarety against slk!lng

The factor of safety against sliding may be expressed as;
IF.
F~ • IF" .. .(20. 11)

where I FR, = sum of the horizontal resisting forces,

 ron. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

T
D
1

Fig. 20.7 . Foeces on a Cant ileve r wall.

and 1: F d = sum of the horizontal driving forces.
Eq. 20.11 can be written as
F
•-
(~ \I) tan"p. + be, + Pp ••• (20.12)

where b = base width, I:V = sum of all the vertical forces, W.... W. and PI" PI' • P.. sin t and
p" • P.. cos t •
Pp = passive force in the front of the wall (. 1/2 Kp21 2 & + 2c2 VK;;. D)
where cz , 12 and t2 are parameters of the foundation soil
The factor of safety ca n also be determined from Eq. 203 if I.l is given. If the required factor of safety
of 15 against sliding is nOI obtained, a base key is generally provided ' (Fig. 20.8). The key increases the
passive resbsranee to Pp ' where

Fig. 20.8. Key In a relalnlng wall.

DFSlGN OF RETAINING WAILS AND BULKHEADS S2J

p; - t y, (D,l' K" DJK;;.

+ 2<:, ...(20.13)
where D 1 is the depth of the bouom of the leey waU from soil surface.
Generally, the base key is constructed just below the stem and some oC the mai n steel of the stem is
extended into the key.
The frictio ll angle 4'2 and C2 arc generally red uced to abo ut one-half to two-thirds of the value s for extra
safety, as the full passive resistance is doubtful.
Factor of safety against Ove rtumlng
Bq. 20.4 em be used to obtain the Iacoe of safety against overturning.
l:ltfR
F. - IM.
where I MR = sum of the resisting moments about toe,
IM Q := sum of the overturni ng moments about toe.
The only overturning force is Pit. acting at a height of H/3.
M o - Pit )( HI 3 •. .(20.14)
1be resisting moments (M R) are due to weights W b W20Wl, W.. and Ws of the soil and the concrete. The
vertical component of pressure P" also helps in resisting moment. Its resisting moment is given by
M" • P" )( b (20 .15)

Therefore F. _ M l + M 2 +~:)(+:/;; + s +M ,
ltf (20. 16)

where Itt! , M 2 , . .. M s are the moments due to Wit W2 .. . Ws about toe.

Factor of sa fety against beari ng capacity failure

The sum of the vertica l forces acti ng on the base is equa l to I: V. The horizo ntal force is Pit • The resultant
force (R) is given by
R - V(I V)' + (p.)'
The net moment of these forces about toe B is given by
IM _ 1:.MR-1:.Mo
The distance i of the point E•.from the toe , where R strikes the bese is given by

x. i~ ...(20.17)

Hence, the eccentricity e of R is given by

e _ bl2 - i ...(20 .18)
If e > bl6, the section should be changed, as it indicates teeslce, The pressure distribution under the base
sti> is deterrn ined es

p_. ¥,(l +~) .. .[20.19(0»)

and PnVn - ~ (1 - ¥) ••.[20.19(b»)

The factor of safety against bea ring capacity failure is given by Eq. 20.7.
20.6. COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS
ru counterfort retaining walls, the general proportions of the stem and the base slab are almost the
'24 son.MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING
same as that in the cantilever walls. 1be counterforts are about 0.3 m thick and have the centre-to-centre
spacingof 0.3 1110 0.7 II.
The analysis is also similar to that of a cantilever retaining wall. The pressure P=u. and PmJ" are
determined, as in the case of cantilever walls..
1bc basic difference between the COWlterfort retaining wall and the cantilever retaining wall is in the
determination of the bending moment and shearforces.
(1) In cantilever retaining walls, the stem acts as a vertical cantilever fixed at base whereas in the
counterfort retaining walls. it acts. as a continuous stab supported between the coumeetons. The slab
hes positive moments in the middle and the negativemomentsat the supports.The:reinforcementis
provided in the bclizootal direction on the Croat side of the stem in the middle and on the rear side
at the supports. In cantilever walls, the main reinforcement is in the vertical direction at the rear face.
(2) In cantilever walls. the toe slab and the heel slab both aet as cantilevers subjected to the upward
pressure. The reinforcement is provided at the boUomface.
In counterfort retaining walls, although the toe slab ace as a cantilever, the heel slab acts as 8
. continuous slab supported on the couaterfoets. The main reinforcem ent is at the lop face: in the
middle portion and. at the bottom face: near the supports .
(3) In counterfort retaining walls, the coonterforts are designed as cantilever of varying section and ftxed
at the base. The main reinforcement is provided at the back face of the counterfort.
In additio n. the vertical and horizontal lies are provided in the counterfons to join the base and the stem
to the counlerforts.
The structural design of the counterfort and cantilever retaining waIls is outside the scope of lhis text.
20.7. OlllER MODES OF FAILURE OF RlITAINING WALlS
In addition to the three types of failures, viz. sliding. overturning and bearing failures, a retaining wall
may fail in the following two modes if the soil below is weak.
(1) ShaDow shear Failure. This type of failure occurs along a cylindrical surface ABC passing tbrougn
the beet of the retaining wall (Fig. 20.9). The failure takes place because of excessive shear stresses along the
cylindricalsurface within the soil mass. However. it has generallybeen found that the factor of safety agains t
horizontal sliding deccssed in Sed. 20.3 is lower than that for the shallow shearfailure . Consequently. if the
factor of safety against sliding (F,) is greater than about 1.5. shallow shear failure is nOi likely to occur.

' - - -- - - - ! c

Fig. 20.9. SIIaIlow Shear Failure. Fig. 20.10.Deep Shear Failure.

IG DESIGN OF RHfAIN INO WALlS AND BULKHEADS

(2) Deep shear raOure. This type of slope failure occurs along a cylindrica l surface ABC (Fig. 20.10),
when there is a weak: layer of soil underneat h the wall a depth of about 1.5 times the height of the wall. The
criticalfailure surface is determined by trial and error procedure.
For the backfills having slope i less then 10°, it has been found that the critical failure scrface DEF
passes through the edge of the heel slab. The minimum- factor of safety is found by trial and error, taking
different circles, and determining the resisting forces and the driving forces along the failure surface (See
Tens, 1962),
re
When a weak soil layer is located at a shallow depth below the retaining wall, the possibility of deep
ob
shear failure should be investigated . The possibility of excessive settlement should also be looked into.
Is
Sometimes, piles are used to transmit the foundation load to a firm layer below the weak layer. However, care
Ie
shall be taken in the design of piles so that the thrust of the sliding wedge of soil does not cause bending of
the piles.
20.8. DRAINAGE OF THE BACKFILL
When the backfill becomes wet due to rainfall or any other reason,
its unit weight increases . It increases
the pressure on the wall and may create unstable conditions. Further, if the water table also rises, the pore
water pressure (u) develops and it causes excessive
hydrostatic pressure on the wall. To reduce the
development of excess ive lateral pressures on the BACKFILL
wall,adequate drainage must be provided.
Weep holes are generally provided in the FILTER
walls. The weep holes are of about 0.1 m diamete r. MATERIAL
~e ~~nr:fi:~h~o~e:r:~~llJir:~:.be:~: WEEP rK) LES \-.f=====~
backfill material may be washed into weep holes
and may clog them, filter mate rial is placed around
the weep holes (Fig. 20.11).
Perforated pipes are also frequently used for
the drainage of the backfill. These pipes are laid Fig. 20.11. WeepHoles.
near the base (Fig. 20.12). The water is collected from the backfill and discharged at a suitable place at the
ends. The filter material is placed around the pipes. These days. a filter cloth or a geotextile fabric is also
used to serve the purpooe of a filter mate rial. All drain pipes should be provided with c lean-outs for cleaning
when clogged.
Fine-grained soils cause large earth pressure against retaining walls and are, therefore, rarely used as a
backfill material. As far as possible, good draining , granula r material should be used, at least in the sliding
wedge portion of the wall . In case a floe-grained material canno t be avoided, some form of filter of coarse
permeablematerial is placed behind the retaining walls to prevent the development of excessive pore water
pressure. Fig. 20.13 shows two types of drainage filters commonly used. The wate r percolating into the filter
is discharged through the weep holes. Tbe inclined filter is found to be more effective than the vertical filter. .

FIL TER MATERIAL

r'-------l=e..::;- ~,~~FORArED

Fig. 20.12 . Perforated Pipca. Fig. 20.13 . DraiDllgc Filter.

 son. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
''''
BULKIIEADS
20.9. TYPES OF SHEET PILE WALLS
Sheet piles arc generally made of steel or timber. However. sometimes reinforcedcement concrete sheet
piles are also used. The use of timber piles is generally limited to temporary stru ctures in wh ich the dept h of
driving does DOl exceed 3m . For pcnnanent struct ures and for depth of driv ing greater than 3 m, steel piles
are more suitable. Moreover. steel sheet piles are relativelywater tight and can be extracted if required and
re- used. However, the <nil of steel sheet piles is genctally more than tha t of timber piles. Reinforced cement
concrete piles arc generally used wben these are to be jetted into fine sand or driven in very son soils, such
as peat. For tougher soils, the concrete piles generally break: off.

~o SOCKET JOINT

~IPILE 11PILE~
Fig. 20.14. Plan d • Shed Pile Wall.
Fig. 20.14 shows the plan of a typica l steel sheet pile wall. in which 2 shee t piles are shown with joints.
Based on its structural fonn and looding system , sheet pile walls ca n be classified into 2 types: (1)
Can tilever Sheet piles and (2) Anchored Sheet Piles.
(1) Ca ntUever shed piles
Cantilever sheet piles are further divided into 2 types:
(a) Free cantilever sh eet pi le. [P ig. 20.15 (a»). It is a sheet p ile subjected 10 a concentrated hcrizontal
1000 at its lop . lbcre i.s no backfi ll above the dredge level. 1be free ccnt tlever sheet p ile derives its
stab ility e ntirely from the lateral pessfve resistance of the soil be low the dredge level into which it
is driven .

tJ,) Free ca ntilever (b) Conlil~er tcl Anc.hored

Sh ut pile Shut pile Shnt pile

Fig. 2O.1S. "JYpe. 01 Shed Pile WaUl.

(b) CantUever sheet plle. [Fig. 20.15 (b)]. A canti lever sheet pile retains ba ckfill at a higher leve l on
one side . The stabili ty is entirely from the lateral passiv e resistance of the soil into which the sheet
pile is driven, like that of a free cantilever sheet pile .
(2) Anc hored >heel pUes
Anchored shed: piles are held above the driven depth by ancboI'S proyided at a suitable level [Fig. 20. 15
(c)]. 1be ancboI'S provide forces for the stability of the sheet pile. in addition to the lateral passive resisl:ance
ING DESIGN OFRETAINING WAllS AND BULKHEADS

of the soil into which the sheet piles are driven. The anchored sheet piles are also of two types:
(a) Free-earth sup port piles. An anchored sheet pile is said to have free-ea rth support when the depth
of embedment is small and the pile rotates at its bottom tip. Thus there is no point of contraflcxure
recr (or inflexionpoint) in the pile.
l of (b) Flxed-eerth suppo rt piles. An anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the dcplb of
ilos embedment is large. The bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotations. There is a change in the
lnd curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflexion point occurs .
ern
2O.l~ FREE CANTILEVER SIl EI>T PILE
"" The free cantilever sheet pile rotates abou t a point 0 below the dredge level. Tbe adual pressure
distrilutioo is shown in Fig. 20.16 (a). Blwn (1931) gave a simple solution. The passive resistance of the soil

ts.
1)

al
ts
il
L_-.....Ii:::=="'-

(.I) ACl'tJ.oU. PR£~

DISTRIBUTION
r1 ~ E
,Tdlllp-Koll
(b ) ASSUh4ED
0

PRESSURE
!>lSTRlBUTKW
Fig. 20.16. Pree Cantilever Sb«t Pile.
(c) MOVEMENT
DlAGRN4

on the left side is idealized as a righ t angled triangle AOE [Fig. 20.1 6 (b)] . The dis tributed press ure act ing on
the right side below the pivot 0 is replaced by an equivalent concentrated load PI acting at point O. In
calculations that follow, however, the magniruoe of the force P I is oot required.
Forequilibrium, the moment of all the forces about 0 must be zero. i.e:

Mo· F(h + <i) - [t yd(K, - K..)d] x ~. 0 ...(20.20)

where F is the horizontal force. h is the height of wall above the dredge level,
d is the depth of embedment.
Bq. 20.20can be solved for d. The actual depth to be provided is generally taken as 1.2 d.
The point of the maximum bending in the sheet pile can be determined as under.
The bending moment at depth .r below the dredge level is given by

M• • F(h + x) - f (K;. - K. ) •••(20.21)

For maximum bend ing (MIWlll ) . d~.•) _ 0

or F _ y (KE6- K..) (3 i').O

.x - VT(K;.u:. K.) ... (20.22)

 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The maximum 8 .M. (M....Jis obtained by substi tuting the value of x from Eq. 20.22 into Eq. 20.21.
The section modu lus of the shed pile can then be ddc:nnincd as

S. M_ ... (:1ll.23)
a.
where 0" ::: allOYiable bending stress in the pile . Plg. 20.16 (e) show s the bending moment d iagram .

20.11. CANTILEVER SHEET PILE IN COHESIONLESS SOILS

Fig. 20.17 (a) shows a cantilever sheet pile in a cohesionless soil deposit The pile rotates about the point
0'. The pressure above 0' is passive in the front and actlve on the back side . However, the pressures below
B _

T"

+~d

ACTIVE

T 'a)
\ PASSIVE
1 A
( b ) ACTUAl PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION
AI. 20.17. c.ntilcver ~t Pile.
the point 0' are reversed i.e.there is act ive pressurein the front aDd passiv e on the back side . Fig; 20.17 (b)
shows lhe actual pressure distribution. As the analysis laking &Qual pressuredistribution ~ qu ite complicated,
the pressuredistributiOQ is generally simplified as smwD in Fig. 20.18. In Fig. 20 .18. the pressure is zero at
poin t 0 1 at a depth a below the dredge level .
The pressure diagramBC0 1 shows the active pressure . The pressure at the dredge level is g iven by
PI ·lhK.

h=- ~ a
It,,"~L -~---A '3F
Il(kp-")(d-a41~(h+d)kg-~d"'l
Ic ) ASSUMED PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 20.18. SimpilOed PTeuure Diltrlbutlon.
10 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALlS AND BULKHFADS 529

The depth a of point 0 1 of zero pressure is given by

p, -"(o(Kp - K,.} _ 0
3) p
or a . -- ,- •.. (20.24)
1 (Kp -K.l
lei the total active pressure above point 0 1 be PI acting at a height of Z, above D r-
The passive pressure is given by the diagram 0 1 EO. The passive pressure intcnsily at the bottom lip A
.nl ClII be expressed as
P2 - rtKp - K.l(d - a) - l (Kp - K.lb
where b • d - a. in
which d is the depth of point A below tbe dredge leve l
Thepassive pressure is indicated by the diagram OAF on the back side. The intensity of pressure at the
tipA is given by
h - y( h +d)Kp - "tdK.,
or p3 -y (h + b + o) K p - y (b + o) K.,
From the equation of equ ilibrium in the horizontal direction,
P I + p ) - Pz - 0
The total pressure P3 and P2 am be expressed in terms of P3 and P2 as follows:

PI + tm<P2'" pJl-~P2b • 0 .. .(20.25)

In Eq. 20.25. the equivalence of areas has been taken as shown in Fig. 20.19. The height of the point E
above the lip A is taken asm.

b)
d,
at

Fig. 20 .19.
m _ l/2P1P - PI _ P2b - 2Pl
From Eq. 20.25. . .. (20.26)
1/2 <F2 + P3) P2 + P3
Takingmoments of 311 the forces about A,

P db + Z\) - t P2b (b/ 3) + t m (pz + Pl) )( ~ • 0

Substituting the value of m from Eq. 20.26.

- P2b
P t (b + Z t ) - 6 + - -6-
2
VJ2 + P3) [ P2b
~
- 2 Pt j' - 0 . .. (20.27)

Eq. 20.27 can be written as b + C t b3 - C 2 b2 - C 3 b - C 4

4
_ 0 ... (20.28)
P4 BPt
C 1 ., y(Kp _ K.,) ; ~ - y(Kp _ K,,)

C 6Pd2y(Kp - K,.)Z I + P4) C Pd6 ZI P 4 + 4Pd

,- Il(Kp - K.lJ' .' [l(Kp - K.ll'
530 SOIL MECHANiCSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERIN(

in which P4 - 1 h Kp + 1 a (Kp - K,,) .. .(ZO.2g.

Eq. 20.28 is solved by trial and erro r to determine b. The value of d is equal to (b + a). The depth di
for a factor of safety of unity. The required depth (D) is usually laken as 1.2 d to 104 d. Thus

JS
. D . 1.2d to lAd ... (20Je
This gives a factor of safety of about 1.50 10 2 .0.
Alternatively, a facto r of safet y can be applied to the passive resistance. In that case , the value of Kp i
usually taken ~ 10 ~ of the normal value while computing b from Bq. 20.28 , and the required depth D is tak.a
equal to d.
In the above discussions. the depth of water table is not
considered. If the water table on the front side is at the same level
as on the rear side, the analysis remains unaltered except that the
B
T
submerged unit weight (,/ ') should be used for the soil below the
water table (sec Illustrative Example 20.6) . However, if the
difference in the two levels L<> greate r than 1 m, the pressure due to
p
1
h
1
water on the sheet pile should be found from the flow net and A
properly accounted for in the analysis . T 8:
Approximate Analy sis. The exact analysis of the cantilever ? 2
sheet pile as discussed above is quite involved . An approximate --.L A ~
value of d can be obtained using a simplified pressure diagram as I KpJ'd I
KaJ'(h+d)
shown in Fig. 20.20 . In this analysis, the resistance of the pile
below the poin t 0 is replaced by a concentrated force P3' (Note that
the pressure distribution extends upto tip A). Fig. 20 .20. Approximate Analysis .
From the equilibrium in horizontal direction.
PI - P2 + P 3 • 0

Taking moments about point A, r, (h ; d) - P2x ~ _ 0

Substituting the values of PI and P2>

kK. y(h + <1)' ~- kK yd'

p x ~. 0

(Kp KJd'- 3h K.d' - 3h'K.d - K.h'. 0

- ...(203;
Fq, 20 .31 is is solved by trial nnd error for d:
The value of d so obtained is usually increased by 20 to 40%. 1hus

D'"' 1.2d to l.4d.

20.12, CANTILEVER SHEET IJILE PENETRATING CLAY
Fig. 20.21 shows a cantil ever sheet pile penetrating clay (4' = 0) below the dredge level. The backfill
of cohesionless soil (c ::: 0). Let the bulk unit weight of the backfill material and clay be, respectively , '/1 all
't - The cohesion intercept of clay is c.
The pressure P I at the dredge line on the back side is given by
PI · l lhK"l
Below the dredge level but above the point of rotation 0, the passive pressure acts from left to right and Ii
active ~re acts from righl to left. Therefore, the prm;ure at depth Z below the dredge level is given by
P2 - Pp - P"
pi » (KpYZ +2cv'J<,;) - [K.y(Z + h) - 2cVK.1
!RING DESIGN OF RETAlNING WALLSAND BULKHFADS

W.29)
bdis

!(l.30)

-"3
Fig. 2021. Cantilever Sheet Pile in Clay.
For • • O. we have Kp _ K" • l.0.
Therefore, P2 - 4c - yh
Likewise, lhc pressure Pl from right to left is given by
pv Kp(h ... d)y +2 cYK; - (K"yd - 2 cvK;]
»

For, =0, we have Ps 4c + yh»

From equilibrium in the horizontal direction, considering equivalent areas as in Fig. 20.19,
PI - [P2 )( dJ + fP2 + p)] )( ml2 • 0
P I - (4c - y h)d + (Be] )( ml2 - 0
(4c - yh)d - P I
10.31) or ... (2032)
4c
18k.ing moments of all the forces about A,

PI (i\ + d) - (4c - yh] )( d )( ~ + ~ )( (&) )( m )( !j- _ 0 .. .(20.23)

Substituting the value of m from Bq. 20.32,

:fill is - ,; 4 [ (4 C - Y h) d - P ,]'
P I (ZI + d) - (4c -yh)"Z + :3 c 4c - 0 ...(20.34)
hand
The above equation can be written as
:l PI (12 cZ \ + P I)
<T (4 c - yh) - 2P ld - 2c + yh - 0 ... (2035)
ld!he Eq. 20.35 can be solved for d. The actual depth D is kept 40% to 60% more. Thus
D. lAd to l.6d
Alternatively, the depth d can be compned using a reduced value of ef2 or 2cf3 in Eq. 20.35. In this
cese, the actual dcplh D wou ld be equal to lhe computed value of d. as the factor of safety has already been
appliedto c.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

If the water table exis ts 00 both the sides. modin cation can be dooe as in the case oC rohesioolcss
deposits. 1be sco merged wei ghts are used below the water table (see Illustrati ve Example 20.8) .
20.13. ANCnORED SllEET PILE wrrn FRE£..EARTII SUPPORT
The stability of anchored sheet pile depends upon the anchor force in addi tion to that upon the passive
earth pressure.TIle embedment depth i'i considerably smaller than that in a cantilever sheet pile. Tberefore,
by this met hod, the total length of the sheet pile is reduced. Of course, the additional cost of anctxn is also
to be ronsidered while jud ging the ecoeony of the two types of construclion.

Fig. 20.22. F~ Eanh Suppcn .

Fig. 20.22 (a) show s an anchored sheet pile with free earth support . The deflected shape is also shown.
As already menti oned. there is no point of contranexure belo w the dred ge level Thus, below the dredge Ievd,
no pivot poin t exists for the statical system . 100 statical analysis is based on the assumption that the soil into
whicb the pile is driven does not produce effect ive restraint to induce negative bending moment at its suppet
The eq uations for the depth d are derived separately for the oohes ion less and cohesive soils.
(2) Cohesionless SOUS.
Fig. 20 .22 (a) shows the forces acting on the pile. assuming that the ma terial eoove and below the dra:lgc
level is cohes ion less.
From equilibrium, T + P2 - PI • 0
where T is the tensile force in anchor.
The depth a to the poin t o f zero pressure can be determined as under.
yK,,(h + a) - yKpa . 0
ay(K, - K.l - yK.h
a_ ~
(K, - K. )

Therefore, P, - ~ p,b - ~ y (K" - K. )b'

where P2 - y(K,. - KJ b
Thking moments of all the forces about and:Ior point M,
P I (a + h - e - 21) - P2 (h - e + a + 2b13) - 0
The dis tance Zl is determined as
in the case of cantilever piles.
Substituting the value of P2 from Eq. (a) in Eq. 20.38 (a),
P dQ + h - e - Zl) - 1 (K,. - J(,.) b x bl2 (h - e + a +2b13) - 0
 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALlS ~D BULKHEADS 533

UNG
The aboveequation can be wri uea as
aless b' (K" - K.,)y /3 + b'(K" - K.,)yl2(g + 0) - Ps]> 0 •..(20.39) .
) 2 3Pt!
b + 15b (g + 0) - Y(K, _ K.) - 0 .. .(20.40)

ssive where !_Q+ h_e_Z\ andg_ h _e

tore, Bq. 20.40 can be solved for b. Then d is determined as
aro d _ b + a
The actual depth D is taken equal 10 1.2 10 1.4 timesd.
Theforcein anchorrod can be obtained from Eq. 20.36 as,
T - PI - P2
The values of P I and P z areobtainedfrom pressure diagrams.
(b) Cohesive Soils
lei us now consider the case when the anchored sheet pile is driven in clay <+ '" 0), but has the backfill
of cobeslonless, granular material (Fig. 20.23). The pressure distribution above the dredge line is the same as
lhat inthecase of cohesionless soils. However, below the dredge line, the pressure is given by

own.
ev el, +1
into <=0
JPO<l "'l

edge

0.36)

Fia. 20.23. Anchored Sheet Piledriven In Clay.

P2 - (K,yZ + 2 c,fjf,;) - [K.,(Z + h)y - 2c v'K:]
For+• 0, K., - K o - 1.0. Therefore
P2 - 2 c + 2c - y h - 4 c - y h
0.37)
From equilibrium of forces, P I - P2 - T
P I - 1'2 x d - T •..(20 .41)
••.(0)
Taking moments of all forces about M,
PJ x f - P2d (g + dI2 ) - 0
Substituting P2 - 4c- yh,
<1(0») P I x f - (4c - yh)d(g + dl2) _ 0
d' 2Pd .. .(20.42)
+ 2gd - 4 c _ yH
<l(b»)
534 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Bq. 20.42 can be solved for d. The actual depth (D) provided is 20 to 40% more than d.
It may be noted that the wall becomes unstable when P2 - O. te; 4c - 'i H - 0

fu - t - 0.25 .. .(20.43)
Th e left hand side is equal to the stability numbe r (Sn) defined in chapter 18. In other words, the walls
becomes unstable when SIt is equal 10 or less then 0.25. If the adhesion of clay with the sheet pile (eQ ) is
considered, Eq. 20.43 is modified as

S" - -:n VI + ~ ... (20.44)

Taking. V I + calc -
1.25,
S" .. 0.25 x 1.25 - 0.31
Therefore, the minimum stability number (S,,) required is 031. If the factor of safely required is F, the
stability number (SII) should be equal to 0.31 F or more .

20.14. ROWE'S MOMENT REDUcnON CURVES

As sheet piles arc relatively flexible, these deflect considerably. Their flexibility causes a redistribution of
lateral earth pressure . The net effect is that the maximum bending moment is considerably reduced below the
value obtained for the free-earth supports discussed in the preceding section .
Rowe (1952) developed a theoretical relation between the maximum bending moment and the flexibility
of the sheet pile and gave moment reduction curves. The relative flexibility (p) is defined as

p '" (h ~/D)4 '" 1.1 )( 10-6 gp; .. (20.45)

where h = retained
height (m), D = actual driving depth (m),
= =
E Young's modulus of the pile material (MN/m2jand I moment of inertia of the pile (m4/m~
JI = total length of the pile.
For anchored sheet piles in cohesiontess soils, the relative density is important. The relative depth of
anchor factor, p = e/H is also relevant.
For anchored sheet piles in cohesive soils, the stability number (Sft), as given below, is also required.
So • 1.25 c/(y h) ... (2Jl.46)
The relative height of piling factor a = h/H .is also important for cohesive soils .
t-o . - - - - - - . . - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - ,

,.,f----+---+-----+----I
O.~,L.,::---:,l;------f:---:;l;-------:!
-a-c
log'
Fig. 20.24.
INO DESIGN OF RETAINING WAL.IS AND BULKJ-IFADS 535

Fig. 20.24 shows a typica l moment reductio n curves Cor coh esionless soils . Th e ratio M/M_ is
ddr.nnined direct ly for the give n value of p. Tbe curve (a) is Cor loose sand (relsnv e density = 0) and the
csve (b) for dense sand (relative densi ty = 100%). The value of MmD being known from the Free-earth
.43) sup(XlCt analysis, the des ign moment AI" can be competed.
'alls (For more details, the ori ginal paper may be consulted).
J ;s Itl.l~ ANCHORED SHEET PILE WmI FIXED-EARnI SUPPORT
Fig. 20.25 (a) sho ws the deflected shape or an anchored sheet pile with fixed-earth support. The elast ic :
liDc dlanges its curvature at the inflc:xion point 1. The soil into which the shed is driven exerts a large
.44)
•
,,
the ,
,
r or
the

ility
A
t o) tl>}
.45)
Fig. 20.25.
restnlili on the lower part of the pUe and causes a cnaage in curvature. Fig. 20.25 (b) shows the pressure
'Im~ dsmution. Blum (1931) gav e a mathem atical relationship between (ilh) and • (Fig. 20.26), where j is the
dc:ptb of the poin t of infleXKxl 1 below the dredge level and h is Ihe height of sheet pile above the dredge
t of level Thusinflect ion point I is located.
Forsimplicity, the lower portion of the pressure d iagram on the right hand side in Fig. 20.25 (b) is
replaced by a coocentrered force Rk at point K and the d iagram shown in Fig. 20.27 (a) is used in the
.46) analysis. The magn itude o f Rk is initiall y unknown , but it is

m
0.3
automatically excluded from calcula tions when the moments
are taken about K. Once the dept h bas been found, Rt can
be determined from the equilibrium equation in the
horizontal direction.
~ the exact analysis of the ancho red sheet pile with
Ilxed-eerth support is complicated , an appro xima te method ,
! 02
0 ·)
.

known as equivalent-beam method is generally used . It is

assumed that the sheet pile is a beam which is simply 0·0
supponed at the anchor point M and fixed at the lower end 20· 25· 30· 35· 40·
K. Fig. 2IJ.Tl (b) shows the bending moment diagra m. The
bending moment is zero at the inflexion point I.
t -
Theuetically. the lower part IK of the pile can be removed Fig. 20.26.
and the shearforce can be replaced by a react ion Rfo Thus, a simply -suppo rted beam BI is obtained [fig.
1Jl27 (c)j.
The folk1wing proctdure is used for the analysis of the sbeet- pile with fixed-earth support. using
equivalenlbeam method.
'36 SO IL MECHA NICS AND FOUND ATION ENGINEER ING

t~
T

(0)
t K
I

B.M. Oioqrom

'bJ

Fig. 20.27 . Simplified Pressure Diagram.

' _
I

"J
-
8-
m

R(
R(
Bea m ( 2)
- RI(

(a) Uppe r Ream RI

(1) Determ ine the pressure: p J at the dredge level
(2) Estimate the angle of shearin g resistance ... of the soil.
(3) Determine the d istance i of the point of inflexion [rom Fig. 20.26.
(4) Determine the distance a of the point of zero pressure from the equation,

a - ., (K:~ K,J ...(20.47)

(5) De term ine the pressure p o at the po int of inflexio n from the re lation,

Po - ~(a - i) ... (20.48

(6) Determine the reaction RJ for the beam IB by taking moments about the poin t At of anchor of aIllIx
forces acting on IB [Fig. 20.28 (a».
(b) Lower Beam IK
(1) De termine the pressure P2 from the relation
P2 - Y(K, - K,,)(d - 0) .. . (20 .4~

Alt ernativel y, pz - (aP~ i) x (d - a)

(8) Determine Utedistance (d - a) by takingmoments of the forceson the beam IK aboutK [Fig. 20.28(b)]
The reaction R/ on the lower beam is equal and opposite to that on the upper beam.
(9) Calculate d from Eq. 20.49 and hence find D _ 1.2 d.
(10) Determine the tension T in anchor by considering the equilibrium of bea m lB. Thus
T - P I - Rr .. . (20.50)
w here PI = total force due to pressure on lB.

20.16. DESI GN OF ANC HORS

The anchors used in sheet pile walls are of the following types:
(I ) Anchor plates and Beams (also, known as deadman) (Fig . 20.29).
(2) TIe backs .
(3) Vertica l Ancho r piles.
(4) Anchor bea ms sup ported by bauer piles (Fig. 20..30).
~ERINO DfSlGN OF RETAINING WAllS AND BULKHEADS m

1 B

t.."~
T p,
(a) Ta p blOom

I $~.'
l~ ..
" (b)8oUom bram

Fig. 20 .28.
20.47)
The design of anchor plates and beams is discussed below.
Anchor plates and beams are made of cast-concrete blocks . A wale (horizontal beams) is placed at the
frool (or back ) face of the sheet pile, and a tie rod is auac hcd to it. The other end of the tic rod is co nnected
20.48) 10an andlor plate or a beam (Fig. 20.29).
11llhe

ff\:
,,
ANCHOR
BEAM

,,
!O.49) S l'>et l pi" /'

.,/ /. TENSION

8 (b») I e<..4"j·~ i- PILE

Fig. 20.29. Anchor Plates. Fig. 20.30. Balter Piles.

The resistance offered by an anchor plate or a beam is derived from the passive resistanceof the soil in
0.50)
frmt of the plat e. r-or full passive resistance 10 deve lop. the anchor pla te mus t be located in zone CDE. Teng
(1962) gave the fo llow ing eq uati ons for the ultimate resistanceof anchor plates in granular soils located at or
near the ground surface.
Let B be the kngt h of the encboe perpendicular to the Q'O&'i section and let h be the beight of the aochor.
(Q) For ronti noous plat es or beams with Blh ~ 5, the ultimate resistance is given by
P, - B (P, -PJ

p ... n( t l fPKp- tylf K,, )

538 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

or p. - I!:!.J!.
2 (K p - K.) ...(20.51)
where 11 is the depth of the lower face of the anchor beam from the ground surface.
(b) For plates o r beams with Blh < 5. the ultimate resistance is given by

p .. - B(Pp - PJ + iKQY(YK; + ¥K;) Jrta n +

when: KII = roeffident of earth at rest ( = 0.40).

Thus r, -1.!f!!. (Kp - K.l + tK.y(VK, + >!K;)H'lJint .. .(20.52)

The allowable resistance is taken as

p. ' ~ ... (20.53)

where FS = facto r of safety (generally taken equal to 2.0).
The centre -to-cen tre spacing of anchors is obtained from the relation,
s - p. I T . .. (20.54)
when: T = tension in shec:l pile per unit length as obtained from the analysis of anc:hortId sheet pile.

ILLUSIllATIVE EXAMPLFS

Exemple 20.1. Checkthe stabiliryof the gravityreUliningwall shown in Fig. £-20.1. Take
lII~tn ti ve
allowable soil pressure equoJ 10 600 kNlm 2. Use Coulomb:r theory.

... 19 k Nl mJ
.'=]6·
&,,24°

'5.70m

O.'5m

T
Fig. E·20.l.

Solution. From Eq. 19.38, P» » i K"y H2

where K Sin'(Jl + t ')

II - sin2 P Sin (j} _ h) [1 + ysu:(+' 6) s~n C+'
+
Sll1(~ - 6)sln(~
- i)
+.)
j'
DESIGNOF RETAlNING WALlS AND BULKHEADS 539

K" . sin2(70 + 36)

,
. , 70" . (70" _ 24") [ 1
sin sin +
V'in (36" + 24· ) ,in (36· - 0) 1
sin (70 ° _ 24°) sin (70 ° + 0)

K" • [ 0.9~1 . x 0.588 ]' - 0.417

0 866
0.883 x 0.7 19 1 + V 0.719 x 0.940

Therefore, Po .. t x 0.417 )( 19 )( (5.7)2 .. 128.7 kN

The total pressure acts inclined at 24° to lhe normal,
Horizontal compo nent, Plo .. Pocos (20° + 24°) .. 92 .6 kN
Vertial.l compo nent, P~ .. Po sin (20° + 24°) .. 89.4 kN
Calculations are show n in lhe tabular fonn. The momen t are take n about toe. The clockwise moments are
taken es positive. The unit weight of concre te is taken as 24 leN/m).

Forces (leN) Moments obo l.ll toe (leN-m)

Leve-
S.No. Description Vertical Honzonud Clockwise Counter
arm
(kN) (kN) Clockwise
I. Weight, Wi 11.4 053 m 6.0
.. 1/2 )( 5 x 0.19 )( 24
z, Weight, W2 60 0.84 m 50.4
.. 5 x 05)( 24
3- Weight, W3 102 6 1.66 m 170.3
• 1/2 x 5 x 1.71 )( 24
4. Weight, W" 53.8 l.60m 86.1
.. 3.2 x 0.7 x 24
5. 'Vertical componem of 89.4 2.39 m 213.6
p .. Pa~
6. Hcrizontal component of 92.6 1.90 m 175.9
p .PuA
1: 317.2 1: 92.6 1: 526.4 I 175.9
I M • 350.5 kN-m

Neglecting pass ive resistance, the factor of safety against slidi ng is given by Bq. 20.3 as
F .. ~R~ .. tan24° x 317.2 .. 153( fe)
I RH 92.6 . sac
The factor of saf ety aga inst overturning is obtained from Eq. 20.4,

FD .. ~ZR . ~~~.: . 2.99 (safe)

From Eq. 20.17, x " i~ . ~;~:; . 1.10 m

From Eq. 20.18, e .. bl2-x .. 1.60 - 1.10 .. 0.50 m
As e < b/6, there is no tension.
The pressure at the base are determined from Eq. 20.19.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDA110N ENGIN EERING

Pma.
.!!:'(1 ~).311 .2(1 6.0.5) .
b + 6 3.20 + 3.2
192kNI a
m

Pmm
. . !!:'(1 -~) _311.2 (1 -6. 0.5)
b 6 3.20 3.2
-62kNI '
. m

The factor oCsaCdy against bearing capacity failure is given by Eq. 20 .7 as

Fb - p~ - ~ - 3.1 (saCe)
I llustranve Example 20.2. Check the stability of the cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig. £-20.2. TM
allowable soil pressure is 500 kNlm2• • ' = 34°, b = 25°, ., = 18 IcNlnr. i = 15°.

I
_ 0-4 m

f'm
I
I
1
I
1 6.22m

1
1m
I

1
I
I
I
I
'"
IO.6m
, L m
T I - - " Om _ _ +_1 ~21'" I--
Fig. 8-20.2
Sol ution. Let us first ascertain whether Rankine 's theory is applicable to the can tilever reta ining wall.
From Eq. 20.9,
'l'l
.,
_ (45° + il2) _.t:2 _ s10- 1 (~)
Slncp'

_ (45° + 7.5) - 17 _ 510- 1 (::~~:) = 7.9°

The shear zcee does DOt intersect the stem . Tberefote the Rankine theory can be applied.

From Eq. 19.23, p• • iK..lH'

From Eq. 19.15.

 DESIGN OF RlITAININO WALLS AND BULKHFADS 541

Therefore, POl .. i )( 0.311 )C 18 )( (6.22)2 .. 108.3 leN

P,, " P.,si n 15° .. 28.0 kN

P" .. PI' CXX'. 1"5" .. 104.6 leN

F~ MomettIS about roe

(IN) 1.n<T (IN...)
s.Na 1J<scrip<ico ~
Vertical Horizon/oJ (m) Clociwise C OUN<r
(IN) (KN) C1odnm<
1. Wi - O.4 x 5.0x 24 48 1.00 48
2. Wz ... 0.212 x 5.0 x 24 12.0 0.73 8.'
3. W;s _ 0.6 x 3.50 x 24 50.4 1.75 88.2
4. W. _ 2.3)( 5.0x 18 207.0 2.35 4865
S. W.5 - 2.30 x 0.6212)( 18 12.8 273 35
6. P. 28 3.50 98
7. Po - 104.6 2lJ1 - 216.5
I 358.2 I 104.6 1:764.5 I 216.5

From Eq. 20.3, the factor of safely against sliding ,

F, .. ~R:V .. tan 251::/582 .. 1.60 (safe)

From Eq. 20.4, the fa<:torof safely against overturning.

I:MR 764.5
F. - IM
o - 2165 - 35 3 (safe)

From Bq. 20.17, i .. i~ . 764~S~.i16.S .. 15 3 m

From Eq. 20.18. e .. bl2 - i .. 1.75 - 1.53 .. 0.22 m < b/6 (No tension)
From Eq. 20.19, p " 358.2 (1 + 6 lie 0.22) .. 1419 kN /m2
n. IllU 3.50 3.50 •

358.2 ( 6 x 0.22 ) ,
Pmin" 3.50 1- ~ .. 63.7 kN/m

From Bq. 20.7, the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure,

F• • ::::. - 1~~9 • 352 (safe)

D1ustratlve Example 20.3. Determine the n:quired dqJ th o{ pt!11l!tration for the CQIltilever shut pile
shown in F ig. £-203. Take "t = 161cNlm J•
Solution. (Refer to Fig. 20.18 for notations)
K. - tan' (45 - 30/2) _ 0.333,
2
Kp .. t80 (45 + 30/2) .. 3.00>
PI .. 0.333 lie 16 )( 5.0 .. 26.6 kN/ m2
PI 26.6
a .. y(K, _ KJ .. ~- O.62m
542 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATIO N ENGINEER ING

PI .. tx 26.6 )( 5 + t )( 26.60 x 0.6 2

• 66.5 + 8.2 • 74.7 kN

Taking moments about 0 1 and dividing by Pl'

ZI .. 66.5 x 2.~4~7 8.2 x 0.41 .. 2.08 m

p, • y(K, - K,,)b
.. 16)( 2.667 x b .. 42.7b
Pl .. y (h + tf)K, - ydK.,
.. 16(5 + b + 0.62) x 3.0 - 16 (b + 0.62) x 0.333
P3" 266.5 + 427b E
,,/ '
From Eq. 20.26, m .. P2b - 2PI
1'2 + PJ
42.7,,2 _ 2 x 74.7
L:..-/' .
266.5 + 85.4 b
2
~~-4-- ~_1
Eq. 20.27, - P2b CP2 + pJ} 2
From PiCb + ZJ - 6 +- 6 - m .. 0 Ag. E-20.3.

6 6
,
74.7 (b + 2.08) _ 42.7 b + (266.5 + 85.4 b ) (')'
42.7 b - 149.4
266.5 + &SAb
• 0

4482 (b 208) _ 42 7b' (42.7b' - 149.4)' • 0

. +. . + 266.5 + 85.4b
Solving by tria l and erro r, b .. 4.4 m.
Alte rn ativ e Met hod fer- b
Using Eq. 20.28, ,,4 + C1b1 _ C p 2 _ CJb _ C.... 0

where C • __ P_. _ .. 16 x 5 x 3.0 + 16 x 0.62 x 2.667

j
'Y (Kp - K Il ) 16 x 2.667

. :6~
BPI
·6.24

8 x 74.7
C2 .. y(K _ KJ .. 16 )( 2.667 .. 14.0
p

C .. 6 P J {2"(Kp - K ..)Zl + P..J

J
[y (K, - K. )]'
.. 6 x 74.7 [2 x 16 x 2.667 x 2.08 + 265.6] .. 109.07
[16 x 2.667]'

and C.. .. PI [6 ZtP4 + 4P t ] .. 74.7 [6 x 2.08 x 265.6 + 4 x 74.71

[1 (lI;.
_ 148.24
- K.rr (16 • 2.(67)'

Therefore. b· + 6.24b) - 14.~2 - lO!>.o7b - 148.24 • 0

Solving by trial and error , b - 4.40m
DESIGN OF RETAIN ING WALLS AND BULKHEADS S43

Therefore, d _ b ... a _ 4.40 + 0.62 _ 5.02 m

D. l.30d _ 6.s0m
D1ust ra Uve Example 20.4. Determine the depth of penetration for tlu! cantilever sheet pile wall of
JIlwtrative Examplt: 103 by the approximate method.
Solution. From Eq. 20.31, taking h :: 5 m,
(K, - KJd' - 3 hK.d' - 3h'K.d - K.h' - 0
or 2.661d' - sd' - 25d - 41.61 - 0
Solving by trial and error, d - 4.70 m.
Therefore . D - 1.3 d _ 6.10 III
illustrative Exam ple 20.5. Determine the depth of penetration of the cantilever sheet pile shown in Fig.
£·10.5. Tht: water level on both sides is the same.

2 ·0:;",

+2.O:;m

r
d

l £::~:~
~ ~ --t--- ~
---'-------">.

---I
Fig. &20.5.
Solution. K.. - 0.333 , Kp
3.0. _

PI - 0.333 )( 16 )( 2.50 + 0.33 (9.0) )( 2.50

2
PI - 13.3 + 7.5 - 20.8 kN/m

From Eq. 20.24, a = -,_P_'- - :: 20.8 = 0.87 m.

y (K - K,,) 9.0 x (3.0 - 0.333)

P, = t "
x 13.3 x i.s + 13.3 x 2.50 + 1.5 x 2.512 + 20.8 x 0.8112
P I - 16.6 + 33.3 + 9.4 ... 9.0 • 68.3 kN
Taking moments about 0). ~~_ IM)(4~ ... 33.3)(2.12 ... M)(I~ ... 9n)(~

or I i _ 69.7 ... 70~~ 16 ... 5.2 • 2.36 m

P2 . y ' (Kp - K.Jb . 9.0 )( 2.667)( b _ 24.Ob

Pl . [16 )( 2.50 ... 9.0 )( 2.50] )( x, ... r 'd (Kp - K..)
- (40 +- 22.5) )( 3.0 ... 9.0 )( (b ... 0.87) )( 2.667
or f') - 187.5 ... 24b ... 21.0 - 208.5 ... 24b

m _ p.p - 2 PI • 24b2 - 2 )( 68.3

From Eq. 20.26,
P2'tPl 208.5 ... 48b
.,;.:
544 SOIL MECHANI CS A ND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

,
From Eq. 20.27, P db + Zl) -
- P2
6
b' (p, + pi!
+- -6-
[240' - 136.6]
(P2 + p ] )

24.n; ] (24b 2 - 136.6)2 0

68.3 (b + 2.36) - - 6-+ 6 (208.5 + 48.0b ) •

409 .8 (b + 2.36) _ 24.Ob] + (:~- +1~~2 .. 0

Solvi ng by trial and enor, b .. 5.50m .

d -b + a .. 5.50 + 0.87 .. 6.31 m
D - 1.3d _ 830m
Alternative method
From Eq. 20.28. b4 + CJ bJ _ C;!i -C:J;1 - C4 _ 0

where
Cl"l'(K:~ K.)
where pJ, - (16 x 2.5 + 9.0 x 2.5)K,. + 9.0d,. Kp - KJ
.. (40 + 22.5) x 3.0 + 9 )( 0.87 x 2.667 .. 208. 4

Therefore, C1 .. 9.0 ~~667 - 8 .68

BPI 8 x 68.3
C, - y ' (K, _ K,J • 9.0 x 2.667 . 22 76
6P1 [21'(Kp - K.)Zl + P4]
C, . [y'(K, _ K,Jj'

and c .. 6 x 68 .3 [2 x 9.0 x 2.61i7 )( 2..36 + 208 .4) .. 228.81

J (9.0 x 2.667)2
P 1[ 6 Z 1PJ, + 4Pd
and C. . [ y , (K, _ K.l]'

.. 68.3 [6 x 2.36 x 208.4 + 4 x 68 .31 .. 382 .21

[9.0 x 2.667]'
Therefore, b 4 + 8.68b 3 _ 22.76 b2 _ 228.81 b - 382.21 .. 0
r
'm
Solving by trial and error, b .. 5.50 m.

Illustrative Example
d .. b + a .. 5.50 + 0.87 .. 650 m.
D .. 1.3d .. 830m.
20.6. Determine the depth
embedment for the cantileve r sheet pile shown in Fig. £- 20.6.
1
Solution. (See Fig. 20 .21 for notations) In this am,
K• .. 0.333, s, ..
3.0
PI .. 16.0 )( 5.0 x 0.333 .. 26 .7

PI .. ~ x 26.7 x 5 .. 66.8 leN

ZI .. 5/ 3 .. 1.67 m
Fig. £-20.6.
DESIGN OF RIITAINING WALLSAND nULKHFADS '45
P2 - 4c - l h '" 4 )( 50 - 19 )( 5 - 105.0
PJ - 4c • yh '" 4 )( 50 • 19 x 5 '" 295
m _ (4c - -yh)d - PI _ (4)( 50 - 19 )( 5) d - 66.8
From Eq. 20.32,
4c 4)( 50
- 0.53 d - 0.334
- J' 4 1 (4c -yh)d -P,1'
From Eq. 2034, PI (ZI • d) - (4c - lh) 2" • '3 )( 16 c - 0

66.8 (1.67 • d) _ (200 _ 19 )( 5) ~ • -& ((4 x 50 - 195~ 5) d - 66.8]2 _ 0

11156 + 66.8d - 525Jl . ~ (105d - 66.8)2 _ 0

Simplifying and solving, d - 2.60 m

Alterna tive meth od
a PI (12 c Zl • PI)
From Eq. 20.35, a- (4c - '111)- 2P l d - 2c . 'III - 0

or (4)(50 _ 19 x 5)eP _ 2)( 66.8d- 66.8(g:;~.)( 1~6: ;)66.8) _ 0

J' - 1.27d - 3.49. O.
or d-260m
D _ 1.50 d _ 3.90m.
IIIlLdrative Exa mpl e 20.7. Determine the depth of embedment of the anchored sheet pile shown in Fig.
£·20.7 . Also determine the force in the anchor pe r metre of the wall. Assume free-earth support conditions .
Soluti on. (See Fig. 20.22 for notations) K., - 0.27, Kp _ 3.69
Pi - 16 )( 3.0 )( 0.27 • 9 x 5.0 x 0.27
or PI - 12.96 • 12.15 - 25.11

i.\ T
1
o /",\ I
»>

FI8. E-20.7.
..
, SO IL MECHANI CS AND FO UNDATION ENGI NEERING

P2 - 9(3. 69 - 0.27)b • 30.78 b

P z • 3O.78b x biZ _ 153 9b 2
P I - 12.96 )( 3/2 + 1296 )( 5 + 12.15 x 512 + 25.11 )( 012
in which lhe d istance a is determined from the eq uation. P l - t' (Kp - K,,) a - 0

9 x (3~~91~ 0.27) - 0 .82 m

Thus PI - 19.44 + 64.8 + 30.38 + 25.11 x 0.82/2 _ 124.92
Taking moments about 0 ,
P t 11 - 19.44 x 6.82 + 64.8 x 3.32 + 30.38 x 2.49 + 10.3 x 0.82 x 2/3
ZI • 132.58 + 21\12~.;2 75.65 + 5.63 _ 3.43 m

Takin g moments of all lhe forces about M. using Bq. 20.38 (0),

124.92{a + h - e - Zt) - Pz ( a + h - e + ~) - 0

124.92 (0.82 + 8.0 - 2.5 - 3.43) - 15.39 b' (0.82 + 8.0 - 2.5 + 2b/3) - 0
or 361.02- 97.28,2 - 1O.26b3 _ 0
By trial and error, b - 1.77 m
Now d - b + a - loTI + 0.82 - 2.59 m
D - 1.3 x 2.59 - 3.40m .
Illustratlve Example 20.8. Determine the depth of embedment for the anchored sheet pile shown in Fig.
£ -20.8. Also determine the force in the anchor peT metre run. Assume fixed -end support conditions.
Solution. (Sec Figs . 20.28 and 20.27 for notations) KG • 0.27. K" - 3.69
PI - 16 x 8.0 x 0.27 _ 34.6kN
PI 34.6
From Eq. 20.4 7. a - '1(K _ K,J - 16 x 3 .42 - 0.63 m
p
From Fig. 20.26, for , ' _ 35°, i/ h _ 0.025
There fore, j _ 0.025 x 8.0 _ 0.2 m

T
JL..--.. L. -. . . . '
E·20 .8.
 DESIGN OF RETAlNING WALLSAND BULKHEADS 547

Po ... e; (0 - l) ... ~~ x 0.43 .. 23.6

Taking momen ts abo ut M of all the forces acting on beam lB .

R, (5.5 -+- 0.2) ... ~ l( 34.6 )( 8 )( (5.33 - 2.50) -+- (23.6 )( 0.2) x 5.60
+ (34.6 - 23.6) )( 0.212 )( (5.50 -+- 0.07)
or R, .. 74.4 kN
Now P2 - 1 (11;.- K.)(d - a) • 16 x 3.42 x (d - 0.65)
P2 - 54.7 (d - 0.63)

(Alternatively. P1 .. :~ i x (d - a) ... ~4~ (d - 0.63)

or P2 - 54.7 (d - 0.63)]
Taking moments abou t K of all the forces acting on beam IK.
R (d _ a)
J
-+- 23.6 x 0.43 (d _ a-+- O29) _ 54.7 Cd- a)2 x ~ ... 0
2 . 2 3
o
74.4 (d - a) + 5.1 (d - a -+- 0.29) - 9.1 (d - ai ... a
By trial and error. d - a .. 2.96m or d ... 2.96 -+- 0.63 ... 359 m
D .. 1.2 x 359 ... 4.JI m

From Eq. 20.50. T ... PI - R1 ... t )( 34.6 x 8 + 23.6 x 0.2 -+- 11 x 0.1 - 74.4
T ... 69.8kN

PROBLEMS

A. Numerical
20.1. Check the overall s tability of lhe cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig. P. 20 .1. Take the allowab le soi l pressure
2
as 600 kN/m . (ARS. F. '" 1.60 ; Fo =- 3 .01; Fl> '" 3.48}

Fig. P-20.l.
548 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

20.2. :S5~~:~;':O~~~~!~~ t~~t:CO~~ca~ ~~~~~~e~i~~n:' i:i~~v~~~~p1~ ~e~~:dt:;;d~~~g~~~~I~ ~~ ~~~

and, = 30", Use approx imate method. (Aos. d '" 7.35 rn]
20.3 . Determinethe depth of embedment for the cantile ver pile in clay, shown in Fig. P 20 .3. Th e water t.able is all
height of 2.5 m above the dredge level on both sides. [An.s , d = 2.20 m, D = 3.30 rnJ

't= 19k N l m) T
5•

r
• =30"

d
r'o9kN lm J
(=50kN lm 2
~'= 0.0
1
l 1
'm

Fig. P-20.3. Fig. P-20.4.

20.4. An anchored sheet-pile wall is shown in Fig. P 20.4. Find the fraction of the theoretical maximum press ure a:
the embedded length which must be mobilised for equilibrium. Usc the free- canh s uppon method.
Also determine the force in one of the anchors, assuming that they arc spaced at 2.5 centres.
[Aos. 0.51; 206.5 kNl
20..5. An excavation 8 m deep is to be made in cohestontesssoil (y = 19 kN/m3., '" 30°). The sides of the excavaue
are supported by anchored sheet piles with fixed-end support. Determine tile minimum depth of embedment fer
equilibrium. The anchors are at a depth of 1.5 m below the surface . [Ans. 5.0 rnj
20.6. For the anchored sheet pile shown in Fig. P-20.6. detenni ne the embedment depth d and tile force in the ancha
per m run. Assume fixed-end conditions. [Ans. 5.00 t 71 kNiI'lIj
20.7. For the anchored sheet pile shown in Fig. P '1JJ.7, determine the theoretical and actual depth of penetration, thl
anchor force per unit length of the wall and maximum moment. Assume free-earth support.
[Ans. 2.40 m; 3.50 m; 39.5 kN, 63.0 kN-m!
B. Descrip tive and Objective Type
20.8· What are differem types of retaining walls ? Discuss the methods for estimation of lateral earth pressu re acti"i
on the walls.
20.9. Discuss the principles of the design of retaining walls.
20.10. What are different modes of failure of retainlng walls ? Explain with the help of sketches.
20.11. What are different types of sheet pile walls? Draw the sketches showing the pressure distribu tion.
20.12. Discuss the procedure for checking the stability of a cantilever sheet pile wa ll.
20.13. How would you check the stability of an anchored sheet pile wall with free-earth support ? What is Rowel
correc tion ?
20.14. Describe the equivalent beam method for the analysis of an anchored sheet pile.
20.15. Discuss various methods for providing anchors for a sheet pile wall.
:.RING DfSIGNOF RETAINING WAllS AND BULKHEADS 54.

' m)
¥ ~ ~h "/~ :!
f~ ) ~o 1',,16 kN JmJ

Td T
1
l~----" Fig P·20.6. Fig. P-20.7.
20.16. Write whelher the followi ng statements are true CI" false .
(a) Grav ily v,ra11s are more econom ical than cantilever walls.
(b) The latera l press ure on gravity wa lls is deter mined using Coulo mh's theory.
(e) Rankine's theory a m always be used for the determina tio n of lateral pressu re o n cant ilever walls .
(d) Cou nterfort retaining walls are more suitab le than cantilever retaining walls for grea ter he ights .
(r) Tensim develops at the base of the retaining Willi when the resultant str ikes oul~ide the middle-th ird .
(/) Backfill should be preferably d cohesive material .
(g) In an anchored sneer pile with free -earth support, there is no poi nt c:l inflexion .
(h) AI the poi nl d co ntraflexure, the shear force is ze ro.
(I) Th e ultimate resis tance of a n anchor depends upon the passive resistance.
(;) Ancho rs should be placed as ncar the wall lISposs ible,
kN)
[Anll- True, ( b), (d), (el. (g), (i)]
alion
C. Multip le Cho ice Quest ions
" 0<
O m) 1. The minimum allmvable faaor of safety against sliding in the case of a cantilever retaining wall is
coce (a) 2 0 (b) 3.0
<1m) (c) ISO (d) 2 50
, the 2, In the case of a coonterfort retaining wall, the toe slab acts as a
(a) canti leve r (b) cc nunuoes slab
(e) simply supported slab (d) none of above .
"-ml
3. In the case or fixed-earth support c:l a bulldJead, lhe stabi lity is provided by
(a) the passive resistance of the soil
::ring (b) the force in the anchor
(e) both (a) and (b)
(d) neither (a) llor (b)
4. Rowe 's correction for free-earth s upport of a bulkhead depen ds ma inly on
(a) 100al he ight of bulk-head
(b) Young 's modu lus of pile material
we', (c) momenl of inertia of the pile
(d) all the above .
[An ll- 1. (e), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (d)]
 21
Braced Cuts and Coffer Darns

21.1. INTRODUCnON
(a) Braced Cuts
Deep excavations with vertical sides require lateral supports to prevent cav e-in of the earth and to protro
the adjace nt areas against ground subs idence and lateral movement of the subsoil. When excavat ions arl
shallow and ample space is available, the sides of the excavation can be sloped at a safe angle to ensurt
stability. However, in deep excavatioos, especially in built-up areas. there may 001 be adequate space f(J
providing safe slopes .. Moreo ver. it beco mes uneconomical to provide safe slopes because of large quantitio

( oa) ElRACED OJT ( b) OCFtlRM.~Tl(N Cc) PRESSURE ENVELOPE

CQf.I:llfl ON
( Rot .lli ion .bou t l Oti '

fig . 21.1. Braced CUI.

of lhe eart h involved. Excavations which are
laterally supported are called braced cuts [Fig. 21.1. (a)]. TIt
vertical sides of excavations are supported by a sheeting and bracing system. It consists of a relal ivt~
flexible sheeting placed against the excavation walls. The lateral thrust on the shcetings is resisted ~
horizontal members in compression (struts), known as bracing system . Bracing is provided as the excavate
proceeds and the face of the sheeting becomes exposed . Various types of braced sheeting, lhe forces actiq
on them and the desi gn of various components are discussed in this chapter.
(11) Coffer Dams
The word ' coffer' means a casket. chest or trunk. A coffer dam is a temporary structure bu ilt to enclcs
an area for excavation of foundation. Coffer dams are used when the size of excavations is very large all
sheeting and bracing system becomes difficult, inconvenient or uneconomical. Coffer dams are genera\ll
required for foundations of structures . such as bridge piers. docks, locks, and dams, which are buill in ope;
wa ter. These are also used for laying foundations on open land where there is a high ground water table. ~
coffer dam generally consists of a relatively impervious wall built around the periphery of the PfOIX'5ll
excavation 10 prevent the flow of water into the excavation so that the foundation may be laid in m
condit ion (Fig. 21.2). Various types of coffer dams and their design aspects are considered in this chapler.
 BRACED CUTS AND COFFER DAMS ~51

WATER

COFFER
""'TER WORKING AREA
.. V DAM

ENCLOSED BY COFFER [W.1

IlS

PLAN
Fig . 21.2. Coffe r Dam.

xcct
are 21.2. lATERAL FARTII PRESSURE ON SIIEETINGS
sure Rankine's and Coulomb's theories of eart h pressure cannot be used for the computation of lateral earth
[0' pressure on sheetings, as those theories arc applicable to rigid retaining walls rotating at base. The sheeting
iues and bracing system is somewhat flexible and the rotation takes place at the top of the wall.
Shccnngs are placed against the walls of the excavations when these are shallow. The upper strut is
placed when the excavation is shallow and liule lateral yield of the soil has occurred. As the excavation
proceeds downwards, the lower part of the face is free (0 yield inward before the next strut can be placed.
The inward yield of soil increases with an increase in the depth of excavation. Thus, the sheeting tilts about
its top [Fig. 21.1 (b)].
The method of earth pressure calculations has been developed by Terzag hi based on observations of
actual loads in struts in full- scale excavations in sand in Berlin and in soft clay in Chicago. Pressure
distributions against the sheeting have been appro ximated on the assumption that each strut supports a
sheeting area, 1be pressure distrib ution depends upon the speed at which excavation advances, the care .
taken in the installatio n of bracing. the soil type and many othe r factors. The effect of various factors is not
yet fully understood. However, the results of field studies can be used as a basis for developing earth
pressurediagram required for the design of bracing system. The pressuredistribution diagram recommended
for desig n represents an envelope which encompasses the actual pressure distribution diagrams obtained from
The
lvely
j by

Illili
anon
Cling

close
: and
'rally
open
ie. A I ~·65nf(.il f1:~~ t~~~
sosed La) SAND (b) "' IRM CLAY (0;) SOFT TO
I dl); ( lfH .:::lo) toEDlLM CLAY
er. C"" (~>" )
Fig. 21.3. Apparent Pressure Diagrams.
552 SOILMECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING

the field tests [Fig. 21.1 (e)]. These design pressure diagrams are also known as apparent pressurediagrams.
Fig. 21.3. shows the apparent pressure diagrams suggested by Peck (1969). Fig. 21.3 (a) gives the
pressure distribution for braced cuts in dry or moist sand. The pressure distribution is uniform with a pressure
(P(l) equal to 0.65 111 K<I'where K(I is Rankine's earth pressure coefficient, given by
K, - ,,,,,2 (45 ~IZ) 0
_ .. .(21.1)
Figs. 21.3 (b) and 21.3 (e) show the pressure diagrams for clay. If (y/llc) is less than or equal to 4, the
pressure envelope shown in Fig. 21.3 (b) is used. The value of p(I varies between 0.2 y H to 0.4 1 H, with an
average value of 0.3 y H . If t'l Hie) is greater than 4, the pressure envelope shown in Fig. 21.3 (e) is used.
The pressure p(I is taken as (y II - 4c) or 0.3 Yll, whichever is greater.

Non-unifonn solis
1. When the braced cut passes through layers of both sand and clay [Fig. 21.4 (a)]. an equivalent value
of cohesion c, (JP = 0 concept) is determined using the following equation suggested by Peck (1943).

rr.t
H
SAND
. . ... T~ H2
H [
CLAY

CLAY
, .c

'2''1

11 l~f
CLAY CLAY LAVERS
....c .qu
CLAV Yn.cn

(a) (b)
Hg.21.4.

c, - 2~ h'sKsH;tanJP, + (ll - ll,)II'Q..l ...(21.2)

where H = total height of the cut, "/, = unit weight of sand, H, :: height of the sand layer, K, :: a lateral earth
pressure coefficient (- 1), $, = angle of friction of sand. q.. = unconfined compressive strength of clay, 11' = a
coefficient of progressive failure (average value 0.75).
The equivalent unit weight y~ of the layers is determined from the following equation:

y, • h [y, H, + (l/ - fl,) y,] ... (21.3)

where Yc = saturated unit weight of clay layer.
Once the equivalent cohesion e~ and equivalent unit weight Ye have been detennined , the diagram in Fig. 21.3
(b) or Fig. 21.3 (e) can be used depending upon the value of (YttIllcc)'
2. When the braced cut passes through a number of clay layers, the equivalent values of c~ and Y<t are
detennined from the following equations [Fig. 21.4 (b)].

C~ - ~[elJ{l+ C2 /1 , + ... + cnHII ] ... (21.4)

where Ct. c2' 'CII are undrained cohesions of layer 1, 2 •.. n and
HI, H 2 ... H" are the thicknesses of these layers [Fig. 21.4 (b)].

likewise, Ye- t[y1H1 + Y2112 + ... + 1"H,,] ... [215]

 IG BRACED ClITS AND COFFER DAMS 553

21.3. D1FFl.'RENT TYPES OF SIIEI=.I1N G AND BRA CING SYSTEM S

The fOllowin g types of shee ting and bracing systems for braced cuts are commonly used .
(I) Vertlatl TImber Sheeting. In this method, vertica l timber sheeting consist ing of planks about 8 to 10
em thick are driven around the boundary of the proposed excavation 10 some depth below the base of the
excavation. The soil between the sheeting is then excavated. The sheeting is held in place by a system of
1)
wales and struts . The wales are horizontal beams running parallel to the excavation wall . Th e wales arc
ae
an
d.

ra) (b)
Fig . 21.5. Vertical Timbe r Sheeling.
supported by horizootal struts which extend from side to side of the excavation (Fig. 215 (a)J. However. if
the excavations are relatively wide , it becomes economica l to support the wales by inclined struts. known as.
rakers (fig. 215 (b»). For inclined struts to be successful, it is essential thai the soil at the base of the
excavation be stro ng enough to provide adequate reaction.
If the: so il can temporarily support itself an exca vation of limited de pth without an extern al support, the
timber shee ting can be installed in the ope n o r in a partially com pleted excavatio n.
Vertical timber shectings arc economical upto a depth of 4 to 6 m.
(2) Steel Sheet Plies . In this method. the steel sheet piles are driven along the sides of the proposed
excavation. As the soil is excavated from the enclosure. wales and struts arc placed [Fig. 21.6(a)J . Th e wales
2) are made of steel, The struts may be of steel or wood . As the excav ation progresses. another set of wales and

th

1S
3)
SHEET
PILE
;;g'WXlOI I ~C:==:::Jiqll
.3 STRUT

( b ) PLAN CF DETAILS OF ( ill

..o INT - J
fig . 21.6. Steel Sheet Piles.
4) struts is inserted. The process is continued till the excavation is complete. It is recomm enced that the sheet
piles should be driven several metres below the bottom of excavatio n to prevent local heaves . If the width of
a deep exca vation is large. inclined bracing may be used. Fig. 21.6 (b) shows the details of joint at J.
(3) Soldie r Beams . So ldier beams are If-piles which are driven at a spacing of 1.5 to 2.5 m around the
boundary of the proposed excava tion [Fig. 21.7 (a)]. As the excavation proceeds, horizon tal timber planks
5]
called leggings are placed betwee n the soldier beams. When the excava tion advances to a suitable depth,
". SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERI1'IG

5Ol0r f R B EA MS
Wo\LES

LAGGING

fb i Pl AN OF DETAILS OF {.. I
JOINT . J

Fig. 21.7. Soldier Beams.

wales and struts are inserted . The lagg ing is properly wedged between the pile flanges or behind the back.
flange [Fig. 21.7 (b)].
(4) Tie Backs , In this method, no bracing in the form of stru ts or inclined rakers is provided. Therefo re,
there is no hindrance to the construct ion activity to be carried out inside the excavated area. The tie bade is
3 rod or a cable connected 10 the sheeting or laggi ng on one side and anchored into soil (or rock) outside the
excav ation area (Fig. 2 1.8). Inclined no tes arc
drilled into the soil (or rock) , and tens ile SOLDIER BEA"-'I
reinforcement (tendon) is then insertedand the
hole is concreted. An enlargement or a bell is LAGGING
usually formed at the end of the bole . Each tie
back is generally prestressed before the depth
of excavation is Increased further to cope with
the increased tension.
Use of Slur ry Trenches
An alternativ e to use of sheeting and
bracing system , which is being Increasingly
used these days, is the constructioo of slurry
trenches around the area to be exca vated . The BELL
trench is excavated and is kept filled with a

~~~~~c~~s~~~rryS~~~l~~\~~it:~~?~~~t~~ Fig. 21.8. Tic Il1ck.

trench, and thus the excavatio n can be done witho ut sheeting and braci ng. Concrete is then placed through a
tremlc. Concrete displaces the slurry. Reinforcement can also be placed before concreting, if required.
Generally. the exterior walls of the excavation are constructed in a slurry trencb .
2104. DESI GN OF VARIOUS CO MPON ENTS O F BRACING
(a) St ruts, The strut is a compression member whose lood-carrying capacity depends upon slenderness
ratio, IIr. The effective length I of the member can be reduced by providing vertical and horizontal supports
at intermediate poirss . The load carried by a strut can be de termined from the pressure enve lope. The struts
should have a minimum vertical spacing or about 2.5 m. In the case or braced cuts in clayey soils, the depth
of the first strut below the groun d surface should be less than the depth of tensile crack. (Zc)' which is equal
to 2c/y ( see chapter 19).
\Vhile calcu lating the load carried by various struts, it is generally assumed that the sheet piles (or soldier
beams) are hinged at all the strut levels except for the lop and boltom struts .
RING BRACED CUTS AN D COFFER DA MS sss

[Note. Some desig ners assume that the shed piles (or soldier beams) are hinged at all strut levels, except
Cor the top].
Fig. 21.9 (a) shows a bracing system with four struts. Figs.21.9 (b) and 21.9 (c). respectively, show the
pressure envelopes for sand and stiff clays.

""'" (1J ~ .,
• I"!

'" '2 , .,
'" " I .,
back
("
'"
d
.,
h
fore, (.J fbJ Id
:le is
Fig. 21.9.
~ the
The reactio n RI per unit length is dete rmined by taking moments of the forces acting on span a d at d.
and equating them to ZCfO. Once R I has been determined. the reactio n component R2' is determined from the
equilibriwn equation in the horizontal direaion for the span a d.
The reaction components Rl' and R]' are determined ronsidering span df as hinged at d and [:
Thus reactioo at d. R2 - R2' .. R2"
The: reaction R. is determined by taking moments about f of the forces acting on f h. Tbe reaclion
canponent R]" is determined from the equilibrium equation for horizontal forces acLing on f h. The analysis
is similar to that of the top strut. Thus reaction 31 f,
R] _ R]' .. R ]"
The strut loads an: then com puted es under.
PI - RI X S P 2 - (R2' + R 2" ) S .•.(21.6)
II
PJ - (R3' + Rt ) s and P4 - R. x s
where s is the horizon tal spacing (perpend icular to plane of paper) of st ruts.
Proper sections fo r the struts can be chose n for the respective loads found above.
gh a (b) Wales. Wales are considered as horizontal beams pinned at the strut levels. The max imum bend ing
ired. moment will depend upon the span s and the loads on the struts. As the strut loads are diffe rent at various
levels. the ma ximum bending moments would also be different. For example,
R s2
ness
Mmn, - 81 ' forthetop walc ... [21.7(a)1
Xlf1S R2 i
nuts and Mmn, - """'8" ' for the secondwale ... [21.7(b)]
epth
qual Once the maximum bendi ng moments have been romputed, the section modulus (5) is competed as
S. M= ... (21.7)
ldier a""
where 0,.a ::: euowable bending stress.
556 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(e) Shee t Piles. Sheet piles aa as vert ical plates supported at strut levels . The maximum bending
momen ts in various sections such as a 4 d f and f h in Figs. 21.9 (b) and 21.9 (e). are detcnn incd.
Once the maximum bending moments have been computed, the section modulus of the sheet pile can be
computed and the section chosen.

Other Cri teria tor Design or Braced Cuts

(1) Braced cuts in cla y may become unstable due to heaving of the bonorn of the excavation. This is a
type of bea ring capacity failure: and is discussed in chapter 23.
(2) Braced cuts in sand are generally stable against heaving failure, but these may become ur:stable due
to UJ7W3rd seepa ge of water into the cut if the water level inside the CUi is substantially lower lhan
that outside . Piping failures are discussed later along with the design of roITer dams.
(3) The walls of the braced cut may yield laterally and cause ground settlement in the surrounding area.
This effect should be ca refully assessed and suitable measures adopted .

COFFER DAMS
21.5. TYPES OF COFFE R DAMS
lhe following are different types of coffer dams commonly used in practice.
(1) Ea rth Coffel" dams . These are the simplest type of coffer dams well-adapted to depths of water upto
3 rn. Barth embank ments arc constru cted around the area to be dcwatered.
The earth coffer dams nre buill of local soils, preferably fine s and. These usually have a clay core or a
vertically driven sheer piling in the middle. The upstream slope of the bank is co vered with a rip rap (Fig.
21.10). A successful coffer dam need nor be completely watertight. For reasons of economy. it is not possible

Fig. 21.10. Earth Coffer Ihm .

to make it wate rtight and hence some seepage of water into the excavation is usually tolerated. The water
collected is pum ped out of the excavation. The embankment should be provided with a minimum free board
of 1 m to prevent overtopping by waves.
Sand-bagcoffer dams are used in an emergency.
(2) Rocldill Co ffer dam s. Rocklill co ffer dams made of rockflll are sometimes used to enclose the site
(0 be dewatered . These are permeable and are usually provided with an impervious membrane of soil to
reduce seepage (Fig. 21.11). The crest and the upper part of the impervious membrane are provi.ed with rip
rap to provide protection against wave actio n. Overtopping does not cause serious damage in case of rockfill
coffer dams. The slopes of a rockfill coffer dam can be made as steep as 1 horizontal to 1.5 vertical.
(3) Singl e-Sh eet Pile ColTer da ms. Single-sheet piling roller dams are general ly used to enclose small
foundation sites in water for bridges at a relative ly.shallow depth. In this type of coffer dams, there is a single
row of cantilever sheet piles. The piles are sometimes heavily braced . Joints in the sheet piles are properly
sealed (Fig. 21.12). This type of cotter dams are suitable for moderate-flow velocities of water and Cor depths
upto 4 m. The depth of penetration below ground surface is about 0.25 h Corcoarse sand and gravels. 050 h
for nne sand and 0.85 h for silts, where h is the depth of water.
BRACEDCUTS AND COFFER DAMS '51

Fig. 21.11. Rockfill Coffe r Dam.

Sometimes, s ingle-sheet pile colTer dams are provided with earth fills on one or bolb sides to increase the
lateral stability.

STRUT

'WORKING
AR EA

Fig. 2U2. Single.Sheet Pile CotTa- Dam.

(4) Double- Wall Sheet Piling CorTer dam s. A double-wall sheet piling colIer dam consists of two
straight, parallel vertical walls of sheet piling, tied to each othe r and the space betwee n walls filled with soil.
The width between the parallel piles is empirically set as (hl2 + 1.50 m), where h is height of water (Fig.
21.13). Double-w all sheet piling colTer dams higher than 2.5 m should be strutted . Sometimes, an inside benn
is provided to keep the phreatic line within the berm,
The fill material should have a high coeffident of friction and unit weight so that it performs as a
massive body LO give the coffer dam stability against sliding and overturning. Suitable measures should be

Ib.-= = ilr-TIE RODS

11"'=:!:"Ili~~SHE ET PILE

Fig. 21.13. Double-Wall Sbeet Piling ColIe r Dam.

sse son, MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

adopted to reduce the uplift on the coffer dam. WALE

Th is is generally done by driving the s heet
~
piling on the upstream as deep as possible. :.r- STEEL ROO5_
Th e double-wall sheet piling coffer dam
has the advantage of having less leakage than " STRUT
that in a single-wall coffer dam. lbcsc coffer
dams are suitable upto a height of 10 m. WORKING
(5) Bra ced Co ffer- da ms. A braced coffer AREA. RIVER BED
dam is fonn ed by driving two rows of vertical
sheet ing and bracing with wa les and struts .
These are sim ilar to sheeting and bracing Bottom of e-xcavat io n
system dL"Cu<;SCd for braced cuts in Sect . 21.3.
with one basic di fference that braced cuts arc
required for excavat ions in dry areas whereas
" -?HEET
PILE
braced coffer dams are used to isolate a
working area surrounded by water (Fig. Fig. 21.14. Braced Colfer Dam.
21.14). The braced coffer dams arc susceptible to flood damage.
Land Coffer dams. BracedcotTer dams are sometimes used as land coffer dams to prevent ground water
from entering lhc foundation pit on land and to suppo rt the soil so as to prevent cave in. After the pit is
dewatered , the stru ctu re is concret ed. When co ncreti ng bas been completed above the water level, the coffe r
dam is removed.
(6) Cell ula r Co ffer dams. A cellular coffer da m is cons truc ted by driv ing shee t piles of special shapes
to form a se ries of cells. Tbe cells are ir ncrconnectec 10 Conn a warentgbt wall . These cells are filled with
soil to provide stabilising force against lateral pressure. Basically, there are two types of cellular coffer dams
that are commonly used.
(J) Dluphragm type (fig. 21. 15). lbis type of cellular coffer earn consists of circular arcs on the inner
and oute r sides which are connected by straight diaphragm wa lls. The con nection between the curved parts
alld the dia phragms are made by means of a specially fab ricated
Y·elcment. The coffer dam is thus made from inter-connect ed
st eel sheet piles The cells arc filled with coa rse-grain ed soils
which increase thc weight of the coffer dam and its stab ility.
Tbe leakage throu gh: the coffer dam is also redu ced.
To avoid ruptu re of diaphragms due 10 unequal pressure on
the two sides. it is essential to fill all the cells at approximately
the same rate. One advan tage of the diaphra gm type is thai the
effective length o f the coffer dam ma y be increased easil y by
lengthening the d iaphragm.
(il) Cln::ular type (Fig . 21,16) . It consi sts of a sci of large
dia meter main ci rcula r cells iraercoen ectcd by arc; o f sma ller :. ::: ; .:
cells. The walls o f the oonnecti ng cells are pcrpcodicular 10 the '$AND'.
walls of the main circular cells of large dia meter. The segm ent.al :';'. ; :.: :. ~... ~'~2
am; art joined by special Tepilesto the main cells.
Tbe circular-type ce llula r coffer dams are self-sustainin g,
and therefore independent of the adjace nt circular cells, Each (b) SEC TION A- A
cell can be nlled independently. The steb nlty of such cells is
much greater as compared with that of the diaphra gm type.
However. the circular cells are more expens ive tha n the Fig, 2l.1S. Diaphrngm CellularColTerDam.
dia phragm type. as these require more sheet piles and greate r skill in setting and driving the piles. Because:
the diameter of circular cells is limite..l by interloc k:tension, their ability to resist large lateral pressure due to
high heads is limited .
BRACED CUJS AND COFFER DAMS 55.

SO""

~ rkingQreQ

Section A_A

Fig , 21.10. Circular Cellular Coffe r Dam.

21.6. DFSIGN OF CE LLUlAR COFFER DAMS ON ROCKS

The design of circular, cellular coffer dams can be done using one of the following methods.
(I) TVA method, (iI) Cumming's method, (iii) Brincn-Hanscn method.
The TVA method is more common and is discussed below.
(I) Loca tion of ga t ura tton Line. For determining the weight of the soil in the cell, it is required to
locale the saturation line. TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) engineers gave the approximate location of the
saturation line for different types of fill materials, as shown in Fig. 21.17. For a perfectly draining fill, the
saturation line is shown in Fig. 21.17 (a). Tbe lower half may be assumed saturated for analysis. For other

(al (bl (e1

Flg. 21.17. Location of Satul'lllion li ne.
type of fin. the saturation line at a slope of 2: 1 is assumed (Fig. 21.17 (b)). In case of a berm, the saturation
line drops down to the top of the berm [Fig. 21.17 (e)). For stability analysis, two extreme locations (marked
I and 2) of saturation line should be investigated in this case.
(2) Average Width . 1be design of a coffer dam is made for a secron 1 m long and of uniform, average
width. The average width is obtained by equating the section modulus of the equivalent rectangular section to
the actual section modulus. An approximate value of the average width may, however, be obtained by
equating the equivalent rectangular area to the actual area of the coffer dam between centre to centre. Thus
Average width (b). areaofonemmncell + ;~ofoneconnect.ingceu ... (21.9)

where U. = distance between centre 10 centre of main cells.

The lVA engineers gave the following relations for computing the average width.
 WIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

b • 0.785 D (For 90° 1"s) .. .[2UO(0)J

and b • 0.875 D (For 60° 1"5) ... [2UO(b)J
where D is the diameter of the main cell.
lhe above values of the average width are assumed in the preliminary analysis TIle actual width to be
provided is obtained alter the srcbniry analysis.
The diameter (D) of the main cells is chosen depending upon the height (11) of the coffer dam. The
diameter (D) of the main cells is given by
D . 1.011 to l.2I1 . .. [2Ul(0)J
1be diameter of the connecting cells (D, ) is given by
D J . O.6D ... [21.1I(b)J
The circular. cellular coffer dams are ccooomical upto a total height (If) of 15 10 18 rn.
(3) Safety agatnst slldin2. the coffer darn is subjected to a horizontal sliding force due to water pressure
and earth pressure . The sliding is resisted by the frictional resistance at the base of the coffer darn. If berms
are provided on the interior side. the passive earth pressure also helps in resisting the sliding (Fig. 21.18).
Thus the factor of safety against sliding.

1-
H
Dry sid~

T P,
1 H,
1 l<.__':"'LL_
~1~
--'--_ _'-_-----"
--,,-
Fig. 21.18. Sliding Analysis.

F Resisting force P, + Pp
. ..(21.12)
s· Sliding force· P"
IJ W + Pp
F, - - P-- •• •(21.13)
d
where IJ ::: coefficient of friction (= tan cjl). W = total weight of fill (submerged weight below saturation line).
Pp = passive resistance of the berm on dry side.
Pd ::: driving force due to water and soil on the water side.
Pf ::: resisting force at the base.
A factor of safety of at least 1.25 is generally recommended .
(4) Safety against Overturning. The coffer dam should be safe against failure due to overturning at toe.
Neglecting the passive resistance of the benn, the factor of safety against overturning is given by
F • Resistin.8 moment
... (2 1,14)
" Overturn ing moment
Tbe factor of safety (F ,,) should be greater than 2.0.
Further, as the soil cannot resist tension. the resultant of the forces must lie within the middle third. The
eccentricity (e) is detennined after locating the point where the resultant strikes, as the case of retaining walls
(see Chapter 20). Thus
INO BRACEDCUTSAND COFFER DAMS
""

B
<a)J e s b/ 6 . .. [21.15(a)J
(b)J
- r;;;,;i
be _ b • V ~11 .. .[21.15(b))
where Z = height of the line of action of Pd above the base.
Ibe
(5) Safdy against sUpping. As the cell tends to lip over the toe, the
fill material has the tendency to run OUI (Fig. 21.19). The piles on the
a)J water side creep upward as one unit. bUI the piles on the dry side slip
relative to each other. This behaviour occurs because the frictiona l ~g
b)J
:~~~~~e:a: ~oo~: uit~~~ the water si&: is smalkr than g
ire On the water s ide. lhClfocc:e Pit pushes the pile agai nst the fiU. 1be
ns frictional resistance between the pile and the fill is equal 10 ~. Pd' 1be
,). factor of safety against slipping is given by ,.:'.', ,.:,.. . ' .-," ,"

Fsp .. Frictional rcsista~;::i~~:ward movement ... (21.16) Ag. 21.19. Slipping Analysis.

The value of friction coe fficient II' is equal 10 tan b, where 0 is the angle of friction between the fm and the
pile.
The minimum wid th b required can be obtained by taking moments eboc t the toe. Thus
P" x Z x F." .. P" lan6 x b

b · ~"",6 ... (2 1.7)

The value of Fzp is usually taken as 1.25.

If the sheet pile is embedded in the rock for a substantial depth , the effed of the active pressure and the
passive pressure should also be considered when summing up the moments about the toe.
(6) Sarety agalm. vertkel shear. The cell may (all due to vertical sheardeveloped along a plane through
iL1centre line. The maximum shear (V_) is obtained by oornputing the maximum bending moment acting 00
the cell, conside ring it es a vertical cantilever.
Thus V_ . 3M/ (2b) ... (21.18)
where M = bending moment due to external forces above the base.
For stabili ty, the sheari ng resistance developed must be greater than Vma .
The shearing resistance is equal to the sum of the shearing resistance of soil (51) and the resistance due
to interlock (SV obtained as follows:
1
5, - -2 r.Il' (~)
2 - cos •
'an. ...[21.19(a )J

5, - t r. H' K lan. .. .[(21.19(b)]

wbcre K .. ooefficienl of earth pressure having a value greater than thai. for the active pressu re,
• = angle of internal friction of the cell fill,
and = average unit weight of soil.
111
The resistance 52 is equal 10 the interlock tension T multiplied by the coefficient of friction C/).
5, - f . T
The maximum pressure is developed at a height of (3/4) H, above the base, where Il, is the height of cell
above the point of fixity. Thus
562 SOIL MFCHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING

T . i y.//(3/4//{)K.

Therefore. 52 · l lQ
H HfKQf .. .(21.20)
The coefficient of interlock. friction [ is generally taken as 0.30.
Th e factor of saf ety against vertical shear is given by
F _ 51 + 52
, V~
.. .(21.21)
The factor of safety F~ should not be less than 1.25 .
(7) Stability against bunting. The cell should be safe against bursting. The stability against bursting
depends upon the interlock stresses . The interlock stresses arc quite complicated and cannot be determined
accurately. TVA engineers gav e the following expression for the ring tension (Tm",,) for 9O°·Tees .
TrnAx " p Lsec8 .. .(21.22)
=
TlJIoU pDI2 .[21.22(a)1
where p = horizontal pressure due to cell fill, given by
P - 1..H K" + 1...11... ... (21.23)
in which I f = depth of soil uptc that level, IT... = water depth ,
S = angle which the T makes with the axis.
L = one- half the dis tance between centres of main cells.
1be maximum ring tension occurs at the lower quarter poin t (ie . Hjl4 above the rock or groun d surface).
The computed maximum interlock tension should not exceed the allowable tension (T./). TIle factor of
safety agains t bursting is given by
T", ... (21.24)
FI> - TmaJI
The value of Toll is usuall y taken as 1500 kN/m .
The value of F I> should be at least 1.25.

21.7. DESIGN OF CELLUlAR COFFER DAM ON SOIL

The procedure for the design of a coffe r dam embedded in deep soil is similar to that for a coffer darn
resting on rock, as discussed in Sect. 21.6 . Howeve r, the following additional requirements must be satisfied.
(J) The sheet pile in sand must be driven to such a depth that the bearing capacity at that level is greater
than the vertical force acting on the pile . A minimum factor of safety of 1.50 is generally recommended.
The maximum vertical force per unit length (Q) developed is equal to the frictional resistance between
the fi ll and the pile and is given by

Q ,. ky lP K.. tan b . . .(21.25)

where 1l = height of cell above top of the stratum, K.. = coefficient of active earth pressure,
b :: angle of friction between fill and pile , y = unit weight of cell fill.

~r ~~_~ ••. ~l~

where Q ldl :: ultimate load capacity against bearing capacity failure (see chapter 23).
(il) If the coffer dam is embedded in clay, the ultimate load capacity is given by
Q... . (5.7c)b
where c :: unit cohesion.
The ultimate load capacity should be greater than the fill load . 'Ibe factor of safety is given by
 BRACED ClITS AND COFfER DAMS 56'
F. ~.5.7cb
FiIlload Ib H

F _ 5;~ ... (21.27)

If _ 5;"; ...[21.27(0»)
I A minimum factor of safety of 1.50 is recommended.
U)
(iii) If !.he roffer dam is embedded in son to medium clay, it should be: safe against tilting caused by
unequal senlemenr. The tilting can be estimated from the co mpressibility caeracteristicsof the so il
,ng (iv) Cellular coffe r dams on a deep sand depos it should have sufficient factor of sa fety agai nst piping
sed failure.
Fig. 21.20 shows a coffer dam founded on deep sand bed. Water perco la tes under the base of the roffer
Z2) dam and rises up in front of the toe. The flow net can be draw n as shown. The flow lines are almost vertica l
ill front of the toe. If the seepage pressure is equal 10 or greater than the submerged unit weigh t. quick
a)]
(boiling) conditions may dev elop. The factor of safety against boiling is given by (see chapter 10)

I
23)

H
:0).
• nf

24)
j.,........,-,--

lam
ied.
ater
Fig. 21.20. Flow-Net

F • 1-
'Y•
...(21.28)
.25) where i =hydraulic gradient at exit ( =11hI !), 11h =drop betwee n Iasl: two eq uipotentia l lines,
1 = length of the last flow field.
If the factor of safety is less than 1.50. a loaded filter is provided as shown to increase the downward
fortt without increasing lhe seepage pressure.
.26 ) The fador of sa fety can also be increased by reducing the gradient i by driving the shee t pile deeper or
by reducingthe effective head by permitting some water depth on the inner s ide.
The depth of the sheet pile below the ground surface is genera lly kept at least equ al to two-th irds of the
height of the coffer da m.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGlNEERlNQ

IllU!ITRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illust rat ive Example 21.1. Dete rmine the loads in the three struts shown in Fig. E-21.1 (a). The cenlTt
ttl centre spacing of the struts along the length of the CUI is 2.50 m. The soil is stiff, fissured clay (y =
19
kN/mJ, c = 40 kNlm 2) . A lso determine the maximum bending momelllS in wales and sheet p iles.

'1':19 kNlm)
c~lo OkN l m2

Fig. E-21.1.

Solut ion. ~ _ 19 :0 6 .0 _ 2.85 < 4

The refore. the pressure distribu tion is as given in Fig. 21.2 (b). The value of the earth pressure is given
by
P.. - 0.3 yH _ 0.3)C 19)( 6- 34.2 kN/m 2
(a) Strut loads. Let Rh R2 and RJ be the reactions per unit length in three struts 81 levels A, Band C.
respectivel y.
Taking momen ts of all the forces acting above pclru B.
R 1 )C 2.0 _ 34.2 ; 1.50 (1.50 + 0.50) + 34.2 )C 15 )C 0.75

or R1 - 44.9 kN
From the horizontal equilibrium of the portion AB,
R I + R 2' _ 34.2 ; 1.50 + 34.2 )C 1.50 _ 77.0

R2' - 77 - 44.9 - 32.1 kN

From symme try, R{ - 32.1ltN and R3 _ 44.9 kN
Th~ ~-~+~ '- n .l+3~1-M2 ~
From Eq. 2 1.6. the strut loads are given as
P I - R 1 )( S - 44.9 )( 2.5 - 112.3 kN
P2 - (R2' + R2") s - (3~1 + 32.1) )( 2.50 - 160.5 kN
P3 - 44.9 )( 2.50 - 112.3 kN
(b) Wal e. 1be maximu m bending moment occurs in the wale at level B. From Eq. 2 1.7.

R2S2 (32.1 + 32.1) (25)' 50kN rn

M """'-8- 8·- -
(e) Sheet pile. Fig. & 21.1 (c) shows the shear force diagram for the vertical sheet pile. The shear force
is zero at point D at a depth x below top point E. 1be depth x is dete nn incd from the shear force equatioo.
INO BRACED CUTS AND COFFI!R DAMS

t )( 34.2 x 15 0 + (x - 1.5) )( 34.2 - 44.9 ... O ' or x .. 2.06 m

",Fe The maximum bending moment in the sheet pile occurs at D.

19
Alma .. t l( 34.2 )( 1.50 )( 1.06 + (0.56 )C 34 .2) )( 0.28 - 44.9 )( 1.06 .. 15.0 kN-m

D1ustnltlve Example 21.2. De termine the fon.::es in the struts for the bracing syswm sho wn in Fig.
£·21.2. Assum.t'hinges at levels B, C and D. Take 't = 18 iNlmJ, c = 30 kNlm2 end s = 2.0 m.

' ·5 m (J) ~ A T
rt
' m

2·5m
T
Vi ",

m -l..
R'
ru .l.. ,
ii2
R'
t
Om

-I-
1
C
\·5 m

" "- 0
..
"t . l8 kN Im3 R, 1--43.2-----1
C a ) Ok Nfml
(0)

Fig. 1!-2 1.2.

c,
Solution. 1.!f- - l~~O 8 .. 4.80 > 4.0

The pressure distribution shown in Fig. 21.2 (e) is applicable in this case. Therefore.
P.. .. YH - 4c .. 18 )( 8 - 4 )( 30 .. 24 kN /m 2
Alternatively, P. _ 0.3 Y11 .. 0.3 x 18 )( 8 .. 43.2 kN/m 2
Adopt larger of the two values, viz, 43.2 kN/m2
The reaction in strut (1) is determined by laking moments about B, of the forces; ecnng obove that level.

R 1 )( 2.5 .. t )( 2 )( 43.2 )( 2.667 + (2 )( 43.2) )( 1.0

R1 .. SO.6kN
Now PI .. 80.6 )( 2 .. 161.2 kN.
From horizontal equilibrium of the portion above B,

R 1 + R z' - t )( 2 )( 43.2 + 2 )( 43.2 - 129.6

Rz' - 129.5 - 80.6 _ 49.0 kN

From horizontal equilibrium of the pornco Be.
R z" + R 3' _ 43.2 )( 25 _ 108.0

Rz" - R 3' - 54.0

566 SOIL MECHANICS A ND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

There fore. R2 • R 2 ' + R 2" • 49 + 54 - 103 kN

Now P2 - 103 x 2 - 206kN
Likewise. from equilibri um of the portion CD,
R)" + Rt - 1.5 x 43.2 - 64.8
R{ _ R4 • 324kN

R) - R J ' + R)" - 54.0 + 32.4 _ 86.4 kN

Now p) • 86.4 )( 2 _ 172.8 kN
D1ustnatlve Example Zl.J. Desigt'l Q circular, cellular coffer dam of total hdght 15 In resting on rod
(Fig. E-21.3). Tah allowable utterlod: tension of 1500 tNtm. • = 30". 6 = 25°, K = O.6/), 1= 0.30, Tot:
JOlcNlmJ•

t"m

1b~GS.~~ .,~~.
Dry ~d l'

G.S.

Fig. E-21.3.
Solution. Saturation line is taken as shown in Fig. 21.17 (a), assuming a perfectly draining fill.
The average unit weight of soil. taking half of the fill as submerged. is given by
't.. • 19.0 + 9.0 _ 14.0 kN/m 3
2
PreUminary sect ion
From Bq. 21.11 (a), D = 1.2 H = 1.2 x 15 = 18 m.
From Bq. 21.10 (b). b = 0.875 x 18 = 15.75. Let us take b = 16 m .
Safety aga inst sliding
Weight of fill _ 14 x 15 x 16 • 33(1)kN
Weight of steel shell. 50 kN (say)
Total we ight W - 3360 + 50 .. 3410 leN

Active pressure. p... tK.'Y'Jif .. t x ~)( 9.0)( (4)2 .. 24 k.N

Passive pressure, Pp" tKp'Y Hi .. 4)( 3 x 19.0 x (4)2 .. 456k.N

Water pressure , Pw .. t )( 10 )( 152 .. 1125 leN

From Eq. 21.13, factor of safety against sliding ,

;RING
BRACED arrs AND COFFER DAMS ,.,
F _ Wtan, + Pp _ 3410 tan 30° + 456 _ 211( f
~ Pd 1125 + 24.0 . sa c ,

Neglecling P,. F~ _ 341~ :: 30° _ 1.71 (safe)

Safety against overturning

FromEq. 21.14, r, - ~:~~~:~:;~~~~~~7~

F. - 1125 ~~~ x+ 1~2x 4/3 - z::::: - 4.82 (safe)
The eccenmcity will be within the mi<klle third if

b~ ~7i
YH
where Z _ 1125 x : :: : : 2~4 x 4/3 _ 4.92 m

Therefore. -
V~
r;:;::;i _..VJ6 x 1149 x 4.92
14 x 15
_ 1270
. m.
As b > 12.70 m, the eccentricity is within middle third.
Safety against slipping
F _ btan 6 _ 16tan25°
From Eq. 21.17,
sP Z 4.92
- 1-52 > 1.25 (safe)
s.rety against vertical shear
5) +5 2
From Eq. 21.21, F~ - ---v;::-
where 51 - ~ 'to H2 Klant _ ~ x 14 X (15)2 x 0.6 tan 30° • 545.6~

~ ~ .~~ H~~f
Taking H, = 13 m. 52 _ ~ x 14 x 15 x 13 x t x 0.3 _ 102.4 ~

From Eq. 2Ll8,. V_ _ ~ x ¥_~ x ~7 • 530.3 ~

Therefore, F" _ 545~~;02.4 _ 1.22 (slighUyunsafe)

Safety against bursting

Pressure at a beight of HI4 (From Eq. 21.23).
P _ 14 x (13 x 3/4) x 1/3 + (13 - 1) x 3/ 4 x 10 _ 1 35.5~/m2
T..... - pL sec B _ p x DI2 _ 135.5 x 1812 _ 1219.5 tN

From Eq. 21.24, F" - 1~~5 • 1.23 (slightly unsafe)

,. OOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

PRO BLEMS

A. !'!um erl c:al

21.1. For the long braced cui shown in Fig. P 2l.1~ draw the ea~ pressure envelope and dete nni ne the strut 1ClUlh,
assuming a spacing of 2 m. Takey '" 18 kNhn • c '" 30 kN/m _ [ADs.85 .1, 60 .8, 85.1 kNl

- <II J.Sm

'" T
Y_18 kN/m J
(.30 kNIm2
r
2·5m
2m s a l ", ,., 8kN lml

+ i-
fl) fl)
6m e e ao ~ N ....,2

'm
1
8m , aZ·
2m V;m

'" 1..
0' 1
I - - ' m--i
T 1 I------
'"
6m -----<
l.'Sm

T
Fig. P·2 1.1. Fig. P-21.2.
21.2 . For the braced CUishown in Fig. P 21.2, draw the earth pressure enve lope . Determine the loads in struts (1), (2)
(3) and (4)~ assu ming thol Ihc struts are hinged 01 levels 2, 3 lind 4. The spacing of the SiMS is 2.5 m. Thke1
'" 18 kNlm lind c:: 30 kN/m2. [Anll. 201.8, 257_';, 216.81, 81 kNJ
3
+
21.3 . Check. the stability of the circular , cellular coffer dam shown in Fig. P 21.3. Take y '" 18 kN1m , z JO", b •
25", K '" 0.6.1'" 0.3, TAl '" lSOO kNlm . The diameter d ille main cells is 15 m.

Fig. P-21.3.
21.4. Determi ne the factor of sa fety against piping failure of the coffer dam founded on a deep sand bed shown in
Fig. P 21.4. Take G = 2.67 and e = 0.67.
n. Descriptive Types .
21.5. wh at is II colTer dam ? Name the dilTerenl types of coffer dams and discuss their relative advantages and
disadvanta ges
21.6. Di5CUSS the method for !he design of a circular , cellul ar, coffer da m on rock.
21.7. Compere diaphragm ce llular coffer dams and circular coffer dams.
:ING BRACED ctrrs AND COFFER DAMS S69

': ': .....:.

•. SAND
. ....--;:::.
.: ~ .

.'
,2

Fig. P· 21.4.
2) .M. Sketch 8 typical sec tion of II braced cut arxl sho';" the various components.
11.9. Draw different types of apparent press ure d iagrams used in the design of braced cuts. What lire the Iecrors that
affect the pressure dis tribu tion?
21.10. Describe the methods for the design of various components of a braced cut. slating dear ly the assumptions

(2) ""''''
11.11. How the desig n o f a cellular co ffer dam on rock ditTers from that on a soil bed?

".
N)
\
C. ~ u l ti ple C ho ice Q uestions.
J. Fo r the de sign of braced cuts. the earth pressur e distribution is based on
Cal Coulomb' s theory ( b)Rankine 's theory
(c) apparent pressure diagram cd) none of above .
1. In the design o f braced CUI. it is generally MMimeO that the sheet pile is
(a ) hinged at all the wn n le vels.
(b ) fixed aI all the strut levels.
te ) hinged at all thc strul le vers except the top and bonom struts .
td) no ne orabove.
J. The diame ter of the cell o f a celfu lar, coffer dam is usually kepi
la) 0.5 H (hi O.IIDH
Ie) 1.2 H ttl) 2.0 H
whe re H is the heigh t of the coffe r dam.
4. Sillgk-sheet pile coffer da ms ure suitable upto a height of
(a ) S m Ch) 10 m .
(ellS III Cd) more than IS m
J
5. T he factor o f safety against pipinlJ when i '" 0.75 and y' = 9 kN/m is abo ut
(a) 1.20 (hl 1.00
Ie) 0.80 (d) 0.75
6. For a cellular co ffer dam ~~hcJdcd in clay. the factor of safely agains t beari ng failure whe n o • 60 tN/m 2• H
in '" ISm andy '" IKk N/llf ls ahou t
(a )1.10 (h) 1.27
(e) l A O hI) O.IID
IAns. I. lei. 2. (c ). 3. (e ). 4. (a). S. (a) . 6. (b))
 22
Shafts, Thnnels and Underground Conduits

22.1. STRESSFS IN SOIL IN THE VICINITY OF A VERTICAL SHAFf

Fig. 22 .1 shows the section through a vertical shaft of radius ro, It is an axis -symme trica l case of stress
distribution. The stresses at any point per, z) before the exca vation of the shaft are given by (see cha pte r 11).
(oJ , - yZ [22.1(0))
(0, ), - Ko YZ [22.1(b))
and ("a), - K o t Z [22.1(')J
where o.p 0", Oe are respectively, the vertical stress, horizontal radial stress and horizontal circumferential
stress (hoop stress) . The suffix i indicates initial stresses . 't = unit we ight of soil, K o = coeffi cient of earth
pressure at rest.
G.S.

1 z
Fig. 22.1 . Stresses near vertical shaft.
The shear stresses 't n are zero, as all the three stresses are principal stresses. Because the shear stresses
on all cylindrical surfaces within the soil mass are zero, the material located within the boundaries of the
proposed shaft can be replaced by an equivalent liquid of unit weight y, equal 10 K.. '/. without changing tl!(
state of stress in the soil. 1be horizontal pressure p due to the equivalent liquid is given by
p-y,Z- KoYZ ... (22.2)
As the pressure p is equal to (a ,); or (0 6);. there is no effea on the stresses in the soil in the vici nity of
the shaft.
 SHAFTS, 11JNNELS AND UNDERGROUND CONDUITS 571

The stresses due to equivalent liquid pressure can be found using Lame's formulae for thick cylinders
(see eny text on strength of materials). According to which,
(o:)p _ 0 ...[223(a)]
(a,)p - p':;;? - K, r Z (~/?) .. .[22.3(b)]
and (a.)p _ - p?.,I,' - - K. r Z (?.,I? ) ... [22.3(c)]
. where suffix p indicates thai the stresses are due to pressure p of the equivalent liquid.
After the shaft has been excavated , the shear stresses and the radial stresses on the interior surface are
s zero. The effect of excavating the shaft can be considered equivalent 10 that of pumping the liqu id out of a
cylindrical hole whose dimensions are identical with those of the shaft (Blot, 1935).
Thus Ihe stresses at any point after the excavation of the shaft can be obtained by superposition of the
initial stresses (Eq. 22.1) and those due to pressure (Bq. 22.3). The stresses due to pressure are taken as
negative because the liquid is pumped out, which corresponds to a negative value of p.
Therefore, o~ - (a:); - (o~)p - , Z [22.4(0)]
). a, - K.rZ -(a,)p - K,rZ(1 - ,;;?) [22.4(b)]
)] 0, _ (0,), - (Oa)p - K.rZ (1 + ?.,I?) [22.4(c)]
n Fig. 22.1 also shows the variation of stresses on a horizontal plane in the soil mass. The vertical stress
)J (a:) is constant and equal to , Z, and is independent of r. The radial stress (or) is zero at r _ ro' As r
.1 increases, or increases. The curve becomes asymptot ic. As r tends to infinity, a, approaches a value of
Ih Ko'Z. The circumferential stress (oe) is equal to 2KoYZ at r = ro' As, tends to infinity, "e also tends to a
value K o YZ. In other words, at infinite radial distance, the stresses reduce 10 those given by Eq. 22.1 a 10 c.
The above stresses have been derived assuming Ihat the soil is elastic, homogeneous and isotropic. These
assumptions are seldom justified. Moreover, the circumferential stress (oe) in the vicinity of the shaft is very
high (= 2 K o y Z) which may cause plastic flow of the soil. This may lead to a state of plastic equilibrium .
Consequently, the actual stresses in the soil in the vicinity of the shaft may be somewhat difTerent from those
given by the elastic theory. The elastic theory is used as it is Simpler than more advanced theories.
22.2. STRESSES IN SOIL AROUND ruNNELS
Fig. 22.2 (a) shows a tunnel of intemal radius
ro , wilh its centre line at a depth of Zo below the ground
surface. Let a, and 0e be the radial stress and circumferential stress at any point P (r, Z). Before the
excavation of the tunnel. the stresses are given by Eq. 22.1 as

I (a,); = KoYZ and (Oe)i" KoYZ

~o; r
z,
[------
l
L H l"fZ
o

~l
es
he I -G:j' 'rZ o
he p(r.z )

2)
70-
of

(a ) (b)
Fig. 22.2. Stresses arround a tunnel.
 SOIL M ECHANICS AND FOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING

where 1 is unit weight of soil .

Taking K.. :c 1 and Z = Z...
(0,), • 1 Z. .. .[225(a)]
and (0,), - 1 Z. ...[225(b)J
As in the case of a shaft (Sect . 22.1), let us imagine that proposed tunnel is filled by an equiva lent liquid
of unit weight 'II under a pressure given by p - "lIZ.
IT the de pth Z" is large compared with To , the liqu id pressure on the tunne l may be taken as constant. Thus
P" - y,Z" _ yZ
The stresses due to the liquid pressure on the lunnel can be determined using Lame's fonnulae for thick
cylinders.
(0,)". • P. (~,') - II Z. (,;;,.') [22.6(a)J
and (0,)". - - P. (,.'';,.') • -l, Z.(~,.') [22.6(b)J
The stresses afte r Ihe ex cavation of the tun nel can be obtained from the superposition of Bqs. 22.5 and
22.6, taking the latter with negative val ues as it corresponds to pump ing ou t of the liqui d . Thus
0, _ l ,Z. - lIZ.(,;;,.'). l,Z.(1 - ,.'.;,') [22.7(a)J
and oe - y,Z,, + y,Z .. (,;;,.2} - y,Z.. (1 + ,;;l) [22.7(b)J
fig. 222( b) shows the stress distribulion on a borizmtal plane in the soil mass. At the interior surface., - 'r
The refore, o , - a and CJe - 2y, Z" - 2yZ"
As r lends to infmity, both 0, and CJe tend 10 approachasymptcocally a value of r, Z.. - Y Z".
The actual stress dist ribution may be diff ere nt, as the soil is not a purely elastic material, Further, it hes
been assumed tha t the value of K.. is unity which is nor justified. The solution is valid when the depth Z" is
very large compared w ith the radiu s of the tunn el (r..). If the lunn el is located close to the ground surface, the
result would be erron eou s. The solution becomes co mpli cated wh en all these aspects are cons ide red.
If the s uppo rt sys tem of the tunne l yie lds and allows an inward. or radial deflection, of the
walls, the
radial stress 0, redu ces but the ci rcumferential stress CJe increases. The minimum val ue of 0, is attained when
the circu mf ere ntial stress becomes equa l 10 tbe compressive strength of soil (or rock) . At this stage, a stale of
plastic equilibrium is established. The radia l defled.ioos may further lncreeseand 0 , is also likely to tocreese.
If the maximum circumferential stress (= 2 YZ,,) is less than the rompressive strength of soil (or rock~
tbeoreticatly no support is required for the tun nel. The deformations must be ccotrotled b y providing
suff ic ient restraints to prevent the soil from attain ing a plastic equilibrium w hich would require substantially
greater support load ings.

22.3. CONSTRUCTIO NS OF EARTII TIl NNELS LINER PLATE

Earth tunnels are constructed by excavating from below. Tbe
procedure is similar to one used in minin g. The method of
constructioo used would depend upon the ability of the: soil to
support itself temporarily during ronstruaion and also on the
magni tude of the pressure ultimately developed against the support
system. The factors affecting these parameters are the tunnel depth.
tunnel diameter, the properties of the soil and the ground water
tabl e . Most tunne ls in soi l req uire su ppo rt during cons truction and
also pennanen! support after the construct ion.
In a relatively finn soil above the water table, the excavation
starts at the tunnel roof and progresses downwards in increments.
The initial incremental excavation is made and is supported by a Fig. 22.3 . Construction of an eart h tunnel .
SHAfTS, TUNNELS AND UNDEkGROUND CONDUITS 513

liner plate (Fig. 22.3). The liner pla tes are flanged steel pla tes, which when bolted to simila r plates form a
continuous wall. Sometimes. in place of a liner plate. taggfngs, which are woode n or steel horizontal planks
braced by steel frames. arc used. The next Increment is then excavated and the process repea ted until the
ccnplete section has been excavated. If required. lhc liner can be st iffened with curved arches.
In a very soft soil. a cylindrical temporary support, known as shield, is jacked through the soil. The face
of the tunnel is supported by a bulkhead fitted with doors through which excavation of a limited portion of
the face can be done . lbc permane nt lining is constructed inside the shield after some excavation has been
done. The shield is then jacked ahead and the process repeated.
In sand , a tunnel requires suppu rt during conslruction as well as permanent support after const ruction.
22A. AR CUIN G IN SO ILS
Arch ing is a phenomcnon that OCOJrswhen a yielding part of a soil mass transfers pressure to adjoining
soil mass which is less yielding or rigid. The act ion is sim ilar 10 o ne in a struct ural arch which transfers the
load 10 ebuun cms . When a part of the soil
masss yields, it has a tenden cy 10 move out
of its original position . lhis tendency is

T
resisted by the shearing resistance at the
zone of con tact betw een the yielding and
non-yielding parts. Consequently, the
pressure on the yie lding parr is reduced. z
whereas tha t on the no n-yielding pans is
increased . The soil thus arches over the
yielding part and transfers the load to the
non-yield ing parts which act as ebutme nu,
1.l
dz G
fig. 22.4 shows a long narrow sect ion T
~~~Cf : ~l ~~t~:icl:t~!c= Non yiel di ng par t ~ + d"z Non yielding par t
Although the actual failure surfaces are Yie-Iding part
curved, for simplici ty, lhe analysis is
u.sually based on the esscmpooo o f
vertical sli p surf aces (Ierzagni. 1943 ). As
the struct ure and the soil above de fiect
dow nw a rd., the shear resistance develops fig. 22.4. Arching in Soils.
between the soil above the yield ing part and that in the non -yielding part. It is generally assu med that the
shear stress mobilised is equal 10 the shear streng th of the soil. An expression fo r the vertical stress can be
determined as under.
Let us conside r the equilibrium of a yielding slice of thickness dz at depth z from the soil surface. The
slice is of width B and unit length perpe nd icula r to the plane of the paper. The slice is in equilib rium under
its own we ight dW, the vert ical earth pressures on the upper and lowe r surfaces, and the shear streng th (s)
produced by the lateral eart h press ure. Th us
dW + B o: .. B (o: + do:) + 2sdz
Substituting d W • llJdz. and s. C + 0.. tan • •
where 0 .. - Ko: ,
lBdz + n o, .. B (o:+ d oJ + 2 [c + Ko: tan t ] dz
or llJdz + Do: . Bo: !Bdo: + 2cdz + 2Ko:Uln t dz
Bda: _ (y B - 2c - 2Ka:tanq»dz
do: _ (Y _ ~ _ 2J(o,Z tan q»
.. .(oJ
<k B 8
'74 SOIL MECHAN ICS A ND f O UNDATI ON ENGIN EERING

At the upper surface (z = 0). the vertical stress (o~) is equal to the surcharge q.
The sol ution of Bq. (a) with these boundary conditions becomes,
0:" B~l;::n/:) [ 1 _ e- 2K (ZI B) tan + ] + qe - 2K (zI B) Ian + ...(22.8)
If •• O. Eq. (a) after integration becomes

0, ' (r- W) z + q. . ..(22.9)

If c := 0 and q := O. Bq. 22.8 beco mes

0 : .. 2KB~ . [ 1 _ e- 2K (zIB) tan +] ...(22.10)
Al z .. 00, a... z:Jm. .. .(22.11)
Terzaghi 's experimental results indicate tha t the value of K varies from shoot unity immedia tely above
the centre of strip 10 a maximum of about 1.5 at a height of approximately B above the strip.
It has bee n found by Terzaghi from experiments on dry sand that the shearing resistance of sand is
mobilised for a heig ht of about 2.5 B above the yielding strip. Let Zt be the depth of sand in which there are
no shearing stresses and %2 be the depth in which sheari ng resistance develops . Tbe vertica l stress 0, on the
yielding strip can be ootetoed by making the following substitution in Eq. 22.8.
e = O. q .. 1%1. and z .. Z:z" nB. where n = 2.5 for sands.

Thus 0 ;.
B
2K ta1n,J 1 _ e- 2 Kn tan +] + 'JZje- 2 Kn tan+ ... (22.12)

Eq. 22.12 can be used for the dererminanoe of the vertical stresses.
The phenomenon of arching can be demonstrated by a simpl e test illustrated by Fig. 22.5. It co nsists of
a platform filled with a trap door AB. 'The trap door is mounted on a weigh ing sca le (oot show n). The depth
H of the dry sand layer over (he trap door is very large in com parison with the width of the trap door. The
pressure on the trap door and that on the adjo ining platform each is equal to 1 II when the trap doo r occupies
its original position . However . when the trap doo r is aUowed to move slightly In the downw ard direction, the
pressure on the doo r decreases considerably. as shown by the weighing scale, whereas that on the adjoining
parts of (he platform increases. As the prism of sand located above the door moves downward . the shear

I '~ Ld'i:0- (a) TRAP DOOR

IYH
~ INITIAL PRESSURE
PRESSURE AFTER
LOWERING OF DOOR
Ib)
Fig. 22.5. Ikmonstnltion of Archin g.
SHAFt'S, T UNNELS AND UND ERGROUND CONDUITS
'"
stresses along its lateral bound aries AD and BC resist it and, therefore, the pressure on the trap door is
decreased.
The pressu re becomes co nstant after a small movement. It has been established that the ultimate pressure
onthe trap door is independent of the depth 1/ of the layer of sand above it. Only a small portion of the soil
prism, shown by the area ABE, contributes to the pressure on the trap door. If the sand has even a trace of
cohesion, it will not drop out even if the trap doo r is removed .
22.5. TYP ES O F UND ERGROUND CO NDUITS
Underground conduits are used for sewers , drains. culverts , water mains; gas lines, electrical cables,
telephone lines and many other purposes. The underground conduits should be capable of supporting all
external loads . If the conduit is under press ure, it shou ld also be strong enough to withstand internal pressure
under extrem e conditions. In this text , the forces acting on the conduits due to only external loadings are
considered. These forces depen d upon a number of factors suc h as the buried depth, rigidity of the conduit,
method of install ation. preparation of co nduit bedding , live and dead loads acting on the conduit. For purpose
of analysis, the conduits are classified into the following types.
(1) Ditch Condu its. (2) Posit ive Projecting Conduits,
(3) Negative Projecting Co nduits, (4) Imperfect Ditch Conduits
(5) Tunneled Con duits.
The loadin g on different types of conduits are discussed .

22.6. nrrcn CONDUITS

A condu it installed in a relatively narrow ditch in
undisturbed soil and then covered with earth backfill upto
ground surface is called a ditch cond uit (Fig . 22.6). This
j' 1
os

1
type of conduits arc norma lly installed for sewers, drains , "'i dh
water mains, gas mains, etc . The width Bd of the trench is
generally Dot greater than 2 to 3 times the conduit
H
T
diameter B~ .
The loading imposed on to the buried ronduit can be
obtained by cons idering the equili brium of an elemental
slice of thickness dh at a depth h below the ground
surface. Let V be the vertical load on the top surface of the
sliceand (V + dV), on the bottoms surface . Let dW be the
weight of the slice , which is equal 10 y Bd dh per unit
length. The horizontal pressure (a~) on the vertical sides is
equal to K times the vertical pressure, where K is the
coefficient of lateral pressure . Thus Fig. 22.6. Ditch Conduil
0 :< • K(V/Bd)dh
The shearing resistance (5) developed along the sides in the vertical direction is equal to lA' times the
horizontal pressure , where f.l' is the coefficient of sliding friction between the backfill material and the trench
wall. Thus
S - ~' o, - ~'K(V/Bd)dh
When the elemental slice bas a tendency to move downwards, the shear resistance S acts upwards. From
the equilibrium eq uation in the vertical direction,
V+ dV + 2S. V+ ylJddh
dV . yBJdh - 2S
or dV . y B" dh - 2 K f.l' (VIB d ) dh.
The solution of the above differential equations is
"6 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEERING

l_e-ZK",' (hIBJj
V. l~ [ 2K.'
AI the lop of lhc conduit, h = 11. Therefore,
l_e-2K~' (/lIB,,)]
V. l~ [ 2K.' ...(22.13)
If the ditch has slop ing sides. the value of DJ is taken equal to the width of the horizontal tangential
ptanc at lhc lop of the conduit (Fig. 22.7(a)]. If the ditch is very wide. lhe roIKluit is laid in a sub-ditch to
reduce n" and hence to reduce the load on !he condu it (Fig. 22 7(b»).

W I-E\,----!
Co'
AS. 22.7.
tb'
The load (We) carried by lhc coodult depends upon the rigidity (stiffness) DC the condu it in comparisoo
with that of the fill mnterial between the sides of the conduit and the sides of ibe ditch . In the case of a very
rigid conduit . the side fills nrc relatively compressible and the conduit would carry practically all lhe load V.
1 c-2K~'(1IIBtI)
From Bq. 22.13, W, • l~ - 2K.' (22.14)

WI' • C"y n3 (22.1S)

t _ e- 2 X",' (III B,J
wbere C, • 2 K.' ...(22 .16)
The coeff"tcient C" is known as the load coefficient for ditch conduits. The values of eft for different
values of HIB tI and K tA' can be obtained from Fig. 22.8. The ranges for the values of C" for cobes icejess
soils and cobeslve soils are shown hatched.
If the conduit is relatively flexible and the soil is thoroughly tamped around the conduit, the stiffness of
the side fills may appronch thot of the conduit. The loud on the fleltible conduit is reduced because some of
the load is carried by the side fiUs. The lood carried by the fluible condu it is ootained by multiply ing the
value g iven by Bq. 22.15 with the mtio (8 / Bd ) . where B~ is the diameter of the conduit. Therefore, fa
flcltiblc conduits, the lood is given by
W~ • CtllB~BtI .. .(22.17)
Eq. 22.13 has been derived assum ing ttwt the arctung effect is achieved without so il rohes ion. Aaually.
some ccoes tve resistance develops in the vicin ity of the trench which would reduce the loading on the
coodu it. Therefore, Eq. 22.13 is conservative. Field observ ations india l.le that the load at the time when the
fill is completed is about 80 to 90% of the final load. The load keeps building up because of stra ins occurring
in the soil in the zones along the vertical boundaries of the trench. This roduccs the shearing resistance of the
soil and ClUSCS transfer of toad from the soil to the cmduil.
The following points arc worth noting :
(t) If the trench bockfill is compacted to tUgh density. it will not settle relative to the surrounding
G 51tAFfS,TUNNELS AND UNDERGROUND CONDUITS 517
ts
undisturbed soil. and the arch ing action I
would not occur, For such a condition, the " *~ 0 - 1 924
<,
{:i
load on the conduit is equa l to the weight of
prism of so il of height II.
" ---II "-
/1
" V
I) (iI) If the surro unding undisturbed so il settles
" ;--1 ,

*.
more than the fill above the condu it, the load !O
on the condu it is computed consideri ng it as , f--aq:;'..:J.16S---..... , \<'; 0 .130
a projecti ng cond uit, as explained in the (.!!...)
~
, RANGE Or --... /A!
following section .
7
CMSlONlESS
50", CJY:L
22.7. POSmVE PR OJ ECTING CON DUITS ~ ~}o'= ()'l1
A conduit projecting some disl:ance above the •
5 L
natura! ground surface (GS) and covered by earth fill
is known as a positive projecting conduit [Fig.
, vr 'f/ -c, ~t.w:..-FOR
22.9(a)]. Common examples of positive projecting 3
h~
conduits are culverts for highway , railway and airfield. 2
W
In positive projec tive co nduits. there is a diffe ren tial
settlement bet wee n the centra l zone directly overlying
, P
the conduit and the side zo nes. Depe nding upon the 0
3
relative semement, the load on the conduit will vary.
For rigid conduits. the total compression of the ',-
=~~ s~~ ~:~l ~7 ::: C:btc: Ag. 12.8. Qw1 ror C~.
directly ov er the condu it. This is because grea ter heigh t of fill in side 7.-OOCS. However, if the conduit is
fleXlb le and deflects considerably unde r the weight of the fill, the settl emen t of the fill in the centra l zone will
be greater than the settl em ent in the sid e zones. The dif ferentia l sett lement betwee n the two zo nes resu lts in
the developm ent of shearin g stresses on vertical plan es passing throu gh the sides of the condu it. Fig. 22.9 (a)
shows the direction of shearing stresses (upward) when the central zone settles more than side zones, whereas

r TOP OF EMBANKMENT

SHEAAING-4t
5TRE55ES ',
t
l
CENTRAL
4fZGNE WITH
it'I 4~
f!
~~~
(downward }
(upwa rd ) I I I MORE I I LESS
'I : 'I
:
5ETTLEMENT
t' I . "i'sEnLEMENT IN
lC ENTRAL lONE

~
't
:
I FLEX
.'BL E
CONDUIT
II
I
RIGID
CONDUIT

G5 G5

l a) (b)

Fig. 22.9. Pcsin ve Projecti ng ColK:Iuil

Fig. 22.9 (b) shows the direction (down ward) when the central zone sett les jess than side zones . In the first
case, the load on the conduit is jess than the weigh t of Illl d irectly over the ronduit., whereas in the second
case, the load on the cond uit is more than the weight of fill .
The direction of the shearing stresses a m be determined from the settlement of a plan e. Icnown as a
criticalplane. It is a horizontal plane in the fill material at the level of the top of the conduit at the time when
embankment construction is begun (Fig. 22.10). If the critical plan e, afte r the coos tructioe, set tles less than
the top of the condui t. the direction of shearing stresses is upward [Fig. 22. 10 (a)l . How ever, if the criti cal
plane settles more than the top of the cond uit, the dirmion is down ward [Fig. 22. 10 (b»). A ratio, known as
". SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 22.10 . Effect of SeIlJclIlCnl orattical plane .

seuiemau rauo. is used to determine the settlement of critical plane.
The sememem ratio (r p) is given by
(b. + b.) - (fir + do)
••.(22.18)
rp - b...
where b m = compression of the fill on the sides of the condu it in the distance pBe •
bg = settle ment of natural ground surface adjace nt 10 the conduit,
Ot = settlement of conduit into its foundat ion.
and de =: ve rtical deflection of the cond uit.
p = projection ratio. It is the ratio of the distance from the natural groundsurface to the top of the
conduit 10 its width Be ,
Be = diameter or width of conduit.
The setuemenr ratio is negative when the conduit settles more than the critical plane. 1be load on the
cooduit is less than the we ight of the overlying fill. II is similar 10 the conditions in the (Iitch oooduit and i'l
known as ditch cond:tion. However . if the settlement ratio is positive. the load on the conduit is greater than
the weight of the overlying fill. It is known as projection condition. It is extreme ly <liffJcull to determine the
Individual terms in the settlement ratio. However, empirically determined values give n by Spangler an:
generally used for design purposes (fable 221).

Ta ble 22.1. Valu es for Sett lemen t Ratio (rp)

(After Span gler)
Settlement Ratio
S.No. Conduit Condition
(rp)
1. Rigid oonduit of foundation of rock. or unyielding soil. .. 1.00
Z. Rigid wndwt on foondation of ordinary soil. .. 0.5 10 .. 0.80
3. Rigid ronduit 011 foondalion lfuItyields relative 10 adjacent ground. 0.0 to + 050
4. Flexible oonduit with poorly compacted side fills. - 0.4 10 0.0
5. Flexible conduit with well oompacted side fills. -0.210+0.8
(not well~lished)

Plan e of Equal Se ttlement

The shearing stresses acting on the vertical planes do not necessa rily extend to the top of the
embankmen t, especially where a high fill exists over the conduit. Differential settlements are greates t at the
o SHAFTS, TUNNELS AND UNI;mRGR OUNO CONDUITS '79

Ag. 22.1J. Plane of equal Kl dcmenl.

l)
!q) surface of the conduit and progressively cecreese towards the top of embank ment. At certain height He
abovethe conduit , a horizontal plane exist at which the differenlial settlement s arc zero. This, plane is called
theplane of equal seulement (Fig. 22 .11). Above the plane of equal settlement, the central zone and the side
zones settle equally . Thus no differential seulcment occurs within the emb ankment soil above the p1'U1c of
equalsettlement. An expression for the height H~ can be obtained by equaling the total vertical settlements in
lhe central zone and the side zones as under.
he
_ 1_ ,
[ 2KV.'
(!!.. _!!!':f;
D~ B c
~)l
3
e'J:2Kp.'(1I•./Be) -
:t 2KI!'
1 (!!!.)'
+!
2 Be
e
is + ~ (11 B.-H.) e, ZK . '( H/B.) _ _1_, (0.):;: (li )(0.) _" ,P (lIIB.) ,..(22.19)

..
n

-e
3 2K. B. B. B.
The upper (plus or mines) signs apply when senlem era ratio (r,.) is pos itive. whereas the lower signs
aWly when,p is negative.
1)'pes or Positive Projecting Conduits
The positive projecting conduits can be classified into 4 types, depending upon (1) magnitud es of actual
embankment height (If) and the height of plane of equal seujcmer s (H~) and (2) the sign of the settlement
ratio (rp ) , as given below. .
(I) Complete d itch conduits H < ll.; tr - negative .
(il) Complete projection cond itions H < H. ; rp _ positive

(iiI) Inoomplete ditch condit ions H > H.; r,. _ negative

(iv) Incompleteprojectioncooditions H > H.; rr - positive
II may be DOled that for oornplete ditch or complete projection condit ions. the shearing stresses extend
upto the top of the embankment; whereas foc inrompl ete ditd1 Of" incomplete projecti on cond u jons, the
shearing stresses extend upeo the plane of equal settlement. which is lower than the top of the emba nkment.
Marston gave the Iotlowlng expresslco for the load on positive projecting conduit:
e
e Wf - Cp Y ~ •..(22.20)
51" SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where the coeffici en t Cp for the complete projection or ditch condition is given by
e*2K~'(IlIB<) - 1
.. .(22.21)
C". . ::t2KIl'
and Ih., t for incomplete projection or ditch conditioo as

Cp
• e::l:
2K
",' (ll w I Bc ) - 1
:t2Kj.l' +
(lL &)
Be - Bc e
1.:K",' (llwIB c)
.. .(22.22)
The positiv e s igns appl y when Tp is positive (projection ccodinors), whereas the negative signs apply
when Tp is negativ e (ditch condit ions).

Fig. 22.12. Chart for C,.

Values of Cp for different (H /Bc) ratios and the products (rp x p) can be obtained from Fig. 2212. 11K
pos ition of the curves is nO( sensitive to the variation of KIl ' values expected in the fickl. The curves are fa
K!4' '" 0 .13 and K ....' '" 0.19 .
22.8. NEGATIVE pnOJECllNG CONDUITS
A conduit installed in a trench such that its lOp is below the original ground surface and then coverer
wilh earth embankment is known as the negative projecting conduit (fig. 22.13) . In case of negative
projecting conduits, the critica l plane lics below the original ground surface (GS). and the settlement r.lio
(r.) is given by

r, _ b, - (IJ";. IJ, + <1,) ••.(22.23)

where bll = settlement of ground surface.

bd = settlement of backfill in the trench,
bl = sculcmcru of the conduit foundation,
d e = vertica l deflect ion of lhe conduil.
The critical plan e is taken as the horizontal plane at ibc ground surface . Gcnernlly , the sctncmcnt of lbc
cri tical plane in the trench fill over lhe conduit is grea ter than the settlement of the ground surface adjamt
 581
SIIAFl'S. TUNNELS AND UND ERGROUND CONDUITS
'0

~ 1)

!2)

lly

Fig. 22.13. Negative Projc:ding Conduit.

10the trench. As the central zone moves down ward relative to the side zones. the shearing stresses act upward
and the load o n the condu it is reduced .
The load on the conduit is given by
... (22.24)
W< - C.yli;,
where e" is the coe fficient for nega tive projecting cond uit, given by
e- 2 KIl' (II I B") _ 1 .. .(22.25)
ell .. -2Kp' when H < JI~

and C. ..
e-2 KI!'(11~ /B"') _ 1
- 2 Kp' +
(111ft - Ii;1I~ ) e-2K",'(1f/B.,) when JI > H~
.. .(22 .26)

he
Or

cd

10
/

3)
23 456 7&
COF FICIENT Cn.-po COFFICIENT Cn----"

<°1 ~c )

ac Fig. 22.14.ChArtsforC.
rn
582 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The negative projection ratio p' is the ratio of the distance between the top of the conduit and the natural
ground surface to the trench width . Thus the distance between the top of the conduit and the ground surface
is p' Ed' It is always positive. As the settlement ratio (rft) is always negative, the product (r" x p') is ase
negative. The settlement ratio (rII) is generally taken as -050 for the purpose of estimating loads on the
conduit. The value of e" may be obtained for different values of r- from Fig. 22.14 for K~' _ 0.13 andpJ
::: 0.5, 1.0 and 2:00.
22.9. IMPERFEcr DITCH CONDUIT
Imperfect ditch conduits are special type of conduits which are constructed (0 reduce the load on I
condu it under a high embankment. The construction of imperfect ditch conduits is done in two stages :

C Top 01 linol embankment

~l~ili<:l\ level 01 emban.ment

A'
····0·
.
.
··· · ·
' .

·.· ~ ·
.

x
. ' . ~

.. . ·. G_5·
G X ~
.

'a)
Fig. 22.15. ImperfectDitch Conduit .
(I) The condu it is first installed as a positive projecting conduit above the ground surface and it ~
covered with earthfill upto a height p' B~ where p' = 1.0 to 2.0 [Fig. 22.15 (a)]. The fill is well
compacted.
(il) In the second stage. a trench is excava ted direct ly above the conduit from the initial level d
embankment to the top of the condu it [Fig. 22.15 (b)J. The trench is backfilled with SOlIlt
compressible material such as hay, straw. cornstalks. The rest of the embankment is completed a!
usual upto the final level. Thus this construction procedure creates the situation like a ncgalil'!
projection condition.
As the compressible material settles, arching action develops in the overlying embankment and lilt
shearing stresses act in upward direction. 111us the load on the conduit is reduced . Eqs. 22.23 to 22.26 C3:J
be used for the impe rfect ditch co nduit by subst ituting B~ for B d • Fig. 22.14 can be used for determira.
tion oCC".
Imperfec t d itch conduits are also known as conduits in induced trench conditions.
22.10. TUNNELED CONDUITS
Conduits passing beneath existing embankmen ts or hilly areas arc known as tunneled conduits. Sud!
conduits arc constructed by tunneling or jacking methods instead of the usual open trench methods. Tnt
examples of the tunneled conduits are culverts or sewers installed beneath an existing highway or a railwar
line in service (Fig. 22.16).
The load on a tunneled conduit can be obtained from the following equation :
We - C,yo;- lC,cB, ... (22.21)
where B{ = width or diameter of the tunnel or jacked opening.
 T"""
SHAFTS,TUNNELS AND UNDERGROUND CONDUITS
UNO
ClO P of ~ ~;'ilinq f mb o nlcml'nl l or li ll}

rural
, , ' w " ' • ,-"
of"""
also
H
Ithe
Kip'

l M
~. ~ ~"<d

~M.,d '~du,'
".h,

I-- B1-----l
Fig . 22.16 . Tunneled Conduit.
c = cohesive streng th of Ihe soil overl ying co nduit,
Ct = coeffici ent for tunneled cond uit. It is equal 10 Cdt lhe coefficient of ditch conduit (Eq. 22.16).
The values of C, can be obtained from Fig. 22.8.

22.11. LOADS ON CON DUITS DUE TO SURFA CE LOADS

Loads applied on lhe surface above a buried conduit are transmitted through soil 10 the conduit . The
stresses on the conduit surface due to concentratedor uniformly distnbuted loads acti ng on the soil surface
can be determined using the methods discussed in Olapler 11. It is generally assumed lhat Boussinesq 's
solution is applicab le.
The stresses from loads applied through a highway, runway or railways depend upon the physical
characteristics of the pavement (or formation below the track), the magnitude of the load and the condu it area.
It is generally assumed that the loads ad over some prescribed area whose size increases with dep th,
somewhat similar to 2 : 1 distribution .
it is
Moving loads also cause impact . Therefore, the effed of moving loads is greater than equ ivalent dead
we" loads. The effed of impact is more in the case of unpaved formation compared with that of a paved surface .
Generally, an impact factor of 1.50 is taken for unpaved formation and of tmity for a paved highway.
el of
Martson proposed the following equation for computing the load on the cond uit due to loads applied on
some
the surface of the fill,
"''''
ati ve W, - t. It C1P .•.(22.28)

I the where Wr = average load on cond uit due to wheel load (kN/ m),
L~ = length of conduit sect ion,
5=
ni na- It = impact factor,
C1 = load coeffici ent,
P = conce ntrated truck-wheel load on surface (kN).
The value of the load coefficient (e l ) depends upon the length and width of the cond uit section and also
on the deplb of soil cover over the oonduit. Its value can be determined from Boussincsq's solution.
Such The len:;tb of conduit section (L~) is equal to the actual length of a precast segmen tal section of the
The conduit which is 1 m or less in length. For cootinuous cooduits or those constructed of segmental sections
ilway more than 1 m in length, the effect lve length (L~) is the length of the conduit over which the average live
load produces tbe same effea as does the actual load. An effective length of 1 m is generally taken.
22.12. CO NSTRU cnON OF CON DUITS
227)
Buried conduits are coestrected in differen t shapes using diffen:nt materials. The maximum load wbicb a
584 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

conduit can Lakedepends upon the conduit material. shapeof lhe conduit and
the type of s upport . The safe 10.1d which can be imposed on II rigid conduit, Load
such as concrete pipe, is determined from the pipe strength and the quality of

o
foundation bedding. The strength of concrete condu its can be obtained from
a Ihrce-cdge bearing lest (Hg 22.17). N; the lest simulates a very severe
tooding cond ition, whic h rarely develops in the actual coeduns, the conduit
em su pport even a load grea ter than tha t obtained from the test. Genera lly, a
conduit whim has a foundation shaped according to its contour can Lake a
grea ter load [Fig. 22. I8(b)] than tha t which has no bedding [Fig. 22.18(a)].
Design charts are supplied by manufacturers which provide load factors for
different shaped concrete conduits based upon type of bedding, conduit
project ion and settle ment ratio.
The factors affecting the load-carrying capacity of flexible cond uits arc:
not well defined. However; manufadurers of corrugated mc131 pipes have
developed some manuals whim can be consulted. Such conduits rail by Fig. 22.17 . Three-edg e
excessive deflection whereas rigid conduits fail by Ute rupture of Ute pipe bearing test.
wall. Tbc deflection of flexible conduits Shoold be limiled.

(a) CONDUIT WITH NO (b) CONDUIT WITH

BED DING BEDDING
Fig. 22.18.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Ittustranve Example 22.1. A rigid sewer p ipe with an outs ide diameter of 50 cm is to be laid in a ditch
which is 1 III wide at the top of the p ipe and is to be cove red with 8.0 111 of clayey soil back-fill (y = 19
kN/m J) . Determin e the load on the sewer. Take K J.l'_ 0.12.
So luti on . (Sec f ig. 22.6.) In this case , 1/ = 8.0 m, Dd = 1.0 m, J/lDJ '" 8.0.
From Fig. 22.8, for /l ID d =8 .0, Cd =3.6
1 _ e- 2 K Jl' (Il IBJ )
Alternatively, from Bq. 22.16, CJ - 2 K 11' - 3.56

From Eq. 22. 15, W.. - Cd y Bj

_ 3.6 )( 19 )( (l.0)2
- 68.4 kN/m
Illustrutlve Examp le 22.2. Determine the load on a [positive projectil/g) square box culve rt under a 16
m fill (y = 19 kN /IIl). Assume tha t the outside width of the barrel is 2.5 nL Take projection ratio (p) = OJ
and the settlement ratio (rp ) =
+ 0.6.
IG SHAFt'S, TU NNELS AN D UNDERGROUND CONDUITS ss
Soluti on. HID e - 16/2.5 - 6.4 and,p)( P - 0.6 )( 0.5 - + 0.3
From Fig. 22.12. Cp - 9.0.
From Eq. 22.20. W< . Cpyrf.
_ 9.0 X 19 )( (25)2
- 1068.75 kN /m.

PROBLEl\IS

A. Numeri ca l
n .!. A rigid pipe with an oulSide diameter of 1 m diameter is laid in a dilcb which is I.S m wide at the top of the
;~i~~ is covered with 9 .0 m ci sandy soil backfi ll (K~' .0.18). Determine the load ~e:~~~~

22.2. A rcinfOC'CCd concrete pipe, 2 m in diameter , is installed 115 an imperfect ditch conduit, with lhe negative
projeaion ratio (P') " 1.0, The height of fill above the top of the pipe is 16 m. Determine the load on the pipe.
Assume K~' = 0.13 and r. '" - 0.5. Take., = 19 kNlm). [Ao s. 357.2 kNIm]

B. Descrtpelv e and Objective Type

22.3. Discuss dif[crenl types of coeduits . What are the factors thai affect the lead 00 a cooduil ?
22.4. What do you undetsL.andby arching of soil ? Give examples..
22.s. EXplain lIle variatioo of stresses in soil in the vicinity of a vertical shaft .
22.6. Draw a sketch showing the sress distribution in soil around tunnels.
22.1. Discuss the tnClhodsof roosuuaion of earth runnels. •
22.8. Define planes of equal sciucment. What is their impcnance?
12.9 . Define sen lemenl ratio . lIow is it deletmi ned ?
n .l0 . lIow wo uld you de termine the load on a buried condui t due 10 s urface loads ?
n .ll . Describe the methods of laying of conduits . Whal is the effect of foun dation beddi ng on Ihe load carri ed by the
conduil ?
ZUZ . What do you understa nd b y imperfect ditch condition '1 What is its advan lllge ?
n .13. wnre whet ber the followin g statements aretrue.
(a) For a vertical shaft constructed in soil, the radial stress becomes infinite when the radius tends to infinity.
(b) For a tunnel in sail, as r lends 10 intl nity, the radial stress tends 10 approach a value of zero.
(e) The stre sses on the yielding portion of a soil mass are increased due to arching of soil.
-h (d) For a ditch condui t, the load carried by a flexible rondu it is greater Ihan thai by a rigid one.
'9 (e) For a ditch conduit, the load load carried by the conduit is reduced if the ditch is made wider.
(/) The soi l above Ihe plane of equal settlementis noI subjected to shear suesses.
(g) The plane of equal seulememcannot be above the top of embankment.
(h) In imperfect ditch conduits, the excavated trench is backfilled with compact, incompressible material.
(Ans. True, (f)J

C. Multiple Choice Question

1. The negative projecting cordulr is installed
(a) above the ground surface in an embankment.
(b) in a tren ch below the ground surface in an embankment,
(e) in a ditch below the ground surface in cutting.
(d) by tunnelin g into an embankment ,
Z. In a ve rtical sha ft driven in a bcrogen eccs 'son, the maximum circumferentia l (hoop) stress is
6 (a) K..(J~ (b) 2 K..a..
5'
(e) 0 .. (d) none of abov e
where ~ is coefficient of earth pressure at resr and a.. is the vertical stress..
58' SOIL MECHANICS A ND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

3. In a hori zon tal tunne l excav ated in a hom ogeneous soil, the maximum ci rcumfere ntial stress is
(a) 2 y2" (hi y z"
(c) 0.5 Yl., (,1) zero
where y is the unil weig ht of soil and 2,. is the depth of the centre of the tun nel.
4. For comp lete projecuo n co ndition in a positive projec ting conduit .
(a) H < H~ and 1'" should be pos itive.
(bl II < H~ and rt-should he negat ive.
Ie) 1/ > H~ and 1'/ , lO hould be positive.
(d) H > H~ and r,. should be negat ive .
where II is embankment height. H~ is heig ht of plane of equal serue meu and r,. is senle menr rano.
S. Fo r a ditch co nduit of 1.0 m diamete r laid in a di tch 2 m wide at its top when e,1:: 3.0..., :: 18 toN/m ", the
load carried hy the conduit is
(0) 54 kN /m (b ) 216 kN/m
ld lOR KN/m (JJ" 27 kN/m
6. A negati ve projectin g conduit of diame ter 1.0 m is laid in a ditch 1.5 m wide . The load carried by the coodui
when C" =' 5.0 and 20.0 kN I1II2 is
(a ) 100 kN /m l b) 150 kN /m
(e) 225 kN /m l d'l 200 kN /m
7, A ponuve {lroJCL1.Jn~ condu~( .has a diameter of 2.0 m. TIle load carried by the conduit when
Cp = 5.0 and y = 20 kN/m IS
(a) 100 kN/m (h) 200 kN /m
(e) .wo kN/m (01) 300 kN/m
8. In a positive projecling conduit. the directio n of Ihe shear stresse s developed in the fill is
(a) Alway s upward (h) Always downward
(c ) May be upward o r do wnward (d) A lways horizo ntal
IAIL~. I. (h ). ~. ( h), 3. (u), 4. (a), 5. (h ), 6. ( C), 7. (c ) , 8. (el)
ING

23
tho
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations

23.1. INTRODUcrrON
Ju it
A founda tion is that part of a structure which trnnsmits the weight of the structure 10 the ground. All
structures constructed on land are supported on foundations. A foundation is, therer,". a cconccnng link
between the struct ure proper and the ground whim supports it. The word ' founda tion' is derived from the
latin word fundare:, meaning to set or ground on something solid. In other words. a founda tion is an
al1ifidally laid base on which a structure is set or built up.
A foundat ion is required for distributi ng the loads of the superstructure on a large area . The foundation
should be designed such that (1) the so il below docs not fail in shearand (2) the seLtlcmcnt is within the safe
limits. 1be pressure wh ich the soil can safely withstand is known as the allowable bearing pressure. This
chapter gives the methods for the determination of allowable bearing pressure .
r-oundatioos may be broadly classffied into two caregodes: (1) Shallow foundatiom. (2) Deep
ell foondations. A sha llow founda tion transmits the loads to the strata at a shallow deplh . A deep fou nda tion
transmits the load at ccos tdereote deplh below the ground surface. The distinction between a shallo w
foundation and a deep foundalion is gene rally made accordin g to Terzaghi 's criterion. Accordi ng to which, a
foundation is termed shallow if it is laid at a deplh equal to or less than Its width , Shallow foundations are
discussed in Chapters 23 and 24, and deep foundations. in Cha pters 25. 26 and 27.
23.2. BASIC DEFINmONS
(I ) Ultimate Bearing Ca pa city (q.). The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross pressure at the base of
the foundatioo at which the soil fails in shear.
(2) Net UlUmate Bearing Capadl)' (q_ ). It Is the od increase in pressure at the besc of foundmion that
causes shear failure of the soil. It is equa l 10 the gross pressureminus overburden pressure.
Thus q~ • q. - r D1 .. .(23.1)
where q.. '" ultimate bearing capacity (gross),
= =
'J unit weight of foundation soil, and Df depth of founda tion.
It may be noted that the overburden pressure equa l i.o 'JDf existed even before the construaion of
foundaLion .
(3) Net Sa fe Bearing Capadl)' (q.J . It is the net soil pressure which can be safely applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. It is obtained by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by a suitabk faaor
of safety. ThLL<i

q~ • ~ .. .(23.2)

where F = factor of safety, which is usually taken as 3-0.

(4) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (q..). It is the maxim um gross pressurewhich the soil can carry safely
S88 SOIL MECIIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

wilho ut shear Iatlcre. It is equa l LO the net safe bea ring capacity plus the origina l ovaburdcn pressure . Thus
qs-qtU + yD,

q, • ~ + YDI ... (23.3)

Some euthors define the gross safe bearing capacity (qs) as the ultimate bearing capacity divided by 3
factor of safety (f); that is.

a, - 'f;-. q". ~Y D,. "r- + ~ .. .(23.4)

As the added strength due to 't Df is available in full, it docs 001 seem k>gical 10 apply a factor of safety
10 Ibis term. II is, therefore. more rational to defIne the gross safe bearing capacity as indica ted by Eq. 233.
Th is practice will be followed in lhis text .
(5) Net Safe Settlem ent Press ure (qlOp)' It is the net pressure which the so il can carry without exceeding
the allowable seujemem. The maximumallowableseulcmeru generallyvaries between 2S mm and 40 mm fer
individual footings.
The net safe settlement press ure is nlsc known as unit soil pressure or sale bearing pressure.
(6) Net AUowable Bearing Pressure (q_) . The net aljowebjc bearing pressure is the net bearing pressure
which can be used for the design of foundations, -
As the requi rements for the des ign of foundation are thai the re should be no shearing failure and more-
over the set tlemen ts sho uld also be within tbc limits, the allowable bearin g pressure is the smaller of the net
safe bearing capaci ty (q,.,) and the net safe seulemenr pressure (q..,). Thus
q_ • qu if q"" > qu [235(o)J
or q_ - q"" if qu > q.p [23.5(6)]
The net allo wable bearing press ure is also known us the allowab le soil pressure or allowable bearing
pressure or allowab le bearing capacity .
23.3. GROSS AND NET mOTING I'RESSURES
The gross and net fooling pressure at the base of a fooling can be fou nd as follows.
(I ) Foundation Backfilled. Fig. 23. 1 shows a footi ng subjected 10 a superimposed load Q. If the weight
of the footi ng and the soil above it i<;W" the gross footing pressureis given by

q, • Q : WI .. . {23.6)

G.S .

TOJ

1
Fig. 21 1.
G
BEARING CAPACITY OF SHAllOW FOUNDATIONS 589

where A is the base o f the footi ng.

Eq. 23 .6 am be written es 98 • ~ + (D~~~)A + (D, - ~c) yA ••.(23.7)

I)
where lc :: unity weight o f concrete, Dr = thickness of footing . y = unit we ight of soil,
Q = superimposed load.
The net footing (I'CSSUrt: is equal to the gross footing JreSSllI'C minus the overburden pressure. Thus
q• • q, - y Df •••(23.8)
Substit uting the value o f 98 from Eq. 23 .7.
~.~+(D~)A+~ -~)YA_Y0
Simplifying, q" - Q /A + (YO' - 1) Dr
If the difference between the unit weight of concrete (about 24 ItN/m) and the unit weight of soil (abo ut
20 kN/m) is neglected, Eq. 23.9 becomes
q« • Q/A .. .(23.10)
Thus the net footing pressure (9,,) is equal 10 the superi mposed load Q divided by the area A.
For sa fe desig n. the net footing pressure (q,,) should be less lhan or equal to the net allowable bearing
pressu re (q....). i.e.
q,,:S: q....
Q/A < q_ .. .(23.11)
(2) Foundation not backfilled. The footing beneath the basement (Fig. 23.2) are not backfilled . For such
Icotmgs, the gross pressure is give n by
Q

BASEMENT

1
Fig. 23.2.
98 - QIA + Dr 'tr + '11.. .. .(23.12)
where l[ = thickness of basement floor.
The net footing pressure becomes
q. - q, - yDf ... (23.13)
q" - [Q/A + Dr 1.. + '(1..] - lDI
As the thicknesses D t and " are small in comparison with the depthD,. the second and third terms in Eq.
23.12 can be neglected.
Thus q. - Q/A - yDf •••(23.14)
Jor safe des ign, the net fOOling press ure should be equal lO or less thal the net allowable bearing
pressure. Le.;
590 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

q.:s: q_
(QI A - y Di) • q_ ... (D.l5)
QIA • q_ + YDf .••(23.16)
Comparing Bq. 23.11 with 23.16. it is observed that the load- carrying capacity of a foundation is
considerably increased if it is not backfilled. The net footing pressure would reduce to zero if in Bq. 23.14,
QIA • YD, ... (D.I7)
This is the principle of compensated raft foundations in which the pressure applied is just balanced by
the prcssore released (see Chapter 24) .
'The read er should care full y note the difference between the fooling pressure q. and the allowa ble bearing
pr=ure q_ The footing pr=ure depends upon the superimposed load Q acting on the footing . whereas the
a llowable bearing pressure depends upon the bearing capacity of the Coundatioo and the allowab le set tlement
The allowable bearing pressure is a fuoction of the type of soil and the rooting. as discussed in later sect ions.
Eq. 23.11 is used for the determination of the area of fooling if it is backfilled and Eq. 23.16. if not
backfilled .
D.4. RANKINE' S ANALYSIS
Rankine (1885) considered the plastic equilibrium of two adjacent soil elements, one immediately
beneath the footing and the o ilier just beyond the edge of the footing (Fig. 23.3) . For the eleme nt I beneath
the footin g. the vertical stress is the major principal stress and the lateral stress is the minor principal stress..
However , for the elemen t II, the lateral stress becomes the major stress, and the vertical stress becom es the
minor principal stress.

Fig. 23.3. Rankine', Analysis.

When the footing pressure approaches the ultimate bearing capacity (q..). the elemen t I attains a slate of
plastic equilibrium. However, the element I can fail only when the adjacent elem ent n also fails. A
relationship between the principal stresses aaing on the two ekments can be obtained using the equations of
plastic equilWrium developed in chaptet 19.
For the active case, ~ - tan2(4 5° - . '12)01
For elemcot I. sWslituting 01 _ q...
0) _ tan2 (45° - . 'I2)q.. ...(a)
For element Il, 0) - t D,
Therefore, .•.(b)
BEARING CAPACITY OF SHAllOW FOUNDATIONS 591

As a)of clement I is equal to 0 1 of element II , from Eqs. (a) and (b).

tan2(450 _ "12). yD,

q" lan 2(45° - 41'12)
1
q" - YDf X tao4 (450 _ .'12)

q, - 1 DI"",' (4S' + . '/2) [23.18(a l]

q, - 1 DI(: ~ :i~t)' (23.18( bl]

Eq.23.18 gives an approximate value of the ultimate bearing capacityq" of the soil. As the equation does not
give reliable values, it is rarely used for the dctennination of the ultimate beari ng capacity of the soils, It has
been superseded by Tcrzagbl's theory and other theories which give more dependable values . Rankine did nol
consider cohes ion intercept (c') of the soil. The theory gives the bearing ca pacity of the soil as zero if
D, • O. This is contrary to experience.Th ese are the limitations of the theory.
Eq. 23 .18 is occas ionall y used to determ ine the minimum depth of foundatioo (D,)mi.,. It can be written

D . •
(:,r)m,n 1
q(~)2
1 + sin,' . •.(23.19)

where q is the intensity of loading at base .

1.l.5.IIOGENTOGLER AND TERZAGIII'S ANALYSIS
lIogentog1er and Terzaghi (1929) approx imaled the actual curved failure surfaces bejow the footing with
a set of straight lines (Fig. 23.4) for the p lastic equilibrium of a long strip footing of width B. AJ.the time of
failure. the footing exerts a pressure q" equal to the ulnmate bearing capacity of the soiL
I--~--l
G.S . G.5

0,

'if
-.i:.-
...T ij
:t
, 8 tNlOC

L
I"
L__ I •
IT
~I__ J 1
Pig. 23.4. Hogentogler and Tcrughi's Analysis .
The soil in zooe I immediately beneath the footing is in compression'. The soil in zone I can fail only
when the soil in the adjacent zone II also fai ls, An approximate value of the bearing capacity of the soil can
be obtained by considering the stresses at mid-heights of the two failure zones.
The height of the failure zone is (BI2) tao a '. where a ' is the angle of the failure surface. equal to (45 0
t ,'fl.). The overburden pressure at the footing level is equal to 1 Df . This pressure is termed as surcharge.

Zone n. From Ihe equilibrium of zone II at mid-height

a) - yD, + (BI2) tao a' x t ... (a)

where the second term 00 the right- hand side is the everage vertical stress due to self we ight
From the equations developed in Sect . 19 .6,
'92 ron. MECHANICSAND FOUNDAIlO N ENGINEERING

°3 - ~ : :::: OJ - :c~,:~,
0, - lan' (4S' - f) 0, - 2c'tan (4S' - f)

~ _ 01 rot 2 c' - 2 c' COl Q ' • •• (b)

Substituting the value of oJ from Eq. (a),

1 Dr + (I tan u' ) ~ • 01 cot

2
0' - 2 c' cot 0'

0 1. ["tn, + hB14) tanu'] tan'2a , + 2c'tana'

Zone I. Now 0:3 of zone I is equal to 0 1 of zone n .
Therefore, 0 3 • (y D, + (1 8/4) tan a ') taDZc ' + 2 c' tan o ' •..(e)

and at • q" + 'If- tan a' . .. (d)

From Eq. (b). for zone I. taking 01 and 03 values from Eqs. (e) and (d).

(yn, . 1f tana ') tan2 a ' + 2c' COI.u'

• oot'2 o' (q" .1..f!tana') -2c' rot a'

q.. m 2u'
_ yD,tan 2a' + ¥tan1a l
- ~cota"+ zc' tan a ' + le' )( ~a'
q" _ yD/ lan4a' + (yB/4)( tanSa' _ lana') + 2c'(tan1 a ' + lana') ...(23.20)
Eq. 23 .20 is a generalequation applicable to both coh esive and cobeskcless soils .
(a) For cohesionless soils. c' = O.
Therefore, q" • l' Df tan4 0' + (y B/4)(tan S a' - tan a ') .• .(23.21)
Bq. 23.21 is known as Riner~ erjlUlliOl1 for bearing capacity of cooesloeless soils.
(b) For purely cohesivesoils, t' - 0. e' - cr
Thus q... 1 D, + 4c"
q_ • q. - 1 V,. 4c. ...(23.22)
where COl is the undrained cohesion.
As the actual failure surfaces are curved and not plane as assumed in the analysis, the resonsobtained
are approximate. However, the bearing. capacity obtained is conservative. 100 theory has been superseded by
other tbeaies as explained later.
:23.6.PRANDTI1S ANALYSIS
Prandtl (1921) gave a theory for the penetration of punches into metals. The theory can be used 10
determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soils The analysis is based on the assumption that a steip footing
placed on the ground surface sinks vertically downwards into the soil at failure, like a punch.
Fig. 23.5 shows the failure zones developed below the footing. The soil in the wedge-shaped zone I
immediately WIder the footing is subjected to compressive stresses. As the fooling sinks, zone I exens
pressure on side zones II and m. The zones II are assumed to be in plastic equilibrium. The zones n posh
zones m upward.
Using the theory of plasticity , Prandll developed expressions foc the ultimate bearing capacity for a strip
footing, assuming the curved part of the slip surface of the shape of a logarilhmic spiral For purely cohesive
BEARING CAPACITY OF SHAlLOW FOUNDATIONS 593

1--'---1

Fig. 23.5. Prandd·sAnalysili .

soils (, = 0), the spiral becomes a circular arc, and PrandU's analysis gives the following equation for the
ultimate bearing capacity,
q• • (. + 2) c• • 5.14 c. ...(23.23)
where c.. is the undrained cohesion of soil
Eq. 23.23 indicates that the ultimate bearing capacity of a cohesiv e so il is indepe nde nt of the widt h of
the footing (8). For cohesionkss soils, Prandtl's Ihcoty sho ws that the ultimate bearin g capacity increases
with the width B.
The theory is applicable for the footings at Ihe surface. For the footin g at a depth (Dr) below the surface,
an allowance can be made by increasing the bearing capacit y by y Df' Hence for strip footing on cohesive
soil,
q" • 5.14 COl + YDr ••.(23.24)
Prandtl's theory is valid onl y for footings with perfectly smoo th base in contact with the soil . As the
actual footings have the rough base, the theory does nor give accurate results .
13.1. TERZAGm'S BEA RIN G CAPACITY THEORY
Terzaghi (1943) gave:a general theory for the bearing capacity of soils under a strip footin g, making the
following assumpt ions.
(1) The base of Ioodng is rough.
(2) The Ioodn g is laid at a shallow depth, i.e: Dt:s B.
(3) The shear strength of the soil above the base of the fooling is neglected . The soil above the base is
replaced by a uniform surcharge yDr.
(4) The load on the footi ng is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
(5) The footing is long i:e. LIB ratio is infinite, where B is the width a nd L is the length oCthe footin g.
(6) The shear strength of the soil is govern ed by the Mohr-Co ulomb equation .
Deri vation of Equation. As the base of the footing is rough, the soil in the wedge ABC immediately
beneath the fOOling is prevented from undergoing any lateral yield (Fig . 23 .6). The soil in this wedge (zone
I) remains in a stat e of elast ic equilibri um. It behaves as if it were a part of the footing itself. It is assumed
that the angles C48 and ClM are equal 10 the angle of shearing resistance . ' of the soil
The Sloping edg es AC and Be of the so il wedg e C& bea r against the radial shear zones CBD and CAE
(zone III) . 1be curves CD and CF are arcs of a logarithmic spiral
Two triangular zones BDE and AFG are tbe Rankine passive zones (zones III). An overburden pressure
q • 1 D, aas as a surcharge on the Rankine passive zones.
The failure zones do not extend above the horizont al planes pesstog through the base AB of the f()()( ing.
In other words, the shearing resistance of the soil located above the base of tbe Iocdng is neglected. and the
effect.of soil is take n equivalent to a surcharge of 1D" Because of this assumpt ion, Terzaghi's theory is valid
only Cor shallow foundations (D, :I: B), in which the term y Dr is relatively small .
594 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGlNEflUSG

Fig. 23.6. TerDIghi's Analysis .

The loading conditions are similar 10 that on a retaining wall under passive pressure case. The failurt
occurs when the downward pressure exerted by loads on the soil adjoining the inclined su rfaces cn and a.
of the so il wedge is equal to the upward pressure. The downward forces are due 10 the load (q.. x B) and the
weight o f the wed ge (1/4 'f WIan q.'). The upward forces are the vert ical components of the resu ltant passive
pressure (PI') and the cohesion (c') act ing along the inclined surfaces. As the resultant passive pressure i
inclined at an angle .' to the normal 10 the surface of the wedge. it is vertical. Therefore. from tile
equilibrium equitation in the vertical direct ion. .

~Y~lan.' + qll x B • 2Pp + 2c' x L;sin.'

where Lj = length of jhe inclined surface CB [= (Bf2}/ros , ']

Therefore, q" x n .. 2 Pp + B c' lan,' - ~'t F tan ,' ...(a)

The resultant passi ve pressure (PI') on the surface and cn a
constitutes the following 3 com ponents.
( I) Com pone nt (Pph which is prod uced by me weigh t of the shear zon e BCDE , assu ming the soil m
cohesionless (c' = 0) and neg jectlng (he surcharge q.
(2) Component (Pp ).. which is produced by the conpooent c' of the soil, assuming the so il as weightless
(y = 0) and neglecting the surcharge q.
(3) Compooenl (Pp )., which is produced by surcharg e (q), assu ming the soil as cohesiontess aOO
=
we ightless (c' 0; y 0). =
100 three compo nents, (Pp>r, (Pp)~ and (Pp)q are oorained assuming differen t surfaces of failures.
Although the ir respective failure surfaces are different from the actual failure surface developed for a footing
on a soil possessin g weight and cohesion and also having a surcharge, the results am be superimposed
without i ntroducing much erro r. Thus. Ihe resultant passive pressure PI' is taken equa l 10 the sum of the
components (PI'\. (Pp)~ and (Pp).,.

From &I. (a), q. B • 2 [(P,~ + (P,) , + (P,l.,J + B c' lan,' - ~ y Ii' "'""
Substituting 2 (Pp)., - ~y WIan t ' ,. B x ~ YB NT
and 2(Pp)~ + Be' Ian.' - B X c' N~
and 2 (Pp)q ,. B x y DI Nq •

we ge t q" IJ _ B x c' N~ ... By Df N., + B x ~ Y B N,

q" - c'N~ yD,Nq + 0.5 yBN, ••.(23.25)
q" - c·N~ q" Nq + 0.5 Y BN, ...[23.25(. )J
NG SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING so,
Bq. 23.25 is known as Terzoghi's bearing capacity equa tion. The bearing capacity rectors Nc,Nq and NT
are the dimensionless numbers, depending upon lhe angle of shearing resistance W) of the soil. These are
defined by the following equations:

N-.» cor e' [2<m'( ;;.•~) I] " .[23.26(a) J

N'·[2<m'(~··~)1 .. .[23.26(b)]

when: Q • ;'31[ /4 - . '12} t. . .•

rre
:'A
and N
,
. !2 (~-
ca;,'J."
I) lant' ...[23.26(c)J

he where K p :: ooefficicnt of passive earth pressure.

Fig. 23.7 gives the values of the bearing capacity factors. The values are also tabulated in Thbk 23.1.
is Thesevalues are for general shear failure.
he If the ground surface on lhe two sides of the footing is at different levels, D1 is taken as the smaller of
the depths on the two sides .
Eq. 23.25 gives the ultimate bearing capaci ty of a strip footing . The net ultimate bearing capacity and
safe bearing capacity can be determined as explained in Sea. 23.2.

Ta ble 23.1. Terzaghi 's Bearing Capadty Yad on

:a) General Shear FQjJ~ Local ShuT Failw-e N,

.'
0
s
N.
5.7
7.3
N,
1.0
I..
N,
0.0
05
N<'
5.7
s.7
N,
1.0
1.4
Ni
0.0
0.2
(Vesic)

1.0
1.2
s.e I..
10
15
20
12.9
17.7
2.7
4.4
7.4
12
25
5.0
8.0
' .7
11.8
I.'
2.7
0.5
0.'
1.7
22
3.3
3.'
25 25.1 12.7 ' .7 14.8 5.s 3.2 5.3
30 37.2 225 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7 • .5
ss 57.8 41.4 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1 18.7
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8 425
45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7 115.0
50 347..5 415.1 1153.2 81.3 6.5.6 87.1 329. 10

23.8. ITPES OF SIIEAR FAILURE

Vesic (1973) classified the bearing capaci ty failures into 3 categories :
(1) General Shear Fai lure. Fig. 23.8 (a) shows a strip footing resting on the surface of a dense sand or
a stiff clay. The figure also shows the load settlement curve for the fooling, where q is the load per unit area
and s is the sen lement. At a certain load intensity equal to q... the settleme nt increases suddenly. A shear
failure occurs in the soil at that load and the failure surfaces extend to the grou nd surface. This type of failure
is mow n as general shear failure. A heave on the sides is always observed in general shear failure.
(2) Loca l Shea r Failure. Fig. 23.8 (b) shows a strip footing resting on a medium densesand or on a clay
5) of med ium roosistency. TIle figure also shows the load-senlemenr curve. \Vhen the load is equal to a certain
.)]
596 BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOWFOUNDATIONS
TO 00

50 0

1/ / .

/ 1I'
10 0 l'l
/'
./ /
" </V W
0
/'
V / I~
,,0./
/ 70
"-V
7 / I 60

/ /
0
/
/
/ 1/ 0

'0

. 30

/ 70

/
•
/
u.
" 10 IS 20 2') 30 J'S .1,0 '.
An9! ~ of ",hea ring tes istance ( 4)' ) - - .
Fig. 23.1. Terzaghl's BearingCaprllCity Fac1orS.
NS

BEARING CAPACITY OF SH4LLOW FOUNDATIONS 597

~ ~Uq
(a) GENERAL SHEAR FAILURE ~ s

~rt
U l qU
,,----
,
.r:: '
"
~
q

(b) L: CAL SHEAR FA~:URE s

(d PUNCH ING SHEAR f AILURE

Fig. Z3.8.Types of S!ear Failll~.

value qo(l)o the foundation movement is accompanied by sudden jerks . The failure surfaces gradually extend
°t ocrwerds from the foundation. as shown. However. a considerable movem ent of the foundation is required for
the failure su rfaces to extend 10 the ground swfacc (shown dotted). The load at which Ihis happens is equal
10 q.. Beyond tb is point. an increase of load is accompanied by a large increase in settlement. This type of
failure is kno wn as loca l shear failure. A heave is observed only when there is substantial vertica l sculemcm.
(3) Punc hing Shear Failure. Fig. 23.8 (e) shows a strip footing resting on a loose sand or a soft clay.
In this case. the failure surfaces do not extend up to the ground surface. There are jerks in foundation at a
load of qll(lr The foot ing fails at a load of q" at which stage the load- settlement curv e becomes steep and
practically linear. This type of failure is called the pun ching shear failure. No heave is observed. There is on ly
vertical movement o f footin g.
Vesie proposed a relationship for the mode of failure based on the relative density Dr and DI s:
where
SO= 2B)( L/(B + L), in whic h B is the width of the footing and L is the length (Fig. 23.9). It is worth noting
that even for the same relati ve density (D.), the mode of failure may cha nge with a change in DI BOratio.
It is generally observ ed that for shallow foundat ions, the ultimate load occurs at a founda tion set tlement
of 4 to 10% of B in the case of genera l shear failure. and at a sett lement of 15 10 25% of B in 'loca l or
punching shear failure.
As the footings are seldom constructed on very loose sands, the punching shear failure rarely occurs in
jX'8Ctioe. It is not of much practica l importance. Terzaghi considered only the general shed!" failure and the
local shear fail ure .

23.9. ULTIMATE BEA RIN G CA PAC ITY IN CASE OF LOCAL SHEA R FA ILURE
Eq. 23.25 gives the ultimate bearing capacit y o f a strip fOOling under geoeral shear failure. No theoretical
596 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND fOUNDATION ENGiNEERINC

RElATIVE DENSITY, 0,.

00 01 04 06 0·6 10

.; '"\1,~!,,\L,
Punc hIng local shc!-¥ Ge-I"lr'r al
shear fill l u r~ tenure shear
faijur e

1\ 1\
3
\
-,
-,
. . . 1---- a* =!!!.L
B+L
5

Fig. 23.9. Ve!Jc's Chan.

solution is available for local shear failure and ru nching shear failure. Terz.aghi (1943) has suggested the following
empirical reduction lo the actual cohesion an~lhe angle of shearing resislance in case of local shear failure.

Mobilised cohesion, «; - ~ c' [23.27(11)1

Mobilised angle of shearing resistance, , '". _ tan- 1 (2J3lan ,') [23.27(blj

1be reduced values of . ' equal to 4'.' are used to determine bearing capacity parameters from the valurs
of u-e general shear failure. The modified bearing capacity factors are indicated as Nc',N'l' and Ny' for !<lei
shear failure. fig . 23.10 gives the values of these factors for different values of , '. Table 23.1 also gives tbl:
values of these factor for values of , '. It has been found from several model tests that the value of N,;' aI
determined above is uoderestima ted. Sometimes. the following equation ro- N'l' (vesic, 1963) is used for loctl
shear failure. This gives more reliable results.

N: - ( ",.8+' W,*) lan' ( 45· + f) ...(13.28)

Table 23.1 and Fig. 23.10 also give the Vesic's values of Nt/ .
The equation for local shear failure for strip footing can be written as

q,: - ~c'N/ + 1 DIN'l' + O.syDN y' ••.(131l1

where Nt', N'l' and Ny' are for reduced values of , '. equal to ,.'.
It is difTlCUlt to ascertain the limiting conditions for which local shear failure should be assumed. Besid:s.
the criteria given by Vesic (Fig. 23 .9) , the following criteria are also used .
(1) For a cohesionless soil, if " is greater than 36°. general shear failure is likely to occur. If.' is b
than 29°, kx::aJ. shear would be more probable . For intermediate values of.' between 29" to 36°, the vallXJ
of bearing capac ity factors are obtained by interpolation.
For example. if a soil has . ' = 35°. Eq. 23 .27 (b) gives ,,,. = 25°.
The bearing capacity factors are as under.
 BEARING CAPACITY OF SII 4llJJW FOUNDATIONS
599
IG
00

r
t
I

I
I
I
{

00

//
I 777
/77
I V V
./'!..--'I
I ,~'!Y
~~

' ';: »>

/~
~ .> c-,/j
\ \..-.~'?'\,/
>0
og § .,.~/
/
'J'
~Z:.- /
')1
17 /
1)1 .-/ \

cal
he
~ 7
~
1/
as
cal
,0
/ -

"')

:9)
/

es,
1/
ess
es " , , ur rs rs
1
" Ao gle 01 Irict ion .
30
V ----...
40 45 50

Fig. 23.10. Beari ng CapacityfllC tOl'S for Local Shear Failure.

600 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

He • 57.8, Nq • 41.4 and N, _ 42.4

and Ne' - 25.2, Nt/ - 12.6 and N,' • 10.1
Difference (He)d = 32.6, (N..)J :: 28.8 and (H,ll = 32.3.
As the actual value of.' is 35 0 which is 6 0 more than the value of,' axresponding to local shear failun:
(liz. 29j. the proportional diO"erenct 10 be added to Lh<: values of He'Nq' and NT' is 6(1 times the lotal
d ifference. Thus, the required val ues are
Nt - 25.2 + 6/7 )( 32.6 _ 53.14
Nq - 12 6 + 617 x 28.8 - 37.19
N, _ 10.1 + 617 )( 32.3 - 37.79
(2) If tbe failure of the specimen of the soil occurs at a relatively small strain, say less than 5%, lhe
failure of the fooling would be by general shea r failure. If the stress-strain curve docs not show a peak and
ia a continuously rising curve even upto a strain of 10 to 20%, local shear failure would occur in the footing.
(3) If the relative densi ty (D,> is greater than about 70% , general shear failure would occur . If it is less
L1l&1n 35%. local shear failure is more likely .
(4) If the standard penetration test (SP1) value is more than 30, the general shear failure would 0CClI'.
However, if it is less then 5, the local shear failure is more likel y.
(5) If e is less than 0.55 , the general shear failure occurs. If e is greate r than 0.75, the local shear failure
occurs.
23.10. EFFECT 0,.' WATER TABLE ON nEARING CAPACIlY
Eq. 23.25 for the ultimate bearing capac ity has been developed based on the assumption that the water
table is located at a great depth. If the water table is loca ted close to the foundation, the bearing capacity
equation needs modification, as exp lained below.
Case I Water tab le loca ted above th e base of foo ting [Flg. 23.11 (a))

l a)
Fig. 23.11.
lbe effecr.ive surcharge is reduced as the effective weight below the water table is equal to the
submerged unit. 1berefore,
q - D", 1 + a l' . . .(23.30)
where D", = depthe of water table below the ground surface.
Q = height of water table above the base of footing .

Alternatively, Eq. 23.30 can be written as, substi tuting a - Dr D"",

q - 1' Dj • (1 - 110. ... (23.31)
Moreover, the unit weig ht in the third term of Eq. 23.25 is equa l to the submerged unit weigh t. Thus Eq.
23.25 becomes
10 DMRING CAPACITY OF SHALLO W FOUNDATIONS 601

q.. - c' N~ + [yOD, + (y - r') D",l Nq + 0.5 y' B Ny ...(2332)

If D... _ D(i.e. a - DiJ.
••.[233 3(a)J
re If a • D (i.e. D, • D ",)•
.a1 ... [233 3(b)]

Case II Water table located at II depth b below base [I'lg. 13.11 (b)l
If the water table is locat ed at the level o f the base o f foo ting or below it, the sW'Charge term is DOl
affected. How ever , the w it weight in the third term o f Eq. 23 .25 is rnoo incd as

ne y- y' • ~ (y - y) . . .(2334)

'"g. where b = de pth of water table below the base.

B = base width of the footing.
Therefore, q.. _ c' He + YDf Nq + 0.5 B [ Y' + ~ (l - y') } NT ... [23.35(a)]
When b _ O. Le: Wrr at the base.
q.. - c' He + yD,Nq + 0.5 81' N, . ..(23.35(b)]
'When b • B, Le: wrr at depth B below the base.
q" - c' He + "tD, N., + 0.5 B y N, •..(same as Bq. 23.25)
Hence. when the groun d water table is located at a depth b equa l to or great er than B. there is no effect
er on the ultim ate bearing capacity.
.y
General Expression
Taking the submerged unit as roughly one-half of the bulk unit weight. the general equation for the
Eqs. 23 .32 and 23.35 (a) as
ultim ate bearing capaci ty can be written from
q.. - c' He + y D, H'lW., + 0.5 y8 N, W, ••.[23.36{a)]
where W., is water table correction factor for the second term,
W, _ 1 - 0.5 aiD, < 1 ... [2336(b)]
and W, is water table correction factor for the third term,
W, - 0.5. 0.5 biB < 1 .. .[2336(c)]
It may be noted that both the corrections vary linearly.
23.11. BEARIN G CAPACITY OF SQUARE AND CIRCUlAR FOOTING
Bq. 23.25 has been derived for a strip footing. TIle defonnations under a stri p foo ting arc two-
dimens ional. It is known as a plane strai n case in theory of elastici ty. On the other hand, the defonn alions of
soil under a square o r a circular footing are three-dim ensional. A rigorous analyti cal solution for a three--
dimensional case is extremely difficult .
Based on experimental results , Terzagtn gave the followin g eq uations for the ultimate bearing capacit y
for square and circular shallow footings .
(a) Square Footing
0)
q.. - 1.2c'Ne + yD,H., + OAy BN, . . .(2331)
where 8 is the d imension of each side of foot ing.
(b) Circular "ootlng
1) . q.. - 1.2c' Ne + yD,H., + O:3 yBN, . . .(23.38)
where B is the diam e ter of the foolin g.
'1.
The bearing capacity facto rs Nn N., and N, are the same es that for the stri p footing.
602 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDAflON ENGINEERING

23.12. MEYERlIOF'S BFA RI NG CAPACITY THEORY

Mcycrhof (1951) gave a general theory of bearing capacity for a strip footing at any depth. Mcyerhof
considered the failure mechanism similar to that assumed by Terzaglu, but extended the failure surfaces above
foundation level. Thus the shearing strength of the soil above the footing base was also accounted for in the
analysis. The curved rupture surfaces in the zone of radial shear were assumed to be logarithmic spirals.
Meye rhoC's rupture surfaces are more general than those essomed by Terzagh i.

p
c
Terzaghi's
surfaces
fail ure -l... Me}'e'fhot"s tait ure
surfaces

Fig. 23.12. Meyerhof'sAnalysili.

The right-balf of Fig. 23.12 shows the failure surfaces assumed by Meyerhof. The zoncABC is the elastic
zone but the angle which the inclined surfaces AC and Be make with horizonta l was varied between " and
(45<> + t'/2). The zone BCD is the zone of radial shear. lbe zone BDEF is the zone of mixed shear in whim
shear varies between radial shear and plane shear. The surface BE is known as equivalent free surface . It
mak es an angle p with the borizonIal.
lbe resultant e ffect of the wedge BEF of soil is represented by the normal stress (q,,) and the shear stress
('t~) on the surface BE. The angle p increases with an increase in depth D and is equa l to 90° for deep
f
foundations. The parameters 13, q" and "t~ are known as foundation depth parameters.
Mcyerhof gave the following equation for the ultimate bearing capacity of strip footings.
a;» c' Ne + q"Nq + 05yBNy • • • (2339)

wbcre N~ Nq and NT are the general bearing capacity teeters of Meyerhof"s theory . Tbese taoors depend upce
the roughness of base, depth of fooling and the shape of footing, .in additton to the angle of shearing
resistance . '. Meycrhof also gave charts for N~Nq and NT(Fig. 23.13) for shallow strip footings.
A'i the equivalent free surface canoor be directly located. the normal stress q" is determined by a
semi -graphical method, which is quite cumbersome. However, for shallow footings, q~ - y Dt
The ultimate bearing capacity given by Meyerhof's theory is close to the experimental values. Fa'
shallow footings, the value ties in-between the general shear value and the local shear value of Tcrzaghi's
analysis. However, for deep footings, Meycrhof's analysis gives values much greater than Terzaghi's analysis.
The main advantage of Meyerhof's theory is thai it can also be used for deep foundations.and for footings ce
slopes.
(a) Cohesionless soils
For cobesioeless soils (c = 0), the ultimate bearing capacity is given by a simple equation suggested by
Meyerhof as
a; - 0.5 Y B N yq .. . (23.40)
where the parameter N.", is known as the resultant bearing capoalsyfoetor. It depends upoo the coefficient of
earth pressure(10within the failure zone, the DI'B ratio, the angle of shearing resistance . ' and the angle fi
frictioo b between the vertical shaft of the foundation and the surrounding soil The value of K dependsupoo
BPARING CAPACITY OF Sl IAllDW FOUNDATIONS 60'

1,/ ~
, '/
/ b
-: 1/
,
l>:
/"
~
• ~~

, ~V
./ /
, / IAlll' r ~rhof)

,/
V
,.
:/ ,
o· ". is ,rt ac l~ '0 ,ot
'"
1'-
Fig. 23 ,13, Mcycm of 's Chart.
a number of factors, such as the characteristics of the soil, the stress history of the ground, the method of
construction and physica l characteristics of the foundation. The value of K usually lies between the active and
passive earth pressure coefficients. The value of NN is obtained from tbe charts for the given values of K, "
and DIB ratio, assuming the base: and shaft as rough, For smooth surfaces, the values of N'fq are reduced to
half the values.
(bt Cohesive so ns
For cohesi ve soils (, = 0) Meyerhof's simplified equations is
q" . ' c Ncq:' yDf ... (23.41)
where Ncq is the beari ng capacity factor depending upon the Df/B ratio of the fooling aOO on the adhesion 00
the sides of the footing. For example , for a DIB ratio of 2.0, N"I has a maximum value of 8.30 when the
adhesio n is zero, and a maximum value of 8.8 when the adhesion is equal to the cohesion (c) of the soil
sot SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

lbc rcovc-mcntjoncc equa tions are for the ultimate bearing capoctr y of strip footin gs . 1be equat ions can
also be used for rccteng ular; squa re and c ircular footings in conjunction with the empirical shape factors given
by M cycrbof. The values of Nw nod Nt '1 may be obtained from the original paper .

23.13. HANSEN'S nEARING CAPACITY THEORY

It has been shown by Milovic (1965) tha i 'Ic rzaghi's theory gives the values of lhc ultimate bearing
capecny higher than experimental values for cohesive soils and is unsafe. IIowevcr, for cobcsionless soils, the
theory gives conse rvativ e values of the bea ring cepocny, For cohesi ve soils, Hansen (1961) gives the values
of ultimate beari ng capaci ty which arc in better agree men t with experimental values.
Accordi ng to Hensen , lhe ultimate bearing capacity is given by
q" • c N( St dt it + q N'I S" dq iq + 0.5 t B Ny sT d, ~ .•.(23.42)
where N~Nq and NTnrc Hansen 's beari ng capacity Iactors (Table 23.2) , and q is the effective surcharge at the
base level ( = y' D, ). and
Sc> 5 q and s., are shape facto rs (fable 23.3) ,
de"d q and ely arc depth factors (fable 23.4),
and i.. i q and 4 are inclination (acto r (fab le 23.5).
111e bear ing capac ity teeters are given by the following equations.
2
N'I .. tan (45 0 + 4l')(e"t tan . ') .. .[23.43(a)]
N, • (N, - 1) col t' ...[23.43(b)]
and NT" 1.80(N., - I ) tnn.' •.. [23.43(')]
Tuble 2J.z. Ha nsen 's Bearing Capacily Factors
.. O· 5· lO" 15· 1!J" 25· .lO" 35· 40· .5· se-
N, 5.14 6.48 8.34 10.91 14.83 20.72 30.14 46.13 75.32 133.89 266.89
N, 1.0 1.57 2.47 3.94 6040 10.66 18040 33.29 64.18 134.85 318.96
N, 0.0 0.09 0.09 1.42 35 ' 8.11 18.08 40.69 95.41 240.&5 681.84

Table 23.3 . Shape Factors

Shnpe of Footing k ...

Conliooous Footing (st rip) 1.0 1.0 "
1.0
Rectangular Footing 1 + 0.2BIL 1 + 0.2 BIL 1 - 004OIL
Square Footing 1.3 1.2 0.8
Circular footing 1.3 1.2 0.6

whe re L = kngt h of footing; B = width of Ioodng.

Table 23.4. Dept h Facton

d, 1 + 0.35 (Dfll!)
d, 1 + 0.35 (DfI O)
d, I 1.00

where D, = depth of footing : B = width of diameter

[Note. Take dq .. dr for t' :> 25° and d'l .. 1.0 for t ' .. 0°]

....
lG BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUN DATIONS 605

an Table 23.5. Inclination Factors

en

1 - 2:~L
1 _ 1.5 H
ng V
he (;.,)2

where II = horizontal compo nent of inclined load.

Umltatlon : II :so V tan 6 + eEL
where Ian 6 = coefficient of frictio n between footing and soil,
c = cohesion of soil between footing and soil. L = length of fooling parallel to II.
23.14. VE!)IC 'S BEARING CAPACflY THEORY
Vesic (1973) confirmed that the basic nature of failure surfaces in soil a'> suggested by Tcrzaghi and as
given in Fig. 23.6 is correct. However. the ang le which the inclined surfaces AC and Be make with the
horizontal was found to be closer to (45 0 + 41'/2) instead of 4" . The values of bearing capacity factors Nc,!Vq
and Ny for a given angle of shearing resistance $' change if above modification is incorporated in the analysis,
as under
Nq .. lan 2 (45° + ep'/2)~tan 4" .. . (23.44(a)]
I)]
»] N, - (N, - I) COl~ ' .. ,[23A4(b)]

,)] and N 1 .. 2(N" + I) tan $' ... [23.44( c)]

Eq. 23.44(b) was first proposed by Prandtl (1921), and Eq. 23.44 (a) was given by Reissner (1924). Caquot
and Kerisel (1953) and Vesic (1973) gave Bq. 23.44 (c). The values of bearing capacity factors are given in
Table 23.6.
The bearing capaci ty equation is similar in Iorm to Hansen 's equation,
qu • c' N( $( d( i( + qNq $q dq iq + 0.5 't BNT $T dy i.r ••.(23.45)
where $(, $q and ST are shape factors (fable 23.1),
d( , dq and d, are depth factors,
and i(, i q and ;'/ are inclination factors .
As before, q is effective surcharge at the base level ( = y' Df ).

Table 23.6. Veslc's Bearing Capacity Fac tors

I I s I 10' !S' 25' 3ll' 35° 40' SO

0'
N. I
0'

"4 I 1.57
649 I 835
10.98 ""
14.83 20.72 30.14 46.12 75.31
4"
133.88 266.89
Nq 1.0 2.47 3.94 6.40 10.66 18.40 33.30 64.20 134.88 319.07
NT 0.0 0.45 1.22 2.65 5.39 10.88 22.40 48.03 109.41 271.76 762.89

Table 23.7. Shape FactorS

Shapeof Footing s
Strip 10 1.0 10
Rectangle 1 + (BIL) (NqlN( ) 1 + (BIL) lan,' 1 - 0.4 (BIL)
Circle and square 1 + (NqIN() 1 + laO,' 0.60

The depth factors as proposed by Hansen (1970) are used for DIB s 1 as follows.
d, - 1 . OA (DI B ) .. ,[23.46(a)]
606 9JIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDAIlON ENGINEERING

dq _ 1 + 2 tan ,' ( I - sin , ')' (Df"B) [23.46(b))

d, •
1.0 [23 .46(' ))
In Vesic's equation. the following inclination factors proposed by Meyerhof (1963) and Hanna and
Meyerhof (1981) are generally used.
ic • i., • {1 _ aO/900)2 ... (23.47(a)]
and ~ • (I - a"I.1' ... [23.47(b»)
where 0° is the inclination of the load with vert ical.
23.15. IS CO DE M"-'TlIOD
IS : 6403-1981 gives the equation for the net ultimate bearing capacity, which is similar 10 one
proposed by Vesic (Eq. 23.45).
q"" - c Nt St de it + q(Nq-l) 5 q dq iq + 05B TN 1 s,. d, ~ W ' ...(23.48)
where q '" effective press ure at the base.
The second term has been changed. because q;.. is given by (See Eq. 23 .1)
q~.q" -y Df ·q"- q
The factor W ' takes into account the c(fed of the water table . U the water table i<; at or below a depth
of (Df + B), measured from the ground surface, W ' :z: 1.0. If the water table is lik.ely to rise 10 the bese of
the footing or above, the value of W ' is taken as 0.50.
If the water table is located at a depth D below the ground surface. such that DI < D < (Df + B), the
value of W ' is obtained by linear interpolation. A little reflection would show that W ' is the same as the
factor WT introduced in Sect. 23.10. The factor Wq is indirectl y acrou nted for by taking q as the effective
surcharge in Eq. 23.48.
The bearing capaci ty factors Nt;> Nq and NTare the same as those given by Vcsic (TOOle 13.6) . The shape
factors given in Thb1c 23.3 are used. The depth factors are given below .
d, • 1 + 0.2 (Df"B) tan (45" + ,'12) ... [23.49(a»)
dq - d , - 1 .0 for 4>' < 10° ... [23.49(d))
and d"• d, • 1 + 0.1 (Df"B) tan( 45' + . '12 ) roc.' > 10" ... (23.49(, »)
The inclination factors given by Eq. 23.47 are used .
Loca l shea r failure
The net ultimate bearing capacity for local sheer failure is given by

q".. • ~ «s: Sede ie + q (Nq' - l ) sqdq iq + 05 't B s; sTd., 4'!V ...(23.50)

The value of ine local bearing capacity factors N/ ,Nq' , NT'are obtained from Table 23.6, for the angle of
mobilised friction a'>

•• _ tan-I ( ~ tan .' )

In case of cohestonless soils, if the relative density is greater than 70% and the void ratio is less than
0.55, the failure is considered as general shear failure. On the other hand, if the relative dens ity is smaller
than 20% and the void ratio is greater than 0.75, the failure is local shear failure (or punching failure) and
Eq. 2350 is used. For a relative density betwee n 20% and 70% and a void ratio between 0.55 and 0.75, the
bearing capacity factors are ootained by interpolation between the general shear failure and the local shear, as
expla ined below.
For a relative density between 20 10 70% (or 0.55 < e < 0.75), the value of the net ultimate bearing
BEARING CAPACrfY OF SHALLOWFOUNDATIONS (1.)7

capacity (q",,) can be interpolated between the general shear failure and Ute local shea r failure conditions.
depending upo n the relativ e dens ity.
For illustration, let us consider the case when Ute relative densi ty is 40 % and 4" is equal to 30 °. The
bearing capacity factors for genera l shear from Table 23.6 are as under .
Ne - 30.14 ; Nq - 18.40 ; NT _ 22.40
Now +... _
tan-I (213 tan JOO ) _ 21°. The corresponding bearing capacity factors for the local shear from
Table 23.6 are
Ne' - 16.01, Nq ' - 725, NT' - 6.49.
Let us find the net ultimate bearing capacity. Let us ass ume c' _ O.

- ~ - 1.0.y - 2OkN/m and Df - 1 m, W ' - 1.0.

2
B - 2m.5 q - 5, - d q
For general shear failure (Dr :> 70%) (Eq. 23 .48)
q".. - 0 + 20 X 1 (18.4 - 1) + 0.5 X 20 X 2 X 22.40 _ 796 kN /m 2
For local shear failure (D, < 20% ) ( Eq. 23.50)
q_ ' - 0 + 20 X (7.25 - I ) + 0.5 X 20 X 2 x 6.49 _ 254.8 kN / m 2
For D, = 40%. by linear interpolation.

q"" - 254.8 + ~ (796 - 254.8) _ 47 1.28 kN / m!

23.16. SKE MPlUN'S ANALYSIS I'-OR CO HES IVE SOILS

Skempton (1951) showed lhal the bearing capectty factor N e in 'Ierzagni's equa tion tends to increasewith
depth for a cohesive soil (+.. - o. c - c..). Fig. 23.14 shows the variation of Ne with Di'B ratio for strip and
circular (or square) footings. For a strip footing. the val ue of Ne is equal to 5.14 for the surface footing and
bes a maximu m value of 7.50 for DIB ratio 2!; 4.50.
For square and circ ular footings. the value of N e is equal to 6.2 for the sur face footin g. The maximum
value of about 9.0 is attained for Di'B ratio equa l to or greate r tha n 4.50. The curve for square and circular
footings can also be used for rectangular foot ings using the following relation .
N, (rectangle) = N, (square) [0.84 + 0.16 BILl ... (23.51)
Altern atively. the curve for the strip can be used, making use of the follow ing relation.
N, (recta ngle) = N, ("rip) [1 + 0 .2 (BIL)) ... (2352)
The following approximate relations can be used for the de tenninalion of Ne for differe nt Di'B ratios .
(a) D/B < 2.50
N, - 5.0 (1 + 0.2D/B)(1 + 0.2 BIL ) ... [23.53(a)]
(b) D/B . 2.50
N( - 7.50 (1 + 0.2 BIL) ••.[23.53(b)]

Ultimate Bearing capacity

For 4'.. - 0 , Nq - 1.0 and N, .. 0.0
Th ere fore . Eq. 23 .25 gives q.. - c..N e + 1 Df .. . (23.54)
Th e net ultimate bearing capacity becomes
q_ - c. N, .. .(2355)
Bq. 23.55 is used for the detenn ination of the net ultima te bearing capacity of footings on cohesive so ils,
taking He values g iven by Skempton (Fig. 23.14). It may be mentioned that Terzagtu's value of Ne is applicOOle
only for sha llow footings (D, < B). whereas Skemproos's value can be used for all valu es or Di'B ratio.
608 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

9 S(\UO~ circular
, Str i
/'

>/ -----
'/

a
2
,
, 4

~Rotio _ _

H g, 23.14. Skemp lOn'l Chart.

If the shear strength of the soil for a dept h of 2813 beneath the footing does not vary by more than about
± 50% of the average value , the value of ell in Eq. 23.55 may be taken as the average value .

23.17. IS CODE l\U..J:lIOD FOR COIIES IVE S O IL~

IS : 6403-1981 gives the following equatio n for the net ultimate beari ng capacity of the footing
immedia tely after construction on a cohesive soil. Tbc equation is obtained by substituting Nq = 1.0 and NT=
0.0 in Eq. 23.48. lbus
... (23.56)
where N e = 5.14 and s.. de and ic are, respectively . the shape. depth and inclination factors (sec Sec . 23.1S).
100 value of e.. is ob tained from unconftned compression strength lest or it can be derived from the Sl.atic
cooe lest. The static cone test gives the point resistance (qc) as expl ained in chapter 17. For normally
conso lidated clay s, the point resistance qc is generally less than 2O)J kN/m2 and the value of the undra ined
cohesion COl varies between q/18 to q/ 15. For over-coesolicered clays, the point resistance is generally
greater than 2000 kN/m 2, and the value of c.. varies between qJl6 and q,/22.

23.18. HEAVE OF TIlE BOTIOM OF TIIE CUT IN CLAY

The lateral earth pressure acting on a braced cut has been discussed in Chapter 21. A braced cut may also
become unstable as a result of the heaving of the botto m of the excavation (Fig. 23.15 ). Terzaghi (1943) has
analysed the braced cut in clay and has given •
an expression foc the factor of safety against rl''''''''''''''''''''''''',...--
bottom heave assuming the failure surfaces as
shown in Fig. 23.16.
The vertical load per unit length of the cut
at the level BD or AF alm g the bottom of the
CUl is given by
Q-B1lll-eH ...(a)
The above load acts 00 a width B1 equal
to 0.7B, which can be considered as a
couinuccs foundation. B is the width of the
cut. Fig. 23.15. Heave in a Braced C1Il·
 BEARING CAPAcrIY OF SHAllOW FOUNDATIONS

G
/-o0n ,. 8

I
I
,,
I I

:(
I
Ct!
I
H I I
I

-~
~c ct!
I
I ,I
F '0

0·78
-.l
Fig. 23.16.
'[be ultimate bearing capacity of the connnuocs foundation ca n be obtained from Eq. 23.25 as
q.. - c Nc + N'l l Df
Tnking He - 5.7, and H'l _ 1.0,
qw • 5.7c + l Df
The refore, q_ - 5.7c
The net ultimate load is given by Q_ - 5.7 eEl
The factor of sa fety is given by
Q_ 5.7 cB J
ES. - Q . Bt l/{ _ ell

ES. - h( =':~Bl)
y ...(2357)
Bjc rrom and E ide (1956) proposed the followin g equation for the fac tor of sa fety.
eN,
o ES. - 1ii ...(23.58(0»)
is If there is a surcharge q, the factor of safety becomes
0
I

lll=::JIl
18
9

•
Squor~ -.....- ~
./
',,/ ~ tao
'..--
0'>

(Strip) ~
N,
t>
s
, I , ,
-"- - -
•
Fig. 23.17. St emploo 's Owt (Of Braocd Cu I.
610 SOIL MECIIANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

eN,
ES. - Y II + q ... [23.58(b)J
The bearing capaci ty rector N c is obtained from Skemptoo's chart (Fig. 23.17). The value of c is equal to
the undrain ed cohesion c" which be determ ined as explained before.

23.19. FOUNDAllON ON LAYERED C LAY

Reddy and Srin ivasan (1967) derived the followi ng equat ion for the bearing capaci ty of founda tions 00
clayey soils in two layers.
a;» cINcsc~ ;c + q ... (2359)
where CI = undrained shear strength of the upper-layer.
se = shape factor [ = 1 + (BII.) N./Ncl
de = depth factor [ = 1 + 0.4 (DIU) for DI D s I l-
ie = inclinationfactor. q = surcharge(= 'f Df )·
The bearing capacity factor N e depends upon the rntio c2lcl' where C2 is the undrained shear strength of
the lower layer, It also depends upon the ratio Z/B, where Z is the depth of the interface of the two layers
from the bot tom of foundation and B is the width of the foundation (Fig. 23.18 (a)] . Fig. 23.18 (b) shows the
~r-----.---=,..,

1
dQ I
T t---8- . . l
Up~ I Oy~r ~;o
N, ,

Le....e rlOyer .1:0

'2
o..c.o 0·60 '.0'.2 '.6
-'<-
0, - -
I" Ib'
Fig. 23.18. Layered Cohesiv e Deposit.
variation of N e with C2!CI rune and lIB ratio. It may be noted that for C21cI ratio less than unity, the value
of N, is smaller than that for a homogeneous soil, (t.e., C2!CI = LO). It indicates that the ultimate bearing
cap acity of a clay layer is reduced by the presence of a so ft layer beneath the top hard layer.
23.20. DEARING CAI'ACny FROM STANDARD I'ENETRATION TEST
Method I. The utumme bearing capacity of cohes ionlcss soils may be determined from lhe standard
penetration number (N). The st..mdard penetration test is conducted at a number of se lected points in tbe
vertical d irection below the foundation level at intervals of 75 em or at point where there is a change of
strata. An ave rage value of N is obtained between the level of the base of the footing and the dcplh equal to
1.5 to 2.0 times the width of the foundation. The value of " is obtained from the N value as already
d iscussed (Sec tion 17.22) and the beari ng capacit y factors are found. Fig. 23.7 may also be used to determine
directly the bearing capaci ty factors from N.
l\1elh od II. As the ultimate bearing capaci ty depends upon " and hence on N, it can be related directly
to N. Tcng (1962) gave the following equa tion for the net ultimate capacity of a strip footing.
G BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 611

n q"., - i.o"(3N
2BW,
+ 5~100 + N
2)D
fWq ]

q"" .. 0.5N
2BW,
+ 0.83(100 + N
1)D • •• (23.60)
JW q
where q"., = net ultimate bearing capacity (kN /m 2 ) .
B = width of foodng, N = average SPT number,
DI = depth of tooung. If VJ > B. use DI .. B.
and W, and Wq are water table correction factor (Sed . n.IO).
For square or circular footings,
')
q"., .. iolN2nw, + 3(100 + N2) D, Wq ]

or q_ .. 0.33 N 2 nw,+ 1.0 (100 + N 2 ) Dj Wq • • •(23.61)

The net allowable bearing capacity can be obtained by applying a factor of safely of 3.0.
'f For strip footings,
"S q.... .. 0.167 N 2 BWy + 0.277 (100 + N1
Dr lVq kN/m 2 ... [23.62(a)]
e
For circular and square footings,
q,.. .. o.11N 2nw, + 0.33(100 + N 2)DfWq kN/m 2 ...f23.62(b)]

23.21. ECCENTRICALLY LOAIlED .'OUNDAllONS

Pooroauoos are sometimes subjected to moments in
addilion to the loads (Fig. 23.19). The distribution of fOOling
pressure is not uniform in this case. It is a case of bending
canbincd with thrust, treated in the mechanics of materials.
The maximum and minimum pressures are given by

qrn:D; .. & 7- + (812)

and q• •• & - 7-(812)

where I '" moment of inertia ( '" Ur/12). Q '" lotal vertical

Iood (gross). M '" moment on the Iouncatlon. 8 '" width of
footing. L '" length of footing.
Taking the eccentricity e as MIQ, the above equations
become

qm" - -it
(1 + 6 e18) ... [23.63(a) ]

and qm. - -itO - 6e18) ••.[23.63(b)]

The maxim um pressure qrrw< should be less than the safe
gross bearing capacity.
Mtyerbof's Melhod
The foetor of safely of eccentrically leaded foundations
against bearing capacity failure can be determined using the
IllClbod given by Meyerhof (1953). as explained below
(I) Determine the eccentricity oCthe load, along the width
l\ e'b. M"IP Fig. 23.19. Eo:enlriCllly loaded fooling.
6 12 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

It may by noted that the eccentricity is measured from the centre of fooling.
(2) Determ ine the effectiv e width of the footing . If _ B -2 e"
(3) Determine lhc effective size of the:footing as L x Ii,
In the above case, the eccentricity has bee n assumed onl y a long width . However. if the ecccnindty is
also in the longitudinal direction along length. the eccernricn y alon g the length is give n by
t!/. MtlP
The effective length of the foo ting in that case is L I • L - 2 e/ and the effective size is L ' x 8 '.
The smaller o f the two dimensions H' and L ' is taken as the effective width for the comput ation of tbe
ultimate beari ng ca paci ty.
(4) The ultimate bearing capacity am be obtained using Eq. 23 .42 as
q" - cN~s~ d~i~ + q Nqsqdq iq + 0.5 yB' Ny s., d,4
The sha pe (acton; s~ Sq and Sy arc obtained from lbble 23.7 . The inclination factors arc coratoed using Eq.
23 .47, in w hich the effectiv e width U and effectiv e length L' are used.
lor compu tations of depth factors, Eqs. 23.46 (a) to 23.46(c) are used. but B' is not substituted for B.
(5) 'The total ultimate locd is computed as
Q• • a, (8' x L') .. .(23.64 )
(6) 'The factor of sa fety is g iven by
F, - Q./Q ...(23.65)
As the eccentri city causes a reduction in the load -carrying
capacity of a foun dat ion, the co lumn is sometimes placed orr-
centre of the foo ting to produce a uniform pressure d istribut ion
(Fig. 23.20). IC the col umn is not placed off-cent re, there is a
possibili1y of till ing of the fooling due to higher pressu re on one
side of the foo ting. This tendency o f tilting can be reduced by
allowi ng a larger factor of safety.
If the eccentricity is outside the middle third, the minimum
so il press ure (Eq. 23.63 b), becomes negati ve, indicating lhat
the tensile stresses develop in soil. As the so il can not take
tensio n, there is a separation between the footing and the soil.
1be area of the footing whic h is in tension is genera lly
neglected . The maximum pressure in such a case is given by
IOJIITD Fig. 23.20

q_AA - 3L (04 ? 2 e. ) ... (23.661

where eb is the eccentricity along width of footing .

23.22, SETfLEMENT OF FOUNDATION

(a) Set tleme nt under loads
Foundation settlement tmder loads can be classified into 3 types.
(1) Immediate or elastic seillement (5;) .. Immediate or elastic settlement takes place during cr
immediat ely after the constructioo of the structu re. It is also known as the distortion settlement as I:
is due to d istortions (and not the volume change ) within the fou ndatioo so il All bau gh the settlemcll
is not tru ly elast ic, it is com puted using elast ic theory, especiall y for cohesiv e soils.
(2) Consolidation set tlement (s,,).. This com ponen t of the set tlement occurs due to gra dual expulslco Ii
water from the voids of the soil. Th is compo nent is de tenn ined using 'Ierzegr u's theory d
consolidation (sec chapter 12).
 BFARlNGCAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 613
INa
(3) Secondary Conscltdatton Settlement (s.). This component of the settkmenl is due to secondary
consolidation. This settlement occurs afte r completion of the primary consolidation. It can be
determin ed from the coefficient of secondary consolidation (see chapter 12). The secondary
consolidation is not significant for inorganic clays and silty soils.
The total settlement (J:) is given by
S . Si +S~ + S. .. .(23.67)

(b)Settlement due to other causes

In lKkIition to settlem ent under loads. the settlement may also occur due 10 a number of other causes.
Lbe (1) Underground erosion. Underground erosion may cause formation of cavities in the slbsoil which
when collapse cause seruemeet.
(2) Structural collapse or so il. Structural collapse of some soils. such es saline . noc-cobesfve soils.
gypsum, silts and clays and loess. may occur due to dissolution of materials responsible for
Eq. intcrgranular bond of grains.
(3) Thermal changes. Temperature change cause shrinkage in expansive soils due to which settlement
~.
ccccrs.
(4) Frost heave. Frost heave occurs if the structure is not founded below the depth of frost penetration.
When thaw occurs, the foundation may settle .
(5) Vlbnltlon and Shocks. Vibrations and shock ca use large seulements, especially in loose ,
cohesionlcss soils.
(6) Mining subsidence. Subsidence of ground may occur due to removal of minerals and other materials
from mines below .
(1) Land slides . If land slides occur on unstable slopes, there may be serious senlemera problems.
(8) Creep. The set tleme nt may also occur due to creepon clay slopes.
(9) Changes In the "klnlty. If there are changes due to construction of a new building near the existi ng
founda tion , the settlement may occur due to increase in the stresses.
Suitable measures are taken to reduce the settlements du e to all above causes.
-ING
l3.lJ. LOADS FOR SETILEMENT ANALYSIS
Dead loads include the weight of columns, walls. footings. foundations, lhe overlying fill . but do not
include the weight of the displaced soil.
Live loads depe nd upon the use of the structu re. These loads may be taken from IS : 875.
Wind loads and seismic loads shoul d be cons idered wherever applicable. However, where wi nd (or
seismic) load is less than 25% of the com bined dea d and live loads, it may be neglected in design, and on ly
dead load and live loads are considered. Whe n wind (or seismic) load is more than 25% of the co mbined
'.66) dead and live loa d, the foundation is desig ned such that pressu re due to co mbinatio n of dead. live and wind
(seismic) loads docs not exceed the allowable beari ng capaci ty by more than 25%.
For foundations resting on coarse-grained soi ls, the settle ments sho uld be estima ted corresponding 10 the
full dead load , live load and wind (seism ic) load . In such soils, settlements occur in a short time.
For foundations on fine-grained soils, the settlem ents are estima ted corresponding to permanent loads. All
deadloads and the toads due to fixed equipm ent are taken as permanent. Generally, one half of the live load
is alsotaken as permanent. Eng ineering judgm ent is requ ired to ascertai n the permanent loads.
I ()( 1324. IMMEDIATE SElTLEMENT OF COHFS IVE SOILS
as it The linear theory of elasticity is wed to detennine the elastic settl ement of the footi ngs on saturated clay .
ne nt Sdlleicher (1926) gave the following formula for the vertica l settlem ent under a uniform ly distributed flexible
eea,
n of
, of ... (23.68)
614 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where q = uniformly distr ibuted load, n = characteristic length of the loaded area, Es = modul us of elasticity
of the soil. Il = Po isson's ratio ( = 0.50 for saturated clay), J = influence factor,
The value of E. is de term ined from the stress-strain c urve obtained from a triaxial consolidated-undrained
test, wit h the consolid ation pressure equal to the effective pressure at the depth from which the sample Wa\
taken. as disc ussed in chapter 11. It is generally taken as the initial tangent modulus or the secant modulus.
For normally conso lida ted clays , its value varies from 250 c to 500 c; and for over-consolidated clays, from
750 c to WOO c, where c is undrained cohesion .
T1C value of the influence factor I for a sat urated day layer of semi-infini te extent can be obtained from
Tablp.23.8.
Thble 23.8. Values of Influence Facto r I.
--_.
Flexible footin g
Shope Rigid footing
Centre Co me r A verage
Circle 1.0 0.64 (edg e) 0 .8.':; 0.79
Squa re LI2 056 0.95 0.82
Rcctagle
1.36 0.68 1.20 1.06
LIB", 1.5
LIB = 2.0 1.53 0.77 1.31 1.20
LI B = 2.0 1.78 0.89 1.52 l.4 2
LIB = 5.0 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70
LIB", 10.0 2.52 1.26 2.2-;; 2. 10
LIB", 100.0 :U8 1.69 2.96 3 .40

Alternati vely, the value of (1 - ~1 /IE, can be determ ined from the plate load test (Sect. 23.33).
If an inco mpressib le layer exists at a limited depth below the footing, the actua l senlcmcr u is less UlaIJ
that given by Eq. 23.68. For such a elISC, Steinbr enner (1936) gave a solution. However , if the depth of the
clay layer is more limn 2 B, the actual settlement wou ld not chang e much.
If the foundation L<; rigid, such as a heavy beam and slab raft, the settlement is about 0.8 times the
settlement at the centre of the correspond ing flexible foundation. It is approximately equal to the average
settlement. Table 23.8 also g ives the values of I for rigid footings.
Eq. 23.68 is applicable for the footing located at surface . For the footings embedd ed in soil, the
settle ment would be less than the computed values. Fox (1948) gave correction curves. The sett lement ~
obtained by multiply ing the computed settlements by a depth factor, which depends upon (D,I ~J
ratio.
23.25. IMM EDIATE SJ.o'T . fLEMENT OF CO IIE.l;)IONLESS SOILS
As co testonless so ils do not follow Hooke's law, immediat e settlements are computed using I
semi-emp irical approac h proposed by Schmcnmann and Hartman (1978).
,. J
Si=CIC2(q -q)Z~O i; /iZ (23.()gj ...
where C 1 = correcti on factor for the depth of foundation embed ment = 1 - 0.5 {ql(q _ q)} .
C 2 :: correction factor for creep i!1soils [ = I + 0.2 10gJO (time in years/O.I) J.
q ::: pressure ar the level of the foundation, q = surcharge ( ::: 'i D, ),
1-:, = mod ulus of elasticity, lz = strain influence factor.
' 1110 value of the strain-infl uence factor /z varies linearly for a squ are or circular fou ndation (Fig. 23.21}
The value of l, at depth z :: 0, 0.5 Band 2JJ are respe ctively eq ual 10 0.1, 0.5 and 0.0. For rcctangar
ING IlFARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDXnONS 615

city

ined
was
rlus.
'rom

rom

Fig. 23.21.
foundations, with LIB ratio equal to or greate r than 10.0, the values at depth Z = 0.0, B, and 48 are,
respectively, 0.2, 0.5 and 0.0. per intermediate values of LIB ratio, between 1.0 and 10.0, interpolation can be
made.
than The valu e of Ez can be determ ined from the standard pene tration number _(N) using the following
f the equations given by Schmertmann (1970).
E, • 766N (kN/m') . . .(23.70)
s the Alternatively, it can be estima ted from the static cone penetration resistance (qc) as
erage
E, • 2q , ... (23.71)
• the Procedure. For compu tation of the immedia te settlement, the soil layer is divided. into severa l layers of
nt is = =
thickness .6.z, uptc a depth z 2B, in case of squa re footings and z 48, in case of recta ngular footings. The
immediate settlement of each layer is computed using Eq. 23.69, taking corresponding values of EJ and Jr
• B) The req uired imm ediate sett lement is equal to the sum of the settlem ents of all individual small layers .
23.26. CONSOLIDATION SETfLEMENT IN ClAYS
The conso lida tion settleme nt (sc) occurs in sa turated, Clayey soils when these are subjected to increased
ng a
loads caused by the foundation pressure. The methods for computa tion of the consolidation sett lement have
been discussed in chapter 12.
The sett lement (s,) at any time t afte r the applica tion of load may be estimated using Terzaghi 's
3.6 9)
consolidation theory as
s, .. si + U Sf . .. (23.72)
where U = degree of consolidation, expressed as a ratio,
Sf = final conso lidation settlement,
s; = immed iate settlement
The degree of conso lidation (U) depends upon the lime factor Tv, given by
3.21).
rgutar Tv" C v tiff . .. .(23.73)
616 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where c ~ = average coefficient of conso lid anon, t = lime at which the settleme nt is required,
d = distance of the drainage path
[Note. When co nsidering the drainage path • concrete of foundation is assumed as permeable].
For the final seulemcnt, U = 1.0.and the total settlement is given by
s • S j + Sf ... (23.74)

23.27. S"-TILEMENT os FOUNDATI ON 0 N COIlESIONLESS SOIUl

Settlements of foundations on cohesionless soils take place rathe r quickl y after the appli cation of the
100<1. Th e imm edi ate set tlements ca lcula ted usin g Sdlm ertmann and Hartm an method (Sect. 23.25) wou ld also
be the flna l seulemen t in most cases. I
Bcceuse of the difficulty of ~ .,

----
sampling cohesionless soils, it is nOl
possible 10 coram the stress -strain u5)m »>
cha racteristi cs of the insitu so ils. TIle
settlements arc generally determined
Indirecly u.sing the semiempirical

-
methods.
N: l0
(1) Static cone penetmtion '1
meth od . In this method, the sand layer :z. J -
is divided into small layers such that ::. N.,l 'S
each small layer has approximately ..

-: -
I ,.. ~ 20
constant value of the cone resistance. ~
The average value of the cone resistance t ~ N ~ 2'i

of cacn small layer is de termined.

The settlement of each smaU layer
Q. - t-

10 m§ »> N ., ) O

is estimated using the following -

equation (De Beer and Martens, 1957). f
N:l, O
N: 'SO
==
11 oo+lia ~ s
s • C log.. ~o-o~ ...(23.75) ~ , N:60

where C • 1.5q../ 0 0 3
in which q.. = static cone resistance, 00
= mean effective overb urden pressure , I
Ii a = increase in pressure at the centre
of the layer duc 10 the net foundation
-,
pressure and II = thickness of layer.
The total settlement of the entire
>Om
0 , 1 3 , , 6 ,
layer is eq ual 10 the sum of setncmcnts Wi dth a of l ooting I m) - - "
of individual layers. Fig. 2.3.22.
(2) Sta ndard Pcnetratlon Test. Standard penetration test can be used for the determination of lhe
settle ment on cohcs ionlcss soils. IS : 8009 (Part I)-1976 gives a chart for the calculation of settlement pel
unit pressure as a function of the width of the footing and the standard penetration number (Fig. 23.22). The
settlement unde r :my other pressure is computed assuming that the settlemen t is proportional to the intensity
of pressure.
Th e settlements are in metres per unit pressure in kN/m2.
If the wate r table is at a sha Uow depth . the settlements are divided by the correction factor W, (Eq. 23.36
(c)J.
(3) )'I.ate Lead Test. The settle ment of the footing can be estimated from the scn lcmera of the plate in
the plate load test (Sec . 23.33).
 BtARlNG CAPACITY OF SIIAllDW FOUNDATIONS 617

23.28. ACC URA C Y O F FO UNIl ATI ON S E'"ITLEMENT PR EDI CIlON

The prediction of the fou ndation settle ments as discussed above is rarely accu rate, In (net, it is extremely
difficult 10 estimate the proba ble settlement of a footing becaus e o f the followin g reasons:
(1) The soil deposits are seldom isotropic and linearly elas tic. l11C deposits arc genera lly non-
I) homogeneous.
(2) It is not possible 10 estimate lhc increase in stresses caused by loads. TIle Bocssircsq solution gives
on ly approximate resulls.
,e (3) For csumauon of the sc utem cm due to ccosoh dauon, it is noc poss ible 10 10C3le exactly the drai nage
o faces.
(4) For com pomt lon of immediat e settlements, it is not possibl e 10 estim ate the COIT~t valu e of the
mod ulus of e lasticity
(5) Th e rigidity of the foundation is l&13.11y neglect ed and the press ure distribution is assumed to be
uniform.
(6) It is d iffiru ll to obt ain undist urbed samp les of cohcsionlcss so ils. TIle se mi-empirical methods do noc
give accurate results.
(7) Settlements mny occur due to causes other than that due to loa ds. It iss not possible to estim ate these
settl ement s accur ately.
Despi te all the above reasons, the sculcmcnts in most 0lSCS can be estimated to an accuracy of about 25
to 30%, which is good enough seeing the comple xity of the prcotem ,
23.29. ALUlWAnLE SElTLEMENT
If there is a large differentia l settlement betwe en var ious parts o f a structure, da mage may occu r due to
addition al moments developed. It is more difficult to predict d ifferential sctuc ment thnn to predict the
maxim um settlement. 111e differential settlements are generally obt ained indirectly from the maximum
sculcmerus. It has bee n found from actual observations of various extsung buildings tha t the differen tial
settlements seldom exceed 75% of the ma ximum sculcment. In fad, in most cases, the differential settlemen t
is jess than 50% of the maximum settlement. He nce, the differen tial settlement is autom3lically controlled if
the maximum sett lement is contro lled.
The allowa ble maximum settlemen t de pends upon the type of so il, the type of foundat ion and the
structural frnming system. 111e maximum settlem ent ranging from 20 mm to 300 mm is generally permitted
for various struc tures. Theoret ically, no damage is done to the superstructure if the soil settles uniforml y.
How ever, settlemen ts exceeding 150 mm may cause trouble in utilit ies such as water pipe lines, sewers,
telephone lines and also in access from streets. If suffici ent precaut ions are take n while designing such
utilities, the maximum setuemeors of even upto 2 m ma y be permitted in special cases, provided the structure
seules uniform ly.
IS : 1004 (1966) perm its a maximum se ttlement of 40 mm for isolated fou ndations on sand and 65 rom
for those on clay. Th e allowable settlement is higher for clays because progre ssive settlements on clayey soils
permit bcucr strain adj ustme nts in the st ructural membe rs. The maximum permiss ible sctnemem for raft
founda tions 00 san d arc 40 mm 10 65 mm and that on cla y, 65 to ·100 mm . l bc perm issible settlem ents for

..,.he rafts arc more tha n those for isolated foundatK>os because the ran bridges ove r soft patches of the soil, and
the differential settlements are red uced.
be If the d ifferent ial se ttlemen t between two co lumns spaced at a d istance L is b. the angular distortion or
ity til T is given by
7' - &L ... (23.76)
Com moo R.C. C. buildin gs can sustai n angutar distortion upro 1/150 without dam age . However, to avoid the
36 architectura l damage, it should not exceed 11300. It corresponds to a different ial sc ujc mcnt of 20 rom between
adjacent columns 6 m centres . Accord ing to general praoscc, the maximum differential scukmcnt is limited
to 25 mm in sandysoils and 40 mm in clayey soils.
IS : 1904---1 978 gives the safe values of the max imum and differential settle ments of different types of
618 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Tabl e 23.9. Maximum lind Differential Settlements (IS : 1904-1978)

SamJ and hard ckly Plastic cloy

Max- Dilf- Angu lar Max- f);ff- Angulo,
Settle ment &ttlemenl Distomon Settleme nJ Sett leme lll Dis:ortion.
fa) Isolated
t'oun dati Ofls
(i) Steel 50= 0.0033 L 1!300 50= 0.0033 L 1J3OO
"",aoue
(ii) R.C.C. 50 mm 0 .0015 L 1/666 75 = 0 .001 5 L 1/666
structures

(b) "'n
Foundations
(i) Stee l 75= 0 .0033 L IOOl 100mm 0.0033 L IOOl
Struct ures
(ii)R.C.C. 7S mm 0.002 L 1/500 100= 0.002 L 1/SOD
Stru ctu res

building'>. The values for isolated footings and rafts ere given in Table 23.9 . For further details, a reference
may be made to the code.
In actual practice, settlements of the structure at salient points such as the centre, the comer, the lightest
and the heavi est colum n tocauons are determ ined using the methods discussed. The differen tial settlements
are then determined from the settlements of the various points. Sometimes, the differential settlements are
taken as 75% o f the maximum settlement without computing the settlements other than thai at the point where
the maxim um settle ment is expected to occu r. However, for large works, thorou gh sub-soil investigations are
done to determine the chara cteristics of the soil and the differe ntia l settl emen ts are determined taki ng the
properti es of the soil into acco unt.

23.30 . AL LOWA BLE SOIL PRESSURE I'-OR COHESIONLESS SOILS

1be allowable soil pressure(q...Jof a shallow foundat ion is lim ited e ither by the net safe bearing capacity
(q....) or the safe settlemen t pressure (q" pl. The design of shallow foundation on cohes ionlcss soils is generally
governed by the safe settlement pressure , as the net safe bearing capacity for a foo tings o f usual size is quite
high. However, in the case of narrow footin gs on wa ter-logged sands, the net sa fe bearing capacity may be
the controlling criterion for the design.
It is the normal practice for the design of footings of usual size to use empirical me thods based 00
N-values for the determinat ion of the allowable so il pressure for cobesionless soils . Tbe plate lead tests
(Sect . 23 .33) are also used in the case of soils having small bould ers and stones which obs truct the standard
penetrati on test. The methods usin g the sta ndard penet rat ion lest are preferred 10 plate load tests fa
homogeneous so ils, as these are more economical.
Footings on gran ular soils are generally desi gned usin g the following em pirical relationships for the
a llowable so il press ure .
(1) Peck Method
Terza ghi and Pock ( 1967) gave charts for the safe bearing ~res inducin g a total settlement of 25 mm
and a differential settlement of 19 mm for different sizes of fooling. Peck et al (1974 ) revised the Terzaghi
and Peck curv es to take into co nsidera tion the later research. and gave the follow ing equation for the safe
se ttlement pressu re.
q" p - 0.41 C.. N s __ _( 23 _7 ~
wbere q. p = safe settlement pressure (kN/m\
10 DEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 6 ]9

N .. average SPT number, corrected for overburdenpressureand dila tancy ,

S = seut emeru (mm). C", :: water table correction factor.
For a settlement of 40 mm,
q. p • 16.4 C.N (23.78)
Fig. 23.23 gives a cha it for s = 40 mm and C.. = 1.0.

/
600 L
/
0
/
/
/
0
est
lis
20
'"
Fig. 23.23.
For a settle ment of 25 mm,
re
re q" p _ 10.25 C wN (kN/m2)
he Th e water table correction is determined using the relation
C. - 0.5 + 0.5 D, /(D! + B ) ... (23.79)
where D w = depth DC water tab le below the ground surface, D1 = depth of footi ng. B width of footing .

'y (2) Teng 's Equation

ly Teng (1962) expressed the charts given by 'Icrzaghi and Peck ( 1948) in the form of the followin g
lte fonnulas. Allowance was made for an increase in pressure with ocprh by introdudng a depth factor.
be For a seulemem of 25 mm,

on q"p - 35.0 (N - 3)
(
B +
~
0.3)' Wy Rd .. .[23.8O(a)J
;IS
I<! where q"p = safe settlement pressure (kN/m1, N = SlYI' number. B = width of footing (m),
'or Wy = water table correction factor (Eq. 23 .36 (e» .

he Rd = depth correction factor .. 1 + 0.2D

(
T S 1.20
)

The above equation can be written in general Conn as

.
q,J> = 1.40 (N - 3)
(B+O.3)' W·
~
~
y Rd :r ... [23.8O(b»)
:hi where s :: tok rablc sett leme nt (mm)
.re
(3) Meyerhof's equation
Meyerho f propose d equations which are slighlly different from Teng's equations . According to him, for a
settlement of 25 rom,
.", SOIL MECHANICS AND fOUNDATION ENGINEERING

qllP - 12.2 N Jv.,R4 for B:s; 1.2 m ... [23.8 1(a)J

and q"p - 8.1 N

(
BB
- + - 0.3)' W, R.J for B ~ 12m .. .[23.8 1(b)]

where all the terms are the same as in Teag's equatioo., except Rd. wbicb is given by
R.i • 1 + 0.33 DI'B :s 1.33.

(4) Bowie's equallon

Bowles (1977) sugges ted tha t the net allo wab le pressure given by Meyerho C's equation can be safely
increasedby 50% . Thus. for a settlement of 2S mm,
q" p • 18.3N W,R" for B :s; 1.2 m . .. [23.82(a}]

and q" p - 12.2 N ( B ~ 0.3 t w, RJ for B :it; 1.20 ••• [23.82(b)]

(5) IS : 6403-1971 equation

IS : 6403---1971 gives the following equation. which is similar to Teng's equation CEq. 23.80 (b». For a
sett lement of 40 rom,

q. P - 55.4 (N - 3)
(
B +
~
0.3 )' W, ... (23.83)

--'-
<,
Se t tlemen t ~ l ':.rnm
r-- N• SO

----- ~O
00

- _N~ JO

N:20
00

00 N.~

N.'
D
0 I I l 4 s 6
F.)UI'IdcJ ti Ol'l w ldl h 1m} - - . .
Fig. 21.2A.
The depth factor is oot considered,
Fig. 23.24 gives the allowable soil pressure for a settlement of 25 rom (fcrzaghi and Peck. 1967). FIg.
23.25 gives lhe allowable soil pressure for a settlement of 40 mm.
Narrow Footings on Sand
The design of narrow footings 00 sand footings is generall y governed by the net safe bearin g capacity.
The ultimate bearing capaci ty em be detennined from the tbeodes already disoJssed. The value of the angle
of shearing resistance (+1can be determined from shear tests . As it is d iffiro ll to c!uplicate field ronditioos
in tbe laboratory , 41' is usually detennincd indirectly from standard penetration number (N). as shown in Fig.
23 .7.
BEARING CAPACIn' OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION 621

23.31. AL LOWABLE sons PRESSURE FOR COIIESIVE sons

The allowable soil pressure for cohesive soils is generally controlled by the net safe bearing capacity,
although setllement criterion may control in soll clays. In the case of foundations on firm to stiff clays, it is
unnecessary to compute settlements, especially-when
the structure is lightly loaded as the settlements are <,
quite small. A factor of safety of 3 against shear ~ 1000 Setll emeo t : l,()f'm\

failure would generally ensure that the settlements '1

are within the safe limits. However, it is essential to ~
compute the consolidation settlement in all cases of : t"
0
~
.50
r==
heavy structures. ~ <,
The net safe: bearing capacity (q...) depends ~ 60
0 -
upon the shear strength of the clay. The minimum
value of shear strength should be taken for the f I~
N: 40

N : )O

----- --
computations of the ultimate bearing capacity. On .:::
saturated clays, the time of loading is relatively
rapid, and the undrained conditions usually apply.
0
-----
fr: t: ~
N=20

::e~::in:~hu~:~ci~~ iS~:~::~
-
0
20 N=IO
unconsolidated-undrained test (Chapter 13). The N:')
ultimate bearing capacity is determined using the 00 , 2 a , s
bearing capacity theories for 4> = 0 conditions. Wid th B (~
As the settlement calculations are involved, the . 2 2
size of the footing is first selected considering the Fig. 23.2:5. (1 tim '" 10 kN/m )
net safe bearing capacity and then the settlements are checked. It may be noted that the footing width has
very little effect on the magnitude of the settlement. The settlements depend mainly on the magnitude of the
load. Consequently, if settlements control the design, merely increasing the size of footing may not help solve
the problem. An alternative type of foundation such as a mat foundation, a compensating foundation or a pile
foundation, would be required.
23.32. PRESUMPTIVE DEARING CAPACITY
Building codes of various organisations in different counlries give the allowable bearing capecny that can
be used for proportioning footings. These values, known as presumptive bearing capacity, are based on
experience with other structures already buill. As the presumptive values are based only on a visual
classification of the surface soils. they are not reliable. These values do not consider important factors
affecting the bearing capacity, such as the shape. width, depth of footing, location of water table. strength and
compressibility of the soiL Generally, the values are conservative and can be used for preliminary design or
even for the final design of small, unimportant structure.
IS : 1004----1978recommends that safe bearing capacity should be calculated on the basis of the sail test
data. However, in the absence of such data, the values of the safe bearing capacity can be taken equal to the
presumptive bearing capacity values given. Table 23.10 gives the values for different types of soils and rocks.
The table also gives the values as per New York.Building Code for comparison.
It is further recommended that for non-cohesive soils, the values shall be reduced by 50% if the water
table is above or ncar the base of footing.
For further deta i~ a reference may be made to IS: 1904---1978.
23.33. PLATE LOAD TEST
The allowable bearing pressure can be determined by conducting a plate load test at the site. The conduct
a plate load test. a pit of the size 581' x 581" where Bp is the size of the plate. is excavated to a depth equal
to the depth of foundation (D,). The size of the plate is usually 0.3 m square. It is made of steel and is 25
mm thick. Occasionally. circular plates are also used. Sometimes. large size plates of 0.6 m square are used.
612 son.MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Thble 23.10. Presumpt ive Sufe Bearin g Ca pacity

IS : 19lU- 1978 Nf':IlI YfN"A: Building COtk

Type of Rod/soil

I. Rock...
l. li ard Sou nd Rock 330 3240 199-591 1950-5800
2. Laminated rock 165 16211 17 7fIJ
3. Residual Deposits of Shattered and 90 880 112 1100
Broken Rocks
4. Soft Rock 45 44 0 77 7fIJ
II. Non-Cohesive Soils"
I. Com pact gravel , sand and gravel 45 440 77- 97 760--950
2. Com pact and dry coarse S:Jnd
3. Compact and dry med ium sand "
25
440
245
31- 71
-
300-760
-
4. Fine san d, silt 15 150 - -
5. Loose grave l or sand 25 245 36 350
6. Loose and dy fine sand 10 100 19 90
III . Cohesive Soils
1. Hard or Stirrctay, soft shale 45 44 0 49 480
2. Medium day 25 245 \9 190
3. Moist day and sand day mixture 15 150 - -
4. Soft d ay 10 100 10 95
5. Very soft day 5 50 - -
6. I3I:Jck col lo n so il, Peat, made up soi ls

•• To be dete rmined after soi l lnveMigllliom.

Compactness or looseness of nce-cobesve SOlismay be dclemuned by driving a cone o f 65 mm dill and 6fJ'
apex angle by II hamme r of 65 kg falling from 75 an. Ir rorreaed number of blows (N) for 30 em pcoerreuoe
is less than 10. tbe soil is loose . tr more than 30, it is taken lISdense . If N is between 10 and 30, it is medium
dense.

A central hole of the size Hp x Hp is excavated in the pit. lbc depth of the centra l hole (D p ) is obtained from
the following relation :
D/ Bp ' DIB,
or Dp • (8/B,1 x D, .. .(23.84)
where HI is the width of the pit. and Hp is the size of plate.
For ronducting the plate load test. the plate is placed in the central hole and the load is applied by means
of a hydraulic jack (Fig. 2}..26). The reaction to the jack is provided by means of a reactio n beam.
Sometimes, trusses are used instead of a reaction beam to take up the reaction. Alternatively. a loaded
platform (kentledge) can be used to provide react ion. A seating load of 7 kN/m2 is first applied. which is
released after some time. The load is then applied in increments of about 20% of the estimated sa fe lood tt
one-tenth of the ultimate load. The settlement is recorded after I, 5, 10, 20. 40. 60 minutes, and further after
an interval of one hour. These hourly observations are continued for clayey soils until the rate of settlement
is less than 0.2 mm per hour. The test is cond ucted until failure or at least until the settleme nt of about 25
mm has occurred (IS : 1888).
The ultimate lood for the plate q.. (P) is indicated by a break on the log-log plot between the load
intensity q and the settlements. IT the break is not well-defined , the ultimate load is taken as thai
_....
BEARING CAPACITY O F SHAlLOW FOUNDATIONS 623

Fig. 2326 . Plate Load Test.

correspo nding to a settl em ent of one-fifth of the plate wid th (Bp ) . On the natural plot (Fig. 23.27). the
ultimate load is obtained from the intersection of the tangents drawn as shown.
quI p )

Fig. 23.27.
(1) The ultimate bearing capaci ty of the proposed foundatio n q" (f) can be obtained from the following
relations :
(a) Fo r clayey soils, . . .(23.85)

(b) For sand y soils, . .. (23.86)

where 0, = found ation width.

(2) The plate load lest can also be used 10 de termine the settlement for a given intensit y o f loading (q(» .
The relation'> between the set tleme nt of the plate (5,) and that of the foundat ion (s,) for the same load
imensity are given be low.

(a) For cla yey so ils. s, • sp x !!L

B
...(23.87)
p
where sp is obtained from the load intensity -settlement curve for q.,.

(b) For sandysoils.

Br(B, +
s, • sp [.B (B, + 0.3)
OJ)]' . . .(23.88)
p
In above equations, 0, is the width of foundation in metres and Bp is the width of the plate also in metres .
(3) For designing a shallow foundation fer an allowab le settlement of 5, _
a trial and error procedure is
adopted. First of all. a value of B,.
is esscmec and the value of q" is obtained as
6'" SOIL M ECHA NICS AND FOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING

q• • Q/ A, ...(23.89)
where AI is the area of footing . and Q is the load.
For the computed value of q(l' the plate settlement (sp) is determined from me joed-sculcmenr curve
ob tained from the pla te load test . 1bc value o f sf is com puted using Bq. 23.87 if the soil is clay and using
Bq. 23 .88. if sand. 100 computed val ue of sf is com pared with the allowable settl eme nt. The procedure is
repea ted till the computed value is eq ual to the allow able set tlem ent.
(4) The p late load test ca n also be used for the determ ination of the influ ence facto r I (Sect. 23 .24). From
Eq.23.68.
s - ~
~, )( I )( q B .. .(23.90)
Fig. 23.28 shows a plot betwee n the settlem en ts and the lood qB. 100 s lope of the line is equal to
( 1 _~2)J/E•.

SLOPE = 1_~2 I
E,;

L QB

Fig. 23,28.
Umltation or the plat e load test
The plate load test has the following limitations :
(I) Size effect. The results of the plate load lest reflect the strength and the settleme nt characteristics 01'
the soil within the pressure bulbs (Section 11.6). As the pressure bulb depends upon lhe size of lhe
loaded area, it is mudl deeper for the actua l foundation as compared to that of the plate (Fig. 23.29).
The plate load test docs not truly repre sent the act ual con ditions if the so il is not homoge neous and
isotropi c to a large depth .
(2) Sca le effect. The ul timate bearing capacity of saturated clays is independent of the size of the plate
but for co hes ionless soils , it increases with the size of the plat e (Eq. 23 .86). To reduce sca le effect,
it is desirable to repea t the plate load test w ith plates o f two o r three di fferent sizes and extrapolate
the bearing ca pacity fo r the actual foundation an d take the average of the values obtained.
(J) Tlrne effect. A plate load test is essen tially a test o f short durat ion. For clayey sotjs, it does not give
the ultim ate settlement. The toac-cse tnemenr curve is not trul y representative.
(4) Interpretation of railu~ joad. The failu re load is not well-defmed, except in the case of a geoeral
shear failure . An error of personal interpretation may be involved in other types of failure.
(5) R eectjon load. It is not practicable to provide a reectice of more than 250 kN . Hen ce, the test on a
plate of size larg er than 0.6 m wid th is diffi cult.
(6) Water table. The level of the water table affects the bea ring capacity of the sand y so ils. If the wata
table is above the level of the foot ing. it has to be lowered by pumpin g be fore placin g the plate. The
test should be perform ed at the water table level if it is within about I m below the footing.
 BFARING CAPACITY OF SHALLO W FOUNDAllON 625
10

A
'9)

FOOTING
ng

~
is

BUL B
( a)
10)

10

PRESSUR E
BULB
(b)

Fig. Z3.29.

23.34. HOU SEL' S ltllnlJOD FOR DESIGN OF FOUNDATI ON

Housel's method can be used for the des ign of a shallow foundation for a given safe settlement. 1\\10
plate load tests are co nducted, one with a plate of size 8 1 and the other, wilh a plate size 8,.. TIle
load-settlement curves are obtained for both the tests . The loads co rresponding to safe settlement Sl are
obtained from the load-settlement curves. Lei QJ and Q2 be the loads for the plates of size HI and H2
respectively. Housel expressed these loads in the following forms .
QI- A1nl + Pj n ... (23.91)
and Q2 - Azm + 1'211 ... (23 .92)
where AI. A z = areas of plates of size B 1 and lh . respectively
1'), 1'2 = perime ters of plates of size B I and 8 2, respectively.
nf
!be and m. 11 = constants.
9 ). The values of the consta nts m and n are determined solv ing equations 23.91 and 23.92.
tnd If A and P are, respect ively, the area and perime ter of the given foundation, the safe load is then
computed as
ate Q • Am + Pn . ..(23.93)
:d, The abov e load Q is for a safe settlement of 51' For any other settle ment 5' , the safe load is given
a te Q' - (Q/,,) x s ... (23.94)
Eqs. 23.93 and 23.94 can also be used for the determination of the size of foundation for a given load.
jve as both A and P depend upon the size.
eral ILl. UST RATI VE EXAM PLES

na Ilfust rat tve Example 23.1. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip fOOling, 1.20 III wide, and
having the depth of foundation of 1.0 Ill. Use Terzughi 's theory and assume general shear failu re. Take $' =
ater 35°, Y = 18 kN /III J, and c' = 15 kN/m I. •
The Solution. From Eq. 23.25. q" - c' N~ + YD, Nq + 0.5 YBNy
626 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

For cp' = 35°, Table 23.1 gives Ne .. 57.8, N q .. 41.4 and Ny .. 42.4.
Now qu .. 15.0 x 57.8 + 18.0 )C 1.0 x 41.4 + 0.5 )C 18.0 x 1.2 x 42.4
.. 2070 kN /m l
Ittustranve Example 23.2. Determine tile allowable gross load and the net allowabl e load for a sq UiJTe
footing of 2m side and with a depth of foundation of 1.0 m. Use Terzaghi's theory and assume local shear
failure . Take a facto r of safety of 3.0. The soil at the site has y = 18 leN/mJ, c' = 15 leN/m2 and 41' = 25°,
Solution . From Table 23.1. for cp' = 25° 1
Ne' .. 14.8, Nq ' .. 5.6 and Ny' .. 3.2
From Bq. 23.37, laking em' .. 2/3 c' .. 10 kN/m 2
qu .. 1.2 x 10.0 x 14.8 + 18 x 1.0 x 5.6 + 0.4 x 18 x 2 x 3.2
.. 325 kN /m 2
From Eq. 23.1, q,," .. 325 - 18 x 1.0 .. 307 kN/m 2

From Eq. 23.?, q", .. T . ~~ . 102.3 kN /m

2

Net allowable IOHd .. 102.3 x (2 x 2) .. 409.2 kN

From Bq. 23.3. q, .. qns + YDf .. 102.3 + 18 x 1.0 .. 120 .3kN/m 2
Gross allowable load .. 120.3 x (2 lC 2) • 481.2 kN
illustrative Example 23.3. A footing 2 III square is laid at a depth of 1.3 III below the ground surface.
Determin e the net ultimate bearing capacity using IS code method. Take "( 20 leN/m], =30 and c' 0, +' = D
=
Soluti on . For +'
= 30 D • Table 23.6 gives
N~ - 30.14, N q - 18.4 and NT - 22.4
From Table 23.3, s, _ 1.3 , Sq '" 1.2 and ST - 0.80
From Eq. 23,49 (a), d, _ 1 • 0.2 (DI B) tan (45 " • • '12)
- 1 + 0.2 )( (1.3/2.0) tan 60° _ 1.23
From Eq. 23.49 (e), d, - d, • 1 .0.1 (DIB) tao (45" • • '12 ) • 1.11
From Eq. 23,48, q"" - cNcs~dcic + q(Nq -l)sqdqi q + 0.5"(BN1ST d,~W
• 0.0 + 1.3 )( 20 )( (18.4 - 1) )( 1.2 x 1.11 x 1.0 + 0.5 x 20 lC 2.0 x 22.4 x 0.8 x 1.11 lC 1.0
qnu - 1000 kN/m l
IIIuslralive Example 23.4. Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity of the foo ting in Illustrative
Exampl e 23.3 if
(a) the water table rises to the level of the base,
(b) the water table rises to the ground surface, and
(c) the water table is I m below the base.
= 0.50, Therefore, Eq. 23.48 gives
Solution. (a) W '
qnu - 1.3 )( 20.0 x (18.4 -1) )( 1.2 x 1.11 x 1.0 + 0.5 x 20.0)( 2.0 x 22.4 x 0.8 x 1.11 x 0.5
.. ROlkN/m l
(b) W ' = 0.50. The surcharge q is also reduced as the effective stress is reduced, Th us
q"" - 1.3 x (20 - 9.81) ( (18,4 - 1) x 1.2 x 1.11 x 1.0 + 0.5
x 20 x 2.0 x 22.4 x 0.8 )( 1.11 x 0.5
_ 506kN/m 1
'0 BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLO W FOUNDATIONS 627

(e) W' is obtained by linear interpolation [see Eq. 23..36(e) ].

W _ 0.5 + o.s 2~O 1.0 .. 0 .75

Therefore. q".. .. 13 )( 20.0 )( ( 18.4 - 1) )( 1.2 )( 1.11 )( 1.0 + 05 x 20.0

x 2.0 x 2 2.4 )( 0 .8 x 1.11 x 0 .75
.. 901 kN /rn z
lIIustmtlve Example 23.S . A square column foundation is to be designed for a gross allowable total load

u: :C't:; ~~es~;ea: ~ ~~l:; ::S~ 7:es~;~I~~~: . t~ :h~;e;:::~ ~t:r;;~,e z ;j~dl50f:,~:{o;;;:::::

of foun dation is 1.0 m.
Solution. From Eq. 23.45,
q.. " c' Ncs" dr ir + qN'lsq dq i<t + O.5 yBNT Sl d, ~
From Table 23.6, Ne .. 46.12. Nq .. 33.30 and NT '" 48.03
From Tab le 23.7, s" .. 1 + 33.30 /46.1 2 .. 1.72
s'l .. 1 + Ian35° .. 1.70, s," 0.60
From Eq. 23.46 (a), dt' .. I + 0.4 x 1.0 / B
From Bq. 23 .46 (b), dq .. 1 + 2 Ian 35° ( I - sin 35°)2 )( 1.0/8
dq .. I + 0.255/B; d, " 1.0
From Eq. 23.47 (a). it' .. iq .. (1 _ U O/ 90 )2 .. 0.694
o. From Eq. 23 .47 (b), ~ _ (1 - a'/~)2 • 0327
Therefore. q.. .. 5.0 )( 46. 12 x 1.72 x (1 + OAIB) x 0.694 + (19 )( 1.0) 33.3
x 1.7 x (1 + 0.255/B) x 0.694 + 0.5 x 19 x 8 x 48.03 x 0.6 x 1.0 x 0.327
- 1022.2 + 300.7/8 + 89.58
From Eq. 23 .1, q_ _ q.. - yD, _ q.. - 19 x 1.0

_ 1003.2 + ~.7 + 89.5 8

1.0 From Eq. 23..3, o, - ~ + 19 x 1.0

_ 334.4 + 1(;;.2 + 29.88 + 19.0

Now gross load _ qs x 8 2

or 250.0 .353.40' + 100,2B+ 29.80'
Solving by trial and error , B - 0.7 m
U1ustratlve Example 23.6. Determ ine the ultimate bearin g capacity of Q square footin g 1 m x 1m in Q
soil with lUlU weight of 18 leN/m' , " = 10°, c = 20 lcN/nl . Take the depth of fowuJation of 1.50 111. Use
) .5 Hansen's equation.
Solution. From Eq. 23.42,. q.. - cN~ s~ d~i~+ qN.,S.,c44 + 0.5 yBNys yd,i.,
From Table 23 .2, N~ - 14.83. Nq - 6 .40 and Ny - 3.54
From Table 23.3, s~ _ 1.2, Sq . 1.2 and Sy • 0.6
From Table 23.4, d~ _ 1 + 0.3 x 1.5/20 _ 1.225
4,-"'-1.225, d,-1.0
628 SOIL M ECHANI CS AND fOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING

M j~ -i.. = i., -l.O.

q.. .. 20.0 )( 14.83 x 1.2 )( lo22S )( 1.0 ... (18 x 1.50) x 6.40 K 11
)( 1.225 )( 1.0 ... 05 )( 18)( 2 x 3.54 x O.6 x 1.0 x 1.0
.. 728.25 kN /m z
Htustra ttve Exa mp le 23.7. A strip fooung of 2 m width is f ounded al a depth of 4 m below the ground
surface. Determine the ncr ultimate bearing capacity, using (a) Tenaghi's equation. (b) Skemptons eqUQtion,
and (e) fS Code. The soil is clay (q. = 0, C = 10 kNlm 1). The unit weight of the soil is 20 leN/mJ,
Solution. (a) Terzaghl 's equation
From Eq. 23.25. q.. " c"N.. + 1 DfNq ... 0.51BN,
Taking the values from lhblc 23.1. q" .. 10 x 5.7 + 20 )( 4 )( 1.0 ... 05 x 20 l( 2 x 0.0 .. 137
Therefore , q"., " q.. - yD/ - 137.0 - 20 )( 4 .. S7.0 kN /m 1
(b) Skcmpton's equation

From Bq. 23.53 (a), for %. i < 2.5.

N< _ 5.0 (I + 0.2 DIB)(I + 0.2 BIL)

.. 5.0 (1 ... 0.2 x 412){1 ... 0.2 x 0.0) .. 7
From Eq. 2355, q.... .. cli N e " 10 X 7.0 .. 70.0 kN/m%

(e) IS Code
From Eq. 23..56. q... .. cl/N ..s..~i..
TakingN.. = 5.14, q_ .. 10 x 5.14 x (1 + 0.2 x (%) tan45°) x 1.0

_ 51.4 x 1.4 _ 71.96 kN/m 1

Ilhest rat lve Exa mp le 23.8. A square footing (1.5 m x 1.5 m) is located as a depth of 1.0 m in a clay
doposit consisting of two layers. The top layer is 1m thick and has CI '" 150 JcN/nl and 11 = 16 kN/mJ• Tht:
bottom layer has c2 '" 50 kN/m1 and 1 = 15 leN/m1• Determine tire nel ultimat e bearing capacity:
Solution . From Bq. 23.59, taking i~ - LO. q.. - c I N~s~ d~ + q
From Fig. 23. 18, for Cl"Cl = 1/3 and Z/B '" 1.0/1.5 '" 0.67, the value of N~ is equal to 350.
s~ - 1 + (nll.)(N';N~) _ 1 + 1 x 113 .5 _ 1.29

d~ _ } + 0.4 x 1.0/1.50 - 1.27

Therefore, q.. _ 150 x 3.5 x 1.29 x 1.27 + 16.0 x 1.0 _ 876.1 kN/m 2
q"" _ 876.1 - 16 _ 860.1 kN /m 2
Ittustrauve Exam ple 23.9. A square footing (1.5 m )( 1.5 m) is located at a deplh of 1.0 m. Tile fOOling
is sunjccted to an eccentric load of 400 kN, wan an eccentricity of 0.2 m along one o[ the symmetrical axes,
Determine the [octor of safety against bearing failure. Use Vesic:S equation: Take 1 ::: 21 kN/mJ, c ::: 100
2"
leN/m '" O.
Solu tion. Effective width 11' _ B -2 e" _
15 - 2 x 0.2 _ 1.1 m
From Eq. 23.45. laking N, _ 0.0. N~ - 5.14 and N4 _ 1.0,
q.. - eN~s~d~i~ +q Nq~4dq iq
where s, a 1 + (lJ'I I.) (Nt/N~) - 1 + (1.1/ 1.50) x 1.0/5 .14 _ 1.14
S4 - 1 + (lYIL)t.ant - 1.0 + (1.1I1.50) t.an0° • 1.00
 UEARING CAPACrnr OF SIIAUDW FOUNDATIONS 629

df - 1 + 0.4 (018). 1 + 0.4 x 1.0/1.5 . 1.27

1.2 d'l. 1 + 213n 4l(1 - sin 41)2 (OrB) - 1.0
Therefore, q" • 100 x 5.14 x 1.14 x 1.27 + 1.0 x (21.0 x 1.0) x 1.0 x 1.0

From Eq. 23.63 (a), qm",, · *

• 744.2 + 21.0 _ 765.2 kN /m 1

(1

q max - 320 kN/m

+!Jf) - 1.5~1.5 (1 +6 7.5°·2)
2 ... (a)
Now q.... - 765.2 - 21 x t _ 744.2.
Therefore, ql _ ( 7~.2 + 21.0) ... (b)

From Eqs. (a) """ (b). 744.2IF + 21.0 = 320

or F • 2.49.
lnustratlve Example 23.10. A square footing is required to carry a net load of 1200 leN. Determine the
size of /he footing if tile depth:of foundation is 2 m and the tolerable seulanent is 40 mm. The soil is sandy
with N = 12. Take a {actor of safety of 3.0. The water table is W I}' deep. Use Teng~ equation.
Solution. From Eq. 23.61,
q.... - O.33N28W, + 1.0( 100 + Jil)OfWq
q"" • 0.33 (12)28 x 1.0 + 1.()() (100 + 1 2~ x 2 x LO
q"" _ 475 B + 488.0
Total net load. Q" - (475 8 + 488.0)/3 x Ii
1200 - (475 8 • 488.0)/3 x n'
ay
he 1200 • 15.88' + 162.7 n'
Solving. by trial and error, B _ 2.45 m.

From Eq. 23.80 (b), q", - 1.40 (N - 3) (B ;;3 f, w,R.,s

q... I.40(N _3)(0;:3) (1 . 0.20X2)X40

q"" - 1.40 (12 - 3) ( B ; : 3 f)( 40 (I + 0.4/B)

ng • 126 (8 + 03)2 x (1 + 0.4/B)

es. Now Q" -q,,pxfil
()()
1200 • 126 (0 • 03 )' (I + 0.4/0)
Solving, B _ 2.58 m. adopt B _ 2.60 m
Itlcstratlve Example 23.11. A rectangular footing (3 m x 2 m) exerts a pressure of 100 kN/nl on a
conesive soil (£1 = 5 x 10~ leN/ml and ~ = 0.50). Determine the immed iate settlement at the centre, assuming
(0) the fooling is flexible,(b) the footing is rigid.

Solunon. From Eq. 23.68, s, - qB ( ¥) I

630 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

A'i LIB '" 3/2 '" 1.5, from Thble 23.8. 1 = 1.36.

Therefore, s, • 100 )( 2 ( 1 - 0.5:) )( 1.36 )( 10-) • 4.08 mm

5 x 10
(b) For rigid footing (1 = 1.06), s .. (1.06/1.36) )( Sj
... 1.06/1.36 )( 4.CE ... 3.18 mm
IIIustrutive Exam ple 23.12. Fig. £-23 .11 shows a square footing resting on a sand dePOSiL The pT~ure
2
at die level of the foundation (q) is 100 kNlm • The figure also shows the variation of the elastic modulus
with depth. Determine the seulemcnt of the foundation after 6 years of construc tion:

JH:lO' _g;.'l _
1.2S 0.50

9X104 _ _ ~..!:.t!. _

'm
~ ~~~,j4 l-
E• •

Fig. E-23.12.
zs
Solution. From Eq. 23.69, Si-C1C20i -Q) L !.!.·dZ
o E,
q_ 16 x 1.5 ... 24 kN/m2 and q- q ... 200 _ 24 ... 176kN/m 2

C, - 1 - 0.5 (;-!L)_
q-q
1 - 0.5(24/176).0.932

C 2 ... 1 + O.2 1oglO(t/O.l) ... 1 + O.21og lO(6 /0.1) ... 1.356

Therefore, 51 ... 0.932 x 1.356 x 176 ft ·

'" I
III

... 222.4 ft ·
'" I
I:!.z

'"
The value of }: (lzlE.> . lJ.. z is determined as shown in the table below. It is equal to 13.97 x 10-5.
o
BEARING CAPACI1Y OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 631

E,
z {;z I, (IslEs) . 6.z
(kNlm')

0-1.00 1.0 m !!OOO 0.1 ; 0.42 _ 0.26 3.25 x 1O-~

1.0-2.0 " 9000 0.453 5.03 x 10-5
2.0--3.0 10000 0.333 3.33 x 1 0-'~
3.0-4.0 11000 0.200 1.82 x 10~.'i
4.0--5.0 " 12300 0.067 0.54 x lO~S

I 13.97 x 10- 5
Therefore , Sl _ 222.4 x 13.97 x 1O~5 m
or SI _ 31.07 mm
Illustrative Exampl e 23.13. Fig. E-23 .13 shows the load- seulement curve obtained from a plate load test
conducted on a sandy soil. The size of the plate used was 0.3 m x 0.3 m. Determine the size of a square
column foot ing to carry a net load of 3000 kN with a maximum settlement 0/25 mm .
Load {kNl m2 ) - + -

100 200 300 1,,00 500 600 700 BOO

'0

20

E
.5 30
~
!
~
40

SO

Fig. £- 23.13.

Solution. From Bq. 23 .88 , BI (Be + 0.3) ]'

st » sp [ Bp(B + 0.3
f

sf- sp (s,I!I. )' ( 0.6 )'

B + 0.3
f
The value of Bf is found by trial and error. as sho wn in lhe table below.

(~,
sp from Fig. 'I
HI qo - Ex. 21.13 BflBp from Eq. (a)
3.80 m 1fJ7.7 6mm 12.67 20.62 mm
3.6 m 2.1 15 7mm 12.00 23.85 mm
3.55m 238.0 7.3mm 11.83 24 .81 mID

Adopt a size of 3.55 m x 3.55 m.

6" SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Iltustrenve Example 23.14. Two-plate load tests at a site gave the following results.
Size of pla te Load Settlemesu
0.305 )( 0.305 m 40 kN 25 mm
~x Q~m ~kN 15mm
(0) A ssuming Poisson's ratio as 0.3, determine the deformat ion modulus of the soil.
(b ) If there are two columns, one of the size 2.5 m x 2.5 m, carrying Q load of 27 (}() leN, and the ocher
of size 3m x 3m, carrying a load of 3900 kN. determine the differential settlement The columns are 7 ~
apar t.

ql" 0.305 ~ 0.305 .. 430 kN/m

2
Solut ion. (0) For the firs t test,
2
q. B• .. 430 x 0.305 .. 131.1 kN /m

For lhe second test, lh. .. 0.61 ~ 0.61 .. 107.5 kN/ m

2

qlll - 107.5 x 0.61 _ 65.6 kN/m 2

Fig. E-23.14 shows the plot between qB and s.

020
.>
.015
V
/
.or / SlO~.~. I.'52l(. io4
E.

.005 k --
00
150
qB (kN/m)
Fig. E-23.14.

From the plot, (¥ ) J • 1.52 x 10-'

From Table 23.8, 1 - 1.12

As the plate is rigid, I - 0.8 )( 1.12 .. 0.89

The refore, E _(l-f.l2)x0.896.~xO.896

, 1.52 x to-4 152 )( 1~
E, _ 5364 kN/m1
27 2
(b) For the fITSt co lumn. q l - 25 )(00 .5 _ 432 kN /m
2

For the second column, th - ;~3 - 433 kN/m

2
BFARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 633

As the settlement of the plate (0.305 m )( 0.305 m) at a loud intensity of 430 kN/m~ is 25 mm, it can be
used for the determination of the settlement of columns.

2.5 x (0.305 + 0.30)]'

Form Eq. 23.88, (sfh .. 25 [ 0.305)( (2.5 + 0.3) .. 78.42 mm

3 (0.305 + 0.30) ]'

(sin - 25 [ 0.305 (3.0 + 0.3) - 81.3 mm

Differential settlement .. 81.3 - 78.42 .. 2.88 mm

Illustrative Example 23.15. The results of tlW plate load tests for a settlement of 25.4 mm are given.
Pltite diameter LCHZti
0305 m 31 kN
0.61 m 65 kN
A square column foundauon is to be designed to carry a load of 800 leN with an allowable settlement of
25.4 mm. Determine the size using Housel's method.
Solution. From Eq. 23.91 and 23.92,
31.0 .. (l't/4) )( (0.305)2 )( m + l't (0.305) )( n ...(a)
65.0 .. (l't/4) )( (0.61l x m + x (0.61) )( n ... (bJ
Eq.(a) can be written as 62 .. 2 x x/4 (0.305)2 )( m + 2l't (0.305) )( n .. .(c)
From Eqs.(b) and (c), by subtraction,
3.0 - no[./4 (0.372 - 0.186)] m • 20.55
From Bq. (0) 31.0 = 1.5 + 0.9577 n n = 30.80
From Eq. 23.93; Q - n' x 20.55 + (30.8 x 4B)
800 • 20.55 n' + 123.2 B
B .. 3.93m say 410 )( 410,

PROBLEMS

A. Numericals
23.1. Determine tbe ultimate bearins: capacity of a square footing of size 1.2 m if me depm of foundation is 1 m. Take
3
= = 2
41' 25', y 18 kNlm and c = 15 kNJm • Use Vesic's equation. [Ans, 1050 kN]
23.2. A circular foundation is of 2.4 m diameter. If the depth of foundation is 1m, detennine t1Ienet allowable load.
3 2,
Take y = 19 kN/m , c' = 30 kN/m 41'= 15° and factor of safety as 3.0. Use 'Icrzaghi's equation and assume
local shear failure. [Ans. 418 kN]
23.J. A sqUllre footing is to be designed to carry a load of 500 kN. If the deplh of foundation is 1.5 m, determine a
suitable size of foundation with a factor of safety of 3.0: The water table is at foundation level. Take ¢I' = 25°,
3.
Y = 16 kN/m3, Ysat = 19 kN/m Use 'Ierzaghi's theory. c' = 20 kN/m2. rAns. 2.10 m]
Assume 10Cll1 shear failure.
23.4. A strip footing is required to carry a net load of 1000 kN lit a depth.of 1m. Thking a factor of safety of 3,
+ 3
determine the width of the footing. Thke = 30°. Y = 19 kNJm , c = 20 kN/m2. Use Terzaghi's theory.
Assume general shear failure .[Ans. 2.4 m]
23.5. A strip footing is 2 m wide and founded at a depth of 2m in II soil of unit weight 20 kNJm3 and a cohesion of
10 kN/m2. Determine the increase in me bepring capacity when <- is increased from 200 to 25°. Use Terzaghi's
equation. Assume local shear failure. [ADS.130 kNlm1
3
23.6. A purely cohesive soil has a unit weight of 20 kNlm lind a cohesion of 150 kNJm2. Determine the safe bearin,$:
capacity for a rectangular footing 8m x 2m founded at a depth of 4 m in clay. (F.S. = 3.0) [Ans, 448 Ii:N/m1
23.7. A strip footing 2 m wide is to be laid at a deplh of 4 m in a purely cohesive soil (c = 150 kN/m2. Y = 19
6 34 SO IL MEC HA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING

kN/m '\ Determine the ultimate hearing cap;lI:ity frnm Itll Terzaghi ', theory (bl Skernpron's theory.
IAn~ IJ.'DkN/m 2; 1125 kN/m 2J
23.8. Estimate th... i~mcdiale ~C11Ien~n( of a concrete fOllling. 1m x 1m size. found;d nt a dCplh of I III in a soil with
1::"" lcf kN/m -. 11 = 0.3 . 1111." fooling is subjected h\ a pressure 01 200 kN/m -, Assume the tooling 10 be ngid
IAns. 22.2 mm]
23.9. A square fooli ng 2.5 In size is founded al a dept h of 1.5 m in a sandy soil deposi t whic h has the correct ed N
value '11" )0 . 111.:' wnter table is at a dep th of 2 m Imm the ground surface . Find t he net allowable soil pressure
if
(a ) the desired factor of safety is .l O.
(h) the permis sible seulcmc nt is 40 111m.
~ fug's~~lio~ I An~ ~k ~ ~~5k~1
23.10. An excavauoe J In wide is to he made 10 depth of 5 m in soli clay k u = 15 kNJm2, y = 19 kN/ m\ The ground
2
surrou nding tho: excavation curries a surc harge o f 10 kN/ m . Determine the factor of safety. Usc 'Ierzagtn's
equancns. (Ans. 1.231
B. Descriptive and Obj ecti ve THCS
23,11. Define tbe following terms :
(a) Net ~afe bearing capacit y.
(hi Grosv safe bearing: capacit y,
(e) Al1ow;\hle suil prc",",ure.
23.12. What arc th.: a,sumptilln, made in the denvatmn of Ten agh i's bearing capoctty theory? Write the equation (0(
the ultimate heari ng cupacuy .
23,13. Differentiate between the general s hee r failure and the local shear failure, How the ulti mate bcnnn g capac ity in
lncal shear is de termined"
23,14. Discuss the effec t of wate r table on the hearing capacity of the soil.
23.15. Discuss Mcycrhots hearing rupacuy theory. I I1Iwdocs it differ from Terzaghi's theory?
23.16. wmc shun mues rm;
(a) Hansen's hearing capacuy theory,
(h I Ve,ic 's hearing. capac ity theory.
23.17. Describe Skem pton 's analy sis for bearing ca pacit y o f cohe ssve !>uils.
23.18. How the bea(ing capacity of fnoling on a layered cohesiv e soil deposit is deterrruncd ?
23.19 . Discuss the various method, of determination uf the 3110wahJesoil pressure . What are their limnano ns ?
23.20. Wh at are dnfcrcnr types of settlements which can occur in a foundation '! How are these estimated ?
23.21. Discu ss the methods fur ~stimal i ng immediate seulc rncms of foundations on clay,
.23.22. How would you estimate the scruemcnrs of a toundauo n on cohestooless soils ?
23.23. De~c ri be plareilnad test. What arc its limitation and used "
2.1.24. Write whethe r the following stutcmenrs arc true Ill' falsq.
(II) A foundnricn is cons idered shullow if its de pth is tess than I OJ
(h) Tcrznghi's theor y is applicable when the base of the footiilg is roug h.
(c) For footings un co hesionlcss soils, the bea ring capecuy. and not the scttlernem, genera lly governs the design.
(If) The plate-load t~t is more useful for cobest ontc», soils tha n for cohesive soils.
Id Th e max imum value of Nc' is 9.0 by Skempron's chart.
1ftThe presumptive bearing capacity i" the same as the allowable bearing capacity .
(go) The immediate scnlemem of a rigid fOOlingis approximately equal to the average senlcmem of the flexible
fOOling.
(iI) The allowable angular distoniun in case of steel structures is more than that for R.C.C. structures .
If) Th e diffe rential scrucmcnt is generally three-fourths of the maximum seulcmeu.
(Ans . T rue (hj, (t!), (d, (g), (h ), (j)J

c. MUltiple Choice Questions

l. A shallo w foundat ion is usually defined as a foundation which has
BEARING CA PACITY OF SHA L LO W FOUNDATIONS
'"
tal depth less tha n 0.6 m
(h) depth 1 e5~ tha n i l~ width
(e) dept h less than 1.0 III
\J) none (If above
2. The ultimate hearing capacity of a shallow foundation on sand is reduced to about . .. when lhc water table rises
10 the ground surface.
(a) 75% (hi 5O'l
(t- ) 25% (t/) none of abov e.
3. The allo wable soil pressure for foundaucn-, in cohesive soils ji. generally cowoned by
(a) sertlemems (h) hearing capac ity
(e) both (0 ) and (hi (ll) neither (u) nor (h)
4. Th e immediate seulcmcnr of a rigid fOOling is abo ut . .. time!'> the max imum sett lement of an equa l Ilexibte
foot ing.
(II) 0.9 (b) (UI
k) 0.7 (d ) (l.6
5. The heari ng: cupaciry 01" soil suppornng <I foot ing Ill"size 3m x 3m will not be affected hy the presence of water
mule located : 11 a depth below tho base of footing of
(tl) 1.0 ( /I) un m
(el 3.0m (t/) 6.0m
6. A 2 m wide strip rOOling rest ~ at a dCpl.h o f 2 m below the ground surface where water table is at the &found
surface. The ultimat e 100'd which Ihe strip ca n ca rry 'Il.'corumg 10 'I crzaghi's theory when "1"'1 ::: 20 kN /m ' and
c ::: 30 kN/m 2 is about
(II ) 171 kN/m (h) 342 k N/m
(e) 422 kN/m (./) 262 kN /m
7. Th e permi ssible settlement is lhe maximum in the case of
( a) Isolated foot ing on day (h) R,lft on clay
(e) Isolated flMJtingon sand itO Raft on sand
8. If the g~ss hearing capacity Ill' a ~tri~ rcoung 1.5 m wide located at a depth of I m in clay is 400 kNlm 2• its
net bcunng c:lra~ity fOf "I ::: 20 kN/m is ~
(a) 370 kN/m- (hi 380 kN/m-
(c) 390 k N /m
2
(tl) 360 kN/ m
2
~~I . ( ~ ~ (b l . 3 .( N.4 . ( b ) . 5 .( d ~ ~ t7 . ( ~~~
 24
Design of Shallow Foundations

24.1. TYPES: OF SI IALWW FOUNDATIONS

A shallow foundation, according to Tcrz.agbl, is one whose width is greater than its depth (i.e.
D/ B :s: 1). Shallow Ioundatlons are located just below the lowest pert of the wall or a column which they
support. Footings are structural members, made of brick work. masonry or COIX.TCtc, that <Ire used to transmit
the load of the wall or column such that the load is distributed over a large area. In faa, a foo ting is an
enlargement of the base of the column or wall it supports. The footings arc of the following types:
(1) Strip (oolin2. A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall (Fig. 24.1). A strip footing is also
provided for a row of colum ns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly tooca
each other. In such a case. it is more cconcmtcat to provide a strip rooting than to provide a number of spread
footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing .

~ -r::D:J~
ELEVATION ELEVATION

on G PLAN

Fig. 24.1. Strip Footing.

PLAN

Fig. 24.2 Spread Footing.

(2) Spread or isolated fooling . A spread (or isolated or pad) rooting is provided to support an individual
column (Fig. 24.2). A spread foodng is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness . Sometimes,
it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.
(3) Combined fooling . A combined rooting su pports two cojamns (Fig. 24.3). It is used when the two
DESIGN OF SHAu.GW FOUNDATIONS 637

columns arc so c lose 10 cccn othe r that the ir individual footings

woul d overlap. A combined footi ng is also provided when tbc ~
property line is so close 10 one rolwnn tha i a spread footing
wou ld be eccentrically looded when kept entirely withi n the
f~~ ~r:~~ :a::;::il~. it wit h that of an inte rior col umn,

A rombincd fool ing may be recta ngular or trapezoidal in

plan. ELE VATION
(4) Strap 01" cantilever fooling . A strap (or can tilever)
foot ing co nsists of two isola ted foot ings connect ed with a
struct ura l strap or a lever, as shown in Fig. 24.4. The stra p
connects the two footings such that they behave as one un it. The
strap simply acts as a connect ing beam and does not take any
0 0
soil reaction . The strap is designed as a rigid bea m.
'In c individ ual footings arc so designed that the ir comb ined .. ..
line o f act ion passes through the resultant of the total load. A Fig. 24.3. Combined Footing.
strap footin g is more econ omical tha n a combined footing when the allow able soil press ure is relatively high
and the distance between the columns is large. ~~

c=r~~
ElEVATION

@]- -[Q] PLAN

Fig. 24.4. S trap Footing.
(5) Mat or run foundutlon.s, A mat or raft foundation is a large slab support ing a number of columns
and walls under the entire structure or a large part o f the structure . A mat is required whe n the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footing s would overlap or near ly
touch each other (Fig. 24.5).
Mat foundat ions arc usefu l in reducing the different ial settlements on non-ho mogeneo us soils or where
there is a large varia tion in the loads on individua l co lumns.
The bearing ca pacity theo r ies have been d iscussed in the precedin g chapt er. The design o f shallow
foundattons Is discussed in this chapter. The desig n is limited to the determinati on of lhe dept h of footing, area
of footin g, soil press ure, shea r force and bend ing momen ts. The structural design of foo tings is ou tside thc
scope of this text.
24.2. IJElyr U OF FOOTINGS
To perform its fuoction properly, a footing must be laid at a suitab le depth below tbe ground surface . The
vertical distan ce between the ground surface and the base of footing is known as the depth of footing (Df ).
The depth o f footing con trols the ultimate bearing capacity and the settlement, as discussed in chapter 23.
While nxf ng the depth of footing. the following points should also be considered.
(1) Depth of top soil 1bc footing shoul d be located be low the top soil consisting of orga nic maucrs
which eventually decompose. The lop soil should be removed over an area slightl y larger than the footing .
638 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

EL EVATION

WAL L
~ '" D,IfI~ V- WAlL
COLUMNS V
0 0 0
0 0 0

PLAN

Fig. 24.5. Mat FoundaLioo.

(1) Frost Depth. The footing should be carried below Lhe depth of frost penetration. If the footi ng is
located at insufficient depth , it would be subjected to the frost damage due to forma tion of ice lenses and
conseq uent frost heav e. Owing summe r, thawing occurs from the top downwards and the melted wate r is
entrapped.
As the soil water freezes and melts, the Iocdng is lifted during cold weather and it settles during warm
weathe r. The shear strength of Lhe soil is also decreased d uring wann weather due to an increase: in werer
content.
To prevent frost damage, the footings should be placed below the frost depth, which may be I m or more
in cold climates.
(3) Zone or sou Volume Change . Some soils. especially clays having high plasticity, such as black
colton soil. undergo excessive volume changes. Such soils shrink upon drying and swell upon wetting. The
vo lume cha nges are genera lly greatest near the gro und surface and decrease with increasi ng dept h.
Large volume cha nges benea th a foo ting may cause alterna te lifting and drop p ing. The footing should be
placed below all strata that are subjected to large volume changes.
(4) Adjacent footings and prope rty lines. The footing should be SO located that no damage is done to
tbe existing structures. 1be adjacent structures may be damaged by construction of a new footing due to
vibrations, undermining or lowering of tbe wa ter table. The new footing may also impose additional load on
the existing foot ings which may cause settle ment. In general. the deeper the new footing and the closer to the
existing structure. the greater is the potential damage 10 the existing structure . This is pmtiadarly more severe
if the new footing is lower than the existing footing.
As far as possible, the new footing should be placed at the same depth as the old ones. arxl the sides of
excavation adjacent to the existing struc ture should be suitably supponed.
If the footings are placed at different levels, the slope of line join ing the two footings should 001 be
steeper than two horizontal to one vertical (Fig . 24.6), as per IS : 1~1978.
(5) Sloplng Ground.' If a footing is located adjacent to a Sloping ground, the Sloping ground surface
 DFSIGNOF SHAU.oW FOUNDATIONS 639

rig. 24.6.
should not encroach upon a frustum of bearing material under the footing having sides maki ng an angle of
0
30 with the hor izonta l. Moreove r, the minim um distance from the lower edge of the fooling to the sloping
ground surface should be 90 em. (Fig. 24.7).
(6) Water Ta ble. TIle fooling should be placed above the ~
ground water table as far as poss ible. The presence of grou nd water
wiLhin the so il immed i<ltel.y around a footing in undesirable as it . G.S.
reduces the beari ng capacuy of the soil and there arc difficulties
=~c:~ct ion . The water proofing problems also arise due to j-oo-- o .9m ~

(7) Scour Depth. The footings located in streams, on water Fig. 24.7.
fronts or other locations where then: is a possibili ty of scouring, sho uld be placed below the poten tial scour
depth.
(8) Unde rground Defec ts, The depth of footing is also affected by the presence of underground defects.
such as faults, caves arxl mines. If there are man-made discontinuities., such as sewer lines, water mains,
underground cables, these should be shifted or the Iooung relocated.
(9) Root holes. If there are root holes or cavities caused by burrowing animals or worms, tbe footing
should be placed below such a zone of weakened soil.
n
(10) Minimum Depth. IS : llX>4-1978 specifies that all foundations should ex tend to a depth of at least
" 50 em below the natural ground surface. However; in case of rocks. on ly the top soil should be removed and
the surface sho uld be cleaned and if necessary. stepped.
Somet imes, the minimum depth of foundation is determined from Rankine's formula (Eq. 23.19).

(D) . •
[m,n
'!.y (~
1 + sinep'
)2 ...
(24.1)

where q is the intens ity of loading.

24.3. FOUNDATION LOADIN G
co An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation shou ld be made before it can be proper ly
co designed. A founda tion may be subjected to one or more of the following loads.
(I) Dead Loads. The dead loads include the weight of materials pennanently fixed to the structure, such
"
te as beams, floors, waus, columns, and fixed service equipments. The dead load can be calculated if sizes arxl
re types of structural materials are known . However, there is a problem in estimating the self-weight of the
structurc.Tbc usual procedure is to assume the self weight initially and the stroeturc is designed . 1bc weight
,r of the structure is then found from tbe designed dimensions and compared with the assumed weight If

.. necessary, the design procedure is repealed using- the revised weight.

(2) Uve Loads. 100 live loads are the movable loads that are 001. permanently attached to the structure.
These loods are applied during a part of its useful life. Loods due to people, goods. furniture, equipment.
machinery, etc. are the live teeds.
:e
640 SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

It is dimedt to estimate the live loads eccuretely. These are specified by local building codes as
uniformly distrib uted equivalen t sialic k>ads.
(3) WInd Loads. Wind loads act 00 all exposed surfaces of structure. These loads depend upon l.he
velocity of wind and lhe type of strudure. Uke live loads, w ind loads are also specified by building ccoes.
(4) SnoW' 10lids. Snow loads OCQlr due to accum ulation of snow on roofs and exlerior flat surfaces in
2
cold climates, 100 unit weight of snow is usually taken as 1 1tN1m .
(5) Earth pressure. Earth pressures produce lateral force against the struaure below the ground surface
or fill surface. The earth pressure is detennioed using the theories d iscussed in chapter 19. The earth pressure
is normally treated as. dead joed.
(6) Water pressure, Like earth pressure, werer pressure: also (XOOuctS a lateral fora: against the structure
below the water level.
Water pressure may also cause an upward force on the bottom pf the structure due to uplift JRSSUTe. It
must be counteracted by the dead load of the structure. .
(7) Ea rt hqua ke loads. The force due 10 an earthquake may act vertically, laterally or torsionally on a
structure in any direction. The worst condition should be anticipated and the relevant code consulted.
The earthquake load is usually assumed as a fraction of the dead toad, depending upon the seismicity of
the lone.
Computation of Design loads. The dead loads and live loads on columns are usually computed by
tributary area me thod, in which it is assumed that a column carries all the load in the floor area enclosed by
lines eq uidistant from its adjace nt col umns.
As live joacs are temporary and transients. onl y a part of it may ad for a duration that may induce the
settle ment. especially in cohesive soils. Moreover; specified maxim um live loads. do not occur simultaneously
at all the floors. It is usual practice to redoce the live loads in such cases (IS : 875).
It is the commoo practice to assume that the wind load and earthquake loads do not occur simultaneously.
Aoo:xding to IS 1904-1978, foundations should be propationed fll'" the following combinatioos of
""""-
(i) Dead load + live load.
(il) Dead load + live: load + wind load or seismic klad .
The dead load inc ludes the weigh!.of column, wall, footings, foundations, the overlying fill but excludes
the.weight of the displaced soil. If V is the volume of footing, there is a net increaseof load on foundatioo
of V(l .. - 1), where Y.. is the unit weigh t of concrete and y is the unit weight of soil If the weigh t Vy.. of
the footing is incl uded in the dead weight, the dead load needs a reduction equal to Vy, equa l to the weigbt
of the soil displaced.
If wind load (or se ismic load) is less than 25 % of tha t due to dead and live loa ds, it may be neglected
and the foundation should be designed for combination (I) given above. However, if wind load (or seismic
lood) is more than 25% of that due to dead and live loads, the foundation should be designed for combination
(;1) given above. The foundation pressure should not exceed the safe bearing capacity by more than 25 % in
the seco nd case.
For foundations resting on coarse-grained soils, the settle ments should be computed using the loads given
in combination (;1), as settlements occur in a very short period. However, for fine-grained soils, the
settlements should be competed corresponding to permanent loads. Generally, one half of the design live load
is takeo a permanent.
24.4. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
Before actual design. it is essential to est imate the dead load . live load and other loa ds . Tbe freq uency
and duration of various loads should also be available. The bending moment at the base of column (or walO
should also be ascertained if it is subjected to an eccentric load or moment.
As the bearing capaci ty of the soil depends upon the depth pf footing and its length and width, u
estimat e about these dimensions is required before the actual design. For members canyina: .xi al Jo.I
 DESIGNOf SHAlLOW fOUNDATIONS 641

combined with bending moments thai do not change direction, a rectangular footing is more suitable than a
square footing. _ .
The investigation of the site should be first carried out. The samples should be taken to determine the
engineering properties of the soil. Tbe safe bearing capacity should be calculated on the basis of soil data
obtained from the tests using the methods dtscussed in cneptcr 23. For cohesion less soils, as it is difficult to
obtnin undisturbed samples. the bearing capacity is determined from the standard penetration test number (N)
or from the plate 1000 test . The value of N to be uSC<! is the average of the N values from the base of footings
to a depth equal to width of the footing.
The footing is designed using the following procedure.
(1) TIle safe bearing capacity is determined using the methods discussed in chapter 23. For small.
unimpo rtant structures, these values can be taken as presumptive values ( Table 23.10).
(2) The fooling is proportioned making use of the sa fe bearing capacity dete rmined in Step (1).
(3) The maxim um seUlement of the footing is determined using the methods discussed in chapter 23. An
estimate of the differential sculcmcnt between various footings is made.
(4) Angular distortion is determined between various f"Ir1S of the structure.
(5) The maximum settlement . the differential settlement and the angular distortion obtained in the step
(3) and (4) are compared with the given allowable values (fable 23.9).
(6) If the values are not within the allowable limits, the safe bearing capacity is revised :>.00 the
procedure repented.
(7) The stability of the footing is checked against sliding ana overturning.
The factor of safety against s tiding should not be less than 1.5 when dead load, live load and earth
pressure and wind pressure (or seismic forces) are considered. However, if only dcnd toad, live load a nd earth
pressure are considered, it should not be tess than 1.75. 'lhc corresponding factors of safety against
overturning arc 1.50 and 2.00, respectively.
245. PROPORTIONAL FOOTINGS FOR EQUAL SETn.EMENT
Tb reduce the different ial settlement duc to live load variations for footings on fmc-grained soils. it is
dcsirnble to proportion all the footings in such a way that they have equal pressures under the service loads.
Thus all the footings would settle by equal amounts and the differential seujcmcnt would be considerably
reduced. Tbe following procedure suggested by Peck et al (1974) is usually adopted.
(1) The dead loac from each column, including the weight of the footing, i s determined.
(2) The maximum live load to which each footing is subjected is oererrmncd.
(3) The ratio of the maximum live lo ad to dead load for C3Ch fooling is compu ted.
d (4) The footing that has the largest live 1000'1d to dead Ia-KI ratio is taken as the governing footing,
c The area (A g) of the governing footing is determined from thc relation.

n1t~~:b:~~~~~~v~'1~:~ty
n
n Ag - . ..(24.2)
(5) The service loads for all the footings nrc determined.
(6) The design beari ng capacity (qd) of all the footing, except the governing footing. is determined as
"
Ie
"",""
ld Service Load for governing footing
... (243)
ec» '"
(7) The area of other footings is determined as
ICY A _ Service load for that footing
all) . . .(24.4)
q,
2U. DESIGN OF STIUI' FOOTIN GS
Dad Plain cement concrete strip footings arc provided when the loads are light and the soil is good. If the
642 &JIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

loads are heavy and the soil ro nditions are oot favourable, plain concrete Ioodngs are not economical.
Reinforced cement ccocrcre footings are more suitable in such cases.
(a) Plain Concret e Footing s. The rooting is designed so thai the contact pressure on the soil docs not
exceed the allowable bearing pressu re. The width (B) of the footing is det ermined from the relation

B . f ... (245)

where Q ::: load per m run,

qllQ = allowable soil pressure.
If the actual width provided is different from the theoretical width, the actual pressure is given by

q".~ .. .(24.6)
Tbe thickness at the edge of the footing should be er least 15 an . On cohesive soils. generally a
minimum thickness of 30 em is specified in order \0 resist swelling pressure. The thickness of the fooling
should be adequate to minimisc the development of tension on the underside of the projection acting as a
cantilever,
The thickness of lbe projection is generally kept twice the length of
the project ion from the wa ll face . A 45° load dist ribution is also
comm onl y used (Fig . 24.8) , wh ich gives a small tensio n on the underside.
For wide and thick footi ngs. slo ping of the uppe r su rface is done to effect
economy in the quan tity of concrete. However, the cost of form work
will add 10 the total OOSI.
(b) Reinforced Concrete Footings . Footings ca rrying heavy loads
on weak soils are reinforced in the transve rse direction. The widt h of the
foot ing is dete nnined using Eq. 24.5.
For computing the bending moment for whidt the Iooung is to be
designed, the critical sectio n is taken as follows (IS 456 - 1978). ~.=._----=~
(I) At the face of the mono lithic wall (Fig. 24.9) . Fig. 24.8.
(it) Half -way between the ce ntre line and the edge of the wa ll for footings under masonry walls .

I. •1

Fig. 24.9.R.C.C. Strip Foodng .

For mon olithi c walls, the maximum bendin g moment is g iven by
M · </o(B - b)' /8 . ..(24.~
where B width of foot ing, b = width of wall, q.. '" actual soil pressure.
'0 DESIGN OF' SHAu..oW FOUNDftJlONS 643

at. RJr checki ng the diagonal shea r, the cri tical sect ion is taken at a d istance equal (0 the effective depth (d)
of foocng from the face of the wall The d iagonal shear is given by
lOt
F • 'lo lIB - b)/2 - dJ ...(24.8)
24.7. DES IG N OF SPREAD FOOTINGS
.5)
Spread footings are used for distribuling concentrated column loads over a large area so that the bearing
pressure is less than or equal 10 the allowable soil pressure. fig. 24.10 shows genera l types of spr ead footings.

6)

a
'8
a
(. ) ( 0) «,
Fig. 24.10.

The area of the footing is given by

A • Q /O_ .. .(24.9)
where Q = column load. q"" = allowable soil pressure.
If the area actually provided is more, the actual pressure is given by
qo - ~ ... (24.10)
(a) Pla in Concrete Footi ngs. The design is similar to that of a plain concrete strip foot ing. Th e thickness
of the footing is fixed from the consideration of preventing tensio n on the underside . As in the case o f strip
footings.. the thickness is kepi. equal to twice the projection or alternatively, the width of the footi ng is
dctcrmined by the norm al practice of 45 " distribut ion of loading .
(b) Relnl'orced Concrete Footings. 1be area o f the Iood ng is cbt aincd using Eq. 24.9. 1be shape of the
footing may be square. circular IX' recta ngular. If the colu mn 1000 is centrally placed , the upward press ure is
uniform. As the we ight of the foot ing is d irect ly transferred to the soil below, it does not affect the berxling
moment and shear force .
Tbe critical section for bend ing moment is taken as under.
(i) At the face of the column or pedestal monolith ic with the footin g when no metal pla te is used.
(if) Half-way between the face of the colum n or pedestal and the edge of the metal plate on which the
co lumn or pedesta l rests.
Th e maximum n. M . for the case (i) is given by (Fig . 24.11)
M _ qoB(B - b)'
. .. (24.11)
8
For checking the diagonal shear F, the cri tical section is taken at a distan ce eq ual to the effecti ve depth
(d) of the Iocdng from the face of the colum n.
F - OoB[(B - b)/2 - dJ ...(24.12)
For punching shear, the cri tical section is taken at a d istance of df2. from the face of the column .
Generally the overa ll depth (d..) of the foodng is determ ined from the punch ing shear consi dera tions.
00 {n' - (b + d)'1
d" • 4 (b + d) a ", ... (24.13)

where q.. = actua l pressure, B = width of footing . b = width of square column, oq> = saf e punching shear.
Th e dep th provided is checked for bendi ng mo ment, shear and bond .
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUND ATION ENGIN EERING

Mt, X
f' UNCHI NG

lQI.OEOAREA
f OR B M(p Jk ' )
/
~//$~:~-:bJ:r
/

/,
/ ~~
/y~
/ /
, I

Y
I
)
~ .L
----"
h
b
/:

-,
-- - --'\
I

i
:.1~+ ";d
I
l' "
~
I

~~
>Io

"f 'H
~
r WA(.'lD ARl h
B~R
EARc,omI
OIA""""-
J

~/
/ / ) I
. ' '''
"

'r - l¥- -i -f~) - d~

Fig. 24.11. K.C.C. Spn:ild F('I,,' in~.

The maximum force for bond is given by

F,,: q" ll(B - h )/2 .. .(24.14)
In the case of rectangular footing!'>, the length and the width should he so chosen ttun the bending
moment in each of the adjacent projections is equal to the moment of resistance of the foo ling. For uniform
co ntact pressure dist ribution, the centre of gravit y of the fooling should co incide w ith the centre of gravity of
the col umn .
The footing of a circula r column can be curer square or eire..ular. For the design of a square footing for
a circular column, the circular column is generally substi tuted by an equivalent square column of the same
area. The design of the footing is then do ne using the procedure already descr ibed for a square foo ling. l be
design of the circular footing a m also be done using the bas ic principles . Because of the curved areas, the
express ions arc more invol v co Ih;1O those for a square foonn g.
The thickness of the footing at the edge sha ll be not less than 15 em for foot ings on so il, nor less than
30 em abov e the top of piles for footings on piles.
24.8. DE.. ,IGN OF EC C ENTRI CALLY LOAD En SPREA D FOOTINGS
A column is said to be eccent rically loaded when it L-; subjected to a load which is not centric or when
it is subjected to a bend ing momen t in additio n 10 the centr ic IO;lI.l. If the ce ntre of gravity of the fOOlingis
made to coinci de with the centre of gravi ty of the ce ntrically loaded co lumn. the pressure distribution is
trapezoidal. with the max imum pressure on one side and lhe minimum pressureon the other side. l! owC\ 'tI',
if the ce ntre of gravity of the fooling is pl aced eccentric with the centre of gravity of the colum n, the pressce
distribu tioo beco mes unifonn (See Fig. 23.20) .
The ecc entricity (e) of me foot ing is given by
c .. M IQ ••.(24.15)
when M bending moment, and Q = axial load.
 DE.<iIGN Of su.vu.ow FOUNDA:f10NS

If the footing is provided with me above eccentricity, the resultant of the bearing pressure coiocides with
the resonant of the loads. The area of the Ioceng is given by

A • ~ ..• (24.16)

The longer projection o f the footing is desig ned a.. a cantilever for the maximum bending mom ent at the
face of the col umn. Generally, the same reinforcem ent is provided in the sma ller projection as well. The
thickness prov ided i s checked for the diag onal shear and the punchin g shear.
If the bendi ng moment acts temporari ly for a short period . a symmetrical footing can also be provided.
The maximum prc......,ure is detennined using the fo llow ing equations (see Sect . 23.2 1)

q=' 6( [ + ~) ••.(24.17)
where e is the eccentricity.
If e > B/6. the max imum pressure is g iven by

qm" • ~ ... (24. 18)

The dime nsions L and lJ o f the footin g <Ire chosen such that the maxi mum pressure (q""",) docs not
exceed tha t allowab le bearing pressure (qna). The bend ing mom ent. the diagona l shear and the pu nch ing shear
arc determined consi dering the trapezoida l pressure d istribution.
24.9. CO rti BIN ED FO O'Il NGS
A combined footings supports two columns. When a foundation is built close to an existing building or
the propeny line, there may not be suffic ient SP.1CC for equal projection.s on the sides of the exterior colu mn.
This resu lts in an eccentric loading on the footing. It may lead to the lilting of the founda tion. To cou nteract
this tilting tendency, a combi ned foot ings is provide d wh ich jo ins the exterior column wi th an interio r co lumn.
A combi ned footin g ls also requ ired when the two individual foot ings overlap .
In the co nve ntio nal des ign. the combined footin g is assumed to be infinitely rigid and the soil pressure
distrib ution to be planar. In the cla stic line me thod. the flexibility of the footing is considered. Th e clastic line
method is more rational bUI quite involved (see Sect. 24.17). The follow ing d iscussion is limited 10 t he
ccovcnuonal design.
Th e foo ting is proportioned such thai the centre of gra vity of the footing lies o n the line of action of the
resultant of the column loads. The prcs.....urc distribution thus becomes uniform .
A combined footing is generally rectangular in plan if suffici ent space is availab le beyond each col umn.
If one of the columns is ncar the propcny line, the rectangu lar footi ng can still be provided if the interior
column is rela tively heavie r. Howev er. if the interior column is ligh ter, a trapezoi dal footing is requi red to
keep the resulta nt of the column loads through the centroid of the footing. Th us the resultant o f the soil
reaction is made 10 coi ncide with the resultant of the column loads.
24.10. RECfANGULAU COMIHN EI> ."OOTINGS
TIle desig n of a combined fooling consists of selecti ng length and width o f the footi ng such that tbe
centroid of the fooli ng and the resultant of the column loads coincide. With the d imensions of the foot ing
established. the shear force and bending moment diagrams are draw n. The thickness of the footi ng is select ed
from the bending moment and shear stress considerations. The fooli ng is designed as a rontinuous beam
supported by two columns in the longitudinal direction. The reinfo rcement is provided as in a continuous
beam.
.r,
The procedure consists of the follow ing steps.
( I) Determine the tota l co lumn locus.
Q • Q. + Q2 .(24.19)

5) where QI and Q2 are the exterior lind interior columns. respecti vel y.
... SO IL MEC HA NICS AND r-oU NDATI ON ENGINEERING

(2) Find the base area of the footings.

A • Qj q_ .. .(24.20)
where qllOis the allowable soil pressure.
(3) Locate the line of action of the resultant of the colum n loads measu red from one of the oolumn, say
exterior column (Fig. 24. 12).

I· '2---.{
0, (E XTERIOR)
to
'----tI
I

I·

T
B

PLAN
1
Fig . 24 .12 . Rectangular Combined Footing.
i • Q2 )( x~Q .••( 24.21)
where xl i.s the distance between columns .
(4) Determine the total length of the footings.
L • 2 «
+ b,l2) ...(24.22)
where b I = width of the exterior colum n.
(5) Find the width of the footing .
B • AIL ...(24.23)
(6) As the actu al length and wid th that are provided may be slightly more due to roun din g o ff. the actual
pressure is given by
<10 - QIA o ...(24.24)
where A o is the actual area.
(7) Draw the shear force and the bending mome nt diagram s along the length of the foot ing, ronsidcring
the pressure qo.
For convenience, the column loads arc taken as concentric loads acting at the centres.
(8) Determine Ute bending momentsat the face of lhe co lumns and the maximum bending moment at the
point of zero shear.
(9) Find the thickness of footing for the maximum be nding moment.
Check for diago nal shear and punching sheer, as in the case of an isolated footings.
Chec k. for bond at the poin t of comra ncxure.
DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 647

(10) Determine the longi tudinal reinfo rcement for the maximu m bendi ng mom ent.
For transverse reinforcement. assume a width of (b + d) to take all the be nding moment in the short
direction, where b is the colwnn side and d is the effective depth .
24.11. 'rnAPEZOlD AL FOOTING
Trapezoidal combined footings an: provided to avoid eccent ricity of loading with respect to the base, as
already mentioned. Trapezoidal footin gs are required when the space outside the extede- column is limited
and the exterior co lumn carries the heavi er load.
Th e design procedure coos ists of tbe following step>:
(1) Determine the total co lumn loads.
Q • Q, + Q, ... (24.25)
(2) Find the base area of the footing.
A - Qlq_ ...(24.26)
(3) Locat e the line of action of resu ltan t of the colum n loads (Fig. 24.13 ).
i - Q2x2/Q . . .( 24.27)

Fig. 24.13. Trapezoidal Combined Footing.

(4) Dete rmin e the distance x' of the resultan t from the outer face of the exteri or column.
:£' - i • b./ 2 .. .(24.28 )
A trapezoidal footing is required if
L /3<r<LI2
where L is the length of the trapezoidal footing . determined from Bq. 24.22.
If r! _ L /2, a rectangular footing is provided. However. if r < L /3 . a combined footing cannot be
provided. In sudt a case, a strap footing is suitable.
(5) Determine the widths B. and B2 from the followi ng relations.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

•••(24.29)

and b.
3
(8 28
1+
B) + 8 2
2 ) _ X •.•(24.30)

Solvi ng Eqs. 24.29 nod 2430.

IJ, . M. ( ~ _ I) ...(2431)
I. I.

and IJI - ¥- B2 ... (2432)

(6) Once the d imens ions 8 1 and 8 2 have been found. the rest of the design can be done as in the case of
a rectangular combined fooling.
2J .12. STRA I' FO O'nNGS
A srmp footing Ls requiredin the following two cases:
(1) When x' < 1./ 3. whe re .r' is the distan ce of the resu ltant of column load; from the ext erior face of
the exterior colum n. and L is the length of the footing.
(2) when the distance between the two columns is so large tha i a combined footing becomes excessively
long and narrow.
As ment ioned before, a strap foo nngcons ists of two spread foot ings joined by a rig id beam kno wn es a
strap. '111C strap is not subject ed to any direct soil pressure from below . Its main function is to transfer the
moment from the exterior footing 10 the interior tooting.
'lh c followi ng ass um ptions arc ge nera lly made,
(a) Th e so il pressure is uniform beneath each individual footing.
(h) the strap is perfectly rigid.
(e) The simp is weigh tless.
(el) t h e interior foot ing is centra lly loaded.
The design procedure consists of the following steps.
(I) Assume a rccsooabl e value of the eccen tricity (e) between the load Q t and the react ion Rt 00 the
exterior column (Fig. 24.14).
(2) Determine the length of the footing of the exterior column.
L 1 • 2 (e + 0.5 hI ) . ..(2433)
where hi = width of Ihe exterior column.
(3) Com pute the react ion Il l' by tak ing momen ts abo ut the line of action o f R 2.
II I - Q l x X2/ 5 •.•(24.34)
where x2 = distance betwee n loads QI and Q 2 and 5i = distance between reactions R I and R2•
(4) Compute arcas a , and A2.
A I • Ullq"", ••.(24.35)
and A 2 • U21q"" ••.(24.36)
The reaction R2 is obv iously equal to (Ql + Q;J - UI •
(S) Find the widths of footings.
II I • A li I., .. .(24 3~
and 1l2 • VA; .••(24.38)
(6) Design the individual footi ngs m; in the <..: a<;e or sprC:ld foot ings.
DESIGN OF SI lAU.QW FOUNDAllONS 649

I--- L,--.1
Fig. 24.14. Strap Fooling.
(7) Determine the depth of the strap for diagonal shear and bending moment.
[Note : It may be mentioned that a number of designs of the strap footing are possibl e, depending upon
the selected value of e.]

14.13. PRIN CIP LES OF DESI GN O F MAT FOUNDATIO NS

A mat (or raft)is a thick reinforced concrete slab whidl supports all the load-bearing walls and column
loads of a structure a a large portion of structure. A mat is required when the load'> are heavy and the soil
is very weak or highly compressible. A mat is more economical than individual footings when the total base
area required for the individual footings exceeds about one-half of the area covered by the structure.
A mat is preferred to individual footings when the soil mess has very erratic properties and rontains
lenses of compressible soils. In such a case, it would be difficult to control the differemial settlements if
individual footings are provided. The mat spans over weak patches of the soil and thus the differential
settlements are considerabl y reduced.
like all other shallow foundations, a mat must be safe against shear failure and the settlements should be
within the allowab le limits. As the width of a raft is very large, the pressure bulb is quite dee p. Thus the loose
soil pockets under a raft may be more evenly distributed. l h is results in a smaller differential settlement than
individual footings. It is customary to assume that a differential settleme nt of 19 mm would OCUlrin a raft
when the maximum settlement is twice that in the individual footing. Thus a maximum settlement of 50 mm
can be permitted when the differential settlement allowed is 19 rnm.
As rafts are generally at some depth below the ground swface, a large volume of soil is excavated and,
therefore, the net pressure 00 the soil is considerably reduced. An advantage of this reduction in the pressure
can be taken while designing a raft.
(a) Ra ns on Cohesionles.s Soils. The bearing capacity of a foundation on cobesionless soils depends
upon the width, as discussed in chapter 23. As the width of a raft is very large, the bearing capacity is high,
and, therefore, the shear failure generally does not occur. Accordingly, the safe settleme nt pressure, and not
rbe bearing capacity, generally governs the design, except for very loose sands (N < 5).
.,0 SOiL MECHANICS AND fOUNDXnON ENGINEERING

Settlements depend qxm the depth of the soil stratum . If a finn stratum exists at a shallow depth be low
the ra ft, the sculc mcnts arc small. However; if the sand ccposi t extends 10 a great depth . the settle ments
would be large. The allowable soil pressure can be found using Ole following equations.
The sa fe bearing capacity can be determined as (Ieng, 1%2),
q"" _ O.22N2 DWl + 0.67 (100 + N 2) DI Wq • • •(24.39)

The safe se ttlemen t pressure for a set tlement of 25 mm is given by

q~P • 17.5 (N - 3) W, kN /m 2 ... (24.40)
where D '" sma ller d imens ion of raO (m). DI = Dcplh of founda tion,
WI' Wq '" water table correction Iactors .
The pressures q,.. and q"p arc in kN/m 2• The smaller of the two values is the allowable soil pressure (q"..).
As staled earlier, Tcng's equa tion for the safe settlement (q" p) is conse rvative. Using Dowie's eqoutico
[Eq. 23.82 (b)). for OJsettlemen t of 25 mm.

q"f' .. 12.2N (n +n 0.3)2 R W d y kN/m 2 .•. (24.41)

where RJ = depth factor = 1 + 0.33 (D/B)

In general,

qnp " 12.2N (D +8

where s = allowable scruement (mm).
0.3
fRJ Wy (1s) . ..(24.42)

0
As the widt h of a ron is very large, 8 +0 .3 .. 1.0

Therefore, qnp .. 12.2N RJ lVy (s/25) ..(24.43)

Taking RJ = 1.00 and s = 50 rnrn,
qnp .. 24.4N Wy kN/m 2 .. .(24.44)
tn case of rafts. as the width D is very large, and the pressure bulb is deep. the water table genernlly
affects the safe scnlcmem pressure .
Taking Wy .. 0.5. qnp - 12.2 N kN/m 2 ••.(24.45)
Peck et al (1974) express Eq.
s. 24.44 and 24.45) as
2
qllP - 1JJN Wy kN / m ...(24 .46)
2
and q"p .. 10 N kN/m •••(24.47)
.Th e above equations are applicable for 5:s: N:s: 50. If the value of (N) aner correction is less than 5,
the sand is too loose for a ran foundation. 1be sand shou ld be either compacted or a deep foundat ion. sud!
as p ile foundation, should be provided. For values of (N) greater than SO, lhe above equa tions give
unconservativc results.
According to IS : 640 3, for a settlement of 65 mm, the safe settlement pressure is give n by
q.,• 25.4 (N - 3) W, [24.48{a)J
Taking W, • 05 , q., • 12.7 (N - 3) (24.48{b)J
Th e safe bearing capacity (q...) can also be determined using the equat ions developed in Chapter 23.
Generall y, the safe bearing capacity is much greater than the safe settlement pressure and is not of much
s'g nitt cancc.
As the ran foundation.s are generally used be low basemen ts, the foundat ions are not backfilled. Eq. 23.16
can be used. Thus
DESIGN OF SHAllOW FOUNDATIONS 651

QIA - %0 + YDf ...(24.49)

= =
where Q superimposed load, A = area of raft, DI depth of foundation .
(b) Rafts on Clay. The net ultimate bearing capacity is generally determined using Skempron 's equations
(Eq.23.55).
q~ _ 5 (I + 0 .2 DID) [I + 0 .2 (BILl] c. . .. (24.50)
where c.. = undrained cohesion.
All other notations have been defined above.
The safe net bearing capacity can be obtained as
qns - q".. I F .. .(24.51)
where F = factor of safety.
Under normal loading condirlons, the factor of safety should not be smaller than 3. IS : 6403
recommends a minimum factor of safety of 2.5.
In case of rafts on clay, as the safe bearing capacity is independent of its size. it generally governs the
design . But the safe settlement pressure is also important in some cases. In the case of rafts. the pressure bulb
extends to a much greater depth than that for an isolated footing. The settlements of rafts on normally
consolidated clays are usually very large. However, in the case of over-consolidated clays. the settlement s are
small. The settlements are calculated due 10 the net increase in pressure, given by
q.- QI A - YDf . .. (24.52 )
If the soil stratum extends to a depth greater than about twice the width of the mat, the load on the mat
would tend to act as a point load for the soil at large depths, and the settlem ents would be the same whatever
be the type of foundation. In such cases, increasing the width of the mal does not help in reducing the
settlements. If the settlements are large, deep foundations, such as piles or drilled caissons, would be more
suitable.
The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure can be written as F • qn/qn'
F _ 5 (I + 0.2DID)(1 + 0.2DIL) c.
.. .(24.53)
QIA yDf
The settlements of a mat foundation can be reduced by decreasing the net increase in pressure . i.e.• by
increasing Dr. For no increase of the net pressure, Eq. 24.52 gives
yDf-QIA

Df • fA .. (24.54)
GS
A foundation that satisfies Eq. 24.54 is known as
fully compensated or a floating foundntion. For such a
foundation. the scnlemenr is (theoretically) zero. The
factor of safety against bearing capacity failure, as per
Eq. 24 .53, becomes theoretically infinite.
24.14. COMMON lYPES OF J\.1ATFOUNDATIONS o o o o
There are several types of mat foundations.
(1) Flat Plate Type. In this type of mar foundation ,
a mat of uniform thickness is provided (Fig. 24.15). _ .--B--- D -
This type is most suitable when the oolumn loads arc
relatively light and the spacing of columns is relatively
small and uniform.
(2) Flat Plate Thickened Under Columns. When o o o o
the column loads are heavy, this type is more suitable Plan
than the flat plate type. A portion of slab under the Fig. 24.15. flat Plate Type Mal.
652 SO IL M ECIIA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENGI NEER ING

0 0 0 0

0
[~J
0
L_~

0
r 0
,---- .. r-·-l
L_l L_.l L___~
0 0 0 C

PLAN PIon
Fig. 24.16. fbi P1ale- Th ickne ned Under Colum ns fi g. M .I7 . Beam anil Slat> Constructio n
column is uuckencd 10 provide enough thickness for negative bending moment and diagona l shear (Fig. 24.16).
Sometimes . instead of thickening the s lab. a pedestal is provided under each column above the slab to
increase the thickness .
(3) Beam a nd Sla b Cons truc tion. In this type of construction, the beams run in two perpendicu lar
directions and -a slab i.. provided between the beams. Th e columns are located at the intersectio n of beams
(Fig. 24.17). ·(lIis type i s suitable when me bending stresses are high because of large co lumn spacing and
unequal column loads.
(4) Box Stn lct ures. In this type of mat foundation. a box struc ture is provided in which the basement

G.5.

'-,rr-,-,--- , ,- -, ,-" ' - Ma!

Fig. 24.19 . Mat on Piles.

DESIGN OF SIlAU.OW FOUNDATIONS es
walls :K..1 <1.\ stiffeners for the mar. Boxes may ~ mace of cellular construct ion or rigid frames consisting of
staos and basement walls (Fig. 24.18). This typc of mat foundation can resist very high bending stresses.
(5) Mat.. placed on Piles. The mat is supported on piles in this type of construction (Fig. 24.19). This
type of mat is used where the soil is highly compressible and the water table is high. This method of
con.....ruction reduces the settlement and also controls buoyancy.

2" .15. DESIGN MI:.- JlIOUS t'OR MAT FOUNDA110NS

The methods of design of mat foundations can be classified into 4 categories. depending upon the
assumptions made.
(I) RiJ.:,id Beam Method. In this method of design, the slab is coostoered to be infinitely rigid as
compared with the subso il. The flexural deflections of the mat in this case do not influence the contact
pressure d istri butio n acting on the mal. The pressure distribution is assumed to be planar. The cent roid of the
soil pressure coinc ides with the line of act ion of the resultant of all the loads act ing on the mal.
'111is method is abo known :1\ the conventional me/hod of design. The design of combined footing
discussed in Sect ion 24. 10 and 24.1 1 was ab o based on this method.
(2) Simplified Ela..tic Method, '111is method is based on the assumption that the soil behaves like an
infinite numb er of individual independent clastic springs. 'I11C springs arc assumed to take tension as well as
compression. The assumption was first introduced by Winkler and the foundation mode l is known as
Wink/a i model. The method rakes into account the elasticity of the footing. But as the so il docs not behave
exactly accordin g to the :t';...umptions made, the method is an approximate one and is a s implification of the
actual soil behavio ur.
The clastic coostaru of the spring is related to the coefficient of subgrade reaction. as defined later.
(3) Ela...uc Method. In this method of design. the soil is cons idered as a homogeneous, linearly elastic
hal f Sp'1CC. The method IN;.., the solutions provided by the theory of elas ticity. As actual soils do 001 behave
as linearly elastic solids, this method also gives approximate solutions. l be method is complicated and rarely
used in a design office.
(") Non-lin ear Ela...tic Method . The soil is considered to be a non-linearly elastic solid. The method
represents the behaviour of act ua l soil more close ly than the elastic method and is more accurate. Numerical
rccbmqces. such as finite element method, arc required for the design (Arora. 1980). The method has not
developed to a stage that this can be used in a design office.
In this text. only the first two methods are discussed.
2" .16. CONVENTIONAL IlESI GN OF RAtT FOUNnATIONS
In the conventional method of design. the raft is assumed to be infinitely rigid and the pressure
dis tribution is taken as planar (linearly varying). The assumption is valid when the raft rests on a soft clay
which is highly comprcs.s iblc , and the eccentricity of the load is small. In case when the soil is stiff or when
the eccentricity is large, the method docs not give accurate results. The elastic method, which takes into
account the stiffness of the soil and raft, is more economical and accurate in the latter case. The simplified
c lastic method is discussed in Sec t. 24.17.
According to the American Concrete Institute Committee 436 (1966), the design of mats should be done
using the conve ntional method if the spacing of the columns in a strip of the raft is less than 1.75/A metres
and using the s implified elastic method when it is greater than 1.75/A, where )..is given by

x• ( ~~~ r
where k: = coe fficie nt of subgraoc reaction (kN/ m\ 8 1 = width of the strip (m).
..( 2455)

E = modulus of elasticity of the raft material (kNIm1. I = moment of inertia (m).

The coefficient of scbgred e reaction of a soil is the pressure required to produce a unit settlement of a
plate. II is given by
k _ q/ t: ... (2456)
 3)IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where q = pressure (kN/m\ z = settlem ent (m), k: = coeffic ient of subgradc reaction (kN/m~.
Th e coefficient of subgrade reectlon is not a constant for a given so il (Terzaghi. 1955). It depends upon
a number o f factors, such as length. width, depth and sha pe o f foundati on (see Sect. 24.20 ).
Procedure. The procedure for the .
conventional design consists of the
follow ing ste ps:

I
(1) Determine the line of action of all
the loads acting on the raft. Th e sclfwcight T
of lhe raft is not coosloered, as it -ts taken
directly by the soil.
(2) Determine- the contact pressure
d i..tribution as under .
(a) If the resultant passes through the
centre o f the raft. the con tact pressure is
given by L
f
I
q • Q/ A

1
(b) If the resultant has an ecce ntric ity
of (" and ey in .r-and y-dircctions [Fig.
24. 20 (a) ].
!2. (Q 'e) Q'e
q - A :!: ~ X :!: ~ Y . •.{24.51) 8,

The maximum con tact pressure shou ld

be less than the allowable soil pressure. y
1
(3) Divide the slab into strips (bands)
1---- 8 ----~
in x-and j-direcnons. Each strip is
assumed 10 act es independent beam Ca)
subjected to the contact press ure and the
col umn loa ds .
(4) Draw the shear force and bending
mome nt diagrams for each strip .
(5) Determine the modified ro lumo
loads as explained be low.
It is gene rally found that the strip
docs 00l satisfy stati cs, Le. the result ant of (b)
Ag.24.20.
co lumn loads and the resu ltant of contact
pressure are not equa l and they do not act in the same line. The reason is that the strips do not act
independently as assumed and there is some shear transfer between adjoining st rips.
Let us coosider the strip carrying colwnn loads Ql.Q2 and QJ in Fig. 24.20 (a). Let B 1 be the w idth of
the st rip. Let the avera ge soil (contact) pressure on the stri p be q__ Let B the length of the stri p.
Avera ge load on the smp.,

Q"" • ~ ( downward load + upward force)

Q"" . t(QJ. Q2· QJ. q""B IB ) ••.(24.58)

The modified average so il press ure is given by

-
q"" - q""
(Q~)
q"" BIB
...(24.59)
DFSIGN OF SlWLOW FOUNO...mONS .,5
The colum n load modification tacro- (f) is given by
F _ Qw
•••(24.60)
Q. + Q2 + Q)
All the co lumn loads arc multiplied by F Cor that strip. For this strip. the co lumn loads are FQI. PQ2 and
FQ,.
(6) The bending mom ent and shear force dia grams are drawn for the modified column loads and the
modified ave rage soil pressure W ....).
(7) Design lhc ind ividual SUi ~ for the bend ing mome nt and shea r force found in step 6. The ran is
designed as an inverted floor supported at columns.
As the analysis is approximate, the actual reinforccmcrn provided is twice the computed value .

24.17. DESIGN OF COMBINED FOOTING BY ElASTIC LINE MEntOD

The des ign of a combined footing discussed in Sects . 24.9 10 24.11 is the convcnuooal method. in which
lhe footing is ass umed to be rigid and the soil distribution is taken as planar. In the elastic line method, the
stiffness of the footing is considered.
Whether a footing should be considered as rigid or not depen ds upon the soil characte ris tics and the size
of the footi ng. IIctenyi (1946) gave the follow ing crite ria whethe r a beam should be considered as rigid or
flexible . As a comb ined fool ing acts like a beam on clast ic fco ndauon, the same criteria can be used.
Rigid footing I..L < 0.80
Flexible foolin g )."L > 3.0
r-or the value 0.8 < II < 3.0. the footing is of intennediate flexibility.
TIle val ue of AI. is computed from the following relation

H - (~~J')" .•. (24 .61)

where k: =coefficient o f subgrndc reaction, n =width of foo ting, L length of foo ting,
E = modul us of foo ting materia l, and I = moment of inertia of footing.
Th e flexible footin g is designed as infinite beam 00 elastic foundation . whereas the footings of
intermedia te Ilexibit y is designed as a Iirute beam.
Accordi ng 10 the thoory of beams on elastic foundations,

EJ 4-
dx
-yk n .' .(24.62)

= =
where y deflection (settle me nt). B width of beam. k = coefficient of subgradc rceceoo.
Th e so lution of Eq. 24.62 is
y. eN< (A COS AX + B sin)."x) + l "'AJ: (C cos AX + Dsin)"'x) .(24.63 )

where
I..
. (J!I'4E....I )'. . .. (24.64)

~=1P
A
b 4--, C

I
y
I
Fig. 24.21.
 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Applying the boundary ooodilions (Fig. 24.21). lhe solution can be expressed as (Wmterkom and Fang.
1975),

y • PkA'" [24.65 (zl)

B
M - t:. B (24.65 (bl)
V _ [' C [24.65 (e)]
where A, Band C arc trigonometric identities, which are quite complicated . A digital computer is required for
the de sign of foot ing using above method.
24.18. f1NITE DIFFERENCE ME'nIOD FOR COMBINED FOOTINGS
As the rigorous solution for a combined footing on elas tic foundation is com plicated, numerical
techniques are used to obtain an approximate solution . A method proposed by Maller (1960) using finite
dilIerence is described below. 1be procedure consis ts of the following steps (Teng, 1962).
(1) Divide the footing into 4 to 6 equal segments, each of length h. For illustration purposes. lhc beam
in Flg. 24.22(a) is divided into 3 segments .
(2) Let a, b, C and d be the deflections (settlements) at nodal points A, B. C and D.
The soil reactions at these points arc, respectively, a kS'b kS'c k, and d i s' where i , - k x B, in which B
is the width of the footing.

Fig. 24.22.
DESIGN OF'SllAUOW FOUNDATIONS 057

(3) The soil pressure is continuous [Fig. 24 .22 (e)]. How ever, it can be approxi mated by steps [Fig. 24.22
(d)]. For more accurate results, it can be represent ed by straight lines or parabolas.
Replace the soil reactions by equivalent concentrated reactions R,4,tRB> Rc and Rf» as shown in Fig.
24.22 (e).
(4) The footing unde r the applied load and tbe equivalent reactions sho ukt satisfy the equations of
equilibrium , viz.,
IM _OandIV_O
Write momen t equilibrium equations for each panel point. For example, for the point B,
MB _ (6 - ~: + e) £ 1 (24.66)

In general, M,. - ~ (Y"_1-2y,. + y,. + 1) (24.67)

Also write force equi librium equation for the whole system .
(5) Solve the s imultaneous equations form ed in step 4 for values of a, b, e and d.
(6) Determine the actua l pressure distribution from the calculated values of a, b, e and d in step 5.
(1) Design the beam for the pressuredistribu tioo found in step 6.
24.19. ElASTIC PlATE METII OD FO R MATS
The design of a mat (raft) on Winkler's bed can be done using the method proposed by the American
Concrete Institute Cornmillee 436 (1956). The method is based. on the theory of plates on elastic foundations.
The step-by-step procedure is given below (Des, 1984).
(I) Assume a thickness (I) for the ma t either by expeoenceor using the conven liooal (rigid) method.
(2) Determi ne the flexural rigidi ty (V) of the mat as
D_........!iL ... (24.68)
12(1- "')
where E = mod ulus o f footin g material, J.l. = Poisso n's ratio of foo ting ma terial.
(3) Determine the radius of effec tive stiffness (L') from the following relation .
L' • (Dlk)v, .. .(24.69)
The zone of influence of any co lumn load is of the order of 3L' to 4 L'.
(4) Find the tangentia l and radial momen ts at any point caused by a co lumn load using the follow ing
equations .

Tange ntia l momen t,

M__12.
, 4
[A 1 _(l-r/ L")A,
'
] .. .(24.70)

Radia l moment, M, - - 12.

4 [ J.l.A J ( 1 - " ) A,
+ ~ I .. .(24.71)

where r = radia l distance from the co lumn load, Q = column teed .

Ai and A2 are functions of (rIL') , as show n in Fig. 24.23.
In cartesian coo rdinates , the above equations can be writ ten as
MJ< _ M, sin 2 a + M, ea;,2 a ... (24.72)
M., _ M,ea;,2a + M, sin2 a .. .(24.73)
where a is the angle which the radius r ma kes with s -axis,
(5) Determine the shear force (\I) per unit width of the mat caused by 8 oolumn load as
 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

v. - 4~' AJ .. .(24.74)
where A] is a funct ion of r /L ' (Fig. 24.23).

5
V\
)
3
L A.J. V
L
2
V
~
" r----- ~
'~ -\
0
r---
-O " -OJ- O~ -01 ~ ~1 O~ M O~

-4-----A1 .A,z .A3-....

Fig. 24.23.
(6) If the edg e of the mat is loceted in the zone of influence or a column, derermtoc the moment and
shear ajon g the edge, assuming that the mal is continuous.
Moment and shear oppos ite in sign to those determined are applied at the edges to satis fy the knowD
cond itions.
(7) rf the zones of influence of two or more colum ns ove rlap, the method of superposition can be used
to obtain the total moment and shear.
24.20. FINITE DIFFERENCE MEntoD FOR MATS
The mal is assumed10 be a plate supported by a bed of uniformly dislributed coil springs with a spring
constant k equal to the cccmcreer of subgradc reaction. Le, Winkler's bed. The differential equation for the
deflection of the plate is given below.

~ +aw • ~
4
iJ4 w +2
.. .(24.75)
ax' 0;;'&; ay' D
where q = Intensity of load ing, k: = coeffic ient of suogradc reaction,
w = deflection (settlement), D = flexural rigidit y of plate (Eq. 24.68).
Eq. 24.75 can be solved by finite difference method afte r d ividing the mal into 8 square mesh (h x Ir.).
In the case of an interior point a (Fig. 24.24) , the deflection w.,. can be expressed in the difference form as
lOw.,.- 8(w, + w~ + wr + WI) + 2(wtI +W" + wb/+ wb-.) + (wu + W"" + WI/ + w".)
<J!{ f2I!. .
• D + D ... (24.7~
where wr, W", •• • are deflecti ons
at adjoining points . The suffixes are shown in Fig. 24.24. The su ffixes 4,
band r are respectiv ely for top, left. bottom and right.
Q = concentrated load at point a. All other notations have been defined earlier.
One difference equation can be written for each rigid point.
[Note : For points ncar free edges, the difference equaooos is modified to account for bou~
condi tions .]
 DESIGN OF SHAlLOW FOUNDATIoNS

II

11 t
"
II I a r rr

b1 b br

bb

Fig. 24.24.
By solving the simultaneous equations formed, the deflection'> at all points are determined. A digital
computer is normally required.
After the deflections have been determined , the bending moment at any point in each direction can be
found using the equations of the theory of elasticity.
M~ • M,: + I.l. My' ...(24.77) .
where M,. =: total bending moment in x-dfrecuon, M,.' =:: bending moment in x-direcuon without including
the effed. of bending moment in the transverse j-clrectlon, My' =:: bending moment in y-direction without
including the effect of bending moment in .e-direcuoe .
Using the finite difference operators, the total bending moment on a strip in the l-r direction for an
interior point is expressed as .

MI _ r • f[(WI-2W" + w
-h r) + l.l.(w,-2w" + Wb)] . ..(24.78)

Thus the bending moments are computed at all points.

The accuracy of the method depends upon the fineness of the grid. When the squares of the grid are
considerably larger than the size of COlumns, the results are not reliable adjacent to the columns. This
difficulty is overcome by introducing subdivisions of the grid adjacent 10 the columns. However , it increases
the computational work considerably.

24.21. COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE RFACIlON

The coefficient of subgrade reaction in the field can be detennined by conducting a plate load test, using
a square plate of the size 03 m x 03 m. A load-settlement curve is drawn . a<; explained in chapter 29 and
the coefficient of subgrade reaction is determined using Eq. 24.56.
Table 24.1 gives the approximate values of the coefficient of subgrade reaction (k) for different soils . As
the values are for a square plate of size 0.3 m )( 0.3 m, these are modified to account for the effect of size,
shapeand depth as explained below.
1. meet of the size. (a) Cohesionless soils

8 + 0.3)'
"i
kB"B · A'n3,,0.3 (~ . .. (24.79)

where B is the size of footing .

 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

Tab le 24.1. Coefficient or Subgnlde Reaction (k)

Value of k
S.Ho. Type of Soil Conditio" of Soil
MHlml IcNlm
l

I. Dry or moist Sind

, Loose

Medium
8 10 25

25 10 120
8 x 10310 25 x 10'
2.S x 10' 10 1.2 x 105
Dense 120 to 350 1.2 x l oS 10' 35 x loS
2. Salur aled sand Leese 10 to 15 LO x 1051015 x 10'
Medium 35 to 40 35 X 10' to 4.0 X 10'
Dense 120 to 150 1.2 x 105 to 1.5 x lOS
J. a., Stiff 10 to 25 1.0)(10'1025 )(10'
Very Sti fl' 25 10 so 25 X 10' 10 S.O )( 10'
II"" > 50 »> 5 x 10'

(b) Cohesive soils

k.. s - 4 , • 0.' (0.318) .. .(24.80)
where Its"s • It for size B x B meues, and *0.3,,0.3. It for size 0.3 m )( 0.3 m.
1. meet or shape. For a 'rectangular foundation (L )( B), the value of k is given by

k,..s - ~ks. s(1 .8IL) ...(24.81)

J . Effeet of depth. For cohesion less soils, as the ronfmcment pressure increases with the depth. the
modulus of etesucny increases with depth . Thi s causes a reduction in the settlement of the plate.
Consequently, the value of k increases with depth .
For cohesive soils, there is no significant change in the value of It with depth.
[Note : Refer to chapter 29 for more details about It]

ILLUsrRATlVE EXAMPLES

car;~~;'::;; ;j::t;NI~~'~h~~:;'I;~!~~s:::12C;;:~:(ooting for aIm wide concrete ~l

Solution. From Eq. 24.5 , B • : • 4m

Actual soil pressure ('/0) • ~ - 200 kN /m

2

Maximum B.M. per m run (Bq. 24.1),

M • qo(B - b)2 • 200 (4 - 1)2 • 225 kN-m/m
8 8
From Eq. 24.8, the diagonal shear is given by, taking d = 0.52 m,

F• qo [ (8; b) _dj_ 200 [(4 ; 1) _ 052]- 196kN

Fig. E-24 .1 shows the: footi ng. It also shows the reinforcemeru.
DESIGN O F SHALLOW FOUNDJIJ'lONS 661

~
~ WALL

20mm BA.RG:! &5crn

1. !
.
10mm BARt-) tOem
580 nvn 1 520 mm

f l. 4m-------l
Ag. E24.1.
1IIu.'itrative Example 24.2. Design a square reinforced concrete fooling for the following data (Fig.
E-24.2).
Column load '" 800 kN
Allowable soil p ressure '" 200kN/m]
Size of column "' O.4mxO.4m

1.
335mm 275mm

T~
I.=~~
2m - - . . j 1
Fig. E·24.2.

Sotution. From Eq. 24.9. A • -£;: • : . 4 01 2

Size of footing. B • V4 • 2m
Actual pressure. qo • . 2~ 2 • 200 kN/012
From Bq. 24.13, lhe overall depth (~) is given by
do • qo[B' - (b + d)' ]
4 (b + t!) (Jzp
Taking 0zp as 1000 kN/012•
and cover as 0.06 01,
2
d + 0.06 • 200 (2 - (0.4 + d)2 J
4 (0.4 + d) )( 1000
Solving. d • 0.23 m. ~ 0.275 m.
Therefore. do • 0.275 + 0.06 - 0.335 m
qoB (B-b)'
From Eq. 24.11. M • - -8- -

• 200 )( 2 ~ (2 - 0.4)2 • 128 kN-m

662 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

From Eq. 24.12, the diagonal shear is given by

F-q,BW;b)-d]
_ 200 x 2 [(2 -2° .4 ) - 0.275]- 210kN

The maximu m force for bond is given by Eq. 24.14 as

F" _bOB(B ;b). 200)( 2 x ¥_320kN

Illcstretbe Example 24.3. Design a rectangularcombined looting for two columns shawnin Fig. E·24.3
(a). Take allowable soil pressure as 100 kNlm 2•

+62 6.2 kN

+ +J6 lcN

Ij
_ 213·6kN
Ie) S. F. Oiog rom
-S6 4kN

() LS Cd) 8 .104. Oio9rcm

Rg. E·243 .
Solution . Total load, Q. 600 + 900. lS00kN

From Eq. 24.21, X _ Q~X2 • ~~ 5 . 3m

From Eq. 24.20, A _ liS;: _ 15 m2

From Eq. 24.22, L • 2 (X + b l l2)

L - 2(3.0 + 0.312) _ 6.3m
DESIGN OF SHAU.OW FOUNDATIONS

From Eq. 24.23 . B =AIL = 1516.3 =2.38. say 2.4 m.

t10- ~ • 6.315~2.4 •
2
From Eq. 24.24 . 99.2 kN/m

Actual pressure per metre NIl • 99.2 x 24 - 238.1 kN/m

Fig. E-24.3 (c) shows the shear face diagram. The shear force is zero at a distance of 2.37 m from
column-I , The maximum shear below column -t is 564 kN and that below column-l is 626 .2 kN.
Fig. &24.3 (d) shows the 8 .M. diagram . The maximum B.M. is 666 kN-m.
The footing can be designed for the above values of 8.M . and S.F.
a1to~~r;::;;~;pI~ ~;.[;~~n a trapezoidal looting lor the two columns shown inFig. £·24.4. TaU
Solution. Q • 2(XX) + 1500 _ 3500 kN

~PI'>:::===~~====~rl-1
ooo kN l"oOkN

Q.5mXO' m _ '- 'j 05m<O.'m

T' 8Om T
1.6 Sm

1 ." ~326kN/m
1....
l- ' ----i
__
1

I( 342 kNl m
325 +6S.2x
134 (c}Prll'ssurll' d i stribut ion

Ij + 186

(el) S.F. Dia gram

- 1814
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

3;:.175m 2
A . • L·65m

From Eq. 24.27. :r• Q2

X2
• 1500 x 6 • 25 7 m
Q 3500
From Eq. 24.28. x' -:r + oJ/2 - 257 + 0.512 • 2.82 m
L I2 - 6.5/2 • 3.25 m; L /3 _ 2.17 m
As L /3 < x' < LI2. a trepezcidal footing is required.

From Eq. 24.31. B, • ¥- (3[ _1 )

_ 2 ~.~7.5 (3X6~.82 _ 1) _ 1.62m

From Eq. 24.32, 8 J - ¥-~

_ 2 x6.~75 _ 1.62 _ 3.76 m

Let us provide 81 - 3.80 m and Hz - 1.65

llo - 1/2 (3.8 ~5~65) x 6.5 - 197.6 kN/m

2

Pressure intensity er left edge _ 197.6 x 3.8 _ 750 kN/m

Pressure intensity at right edge _ 197.6 x 1.65 • 326 kN / m
Pressure intensity at section X -X at a distance x from the right edge,
w I: _ 326 + 750 6~ 326 )( x _ 326 + 65.2x

Fig.E-24 (d) shows the S.E diagram. The maximum shear forces under the columns are -1 814 kN and
1417 kN.

8.M. atX-X • - 326t - 65.2 x

2
~ x ~ + 1500(x - 0.25)

_ -163 J? - 10.87 x 3 + 1500 x - 375

8 .M. at x = 3.43 m is maximum, given by
Mmoox. - -1917.7 - 438.64 + 5145 - 375 _ 2413.6 kN- m
Fig. E-24.4. (e) shows the BM diagram.
The footing can be designed for the maximum B.M. and checked for shear forces.
llIustratlve Exam ple 24.S. Desig n a strap foo ting for the two co lumns shown in Fig. £-24.5 (a). The
2
allowable soil p ressure is ]00 kNlm • Take the eccentri city of the foo ting of column -I as l m.
SoluUon. From Eq. 24.33, LI - 2(e + 0.5 h i) _ 2 (1.0 + 0.5 )( 0.4) • 2.4 m

From Eq. 24.34. RI _ 600 6 _ 720 kN

5)(
R2 - (Ql + Q z) - R I
- (600 + 1000 ) - 71fJ • 880 kN

From Eq. 24.35. AI _ !!..!..-.

q_
720 • 7.2m2
100
DESIGN OF SHAllOW FOUNDATIONS 66'
t:600~N

~
, m ,,~

l!'~lm ~

I " (cl S lrcp looting

W
o".,m p'------,
I - - 2.r. m----.{

II I I I I r-~m
Ibl Pressure di stribution

~) 20
I-::- '--===:: !20/
: :~<. T""_0
~~ 4~~N
kN te l S. F.

()
_])2 kN-m
ld) B. M. Oicgrom
Fig. E·24.5 .

From Eq. 24.36, Az • !!!...

q_
_ 880
100
• 8.8 m2

B1 • H- 3m

Intensity of pressure, ql • 100 )( 3 - 300 kN/m

From Bq. 24.38, 8z - V8.8 • 2.96 m say3 m

qz - 3 ~ 3 - 97.8 kN/m
2
Intensity of pressure,
_ 97.8 )( 3 - 293.4 kN/m
Fig. E-245 (c) and (d) show the S.F. and 8.M. diagrams. The footings can be designed. The strap should
be designed for a maximum S.M. of 480 kN-m and
a maximum S.F. of 120 kN .
Illustrative Exa mple 24.6. The plan of a mat foundJJtion. with 9 columns is shown in Fig. £ -24.6 (a).
Assuming that the mat is rigid, determine the soil pressure distribution. All the columns are of the slze 0.6 m
)( 0.6 m.
666 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGiNEFRING

(b) Slri p A BFE

+ JO'S.4 kN 440.6kN

II :"4k"
V"
~.<'1
1,2Q.6~ J.,
'S6 ~6 tcl s. F, Dtoqrom

( ) V~ 160.1~N:rn
t 6.'5 ~ 6.5
(d! B. M. Diogrcm
Fig. E-24.6.
Draw lhe SF. and 8 M . diagrams [OT the strip ABFE.
Solution. 1btal loads.
Q • 400 ... 500 ... 300 ... 1500 ... 2fXX) ... 1200 ... 500 ... 600 ... 400 • 7400
Taking moments about the face AD.
i . (400 ... 1500 ... 5(0) x 0.3 ... (500 ... ~+ 6600) 6.3 ... (300 ... 1200 ... 4(0) 12.3 • 5.89 m

Cit • 1; .6 _ 5.89 • 0.41 m (-ve)

\Taking moments about the face AB.

DFSlGN OF SHAlLOW FOUNDATIONS 66'
y • (500 + 600 + 400) )( 03 + (1500 + ~~ 1200 ) )( 83 + (400 + 500 + 300) )( 16 3 • 7.98 m

., • ,~.6 _ 7.98 • 0.32 (_vel

From Eq. 24.57, q • 12 - ~ . x - ~ •y

A I" IJQ:
7400 7400 )( 0.41 )( x 7400 )( 0.32 )( Y
q • (12.6 x 16.6) - 1/12 x (16.6)(12.6)' - 1/12 x 12.6 x (16.6)'
q.35.4-1.1x -0.5y
Pressure at point A (x. -6.3m , y • -83 m),
q• • 35.4 - 1.1 x ( - 6.3) - (0.5) (- 8.3) • 46.4 kN/m'
Pressure at point B (x • + 6.3 m, y • - 8 3 m),
q• • 35.4 - 1.1 x 6.3 - (O.S)(- 8.3) • 32.6 kN/m'
Pressure at point C (x . ...6.3 m , y - 8.3 m),
qc • 24.4 kN/m 2
Pressure at point D(x _ -6.3 m.y. +8.3m).
qD - 38.2 kN/m %

Fro the strip ABFE, q<Jl) _ 46.4 ; 32.6 _ 39.5 kN/m 2

From Eq. 24.58, Q.... • ~ (500 ... 600 + 400) + 39.5 )l 12.6 )( 4.3] • 1820 kN

From Eq. 24.59, -

q... - q... (Q~)
q..,B B
J

· 39.5 ( 39.5 )(1~ )( 4.3) - 33.6kN/m

z

From Bq, 24.60, F • Q~ • 1820 • 1.21

QJ+Qz+Ql5OO+6OO+400

Fig. E-24.6 (b) shows the modified column loads.

FQI· 605 kN, FQ, • 726 kN, FQ, • 484 kN.
Pressure intensity per metre _ 33.6 x 4.3 _ 144.5 kN/m
Figs. E-24.6 (c) and (d) show lhe S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
S.F. at a seaion X-X at a distance x from the edge AE
Fll • 605 - 144.5 x
S.P. is zero at x • 4.18 m.

8.M. at seaionX-X • -144.5 )( ~ + 60S )( 3.88

• 1085.4 kN-m
Max. 8 .M. = 1085 kN·m . Max. S.F. = 561.6 kN.
Dlustratlve Example 24.7. De termine the pressun distribution below a combined footing shown in Fig.
£-24.7 (a). Take k = 20 Nlcm EJ :E UfON-cm 2.
J
668 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

LOOO N IOOON

--l Lh."",m-+-:::_"",;;J
lO ,m~
1~
t io ie =:1 0

'0'
11 ! ! rr
l~-:- - -~- - -:-~j
2 () a
al ~IOOO N r2:IOOON
I I
2:~:S1040
. tt
b

~:kX!\ 04b (:h:~tO"( l:::

, S
t) /,o

",
Fig. & 24.7.
Solutio n. k, _ B )( k _ 20 )( 20 - 400 N/cm 2, h _ 100 em.
Let the settlements at points A, B, C and D be a, b, c and d respectively. Fig. E~24 .7 shows the
seulements and lhe equivalent loads due to soil pressure.
Eq. 24.67 can be used for writing the moment equarccs. Thldng moments about B.
¥Z(a - 2 b +cj. Q ,h - oh'(t./2)

10
10
""i'(i4 (a - 2b + c) - lIm)C 100 - 2O)C uta

12- 2b + c _ 0.1 - 2 a ... (1)

Taking moment of forces 00 len of C about C,

~ (b - 2c + d) _ 2QI h - 2 )( l[f )( a )( 200 - 4 x loJ x b x 100

or 10' (b - 20 +. d) • 2 x 10' - 4a x 10' - 4b x 10'

or b-2c+d-O.2-4a -4b ... (il)
Likewise, taking moment of forces on right of C about C,

~ (b -20 + d) - Q, h- 2 x lo'd x 10'

or 1O'(b- 20 + d). 10' - 2 x lO'd

or b - 2c +d. 0.1 -2d .. .(iil)
From (he equilibrium of the vertical forces.
2 x 10 a + 4 x let b + 4 x lit c + 2 x 1O'4d _ to(() + 1000
4

a + 2b + 2c+ d- 0.1 •..(iv)

Eqs. (I) to (iv) can be solved fa- a, b, c and d.
In this case, because of symmetry,
a =d aM b=c
Therefore, Eq. (;v) can be written as
DESIGN OF SHAU.OW FOUNDATIONS

2a + 4b - 0.10 ... (v)

and Eq. (1) as 3a - b - 0.10 ...(VI)
Solving Eq. (v), and (iv), a _ 0.0357 em and b _ 0.0071 em
Therefore, pressure at point A and D
- 0.0357 )( 20 _ 0.714 N/em 2
and at points B, C _ 0.0071 )( 20 _ 0.142 N/ em 2

PROBLEMS

A. Nume rlcals
24.1. A raft (20 m x 10m) exerts a gross pressure of ZOO kN/m2 at foundation level. The depth of foundation is 2.5
2
m. If the soil is clay W = 0, c.. '" 80 kN/m , y = 19 kNIm~, determine the factor of safety. The [aft is for a
basement . Use Skempton 's equation. [Ans. 3.03]
24.2. Determine the depth below the ground surface of a raft foundation (30 m x 30 m) 10carry a gross load of 150
2
MN . The soil is clay (eu = 15 kN/m , y '" 19 kN/ml . Thke the factor of safety of 3.
Also determine the de pth for a fully compensated foundation . [Ans. 7.15 m; 8.75m]
24.3. Determine the allowable soil pressure for II raft (to m )( 20 m) if the blow count (N) over 20 m depth is 20.
Use IS code method. [Am:. 216 kN/m1
24.4. Determine the allowable soil pressure for a raft (10 m x 10 m) if the depth is 5 m and the undrained cohesion
is 40 kN/m2. 'Iake the factor of safety as 2.5. [Am . to 5.6 kNlm1
24.5. Design a rectangular combined footing to support two adjace nt columns (size 40 em )( 40 em) at a distance of
5 m and carrying loads of 3 MN and 4 MN. The lighter column is near the property line. The allowable soil
2
pressure is 400 kN/m . [AM. 6.20 x 2.9 m]
24.6. Design a trapezoidal combined footing for two columns (30 em x 30 cm) carrying column loads of 1.2 MN and
0.90 MN, if the spacing between the two columns is 4 m. Take allowab le soil pressure as 200 kN/m2 and the
length of footing as 5 rn.
24.7. Design the footing in Problem 24.6 as a strop footing if the spacing between the column is 5 m.
24.8. Design a R.C.C. footing to carry a column (50 em x 50 em) with 25 MN load. The allowable soil pressure is
2
250 kN/m .
24.9. Design a R.C.C. footing for a wall 30 em wide and having a load of 80 kN/m. The allowable soil pressureis
2
50 kN/m .
D, Descriptive and Objecllve Type
24.10. What are d ifferent types of shallow foundations? Explain with the help of sketches .
24.11. How would you fix the depth of founda tit)fJ? Discuss Rankine's formula for the minimum depth.
24.12. Discuss various types of loads that are to be co nsidered in the design of foundations.
24.13. Describe the general procedu re for the design of a s hallow foundation.
24.14. Discuss the procedure for proportioning of footings for equal settlement.
Z4 .1~. Explain lhe procedure for the design of a (a) Strip Footing, (b) Spread FOOling.
24.16. Where do you provide a combined footing ? Discuss the procedure for the design of the following types of
comb ined footing: (a) Rectangular (b) Trapezoidal.
24.17. Describe the procedure for the design of a strap footing .
24.18. What are different types of raft foundation? Discuss the procedu re for the design of a raft foundation .
24.19. Describe the procedure for the design of a combined footing by elastic line mesbod.
24.20. Explain the method fo r the design of 11 raft on Winlcler's bed.
24.21. Define the coefficient of s ubgradc reaction? How is it found ? Discuss the various factors affecting its value.
24.22. Write whether the following statements are t'rue or false.
(0) A spread footing is provided for an isolated column.
(b) 100 critical sectio n for bending moment in case of spread footing of a monolithic column is at the faa: of
the column .
670 SOIL MECHANICS A ND FOUNDATION E NGINEERING

Cc) A MOp (l)O(ing can be provided (Of a row of co lumns dosely spaced.
(d) A trapezoidal Ioodng is requ ired whe n the co lum n near the property line is hea vier than the interior
col umns.
(t') Thestrap footinp; are useful when (he two columns are closely spaced.
(/) The etasu c line method of a combined fOOling iJi used for the des ign of a flex ible footin g.
(g) The parameter II is dimensionless.
(h) The coefficie nt of suh-grade reaction of a coheslonless sn;1 is independe nt of depth .
[Ans. True (a ). (b) , (c ), (d) , 00. (g)1
C. Muldple C hok e Qu estions
1. T rapezoidal ccm bln..xl foot ings are req uired when
(a) the space outside the exterior co lumn is limited .
(b) the ex terior columns is heavier.
(C') both (a) and (h )
(d) renner (0) fK)f (hi
1. For the de sign tlf a wrap footing . the following assumption is not made
(a) The sim p is perfecuy rigid.
(b) The soil pressure vanes linearly.
(C') The imcnor foo ting is ce ntrally loaded .
(d) TIle strap is not subjected to any direct soil pressure .
3. For conventional design of a rigid com bined footi ng AI.. sho uld be
(a ) less than 0.6 (b ) between 0.6 and 3.0
(e) more than 3.0 (tl) None of above
where AL is characrcrisuc parameter.
4, The eoeffic ietll of subgrudc reactio n depe nds upon
(a ) the size of I~K)l jng
(b ) the shape of footing
(e) the dep th o f fOOlin g
(d) eu ue abov e.
2
5. According to Ran ki ne' s formu la, lhe minimum depth of fou ndati on when q '" 180 k:'U"m , 1 '" 20 kNlm) aDd
• '" 30" is
(a ) 0.50 m (b) 0.7S m
(c) 1.0 m (d) 2.0 m
6. When lhe wind load is more than 25% o f the combined dead and live ImId, lhe safe bea rin g ca pacily is usually
increased by
(a) IS% (b) 2O'l>
(c)25% ( d) 30%
1. T he value of the fac tor 'AI, when B = 20 em, k '" 20 Nfcm ). E/ '" 10 10 N-cm 2 and L =300 em is
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.0
(e) 3.0 (d) 4.0
[Aw;. l. k). 2. (b ), 3. (a ), 4. (d) , 5. (e). 6. (e). 1. (ell
 25
Pile Foundations

25.1. lNTRODUcnON
When the soil at or near lhe groondsurface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations are
required 10 transfer l.hc load<; 10 deeper strata. Deep foundations are, therefore . used when surface soil is
unsuitable for shallow fowu1ation. and a finn stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached eccoomtcauy by
shallow foundations. The most common Iypes of deep founda tions are piles. piers and caissons. Tbe
medlanism of transfe r of lhe load to the soil is essentially the same in all types of deep foundations.
A deep foundalion is generally much more expensive than a shallow foundatio n. II should be eco ptec
only when a shallow founda tion is not feasible. In certain situations, a fully compensa ted floating raft may be
more economi cal than a deep fou ndation . In some cases, the so il is improved by various methods 10 make it
suitable for a sha llow foundation .
A pile is a s lende r structura l member made of steel, concre te or wood . A pile is either dr iven into the soil
or form ed in-situ by excavating a hole and filling it w ith concrete. A pier is a vertical ro lumn of relatively
larger cross- sect ion than a pile. A pier is insta lled in a dry area by excavating a cy lindrical hole of large
diameter to the desired depth and then backfillin g it with concrete. 1be d istinction between a cast in-situ pile
and a pier is mther arbitrary . A cast in-situ pile grea ter than 0.6 m diamercr is generally termed as a pier. A
caisson is a hollow, watertight box or chamber, which is sunk through the ground for laying foundation under
water. The caisson subsequently becomes an integra l part of the foundation . A pier and a caisson differ
basically only in the method of coesrrccuoe.
Pile foundations are discussed in this chapter. Piers and caissons are dealt with in chapter 26. Well
foundations. which are specia l type of caissons, are discussed in chapter 27.
25.2. NECES..')ITY OF ]'ILE FOUN DATI ONS
Pile found ations arc used in the following cond itions:
(1) When the strata at or just below the gro und surface is highly compressible and very weak to support
the load trans mitted by the structure.
(2) When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load distrib ution. It would cause
non-u nifonn settlem ent if a sha llow founda tion is ronstruetcd. A pile foundation is required to reduce
differenti al sett lement .
(3) Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structural loads through deep water to a firm
stra tum.
(4) Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition 10 support the vertical loads in
eenh -reieining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizonta l forces d ue to wind and
earthq uake.
(5) Piles are required when the soil cood luons are such thai a wash our, erosion or scour of so il may
occur from underneath a shallow foundation.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

(6) Piles are used for the foundations of some structures, such as transmission lowers. off-shore
plateforms., which are subjected to uplift.
(7) In case of expansive sons, such as black COlton soil. which swell or shrink as the wate r contem
changes. piles are used 10 transfer the load below the active zone.
(8) Collapsibl e soils. such as loess, have a breakdown of structure accompanied by a sudden decrease in
void ratio when there is an increase in water con tent. Piles are used 10 Irnnsfer the load be yond the
zone of poss ible moisture changes in such so ils.

25.3. ClASSIFI CATI ON OF PILES

Piles can be classifi ed accordin g 10 (1) the material used (2) the mode of transfer of load , (3) the method
of cons truction, (4) the use. or (5) the displacement of soil, as described below.
(1) Classification accordIng to ma teri al used
There are four types of piles according to materials used .
(,) Steel Pli es. Steel piles are generally either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H-sections. Pipe
steel piles are driven into the ground with their ends open or dosed. Piles are provided with a
driving poinl or shoe at lhe lower end.
Epoxy coatings are applied in the factory during manufacture of pipes 10 reduce corrosio n of the
steel piles. Somet imes. concre te encase ment at si re is done as a protect ion against corrosion. To take
into accou nt the corrosio n, an additional thickness of the steel sectio n is usually recomm ended,
(ii) Concrete Plies . Cement concrete is used in the constructio n of concrete piles. Concret e piles are
either precast or cast-in situ. Precast concrete piles are prepared in a factory or a castin g yard. The
reinforcement is provided 10 resist handling and driving stresses . Precast piles can also be prestressed
using high strength steel pretens ioned cables.
A cast-in situ pile is cons tructed by making a hole in the ground and then fillin g it with concrete.
A cast-in situ pile may be cased or uncased . A cased pile is constructed by driving a steel casi ng into
the ground and filling it with concrete. An en cased pile is constructed by driving the casing 10 ee
desired depth and gradually withdraw ing casing when fresh concrete is filled. An uncased pile may
have a pedestal
(iil) TImber Pil es. Timbe r piles are made from tree trunks after prope r trimming. The timber used sboukl
be straight. sound and free from uefects.
Steel shoes are provided to prevent damage during driving. Th avoid damage to the lop of the
pile, a metal band. or a cap is provided. Splicing of timber piles is done using a pipe sleeve or metal
straps and bolts. The length of the pipe sleeve shou ld be at least five times the diameter of the pile.
TImber piles below the water table have generally long life. However, above the water table,
these are attacked by insects. The life of the timber piles can be increased by preservativ es sucb as
creosote oils. Timber piles should not be used in marine environment where these are attacked by
vari ous organisms.
(iv) Composite piles. A composite pile is made of two mate rials. A compos ite pile may consist of the
lower portion of stee l and the upper portion of cast-in situ concrete. A composi te pile ma y also have
the lower portion of timber below the permanen t water table and the upper portio n of concrete. As
it is diffteult to provide a proper joinl between two dissimilar materials, composite piles are rarely
used in practice.
(2) C lass ifica tion Based on Mode of Transfer- of Loam
(!
Based on the mode of transfer of toads, the piles can be classifi ed into 3 categories:
(I) End-bearing plies . End-bearing piles transm it the loads through their bottom tips. Such piles actas
columns and transmit the load through a weak material to a firm stra tum below. If bed rod; j
located within a reasonabl e depth, piles can be extended to the rock. The ultimate ca pacity of thepile
PILE FOUNpt\1l0N 673 ·

depends upon the bearing capacity of the rock. If instead of bed rock. a fairly compaa and hard
stratum of soil exists at a reasonable depth. piles can be extended a few metres into the hard stratum.
End-beari ng piles arc also known as point- bearing piles.
The ultimate load carri ed by the pile (Q..) is equa l to the load carried by the point or bottom end
(Qr )·
(;1) .'rlctlon piles , Friction piles do not reach the hard stratum. These piles transfer the load through skin
friction between the embedded surface of the pile and the surrounding soil. Friction piles are used
when a hard stratum docs not exist at a reasonable depth. The ultimate load (Q..) carried by the pile
is equa l 10 the load transferred by skin friction (Q,).
[Note: The term friction pile is aetuaUy a misnomer , as in the clayey soils, the load is transferred by
adhesion and oct friction between the pile surface and the soil].
The friction piles arc also known as floating piles, as these do not reach the hard stratum.
(ii l) Combined end beart ng and fri ct ion piles. These piles transfer loods by a com bination of end
bearing at the bottom of the pile and friction along the surface of the pile shaft . The ultimate load
carried by the pile is equal to the sum of the load carried by the pile point (Qp), and the land carried
by the skin friction (Q, ).
(3) Classification ba.s ed on method of in stullation
Based on the method of ccosuucnon, the piles may be classified into the following 5 catego ries:
(I) Driv en piles . 1bcse piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on their
lops.
(;i) Dri ven and Ces t -ln-sn u piles. These piles are fanned by driving a casing with a closed bottom end
into the soil The casing is later filled with concre te. The casing mayor may not be withdrawn.
(ii.) Bored and Cest-ln-sltu piles. These piles are fanned by excavating a hole into the ground and then
filling it with concrete.
'(;v) Screw piles. These piles arc screwed into the soil.
(v) Jacked piles. These piles are jacked into the soil by applying a downward force with the help of a
hydraulic jack.
(4) Classification based on use
The piles can be classified into the following 6 categories, depending upon their U'iC,

(I) Load bearing piles. These piles are used 10 transfer the load of the structure to a suitable stratum
by end bearing. by friction or by both. These are the piles mainly discussed in this chapter.
(u) Compaction piles. 'These piles are driven into loose granular soils to increase the relative densi ty.
The bearing capacity of the soil is increased due to densificalion caused by vibrations.
(iii) 'Ienslon piles. These piles are in tension. These piles are used 10 anchor down structu res subjected
to hydrostatic uplift forces or ovcrturning forces.
(;v) Shee t piles. Sheet piles form a continuous wall or bulkhead which is , used for retaining earth or
water (see Chap ter 20).
(v) Fender piles. Fender piles are sheet piles which are used 10 protect water-front structures from
impact of ships and vessels.
(~'I) Anchor piles. These piles are used 10 provide anchorage for ancOOred sheet piles. These piles
provide res istance against horizontal puU for a sheer pile wall (see Cbapter 20).
(5) C jassln cetlon based on displacement of soil
Based on the volume of the soil displaced during installation, the piles can be classified into 2 categories:
(I) Displacement piles. All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displaced laterally when the
pile is installed. The soil gets densified. The installation may cause heaving of the surrounding
674 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

ground . Precast concrete pile and closed-end pipe piles are high displacem ent piles . Steel H-piles are
low displacement piles.
(it) Non- dlspt ac em ent plies. Bored piles are non-displacement piles. As the soil is removed when tbe
hole is bored, there is no disp laceme nt of the so il during installation. The installat ion of these piles
causes very little change in the stresses in the surrounding soi l
25.4. PILE DRIVING
Piles arc d riven into the ground by means of hammers or by using a vibratory d river. Such piles are
ca lled driven piles . In so me speci al cases, piles are installed by jetling or part ial augedng.
The follOlN'ing methods are com monly used.
(1) Dammer Driving. Fig. 25.1 shows a pile driving rig. It consists of a hoist mechanism , a guiding
frame and a bam mer device . The hammers used for pile driv ing are of the following types:
(t) Drop hum m er. A drop ham mer is raised by a win ch and allowed to drop on the lop of the pile under
grav ity from :I certai n heigh t. During the driving operation, a Clp is fixed to the top of the pile and
a CU'ihioo is generally provided between the p ile and the cap. Anothec cushion, known as hammer
cus bion, is placed on the pile cap on which the hammer causes the impact. TIle drop hammer is the
o ldest type of hamme r used for pile driving. It is rarely used these days because of very slow rae
o f ham mer blows .

HAMMER

PILE CAP
PILE

fi g. 25.1. Pile Driving Rig.

(u) Singl e--actl ng hammer. In a single-acting hamme r, the ram is raised by air (or steam) pressure to tbc
required height. It is then allowed to dro p under gravity on the pile cap prov ided with a hamlllCl'
cushion.
(iii) DoubJe..acling hammer. In a doub le-acting hamme r. air (or steam) press ure is used to raise !be
ham mer. When the hammer hac; been raised to the required beigbt , air (oc steam) pressure is llA'ficd
10 the other side of the piston and the hammer is pushed downward under pressure . This inatascs
lhe impact ene rgy of the hamm er,
PILE FOUNDATIONS .75
(ill) Diesel ha m mer. A diese l hammer consists of a ram and a fuel inject ion system. It is also provided
with a n anvil bloc k at Its lower end. The ram is first raised manually and the fuel is injected near
the anvil. As soon as the hammer is released . it drop s on the anvil and co mpresses the air-fuel
mixture and ignition takes place. The pressure so de veloped pushes the pile downward and raises the
ram . The fuel is again injec ted and the process is repeated.
The ram lifts automa tically. II has 10 be manually raised on ly once at the beginning.
Diese l hammers are nor. su itable for driving piles in soft soils . In such soils. the downward movement of
the pile is excessiv e and the upward movement of the ram after impact is small. The height achieved after
the upward movement of the hamme r may not be sufficient to ignite the a ir-fuel mixtu re.
Diesel hammers are self-contain ed and self-activated.
(2) Vib rutory Pile Drtv er , A vibratory pile driver consists of two weights, called exciters, which rotate
in opposit e d irections . The horizonta l components of the cen trifugal force geoerated by exciters cancel each
ether but the vertical components add. Thus a sinosoid al dynamic vertical force is applied to the pile. whim
forces the pile dow nward. Th e frequency of vibration is kept eq ual to the nat ura l frequency of pile-so il syste m
for better results.
A vibratory pile driver is usefu l only for sandy and gravelly so ils. The speed of penetration is good . The
method is used where vibra tions and noise of co nventiona l driving methods cannot be pe rmit ted .
(3) Jetting Techn iques. When the pile is to penetrate a thin hard layer of sand or gravel overlying a
softer soil layer. the pile can be drive n through the hard layer by jetting techn iques. wercr under pressu re is
discharged er the pile bott om point by means of a pipe to wash and loosen the hard layer.
(4) Partlal Augering Method. Bauer piles (inclined piles) are usually adv anced by partial augcring . In
this memoo. a powe r auger is used to dri ll the hole for a part of the dep th. The pile is then insert ed in the
hole and driven with hammers 10 the required depth .
25.5. C ONSTRUCT ION O F BOIlED lllLES
(a) Drilling or holes.
Bored piles arc cons tructed afte r making a hole in the gro und and filling it with ccocrere.
The following methods are used for drilling of !he hole.
(I ) Hand a uger. A ha nd auger can be used for boring without casing in soils wh ich are self -supporting.
such as finn to stiff clays and silts and Cla yey sand s and gravels above the water table. The depth of the hole
is generally limited to abo ut 4.5 m. The diameter of the hole is usually not more than 350 mm .
(2) Mechanical au ger . For piles of d iameter more than 350 mm or depth grea ter than 4.5 m. a harxI
auger becomes uneconomical In sum a case. a mechanical auge r is used. A mechani ca l auger ca n be of
rotary type o r bucke t Iype. It is power driven. The soil in Ihis case must be self -supporting. with or without
benton ite slurry . The so il should be free from tree roo ts, cobbles and boulders .
A continuous night auger is also used to drill the bore hole.
(3) IJoring rig. A boring rig is 0...00 to sink (he hole in ground where hand or mechanical a ugering is not
possible. such as water- bearing sand or gravels. very soft clays and silts and the soils having cobbles and
boulders .
A specially designed boring rig. know n as grab-type bored piling rig. is sometimes used. In this type of
rig, the casing is given a continuous semi-rotary motion whic h causes its sinking as the bore hole is advanced
by percussion drillin g.
(4) Belling Bucket, Undcrreamcd piles are large diamet er bored pi les with enlarged bases . Excava tion for
the underrea med piles is done by a special type be lling bucke t.

(b) Concreting
Before concret e is placed . the bored hole is bailed dry of water, Any loose or softened soil to; cleaned out
and the botto m of the hole is rammed . A layer of dry concre te is placed and rammed if the bottom of tbe hole
iswet. The n the concret e with a readily workable mix (7.5 to 10 an slump). not leaner than 300 kg
676 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

cemcmzrrr' of concrete, is poured into a hopper placed at the mccm of the hole .
IC the hole cannot be balled or pumped dry before placing the concrete , the hole is lined with a casing
througho ut its de pth. A mass of concr ete is then deposited at the base of the bole by a tremie pipe. As soo n as
the con crete has hard ened and formed a plug, the hole is pumped free o f wa ter. The casing is then gently turned
and lifted slightly to break the joint with the plug. The hole is pumped dry. lbe remaind er of the concreting is
done by placing it dry upl:o (IX: groondsurface. The casing is the n lifted entirely from the bore hole .
If the grou nd water is und er a high pressure, there will be inflow of wate r between the concrete plug and
the inside of the casing . The inflow should be stemmed by ca ulking. The casing is cut by oxy-acetylene just
above the plug. The shan is then concreted and the casing raised. The OJ! portion of the casing around the
plug is left permanently in place.
Instead of plugging the base of the pile and concreting, an alternative method is to coocrete the entire
shan under wate r using a trcrnie pipe. Concre te should be eas ily workable (slump 12.5 10 175 em) arxl the
cement co nten t should be at least 400 kg/ m:l. A retarder is added to the concrete if the re is a risk o f the
concre te sett ing befo re the casing is lifted out. However; the quality of concreting done under wate r is not
good. This meth<xl should be avo ided as far as possib le.
25.6. DRIVEN CAST·!N·Srru CO NCRITE PILES
A driven cas t-in-situ concrete pile is formed in the ground by driving a casing with a plug or shoe at its
bottom. If the cas ing is removed afte r concre te has been placed, it is known as uncased or shell-less pile. On
the other hand , if the cas ing is left in the ground a fter concreting. it is called a cased pile. In uncasc:d piles,
the concrete comes in direct contact with the so il. The concrete may be rammed or vibrated after its
deposition. A pedestal may be formed at the lower end of the shell-less pile if requ ired.
Cast -in-situ driven conc rete piles can be broad ly classified into three types : (I) cased pile, (il) uncased
pile, and (iii) pedestal type. Different types of piles with patent rights are available. The main differcoce
between different patents is in the method of coostructlon, as described below .
( 1) The Frank; pile is a type of drive n aod cast-i n-situ displacement pile. A heavy steel pile is first
pitch ed in a shall ow fo undation. A plug of lean co ncrete is then placed in the bottom of the pipe and
compacted with a heavy steel ram mer. The plug is the n rammed and with it the pipe also goes down.
This driving operation is conti nued until the bearing stratum is reached. The COIKTete is bammeed
to fonn a pedestal. A reinforce ment cage is the n placed in the pipe and the pile shaft is ccocreted
Th e pipe is with drawn as the co ncrete is rammed.
(2) In uncased-Weft ern pil e. a heavy stee l drive pipe of 35 an diamet er with a steel core is driven. The
concrete is deposited in the pipe after removing the core . The concrete is rammed as the pipe ~
withd raw n. 1bc pedestal is formed ene e the drive pipe has been lifted to some height.
(3) In cased-Western pile, the hole is made using a heavy stee l drive pipe as for the uncesed- Western
type . A sh ell of 30 em diam eter is lowered insi de the drive pipe . After the shell has been filled with
concrete, the dri ve pipe is withdrawn. A pedestal can be fonned by placing some concre te before
lowering the shell arxl ramming.
(4) A Weftern buuon -bouom pile is formed by drivi ng a stee l p ipe with a 43 em diam eter preast
con cre te point at its bottom. Afte r reac hing the requir ed depth. a shell is lowered into the pipe and
locked into the point at its bot tom. The shell is the n filled with concrete and the drive pipe is
withdrawn.
(5) 1be Raymond Taper or Step-Tape r piles are steel shell piles driven with a tapered steel mandrel The
mandrel and shells are driven to the required depth. Tbe mandrel is then con tracted and withdrawtl,
and the shell is concreted with or without a reinforcin g cage .
(6) A Simplex pile is fonned by driving a stee l tube with a detachable cast iron shoe. Mer the requited
depth has been reached. reinforcing cage is lowered . The tube is extracted by wire ropes connccled
to a winch. At the So."U11C time. the concrete is placed and rammed by a falli ng rammer wading itr;idc'
the cage.
riLE FOUNDATION

(T) Alphn piles are fonned by driving a steel t\be closed with a derecoa ble cast iron shoe. A
concrete-filled mandrel is drive n inside the tube. 1be mandrel is gradually raised and some concrete
is allowed 10 slump down in the tube . The ccocrere is refilled in the mandrel and it is driven down
as the lube is raised. Thus a pedestalis focmed. After the formation of the pedestal, the mandrel is
raised and refilled with concrete in stages. In each stage. the concrete in the pile shaft is pressed
against the soil by the dead weight of the hammer on the mandreL
25.7. LOAD·CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILES
Like 8 shallow foundalion. a pile foundat ion should be safe agamsr shear failure and also the settlement
should be within the permissible limits. The methods for estimating the load -carrying capacity of a pile
fOWldalion can be grouped into the followi ng 4 categories.
(I) Static Met hods , The sauc methods give the ultimate capacity of an individual
pile, depending upon the cnarectertsrlcs of the soil. The ultimate load capacity is given
by
Q. - Qp + Q, ... (25.1)
where Qu = ultimate failure load. Qp = point (or base or tip) resistance of the pile (Fig.
25.2), Q, = shaft resistance developed by friction (or adhesion) be tween the soil and the
pile shaft. Q!>
I Q!>
I
The methods for the determination of Qp and Q. <Ire discussed in Sects. 25.8 and
25.9, respective ly. for sand and clay.
The static formulas give a reasonable estimate of the pile capacity if judiciously
applied.
(2) Dynamic Form ulas. The ultimate capacity of piles driven in certain types of
soils is related to the resistance against penetration developed during driving operation .
The ultimate load capacity formulas are based on the principle that the resistance of a Op
pile to further penetration by driving depends upon the energy impart ed to the pile by the Fig. 252 .
ham mer. It is tacitly assumed that the load-carrying capacity of the pile is equal to the dynamic resistance
during d riving.
The dynamic formulas are 001 much reliable.
(3) Ie- suu Pe netrad on Tests. The pile capacity can be determined from .the results of in-situ standard
penetratio n test. Empirica l fonnulas are used 10 dete rmine the point resistance and the shan resistance from
the standard penetration number (N). Alternatively, the static formulas can be used after determ ining the
N-value. as this value is related to the angle of shearing resistance (4').
Cone penetration tests are also used to estimat e the pile capacity.
(4) Pile Load Tests. The most reliable method of es timating the pile capac ity is to conduct. Ute pile load
test. The test pile is driven and loaded to failure. The pile capac ity is related to the ultimate load or the load
at which the set tlements do not exceed the perm issible limits.
All the above methods are discussed in detail in the following sections.
25.8 STATI C METII ODS FOR DRIVEN PILES IN SAND
The ultimate capacity of a single pile driven into sand is obtained using Eq. 25. 1, Q.. .. Qp + Q.
where Qp - qpAp (25.2)
and Q, • {,A, (25.3)
In above equations, qp is the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil at the pile tip and and Ap is the area
of tbe pile lip; f, is the average unit skin friction between the sand and the pile surface. and A, is the effective
surface area of the pile in contact with the soil.
(a) Methods for- de termina tion or Q,. The ujrimate bearing capacity ('lp) of the soil at the pile tip can
678 SOIL MECHA NICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERI NG

be computed from the bearing capacity equatio n similar 10 that for a shallow foundation, as discussed in
chapter 23. For sandy soils,
qp - lj N'I + OA lBN, .. .(25.4)
where q = effective vertica l pressure
at the pile tip, B = pile tip width (or diameter).
y = unit weight of the soil in

'
lhe zone of the pile lip.
Nq and NT = bearing capacity factors for deep foundations.
In driven piles, the second term of Eq. 25.4 is generally small and is. therefore. neglected. Thus
qp - qNq ••• (255)
ver ttcc t prt' s Sl,lrt' (Ql

q ..Constant

'a)
1
Fig.2.'U.
I
(tt-J 10
0
In case of driven piles, it has been established thai the effective vertical pressure @ al the pile tip
0

~5
,b)
JS
•
.. o 4<t

increases w ith depth only until a certain depth of pcocuauon. known as the critical dCplh (D~). Below the
critica l depth, uie effect ive vertical pressure remains essentially constant [Fig. 25.3 (a)] . The critical depth
JOO

so /
/
/
j}
0

so

/
~/
/ "0
/
~

//
,
t-

(QJ:
/
"',
.:pY
/ / l ; ,k 15 :2911
/
o!Y.,,;'

.5~5-=r--
I
I

o~ .... /
I
"
,,

/ /
~
~/
»<
# ,/
_..... ..... ..... ~

.>: ~ ----- -'

~ ~
so
?'-/
i-- -~ - .:;;?-'
0
,.
Angl l!'
30
0 1 sh eoor i"9
as

fig . 25.4. .' - co

PILE FOUNDATION 679

depends upon the angle of sbearfng resistance (,f ) of the so il and me width (or diame ter) of the pile [Fig.
25.3 (b)]. Its va lue can be roughly taken as 10 D for loose sands and 20 D for dcasc sands .
The bea ring capecny teeter N q depends upon the angle o f sheari ng rcs tstaocc (4'). Various investigators
gave the ex pressions for Nq based o n theoretical ana lysis. Tbcse values vary over a wide range because of
different assumptions made in defi ning the shear zone ncar !he pile lip. Fig. 25.4 shows the values of Nq
given by various invcsugators and that g iven by IS : 2911. lbc values give n by Derezontzc v arc "quite
dependable,and are generally used .
In the de rivatio n of the value of N'l' it has bee n assumed !hat the soil above the pile lip is similar to the
soil below the pile lip. If the pile penetrates a co mpact stratu m only slighUy and the soil above the tip is
loose, il would be more appropriate to use the value of N'I for a shallow foundation given in chapte r 23.
If the pile is of relatively large d iameter, the second term in Eq. 25.4 becomes signific ant. 1be value of
NTcan be conse rvatively taken as tbe NT value used for shallow foundations, given in chap ter 23.
Meyerhor's me thod Cor q,. The point bearing capacity (11p) of a pile generall y increases with the depthof
embedm ent (D,,) in the bearing stratum. It reaches a maximum value at an embedment ratio of (D,/D}n- [-or a
homogeneous soil , D" is equal 10 the actual depth D of the pile, but for a pHe whidl has penetrated into a bearing
stratum for a small kngth. D" is less Ihan D. Beyond the critical value of (D,/D)ao the value of q, remains
cocsiam,equal to the limiting qt. The critical ratio (D,/D)... depends upon the soil frict ion angle (t) (fig. 255).
Once the value of (D,/D}.., has been determ ined, the following procedure is used to estimate q,.
(1) Determ ine actual (D'/E) ratio for the pile,
(2) Determine Nq for (D,/E) ratio from fig . 255 .
The value of N'I increases linearly with (D,/E) ratio and reaches a maximum value at

D"IB. ~ (D"Ill)~
(3) Determine the point resistance Q, as
Q, .. A, q Nq S A, qj ... (25.6)
where q, .. 50 Nq 13n 4'. q : : vertical pressure at the pile tip (kN/m1. A, = area of the pile lip.
000
,
800
00
"
"
8

f,200
0

V?:
V/ V
,
8

40

20
V /'
,
,
~~ V
•,
,#,01,01 ....

8 ./
-- ,,"
8

----:. ::--- -- -- -- -
\O{~C;l'#_
4

2 2
, - '
, ~ -~ ,#-

O· v ". '" 2rt' .". " as

"
; -
(Af~r ~y~hof . 1976)
Fig. ZS.s.
680 SOIL MECIIANJ(:S AND FOUND~nON ENGINEERING

If the pile initially pcncmucs a loose sand layer and then 3 dense layer for a depth less than 10 B. the
point resistance is given by

q p '" 91(1) + [9/ (2) ~O~(1Jl[)b :s q/(2) •• •(25.7)

where q ,..l ) = limiting unit point resistance of loose S30d (= 50 NII 1 tan +0
q l( 'I) = limiting unit point resistance of dense sand ( = 50 Nq21an +v
Db = depth of penetration in oense sand.
h may be mentioned that the ultimate tip resistance given by Eq. 25.2 is the gross ultimate point
resistancccTbc net lip load is given by
Q,(nel) . Q, - ViA ,)
However. in practice, the deductio n of qAp is not usually made and Q p (net) is taken equal to Qr
In case of If-piles and open-ended pipe piles, the enclosed soil plug should be considered as the part of
the pile for computing the area of the poinl (Ap ) ' I
(h) Method'> of det ermlnatlon of Qr The frictional res istance Q, is obtained +
from Eq. 253 after estimating the unit skin friction (Is). lbc unit skin friaion Cor ~
a straight-sided pile depends upon the soil pressure acting normal to the pile ..:
surface and the coefficient of friction between the soil and the pile material (Fig. "'h s t t "
~4 ~ ~
The soil pressure normal 10 the vertical pile sur face is horizontal pressure
(Ok) and is related to the effective vertical soil pressure as Fig. 25.6.

Ok " Kov
where K = ea rth pressure coefficien t, Ov = effecti ve vertical pressure at that depth.
Th us unit skin frict ion (f,) acting at any depth can be wrluen us
f, - 0"tan6 [. - Kovtan6 ... (25.8)
where tan b = coefficient of friction betwee n sand and the pile material.
Selection of suitable values of b and K requires good engineering judgment. Tomilson (1975) gave the
values of b and K, as given in Table 25.1, based on the studies carried by Drums (1966) .
Tuble 25.1. Values or l) and K.

K K
Pile Material e (loose sand) (dellsesalld)
Stee l 20' 0.50 1.0
Concrete 0.75 4' 1.0 2.0
limber 0.67 4' 1.5 4.0

In general. the value of b generally varies between 0.5 $ and 0.8 q.. In most carses, the value of K varies
between 0.6 and 1.25. Meyerhof (1956) recommends that the value of K can be taken as 0.5 for loose sand
(q. = 30 j and as 1.0 for dense sand (q. = 45j. According to IS : 29 11-1979, the value of () may be taken
equal 10 $. For driven piles in loose to medium sands, the recommended value of K is between 1 and 3.
Whether the sand should be considered as loose or dense depends upon not onl y on the initial relative
density, but also on the method of installation. The larger the volume of soil displacement , the higher the
value of lhe resulting friction. For high displacem ent driven piles, the soil is considered dense . For driven
and cast -in place piles. the soil is considered as medium dense if the casing is leO in place or if the coocree
is compacted as the casing is withdrawn. The sand is considered to be loose. if the conc rete is not
compacted . Thpcrcd piles develop greater unit friction than the straigh t piles. Further, the value of K is
greater if the pile is driven into undisturbed soil than the one for installed in a predrillcd hole.
PILE FOUNDATION 681

As stated earlie r. the effective vert ical prcs.<;ure (O~) increases with depth only uplo the critica l depth.
Below the critical depth, Ihe value of Ov remains constant.
The frictional resistance (Qs) can be expressed as

Q, - ~ K (0,), Ian e (A,), ... (25.9(a»)

i _I

where II = num~ of layers in wh ich the pile L<;installed,

( o~)j = effective normal stress in ith layer.
(A s); = surface area of the pile in ith layer,
Eq. 25.9 (a) can be written as

Qs • I K tan b (area of 0 .. diagram) x pile perimeter ...(25.9(b)J

i _I
Bq. 25.9 (b) is useful when variat ion of o~ with dept h has been plotted as o~-diagrnm .
Th e ultimate load for the pile (Eq. 25.1) can be written as
Q. - Q, + Q,

Q. - 'iN';', + I K(a.),tanb ~ ,), .. .(25.10)

i _I

25.9 . STATIC METIIOD FO R DRIVEN [Il LES IN SATU RATE D CLAY

Eq. 25.1 can be used for the dete rminat ion of Ihe load-carrying capacity of driven piles in saturated clay .
The point resistance (Qp) can be expressed as (Eq. 25.2).
Qp ,. qpA p
where qp is the unit point resistance. equal to the ultimate bearing capacity (qJ of the soil.
For cohesive soils ( .. = 0), the ultimate bearing capacity is found from the following equation. which is
s imilar to that for a shallow foundation .
qu ,. cN~ + q N q
As Nq • 1.0 for f = O. the above equation becomes
q.. ,. cNr + q
Therefore, Q, (gross) = (cNr + q)A p
or Q p (net) • cN~ Ap ••• (25 .11)
In above equations, c is the cohesion of the cla y in Ihe zone surrounding the pile tip, and N~ is the
bearing capaci ty factor for the deep foundation .
lhe value of N~ dependsupon the D IB ratio and it varies from 6 to 9.0. A value of N e = 9.0 is generally
used for lhe piles. In the case of short piles (D IB s 5.0). the value of N e is reduced to the values proposed
by Skempton (see chapter 23) .
The skin resistance (Qs) of the pile can be expressed as (Eq. 25.3),
Q, - c,A, .. .(25.12)
where cQ = unit adhesion (or skin Irictio n] developed between clay and pile sha ft.
The unit adhesion (cQ ) is related 10 the unit cohesion by the relation
cQ • aC ...(25.13)
c
where a is the adhesio n factor and is lhe average cohesion along the shaft length .
The value of a depends upon the consist ency of the clay . for normally conso lidated c lays. the value of
a is taken as unity. According to IS : 2911-1979. the value of a can be taken as unity for soils having soft
682 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

to very soft consistency. Fig. 25.7 shows the variatioo of a with the undrained cohesion c. It may be noted
2
that for nonn all y consolidated clays. with c less !han about 50 kN/m • lhc value of a is equal to unit y.
As c increases, the value of a oecreases. For over-consolidated stiIT to hard clays. its value is usually
taken es 0.3. Jo r tapered piles, the value of a is generally 20% greater than thai for a straight pile.
For very long piles (D 2; 25 m), the above method for ernmatl ng lhe skin friction is very conservative.
For such soils, the unit skin friction also depends upon the dJeaive overburden pressure. According to
Vijayvergiya and Poct n (1972), the average unit skin frictioo can be expressed as
{, • ).\0. + 2 c) ...(25 .14)
wh~re )..= friction capacity factor. Ov = mean effective vertical stress for the embedment length,
c .. undrained roh esion.

0
, ,A - 0.' 0.4 M
I--'
>OO,n fA- -,.-----,-,----,-- --, 10
/V
1/
20

"
I
O .so l--+--""""~rl /
I
I
""

(AI1~r MdCI~nol'ld , 1914 )

Fig. 25.7. Fig. 25.8.
The value of A can be obIaincd from Fig. 25.8 (McQelland. 1974).
Once tbe unit skin friction has been estimated, the shaft resistance is determined from Eq. 25.3.
For cohesive soils, the ultimate load can be determined by adding the point resistance and the shaft
resistance (Eq . 25.1) .
Thus Q.. • c NcA, + acA. ... (25.15)
As the clay gels remoulded when lhe pile is dri ven. this factor must be take n in to account when
estimating the load carrying capacity. The remoulded strength is always less than the undisturbed strength, but
because of thixotropy. the strength improves with time. The rote of gain of strength depends upon the
consolidation caeractersocs of the soil and lhe rate of dissipation of excess porewater pressure. 'Whenusing
Eq. 25.15. lhe value of c and c should be judiciously evaluated.
PILE FOUN DATIONS 683

25.10. STATI C MI:.TlIOD FOR BORE D PIL ES

Bored piles are constructed by drilling a hole into the ground and filing it with coocete. The pile can be
straight-sided for its full depth or may be constnJaed with a bell (or predesral) at its base . The piles with a
pedestal are also known as under-reamed piles.
Th e load-carrying capacity of lhe bored piles can be determined using the procedure similar to that
adopted for the driven piles. However, the values o f the soil para me ters are different, as described below,
(a) Bored Piles In Se nd. Eq. 25.10 can be used to determine the ultimate load. The equation can be
written as

Q• • (iiNq lA, + ~ (K a, tan 6) (A,), ... (25.16)

i - I
'"
where o~ effective vertica l pressure, limited to a maxim um value give n by the critical depth,
K = latera l earth press ure coefficient for bored foundat ion.
tan 6 '" coefficient of frictoo between sand and concrete.
111e sand in bored piles is loosened a.s a result of the boring operation, even though it may initially be in
a dense or medium dense state . 1be value of • to be used to obtain Nq should be for the loose condition.
An approximate value of K can be obtained from the following equatio n.
K . I - sin ljl
Th e value of K genera lly varies betwee n 0.3 and 0.75. An average val ue of 0.5 is usually adopted .
+
111e va lue of tan b can be taken equa l to tan for bored piles excavated in dry soil . If a slurry has been
used during excavation , the valu e of tan 6 should be reduced.
In gene ral. for a g iven initial value o f $, bored piles have a unit po int res istance of i to ~ of that of
corresponding driven p iles. In driven piles, then:: is densificatinn. Cast-in-place piles with a pedesta l sho w
about 50 to 100 % greate r unit point resistance co mpared wit h those wit hout a pedesta l. The impact energy of
the hamm er compacts the soil during the formati on of the pedestal
(b) Bored piles In Cley. Eq 25.15 can be used to estimat e the ultim ate load . lbe equation can be written

Q. - cN~Ap + neA,' ...{25.l7)

where A,' '" area of shaft that is effective in developi ng skin friction .
Th e va lue of a depends upon the pile type and the method of dril ling. Par straight shafts excavated dry,
a i.s taken equal to 0.5 and tha t when drilled with slurry is 0.3. r"Of belled shafts, the corres ponding values
are 0.3 and 0.15.
For calcula ting the area o f sha ft that is effect ive in developing skin Iricnon, the lower 1.5 m (or 2 B) of
the straight shaft and the bell section (if provided) an:: neglected. becauseof disturbance caused. For the same
reason, the top 1.5 m is also neglected .
If a bored pile is installed in stiff, fissu red cla y, the value of cobeslon (c) should be red uced 10 75% of
the va lue obtained from the triax ial test .
(e) Unde n-eumed Piles in Clay. 1be base area of an undcrreamed pile is increased by undcrrea ming and
providing a bulb {Fig. 25.9 (a)]. The ultimate load is given by
Q. - cNcAt> + acA,' ... [25.17 (a)]
where At>is the area of the enlarged base.
TIle value of N c is taken as 9.0. The adhcsi~ factor c is taken as 0040. When the bulb is Slightly above
the tip. At>is taken equal 10 the area of the diameter of the bulb and the projeaed stem below the bulb is
ignored. lbe average value of c at the bulb is taken. How ever. if the bulb is quite high. and then:: is
cons iderable difTerencc in the value of c at the bulh level and the level of the bottom tip of the pile, the
ultimate load is given by
 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNUA11ON ENGINEERING

BUl b

~) (b)

FiS·25 .9.

Q• • ~ (0') x (9c) + %(nl - 0') x 9 c' + c c' A: •.. [25.17(b)]

where /J = diameter of the pile shalt, il l is the diameter of the bulb, C is the ur-it cohesion ct the lip, and c'
is the unit co hesi on at bul b leve l.
While calculat ing the surface nrca A:, the length of the shon equal LO 2 lJ above the bulb is usually
neglected . As the pile settles, there is a possi bility of formatioo of a small gap between the lop of the bulb
and the overly ing soil ov er a lengt h of 2 B, and therefore, tbis length of the shaft is neglected . The little
portio n of the Sh;lO projecting below the shaO is also negle cted while romputing A,'.
Whe n two or more bulbs 3rC provided. the ultimate load is given by

Q" - i(n") )( (9c) + i (Iif - Ii) )( (9 c') + a c" A, + c,,' A~b .••[25.17(c)]

where A, = surface area of sha n above the lOp bulb (ignoring 2 B length), Ad, = surface of the cylinder
=
circu mscribing the bulbs betwee n top and bottom bulbs, c" average cohesion on A, and c..' average =
cohesions on As,,"

25 .11. ALLOWABLE LOAD

a
The allowable load (Q..... is ob tained from the ultimat e lead (Qw) from the relation
Q.n - Q./FS ...(25.18)
where FS is the factor of safety. FS genera lly varies betwee n 2.S and 4.0. depcoding upon the uncertainties
involved in the conpnction of the ultimate kxKI. Accord ing to IS : 2911-1979, the minimum factor of safcl)'
on static formula sh..all be 2.5. The final selection of the valu e of the factor of safel y should take into accoonr
the load settlement charac teristics of the structure as a whole,
25.12. NEGATIVE SKI N ....RICTION
When the soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile sha n settles more than the pile , a downward drag
occu rs on the pile. The drng is known as negativ e ski n frict ion.
Negati ve sk in friction develops wbc n a son or loose soil surrounding the pile set tles after the pile has
been installed . The negativ e skin friction occurs in the soil zone which move s dow nward relative to the pile.
PILE FOUNDATION 68S

The negative friction imposes and extra dow nward load

on the pile. The magn itude of the negative skin friction
is compu ted using the same method as discussed in the
r:::~~ =~o:;:nt~ ~~t;a~~ctiooal resistance . ~,?,,!\W2""'C'1
The net ultimate lead -carrying capaci ty of the pile
is given by the equation (Fig. 25.10). 7';>7':i'7':i7-'-! SOFT
Q: - Q. - Q." ...(25.19) ""--':...t:...<:...t:...<'-"-""I LAVER
where OtIS{ = negative skin friction,
Q,/ = net ultimate load .
Wh ere it is anticipated that negative skin friction
would impose undesirable, large downw ard drag on a
pile, it can be eliminated by providing a protective
sleeve o r a coating for me section which is surrounded
by the settling soil.
25.13. DYNAMIC FORMUlAE
The load-carrying capacity of a driven pile can be
Fig. 25.10.
estimated from the resistance against penetra tion
developed during driving operation. Th e methods give fairly good results only in the case of free-drain ing
sands and hard clays in which high pore water pressures does not develop during the driving of piles. In
sat urated fine-grained soils. high pore water pressure develops duri ng the driving o peration and the strength
of the soil is oonsiderably changed and the methods do not give reliable results . The methods cannot be used
for submerged, uniform fine sands which may be loose enough to become quick temporarily and show a
much less resistance .
The dynamic formulae are based on the assumption that the kinetic energy delivered by the hammer
during driving opera tion is equal to the work done on the pile. Thus
W h TIl' - R l( S .. .(25.2 0)
where W = weight of hammer (kN), h = height of ram drop (on) , t1h = efficiency of pile hammer , R = pile
resistance (leN), taken equal to 0". and S = pile penetrat ion per blow (on).
In Eq. 25.20 , no allowance has been made for me toss of energy, during driving operation, 1<Ni caused
by e1aslic contraction of the pile, soil, pile cap, cushion and due to the inertia of the pile . Some energy is also
lost d ue to genereuon of heat. Various formulae have been proposed, which basically differ only in the
methods for accou nting of the energy losses, as described below.
(I) Engineeri ng News Record Formula. According to Engineering News Record (EN R) formula ( 1888),
the ultimate load is given by
W h""
Q. - S;C ...(25 .21)
where S = penetrationof pile per hammer blow . It is generally based on the average penetration cotaired from
= =
the ~ few blows (em), C oonsIant (For drop hammer, C 254 on and for steam hammer, C 0.254 an) =
In Eq. 25.2 1, the product W l( h can be replaced by tbe rated energy of hammer (E.) in kN-an. Th us

Q. - : :~~ ...(25 .22)

The efficiency t1J, of the drop hammer is generally between 0.7 and 0.9, and mat for a single-acting and
a doub le-acti ng hammer is between 0 .75 and 0.85. For diesel hammer, it usuall y lies between 0.80 and 0.90.
A factor of safety of 6 is usually recommended . However, the pile load tests reveal that the actual factor
of safely varies betwee n '213 and 30. lbe formula is, therefore , not 'dependabk.
686 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Modified Formula. The Engineering News Record formula has been modiftcd recently, In the modified
formula, the energy losses in the hamme r system and that due to impact are cons idered. Acco rding to this
formula.
Q •
..
Wh", .(WW++P
S+C
e'P) ...[25.21(0)J
where P = weight o f pile ; e = coefficien t of resti tution. and 'lJo = hammer efficiency.
The hammer efficiency (114) depends upon varices factors., sudl as pile driving equipment. driving
proced ure, type of pile and the gro und cond itions. For drop hamm ers. it is usually taken between 0.75 and
1.0: for single acting ham mers between 0.75 and 0.85; for oocote-acting or differential hammer, '1Jo = 0.85
and for diesel hammer, llto = 0.85 10 un
The representative va lues of the coefficie nt of restitut ion (e) are as under.
Broomcd limber pile = 0.0
0000 timber pile :: 0.25
Driving cap with limbe r dolly on steel pile = 0.3
Driving cap with plastic dollyon steel pile = 0.5
Hcbnet with composite plastic dolly and packing on RoC.C. pile = 0.4
(2) Oiley Formula. Hiley (1925, 1930) gave a fonnula whic h takes into eccoom various 10&'>eS.
W hTlbtt""
Q. - (S + el2) •. .(25.23)
=
where l1J, = efficiency of ham mer blow, h height of free fall of the ram or hammer (em), S final set or=
penetration per blow (em). C = sum of temporary elastic compression of the pile, dolly, pack.ings and groorxl
(= C 1 + C 2 + Cy, C 1 tempora ry compeesstco of dolly and packing ( =
1.77 RIA, when lhe driving is
without dolly, = 9.05 RIA, when the driving is with sha n dolly), C 2 = temporary compression of pile (= 0.657
RDIA ), C 3 = temporary compression of grou nd ( = 3.55 RIA), D = length o f the pile , A = cross-sectional area
o f pile, R = pile resistance (tonnes).
'The efflCiency of hammer blow (tt,,) depends opon the weight of hamme r (W), weight of pile, anvil end
helmet followe r (1") and the coefficient of rcsistution (e).
W + e2 p
(a) For W > eP, '1b • w:;-p- ...
(25.24)

(b) For W < eP, tt b •

W+e2p - (W-CP)'
""""i'V'"7P w+ P .. .(25.25)

The coefficient of rcs istution (e) varies from zero for a dete riorated cond ition of the head of pile to 0.5
for a steel ram o f doub le-act ing hamme r st riking on stee l anvil and driv ing a reinforced concre te pile. For a
C.l. ram of a single-acting or drop hammer striking on the head of R.C.C. pile, e = 0.4 and that striking on
a well-conditioned driving cap and helmet with hard wood on R.Cc. pile. e = 0.25 (IS : 2911-1979).
(3) Dan lsh Fonnula. Accor d ing to Danish form ula (19 29),
W)( h )( 'llo

r ..
Q. - S + 112S. .. .(25.26)

where S•• [ 2"'~hD) ( 2527)

in which So = elastic compression of pile, D = length of pile, A =

cross-sectional area , E = modulus of
elast ici ty of pile materia l
Tbe allowable load is found by taking a factor of safety of 3 10 4.
PILE FOUNDATION 687

Eq. 25.27 em also be used to determine the final set (5) per blow.
Taking Q., • 3 Q...

. . .(25.28)

where Q", = allowable load.

25.14. WAVE EQUATION ANALYSIS
M the hammer strikes the top of a pile. a stress wave is transmitted through the length of the pile. The
wave transmission theory can be used to determine the load carrying capacity of the pile and the maximum
stresses that can occur within the pile during driving operation.
In the wave equation analysis (Smith, 1962), the pile is represented by a series of individual
spring-conncctcd weights and spring damping resistance (Fig. 25.11). The weight W t represents the weight of
the ram, and W 2 represents the weight of the pile cap. Weights W3 to WlO correspond to the weights of
incremental sections of the pile. The spring constant Xl represents the elasticity of the cap block; the
constants K 2 to K u are for the elasticity of the pile sections. The damping springs R3 to R u represent the
frictional resistance of the soil surrounding the shaft; R12represents the soil resistance at the pile tip.

PIL E
",
'"
"'"
"...
"
IL
! BlOWSI(:m~

"'0
"',
(.) "" (b)

Fig. 25.11 .
The propagation of the elastic wave through the pile is analogous to that caused by an impact on a long
rod. A partial differential equation is written to describe the pile model shown in Fig. 25.11 (0). The equation
is solved with the aid of a digital computer, and the pile capacity is determined. The pile capacity is
expressed as a function of penetration per blow or blows per an [Fig. 25.11 (b)J.
The major drawback of the wave equation analysis for determination of the dynamic resistance is its
dependence on a computer. Moreover, the field, tests arc required to estimate the equivalent spring constant
and soil-damping values for the pile under study. Further, tbe results obtained ere valid only for a particular
pile driven by a specified pile hammer.
Despite the above shortcomings, the wave equation analysis is a useful tool for determining the pile
capacity. The results can also be used for the selection of appropriate pile-driving equipment.
688 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDAllON ENGINEERING

25.15. IN-SITU PENET RATI ON TESTS FOR I'ILE CAPACITY

(tI) Standard penetration test. 1be load-carrying capacity of a pile can be estimated from the standard
penetration test value (N).
(I) For driven piles in sand, the unit tip resusranee (qp) is related 10 the uncorrected blow count (N) near
the pile point (Mcycr hof 1976).
qp _ 4QN(D/B) s 400N ... (25.29)
where qp = point resistance (kN/rn1. D = length of pile. B = width (diameter) of pile.
Th e value of qp is usually limited to 400 N .
lhc averag e unit frictio nal resistance(/,) is related to the average va lue o f the blow count (N).
For hi&hdisplacement piles, f, • 2.0N 1tN1m' ... [25.30 (a)]
2
For lo w displace me nt piles. h- 1.0 N kN/m ••• I25.3D (b)]
where N is average of unco rrected N-valucs along the length of the pile.
(il) For bored piles in sand , q, _ 14 N(D"I B) kN/m2 ... [25.31)]
where Db = actual penetration into the granular soil.
For bored piles in send, the unit frictio nal resistance (f,) is given by
f, - 0.67 N kN/m2 •..(2532)
(b) Dul ch cone les t. Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit point resistance (qp) and the unit skin tractioo
(h) o f driven piles to the cone point resistance (q,,).

Point resistance, qp - !f5 (Dp/ B) ... (25.33)

Unit skin friction (a) I. (dense sand) - q.,l200 ... (25.34)
(b) f, 00= sand) • q,l400 .. .(25.35)
(c) f, (sill) • q,l150 ... (25.16)
25.16. PIL E LOAD T EST
The most reliable method for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile is the pile load test. The
set-up generally consists of two anchor piles provided with an ancho r girder o r a reaction girder at thei r top
(Fig. 25. 12). The test pile is installed between the ancho r piles in the manner in which the foundation piles
are to be installed . The test pile should be Ht least 3 B or 2.5 m clear from the anchor p iles.

ANCHCR GIRDER OR
REN:TlON GIRDERS

Fig. 2S.l2. Pile load Ter.t.

The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder . The measurements of pile
movement are taken with respect to a flxed reference mark . The test is conducted after a rest period of 3 days
PILE FOUNDATION 689

liner the Installation in sandy soils and n period of one month in silts and so ft c lays. The load is applied in
equal increment o r about 20% of the allowable loed. Settlements shou ld be rcco rccd with three dia l gauges.
~ch stage of the loading is ma intained tiUthe rate o r movement of the pile tq> is not more than 0.1 mm per
hour in sandy sons and 0.02 mm per hour in case of clayey so ils or a maximum of two hours (IS ;
2911-1979). Under each load increment, seulcments arc observed at 0.5, 1,2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20. 60 minutes .
The loading should be contin ued upro twice the safe load or the load at which the tota l settlement reaches a
specified value. 100 load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interva l and It,C final rebound is
recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed .

LOAO (OJ -
Sn
""", . ~ N E T SETTLEMENT

.""."-..
. ~
LOADING

Fig. 2.tl3.lOIld Settlement CUlVC.

Fig. 25.13 shows n typical lood-scUlemcnt CUJ'VC (firm line) for loading tIS well 8!> unlooding oora ined
from a pile lood lest. For any given 1000, the net pile sctllemcnt (s. ) is given by
sIt • Sf - s. . . .(25.37)
where Sf= total scUlcmcnt (gross settlement), s. = c lastic settlement (rebound) .
Fig. 25.13 also shows the net settlement (chain dolted line).
Fig. 25.14 snow s two Ioad-nct scukmera curves oouu ned from a pile load tests on two diITcrent soils . Al the
ultimate lood (Q..). the joed-net sctllemcnt curve becomes either linear as curve (2) or there is a sharp brea k as
in Ihe curv e (I ). as shown in the ligu re. The safe 10011 LOAD Q _______
is usually taken as one-half of the ultimate load.
According to IS : 29 11, the sa fe lo.1d is taken tIS
one-half of the load 31 wh ich the IOtal settlement is
equa l to 10 per cen t of the pile d iameter [1.5 per !Z

~tf:a~d O;t :~i:~:~nri:~le~c~~~~~:~ ~

whichev er is less . Accordi ng 10 another ctrterion, the ~
safe load is taken as o ne-half to two-Ihirds of lhe ~
1000;:ichl~~~: n:I~::~nt~~I:ri~m~ also ~
sometimes specified. Under the load twice the safe Z
1<XIJ. the net sculcmcrn should not be more than 20 ~
mm or the gross sc utc ment shou ld not be more thnn
25 mm. Fig. 25.14 .
690 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The lest described above is known as initial left. It is carried out on a lest pile to determine the ultimate
load capacity and hence the safe load. The pile load lest described in this section is a type of toad -contro lled
test, in which the load is applied in steps. The test is also known as slow maintained test.
25.17. OTHER TYPE-I;) OF PILE LOAD TESTS
(I) Cons tant rate or penetration test. In a constant-rate of penetration test, the load on the pile is
continuously increased to maintain a constant rate of penetration (from 0.25 to 5 rom per minute). The force
required to achieve that rate of penetration is recorded, and a load-se ttlement curve is drawn. The ultimate
load can be determined from the curve.
The lest is considerably faster than a load-controlled test.
(2) Routine Load lest. This test is curried out on a wo rking pile with a view to determin e the set tlement
correspond ing to the allowable load. As the WOrking pile wou ld ultimately form a part of the foundation, the
maximum load is limited 10 one and a half times the safe load or upto the load wh ich gives a total settlement
of 12 mm.
(3) Cyclic Load test. The test is carr ied out for separation of skin friction and point resistance of a pile.
In the test, an incremen tal load is repeatedly applied and removed .
(4) Lateral Load test. The test is conducted to determine the safe latera l load on a pile. A hydraulic jack:
is generally introduced between two piles to apply a lateral load . The reaction may also be suitably obtained
from some o ther support. The test may also be carried out by applying a lateral pull by a suitable set-up.
(5) Pull out test. The test is carried out to determine the safe tensio n for a pile. In the set-up. the
hydraulic jack rests against a frame attached 10 the top of the test pile such that the pile gels pulled up.
25.18. GROUP ACnON OF PILES
A pile is not used singu larly beneath a colum n or a wall, because it is extremely difficult to drive the pile
absolutely vertical and to place the foundation exactly over its centre line. If eccentric loading resul ts, the
connection betwee n the pile and the column may break or the
pile may fail struc turally because of bend ing stresses. In actual
practice, structural loads are supported by several piles acting
as a group. For co lumns, a minimum of three piles in a
triangular pattern arc used. For walls, pile." are installed in a
stagge red arrange ment on both sides of its centre line. The
loads are usually transferred to the pile group through a
reinforced concrete slab, structurally tied to the pile tops such

L.t:~; ~
that the piles act as one unit. 111eslab'is known as a pi le cap.
The load acts on the pile alp which distributes (he load 10 the
piles (Fig, 25,15),
The load carrying capacity of a pile group is not
necessarily equ al to the sum of the capacity of the individual
piles. Estimation of the load-carrying capacity of a pile group
t ··,· - t.':.:
is a complicated problem. When the piles arc spaced a
sufficient distance apa rt, the group capacity may approach the t t t tt
sum of the individ ual capacities. On the other hand, if the piles .
are closely spaced, the s!rcsses transmitted by the piles to the Fig. 2.'1.15.
soil may overlap. and this may reduce the load-carrying capacity of the piles (Fig. 25.16). For such a case,
the capacity is lim ited by the group action.
The efficiency (118 ) of a group of piles is defined as the ratio of the ultimate load of the group to the sum
of individua l ultimate loads.

Thus . ..(25.38)
PILE FOUNDATION 691

,, ,,,
(, \
\

)
\
I

< ::>

( a ) SINGLE PILE

(b) PILE GRQ..P

Fig. 15.16.

or '" • Q".(N x 100

Q.
where Q,( ..) = ultimate load of the group. Q.. = ultimate lood of the individual pile,
N = Number of piles in the group.
Thus the groups efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in the group at which the
failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single pile,
The group efficiency depends upon the spacing of the piles. Ideally, the spacing should be such that the
efficiency is 100%. Generally, the centre to centre spacing is kepi between 2.5 Band 3.5 B, where B is the
diameter of the pile.
The methods for the determination of the ultimate load of the individual piles have been discussed earlier.
The methods for the estimation of Ihe ultimate load of the group are explained in the following sections.
15.19. PILE GROUPS IN SAND AND GRAVEL
For piles driven in loose and medium dense cohesionlcss soils, the group efficiency is high. The soil
around and between the piles is compacted due to vibration caused during the driving operation . For better
results, it is essential to start driving the piles at the centre and then work.outward.
The piles and the soil between them move together as a unit when subjected to to ads. The group acts as
a pier foundation having a base equal to the gross plan urea contained between the piles.
(0) End -bearing piles, For driven piles bearing on dense, compact sand with a spacing equal to or
greater than 3 B, the group capacity is generally taken equal 10 the sum of individual capacity. Thus
Q, • N Q. ...(25.39)
In this case, the load taken by the group is much greater (TI, > 100%) than the sum of the individual
capacities, and the piles fail as individual piles.
For spacing less than 3 B, the group opacity is found for the block of piles group.
(b) Friction plies. The group efficiency of friction piles in sand is obtained from the following
expression:
fk1 00 f.(P,D) 00 ... (25.40)
" , • NQ. x I • Nf.(pD) x I
where P, =perimeter of the block, P =perimeter of the individual pile, D = length of pile,
/, = unit friction resistance.
692 SJIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERINO

If the centre-to-centre spacing is large, the group efficiency ('1,:) may be more than 100%. The piles will
behave as individual piles, and the group capacity is obtained from Eq. 25.39.
If ll g is less than 100%.

Q, - ~, (~~ ... (25.41)

The group efficiency can also be ob tained from the Converse- Leberre equation given below.

ll,
_ 1_ [ (II -l)m +
mn
em -nn]...!.
90
...(25.42)
where m = number of rows of piles, n = number of piles in a row, 8 = 180-1 (DIs), B .. diameter of pile. s ""
spacing of pile. centre- to-centre, fl. = group efficiency (expressed as a ratio).
Bored piles. Fa bored piles in sand at cooventional spacing of 3 B, the group capacity is taken as 213
to 3/4 times the sum of individual capacities for both the cnd-bearing and the frict ion piles. Thus
Q, (u) _ (2/3 to 3/4)(N QJ ...(25.43)
In bored piles, there is limited dersift ceuon of the sand surrounding the pile group. Consequently, the
efficiency is lower.
25.20. titLE GROUPS IN CLAY
As the pile group acts as a block. its ultimate capacity is determined by adding the base resistance and
the shaft resistance of the block.. Th e capacity of the block hav ing close ly spaced piles (s s; 3 B) is often
limited by the beha viour of the group act ing as a block . 1be group capacity of the block. is given by
or Q, (u) . qp (A,) + a c (P, D) ...(25.44)
where qp ::: unit point resistance (Ne • 9.0),A, ::: base area of the block, P, ::: perimeter of the block, D =
depth of the block, a ::: ad hes io n fac tor ( ::: 1.0 for soft Clays) , c = undrained cohesion.
As discussed earlier, the indiv idual pile capacity is giv en by Eq. 25.15.
Q.. • qpA, + ac(p )( D ) •••(25.45)
The group ca pacity considering the piles as indi vid ual piles is giv en by
Q, (u) • N Q. ...(25.46)
The lower of the two values. given by Eqs. 25.44 and Eq. 25.46, is the actual capaci ty.
25.21. SETILEMENT OF PILE GROUPS
The settleme nt of a pile group is due 10 elastic shortening of piles and due 10 the settlement of the soil
supporting the piles. It is assu med that the pile group acts as a single large deep loundalio"" such as a pier

(al FRICTION PILES (b) END BEARING PILES

Fig. 25.17.
PILEFOUNDATION 693

or a mat. The tOlal load i'i assumed to ect at a depth equal to two-thirds the pile lenglh in the C3Se of
!rictiooal piles [fig. 25.17 (a»). In the caseof end-bearing piles. the IOlalload is assumed to act at the pile
tips [F1g. 25.17 (b)J. In the case of comb ined ecuoo, the frictional romponent is assumed to ad at 2J3 D and
the bearing compon ent at the tip.
For determi natio n of the sett leme nts. the compression characteristics of the soil are required . For clayey
soils, the cbaracterisucs are determined from laboratory tests on undistwbcd samples. For cobcsl onless soils ,
the cberactensrica art: obtained from emp irical correletions developed from in-situ penetration tests.
(a) Coheslonless so ils
(i) Skem pto n method. The settlement of the pile group is estim ated from the setuement of a single pile,
as determ ined in a pile-load test. Tbc settleme nt of the group is generally very large because the pressure bulb
for the group is much dee per than that of a singl e pile.
Skem pton et al (1953) published curves (Fig . 25.18) relating the settlement of the pile groo p (s, ) of a
given total foundation width to that of a single pile (s..). The curves can be used for bolh driven and bored
piles.
,
1

,
, V
...-
--- I-

./c 3 , , ~

Wi dth 01
11

loundotiorl
"
( m ) ______
11

(A1t,r S ~ton.19'5) )

Rg .2S.l8.
(u) Me)'erhor met hod. Meyerhof (1976) suggests the following empirica l relation for the elastic

where s,
s•• 9.4 q::
settlement of a pile group in sands and gravels .

= settlement of group (mm), q = load intensity (= Q,IA,) , B, = width of the gro up, I = influence
.. .(25.47)

factor [= 1 -D/(S B~ :t 05], D = length of pile, N = corrected standard penetratio n number within the scat
of set tlement (approximately equal to B, below the tip).
If stalk: cone resu lts are available, the settlement of the group can be obtained from the relation ,
qB, 1
$, • zq;- ...(25.48)
where qr = average COIle penetration resistance within the seat of settlemen t.

(b) Clay." 00110

The ronsoUda tlon settleme nt of a pile groupin clay can be de tennined using the procedure discussed in
chapter 12. Generally, a 2 : 1 load distribution is assumed from the level at which the load acts . Sometimes,
the load is assu med 10 spread o utwa rds from the edge of the block at an angle of 30 0 to the vertica l. For
2 : 1 distribu tion, the stress increase at the middle of each layer is ca lculated as (see chaprer 11),
.94 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

q, _ Q, ...(25.49)
(DK + Z;) (L : + Z;)
where Z, is the distance from the level of the application of the load to lhc middle of clay layer i.
The seulement of eccti layer caused by the increased stress is given by (see chapter 12).
As (n - 1 ~ ee~)(,) n, ...(25.50)
where A It (I) = ch ange of vo id ratio caused by the stress increase, e.. (I) = initial void ratio of laye r i, Ili "
thickness of layer i.

Ancrnauvely, u,
11 ,(,) . C< -1 - - (-' log - -
(cr. 110,)
+
- - ...(25.51)
+ e" 1/ 0 ..

The total co nsolidation sct uemem is equal 10 the sum of the settleme nt of all layers.
s, •
I.1.s (l) .. .(25.52)
25.22. SHARING OF LOADS IN A IJILE GROUP
All the piles in a group share equal load if the load is central.

Q - 9t ... (25.53)
However, if the load is eccentric or if the central lood is accompanied by a moment, the sharing of load
is computed assuming Ihe pile cap as rigid. As lhe pressure discribulion is planar. Ihe pile reactions also vary
linearly wilh the d istance from the cen troid of the C3p (Fig. 25.19). t he axia l load in any pile m at a distance
x from the cent roid is given by
Q. (Q. ' e",)x
Q'-N '~ .. .(2554)

where e", = eccentricity of 1000 about Y.Y·a xis,

If the lood is eccen tric abou t both the axes.

Q"' · ~
N8~ ~~ ~ l:.r- l: y
... (25.55)

where e y = eccen tricity of load about X-X axis,

In lhe above equat ions, the positive sign is taken for the
piles on the same side as the ecce ntricity.
d
If the load on an y pile is negative, it indica tes thai the pile
is in tension. If the pile is not designed for tension, the load in
that pile is taken <IS zero , and the load between other piles is
redistributed . This would cause extra compression in other piles.
25.23. TENSION .)lLES
Piles supporting high structures , suc h as tall chimneys,
transmission towers, water towers. are required to resis t uplift y
forces d ue to wind . So me of the piles in these structures are (b ) PLAN
required to resist tensile forces and are known as tens ion piles.
Resistance to uplift forces is provided by the frictio n
between the pile and the surrounding soil. The uplift resistance
of a strnight-shafl pile em be computed in the same manner as
the Irictioeal resistaoce in frictiooal piles. However, the unit
skin friction (1;) and adhesion (c..) for the uplift resistance are (0) PILE LOADS
considerably less than those for the compressive loads. It is Fig. 25.19.
PILE FOUNDATION S 695

usual practice to reduce these values to o ne-half of the norma l values if the piles arc sho rt. For large
structures, it is essential to carry out pull OU1 tests on piles 10 determine the safe value of the unit skin friction
or adhesion for uplift forces.
The uplift resistance of piles can be considerably increased in the case of bored piles by under-reaming
or be lling ou t the bonom. A bulb can also be formed in the case of driven and cast - in place piles to increase
the uplift resistance .
Mayerhof and Adams (1968) gave the follow ing equations for the pull-out resistance (Pit)'

(a) Sha llow pilei Fig. [25.20 (a)J . Pull-out resistance .

IblDc.-ep pile

Fig. 25.20.
p.. = cohesive resistance + frictional resistance

Pe » ::tB1cItD + sf" (i Bl ) IY-Klttan t + W ••. (2556 )

where B 1 = dia meter of enlarged base, Cit = undrained cohesion, D = kngth of pile, .. = ang le of shearing

coe fficient of passive earth pressure

in a cylinde r of diameter B I and hci
i-
resistance. sf = shape factor (see Table 25 .3), Kit = coeffici ent of lateral earth pressure( = K, tan ~ ~). K, =

1 + s~ t
1 - SiD"
I D.
). 1 = bulk unit weight. and W = weigh t of soil and pile

(b) Deep piles Fig. {25.20 (b)]. Pull-out resistance,

1'" • cohesive resistance + frictionalresistance

1'" - nB, cltll + Sf"(~Bl) (2D -IJ)/-IK"tan'P + W •.. (255 7)

where II = max imum height of rupture surfa ce (see Table 25.3) (For deep piles II :s; D)
Table 25.3. Values of JlJDlt m a nd Sf

+ 2!1' 25· 30· 35 0 40" 450 50·

H /BI 25 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 9.0 11.0
m 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.25 035 050 0.60

'1 1.12 UO 1.60 225 3.45 550 1.60

All other notations arc the same as before.

 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

For purely ~hcslve soils, as 4' = 0, the secon d term in &p. 2S.S6 and 25.57 Is zero . For cohesicnlcss
SOils. as Cu = O. the first term is zero. The shape factor (3/) is equal to 1 + mDlB l for short piles, and equal
10 I + mJl/B I for deep piles, where m is a c:ocmCM:nt depend ing on "

25.2~. LATERALLY L OADED PILES

Piles <Ire sometimes subjected to lateral loads due to wind pressure, water pressure, earth pressure,
earthquakes, etc. When thc horizonta l compone nt of the load is small in comparison with lhe vertical 100d
(say. less than 20%) . ir is genera lly assumed to be carried by vertical piles and no special provision for lateral
load is made .
If the hor izontal toad is large, inclined piles, known us ralcing piles or batterpiles, are provided to take
the horizontal load. These piles have a high resistance to lateral loads, as a large portion of the horizontal
compo nent of the lOO<! is carried axially by the pile. Butter piles, along with vertical piles, art providedin
sncc nons where the horizontal loads are slgnificant. such as wharves, jellies. bridgc piers, trestles, retaining
wall and tall chimneys.
Boner piles are driven at a butter ranging from 1 : 12 to 1 : 25. However , driving of bailer piles is more
expe nsive than ihat of ve rtica l piles. The resistance 10 failure of vertical piles subjected 10 horizon tal loads is
provided by the passive resistance of a w edge of soil in front. of the piles . In case of batter piles, additional
resis tance is provided by the skin friction and the end bearing. Therefore , batter piles ere more effective than
vertical piles in rcstsrlng horizontal 10,'1(ls .
It is genera lly assumed that batter piles a m take the axia l loud equ al to that in the oorresponding vertical
pile. A$ the axis of the batter pile is inclined, it can resist the horizon tal load equal to Q cos 8, where Q is
the axial lood capacity nnd 8 is the angle which lhe pik makes with the horizon tal. When piles nrc oriented
in two or three direction s, Culrnann's method, as described below, is used.
Steps : (1) Group the plies according to
their s lopes. [In Fig. 25.21 (a). the piles are
grouped in 3 directions}.
(2) Draw the geometry ' of (he pile group
10 some salle, and mark the d irections of the
inclined load Q, and the centre line of each
pile group (HI . H 2 and Rl ).
(3) Determ ine the jocnuon of point A
which is 01 the intersection of R t and Q, .
(4) Join A to the point D which is at the
intersection of H2 and Hl .
(5) Draw the force triangle [Pig . 25.21 (b»).
Select the line ab parallel to AD. From b
draw a line be perullel to Q, 10 some salle.
Draw a vertical at c to determine co which is
equa l 10 HI'
From b draw a line pa rallel to Hl, and
from a. line parall el to H2 , to complete the
triangle abd.
(6) Dctennine forces in piles as follows.
The magnitudes of R2 and Rl are,
respect ively. given by ad and bd. However,
R2 is compress ive and Rl is tensile. (b)
The magni tude of R J is given by co which
is compress ive. fi g. z,u1.
PILE FOUNDATI ONS 691

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustrative Example 25.1. A conCIY:lf! pilf!o 30 em diameler; if drj,,'DI into a medium dense sand (t =
35°, '1'" 21 iNlm1, K :I. 1.0, tan b • 0.70) for a depth 018 m. Estimate the sale load, taking a 1000t.J
r 01 safery
o{ 2S 0.

Solullon. From Eq. 25.10, Q•• q,v. A, .,:.KCO.); ,an 6 tA,);

For • :I. 3~o,
DriB. 12.0, from rig. 25.3.
Dr. 12 X 0.3 • 3.6m
Maximum value of uv • 3.6 x 21 • 75.6 kN/m 2
The value of N., is taken from Bcreeootzcv'scerve (Fig. 25.4). Nfl • 60.
Theref ore, Q• • 75.6 JC 60 JC :t/4 x (0.3)2+ K 1.006 (area of u. d iagram) x pilcsperimctCf'

• 320.5 + 1.0 x 0.70 x ( t JC 75.6 x 3.6 + 75.6 JC 4.4 ) x :t x 0.3

Q• • 320.5 • 300.2 • 629.7 kN

Sore Iood, Q• • ~ • 6~7 • 151.9 kN

lIIuslratin Example 25.2. Determine the safe load for the pik in IlIwtralive Example 25.1, if the water
table rises to 2 m below the ground surface. TaJce '1"" • 10 INlmJ•
Solullon . Vertical pressure at the critical depth.
Ov • 2 x 21 + 1.6 x (21 - 10) • 59.6 kN/m 2

Therefore. Q• • 59.6 JC 60 x :tI4 x (0.3)2 + ( t JC 59.6 x 3.6 + 59.6 x 4.4 ) JC 0.7 JC J't x 0.3
Q • 252.6 • 243.7 • 496.3 kN

Q• • 4~.3 • 198.5 kN
llIustratin Example 205.3. A 30 em dilJlMter c:oncnk pile is drive" ;"10 a homogt.'J1eOU.J cOIUOlidateJ
1
clay deposit (c. '" 40 iNlm , a .. 0.7). If the em.beJtkd Imgtlz if 10 In, o tinuJre 1M safe load (FS . = 2.5).
Solution. From Eq, 25.15, QIl. eNrAp + (leA,
Thking Nt - 9.0,
Q• • (40 x 9.0) '1/4 x (0.3)2 + 0.7 x 40 (J't x 0.3) x 10 • 289.2 kN

Q• • ~. ~~2 • 1lS.7kN
Illustratl..e Example 25.4. A squareconcrete pile (30 em side) 10 m long is driven inta coarse sand (1
z 18.5 kNlmJ, N '"' 20). DelermUle the allowab le load (FS. • 3.0).
Solution From Eq. 25.29, q, • 4ON(D/B) • 400N
In this case, 4ON(DIB) • 40 x 2D (1010.3) _ 26666.7kN /m 2
400 N • 400 x 10 • 80)) kN/m 2
Adop. the lower value of 8(XX) kN/m2 •

From Eq. 25.30 (Q), f, - 2.0 II( N _ 2.0 Jl 20 • 40 kN/m 2

Therefore, Q• • qp Ap + f, A,
698 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

_8000(0.3 x .0.3) + 40)( (4 )( 0.3 x 10) .. 1200 kN

Q•• ~. l~ • 400kN
Illustrative Example 25.5. A square 'concrete pile (35 an x 35 em) is driven into a homogeneous sand
J
layer (+ '" 3lf'. y = 17 IcNlm ) for a depth of 10 m. Calculat e the ultimate load Use Meyerhof's method. Take
K:: 13 and 6 = ISO.
Solution. From F ig. 25.5, (D,fB)" - 7.0
Dc .. 7 )( 035 .. 2.45
D,fB - 10/0.35 - 28.57
q .. 2.45 x 17 .. 41.7 kN/m 2
From Fig. 25.5. Nq .. 55.0
From EG. 25.6, Q...- .. ApCjNq 5: Apq l
In this case, A, ,N, _ (03 5 x 035)(41.7 x 55) • 280.9 kN
Apq l .. (0.35 )( 035)(50 x 5S tan 30j .. 194.5 kN
Adopt ing the lower value, Q»> 194.5kN
From EG. 25.8. h·K(j~ lanO
lbcrefore, Q, .. K tan 6 (areaof'Ovdiagram) perimeter
.. 1.3 tan 18 0 x (41.7 /2 x 2.45 + 41.7 )( 7 .55) )( 4 x 0.35 .. 2165kN
Thus Q.. .. 194.5 + 216.5 .. 411 kN
lIIustnllve Example 15.6. A concrete pile, 40 an diameter, is driven 25 m into a soft clay (ell = 25.0
leN/ml , 1 = 19 IeNlnI). Determine the allowable load using Vijayvergia and Focht method (F.5. = 2.5). The
water table is at the ground surface.
Solution . Taking Ne .. ' 9.0,
Qp _ c.. N~Ap _ 25 )( 9 )( x/4 )( (0.4)2 _ 28.3 kN
From EG. 25.14, t. - A \0, + 2c)
From Fig. 25.8. for 0 = 25 m, ).. = 0.16

Therefore, f. • ,0.16 [ ~)( 25)( (19 - 10) + 2)( 25]_ 26kN/m

2

Thus Q, _ 26 )( (x )( 0.4) )( 25 • 816.4

Q.. _ 28.3 + 814.4 _ 844 .7 leN
Q• • 844.712.5 • 337.9 kN
Illustrative Example 25.7. A 25 m deep bored pile has a shaft of 1 m diameter and en larged base of2.5
m diameter in the lower 1.5 m depth. The undrained cohesion of tile soil varies from 100 kN/m 2 at the top 10
150 leN/m2 aJ the base. Determ0e the safe load (p.s. = 2.5). Take a :II 0.4$.
Solution. Total depth of the shaft = 25 - 1.5 = 23.5 m
Assuming no adhesion for a distance 2 B above the bell, the effective depth is 21.5 m.

c. at that depth _ 100 + (150 ; 100) )( 21.5 _ 143 kN/m 2

Therefore. Q.. _ (150 )( 9) (x/4) )( (2.5)2 + 0.45 )( (100 + 143)/2 )( x )( 1 )( 21.5
• 10319.5 kN

Q. _ 1~~.5 • 412.8 kN
 PILE FOUNDAllONS

Ittusera t lve Exa mple 25.8. A precast concrete pile (35 em x 35 em) is driven by a single.acling steam
hammer. Estimate the allowable load using (a) Engineering News Record Formula (R S. = 6), (b) lli ley
Formula (RS . = 4) and (e) Danish Formula (RS. = 4).
Usc the follow ing data.
(.) Maximum rated energy = 3500 kN-an
(iJ) Weight of hammer =: 35 kN
(ii I) Length of pile =: 15 m
(iv) Efficiency of hammer = 0.8
(v) Coeffi cient of res istilution = 0.5
(VI) Weight oCpile cap = 3 kN
(vi,) No. of blows for last 25.4 mm =6
(viii) Modulus of elasticil.y of ccocrere = 2 x 10"1 kN /m 2
Assume any other data, if required.
Solution . (a) From Eq. 25.22.
Q.. • ~. 3500 x 0.80 . 4133.9 kN -;
S + C 254/6 + 0.254
AUowab le load. Q«» 4133.9/6 _ 689 kN
(b) Weight of pile - 25 (0.35 x 0.35) x 24 - 735 kN
P _ 735 + 3.00 . 765 kN
eP • 0.5 x 765 • 38.2 kN
AsW.351cN, W <eP

.' From Eq. 25.25, l1b •

W+ ,,'P (WW -+ eP)'
w-:;:-p - P . '

35 + (05)2 x 76.5 ( 35 _ 0.5 x 76.5)'

35 + 76.5 35 + 765
l1b • 0.484
( Wh ) ~, ,,,
From Eq. 25.23. Q• • (5 + CI2)

3~5~/~·~e;2 0.8
5:
Q• • • 254:: e/2 •..(4)

Assuming dri ving is with doll y,

e _ (9.05 + 0.657 D + 3.55)R / A

.j
e _ (9 .05 + 0.~7 XX 3~ + 355) R

or C. 0.D18 R . 0.0l8Q..
where Q. is in tonnes. For Q.. in !tN,
C • 0.0018 Q.

There fore, Bq. (a) gives Q.. 0 423 :3g.~ Q.

Solving, Q. _ 1016kN

Al low able load, Q. • 1~16 _ 254 kN

700 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(Wh) ( 'lAo
(e) From &I. 25.2s, Q·=S+S./2
3500 x 0.8 2800
.. .(b)
2.54/. + 0.5 S. 0.423 + 0.5 S.

From &I. 25.27.

_-V 2 TtIJ (W1I) D
S" - AE

= " 2 x 0.8 x 3SOO x 1.500 = 1.85cm

35)( 35 x 2 X 10' X 10'"

Therefore. Eq. (b) gives Q• ... 0.423 +2~~ )( 1.85 = 2077.2 kN

Allowable load. Q.. = 2~.2 .. 519.3 kN

DlUitratlYl! Example 25.9. A 30 em diameter pUr of /~tlgth /2 m I+'CU subjected 10 a pile load leSI and
1M follow ing rrsults M'rrr obtained.
I.ooJ IlN) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Settlement during loading
<em)
0 0.85 1.65 2.55 3.• • .0
Seukment during unloadinJ
(e m )
4.0 4.• 5.2 B ". s,0

Determine the allo ....dble load.

Solution. Fig. E-25.9 shows the load senlemcnt curve, and lhc rebound curve. 1be tiel settlements arc
calculated below. The figure a1!KJ !I00WI the net settlements.
1.ooJ(.N) I 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Gross IlCnl eme lll (em) I 0 O.8~ 1.65 B5 3.80 •.00
Rebound{ em } I 0 0.60 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.00
Net settlement (em) I 0 0.25 0."5 LOS 2.00 4.0l:f

.....•
-

to

!
I~
"
AS. E-~ .9
 PlLBFOUNDATION 101

The aUowable load is determined usingthe following ailerla.

(I) ~ of loadcom:sponding to a grosssc:tueroent of 12 mm,

O··t· 7SO • SOO kN

(ii) ~ or _ cornspoodlng to • "" setlkmen. or 6 mm.

0•• ~'Il2S .750kN

(U~ ~ or _ corrcspondlog10• gross setlkmCOl or 8/10 ( • 3 ce),

O• • t. 1700 • 8SOkN
The allowable load is lhe leastof the nne values.
O• • sao
kN
111",1..11•• Example15.10.II pile groupco",istlng 0112 pile, (Fig. £ ·25.10) is ,ubj«led to 0 _I load
0/4 MH. witheccemricity e. -= 0.3 m, tty• 0.4 m. DetermiM lhe maximum /oQd in lUI JndMdual pile.

RI- 6-2$.10

8olulloo. From &j. 25.55, O• • N • --u- • <0, ' e,)Y

0, (0, ' e.)x
~

1 In this case, Ii' •

II .
6 • (05)' + 6 • (15)' • 15.0
4 • (1.0)' + 4 • (1.0)' • 8,0
Themaximum load occurs in pile 4.
a. . ~ + (4.0 1~ 0.3) • 1.5 + (4D : 0.4) • 1.0

• 0.6533 MN • 653.3 kN
illustrative Example 2$.11. A pile groupconsistsof 9 frictionpiles of 30 em diaIne~r and 10 m 1e1Igth
driven in clay (c. = 100 kNlnI, y • 20 kNlmJ) , tU shown in Fig. £ -25.11. DetnnUne 1Msafe load f(6 the
group (FS = 3, a = 0.6).
Solution.From Eq. 25.44. a .(u). qpA, + ac{P,D).
702 SO IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING

Fig. E-2S.11.
- (9 )( 100)( 1.8 )( 1.8) + 0.6 X 100 )( (4 . x 1.8 )( 10)
Q, (u) • 7236 kN
From Eq. 25 .45, Q.. • qp Ap + a c (p x D)
• (9 )( 100) )( n/4 )( (0.3)2 + 0.6 x 100 (x )( 0.3) )( 10
Q" • 628.8 kN
From Eq. 25 .46, • Q, (u) • NQ"
- 9 x /iii
g"; 5659.2 kN
As the ultimate load for individ ual pile failure is less than the pile grou p load, the safe load is given by
Q" • 56~.2 • 1886.4 kN

Illustrative Example 15.12. A 40 em diameter pile, 11 m long. has a bell of 2 m diameter and 1 m
l
height. I{ the soil has f = 25 ", e" = 20 leN/m and 't = 19 kNlm J, estimate the allowable pull out resistance
(FS = 3).
Solution. From Thble 25.3. HI Bl - 3.0,
Therefore. 11 • . 3)( 2.0. 6m
As D > H , the pile is deep .
From Eq. 2551,
P" - ..1tB t c"H + sly(:t/2 x 8 1) (2D -1l)HK,.umt + W
where W. :tI4 )( (2.0)2 x 11 x 19 + :t/4 )( (0.4)2 x 11 )( (23 - 19)
W .662kN
From Table 25.3, Sf - 1.3.
PILE rOUNDATION 703

0(
K_.!....:t...!!!!(
" I - sin '
.£ _) _Il -+ Sin25
tan 3 x,.
~ . 250) _0737
sin250 lan 3 X •

Therefore, POI _ l't X 2.0 x 20 x 6 + 1.3 x 19 (l't/2 x 2)(2 x 11 - 6) x 6 x 0.737 tan 250 + 662
I' . _ 3976 kN

Allowable pull, p. _ 39;6 _ 1325 kN

Illustra tive Examp le 25.13. A group of friction piles of 30 cm diameter is subjected to a net load of
2000 leN, as shown in Fig. E·25.13. Estimate the consolidation settlement.

T
I Loyer

, \
/' \

" ~::~~2~Nfm3 __. ~~ 11Loyer

j~/ ',.0" B . \\ L
( No t t0 5colel

Fig. E·2S.12.
Solution. 00 at point A, middle ·of I layer
_ 3 x 16 + 2 x (19 - 10) + 8 x 10.0 _ 146 kN/ m2
00 at point D, middle of II layer _ 3 x 16 + 2 x 9.0 + 13 x 10.0 + 5 x 11 _ 251 kN/m 2

Cross-secttonal arca nt a - (2.5 + 2 x 5 x t)_ 75 m

2

/1 0 - 752~7.5 - 35.56 kN/m

2

Cross-sectional area at D • (25 + ' 15 x 2 x t). 175 m

2

/10· 175~7.5 - 6.53kN /m

2
704 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

II ) log ----;;;-
a,.Aa
SctUemenl 0{ I layer • C~
(
~

• 0.25 )( 1 +1~.75 log 146 :~5.56 • 0.135 m

Settlement of D layer • O.lO • 1 . 1~.6S loti 251 :S16.53 • O.ol4

Tcta1settlement • 0.135 + 0.014 • 0.149 m

PRODLEMS

A. Nummcal
15.1. :
~ .:::~..n:~ ~~t~e ~~9~~~1~ ~II)' oonsoIldaltd day depo£il IS m Ibi~. ~,:~~ 3~; ~~i
:zs.:z. A 10 m long ccecrere pile 30 em diameter is driven Into a medium dense lioIInd (+ .. ~,,, '" 20 kN1m3, K "
1.0, tlln 6 =0.5). 'Thkc Dr 18 '" 10.0. fs tirDluelhc safe 1000(Pos, 2..'5).
::E IAn" 130 kN)
15.3. Zp~C:~:u:.) t:es rs
::OObiN~i n: :OO~:C7:::: =2~t~~JX~~:':a ~~~' :~ :::
dense sand (qr .. 2000 kN/m'. If the tip is embedded 2 m into the dense Iillnd, esumere the sate lood (F.S. =
3.0) {Ans. 542 kN)

15.4. ~:;:~;~~ ~~;r~:rd~t"rs3~7. ~~~\I~: =r~~l~~.~.~~

estimate the safe Jood (f5. " 3). lbke K • 1.0.and 6 " 0.7$ "P' (An$, 168 kNJ
25.5. (tI) The desian capacity of a pile is 400 kN with a (sCUM' of saCcly of 4. Wbldshould be lhe average penetration
of the pilc for the last few blows ?
(b) now many bJow5 'A'OUId be: requited (or the I. one metre Cor the design CBpIlCity 10be achieved ? Use
following dala:
Energy OIling • 3500 kN-cm
Efficiencyor hommet • 0.80
CrCJsa..sectional area of pile • 100 em'l
Voong's modulua of pile mDleriai a 2 X let kNlm 'l
Lenglh orpile • 10 m.
Use Daniih formula. IAns. 9.1 mmtblow; 110\
15.6. A precast coecreie pile is driven with a SOkN hammer. having a free fall of 1.0 m. If lhe poloelralion in the 11ISt
bklw is 0.5 em, determine tbc klad-carryina:ClIpaQlY ollhe pile ming EngiooeringNev.rs gecoed fonnula. (F.s.
'" 6.0). [Aos. 274 kNJ
15.7. The pile 10lldtest 011 a 40 an diamelet oonaelC pile in a eepcsn of sand indicates a senlemenl of 4 mm under
a load or 400 kN. Estimale the IiCltlemcnt of • 4 )( 4 pile group. The piles are driven at a spacing of 100 em.
The 10 1111 lood on tbc group is 6400 kN. [Ans. 20 mm]
zs.s. A group 0( nine piles, 8 m klng. is used as the £oundaIion for a cdumn . The piles are 30 em diameter with
centre 10 centre specing d 90 em The subsoil consisu or day wilh unconfined axnpression strength or ISO
kNJm'l. Estimate the sate Joed.(F.s. .3.0) (Ani . 1.8 MN, individual acIion)
2.5.9. A 30 an diameler pile, 12 m lona. II driven lmo I sand deposit. The details of the hammer nrc as under.
lbIaI weight of hammer :II 20 i.N

Length of stroke • 100 em

Energyper blow • 2(XXJ kN-cm
Average: penetration blow ., 4 mm
Estimate ultimale resistanceof pile usina:Hiley's f"' mula, assuming ~ driving is without dolly and cushion is
eboct 2.5 an thick . (Ana. II SO iN]
Z5.10. A bored pile in a daycy lICil failed 81 an ullimate 10lldof 400 kN. If tbc pile Is 40 em diameler and 10 m long.
determine the capacityof . group or nine piles, spaced 1 m centre 10centre bol:h ways. Take a = 0.5.
IAn&. 3.6 MN, individual action; 5.4 MN, group action]
PILE FOUNDATIONS
10'
B. Descr ipti ve a nd Objective Typ e
25.11. What are the condi t ion~ where a pile foundation is more suitable than a sh allow foundat ion ?
25.12. Describ e various t y pe~ of pile foundarinus.
25.13. Discuss different methods for the installations (If piles.
25.14. How wou ld you estimate the 1000 carrying capacity o f a pile in (u) co hcstonless so ils. Ib ) cohes ive soils '!
25.15. Wha t is negat ive skin mcuon '! whar i-, il~ effect on the pile ?
25.16. Discuss vanous dynamic formulae . What are their limitations '!
25.17. Discuss the uses of pene .. reuon tests fur the cstimanon of load- carrying capacity of piles.
25. 18, How wou ld you estimate the group capaci ty of piles in (a) sand (b ) clay '!
25.19. Discuss the method for the design o f ( a ) tensio n piles. (b) inclined piles .
25.20 , Write whether the following statements are true or Ialsc.
((II Pile foundat ions arc mo re econ om ica l thuu vhalluw fou ndation fo r mod erate loads.
Ib ) The loa d-carryin g capac ity of a bored pile is sma ller than that of an equ ivalent dr iven pile,
Ie) Negative skin friction occurs when the surrounding soil settles more than the pile.
(t/) The most reliab le method for determining the load- carrying capac ity of a pile is the load test.
(t") The group capacity of a pile gHJUp for closely -spaced piles is generally limited by the behaviou r of the
gro up as a block .
ifJ Th e group e fficiency of the pile~ can he murc than 100% .
eli) The load carrying capacity o f tcusmn piles de pends upon the diameter (If the bell.
[Am . True. (h ), (c) , (,I) . (e) , ifl, (g )]

C. Multipl e Choice Que stions

I. A pile fOuooiltion is USl-..J when
(u) the loads are heavy
fbI the soil stratum nC- ,Mground surface is weak.
fe) beth lu I and lbl
(d ) neith er (m nor Ibl
2. The load-ca rrying ca pacity of a pile depe nds upo n the
(al skin Iri cnon (hI [Joint resistance
(c) bo th (a ) and th) (d) neithe r (a ) nur (b) .
J . Th e negative sk in friction on a pile develo ps whe n
(a) the w il in which it is driven is sandy ~oil
(bl the soil surrounding it scales more than the pile
Ie) the ground water table rises.
(tI) the soi l near the tip is clay.
4. Th e load-ca rrying capac ity of a bored pile in sand is abou t ... lime s tha t o f a dri ven pile.
(a) 1/2 to 2/3 (hJ 2/.l W 3/4
Ie) 31.\ to 1.25 (e/ ) more than 1.25
5. The group e fficiency of d riven piles in s;mtl ill ,I close spacing may be
(a) equ al to Il:JO'* (bl greate r than 100%
(e) well below 100% tell None Ilf above
6 . A 30 em diameter pile i~ driven 10m into a hOIT~ogell<..'Ous consolidated clay deposit. The safe load when the
factor of 5.1fety i~ 2.50. unit cohesion b .\0 kN/m- and adhesion factor is 0.70
(al 150 .8 kN Ib) 105.6 LN
(e) 2 15.4 k N (c!) 211.2 kN
[Ans. I. kJ. 2. (f). J. (h l, 4. ltI). 5, (f,) , fi . Ih}]
 26
Drilled Piers and Caissons

26.1. INTI~ O nUCll O N

(0 ) Drilled Pier. A drilcd pier is a large diameter concrete cylinder builLin the ground. For construction
of a drilled pier, a large diameter hole is drilled in the ground and subsequent ly filled with concrete. The
difference between a drilled pier and a bored pile is basically of the size. Genera lly, bored piles arc of
diameter less than or equal \0 0.6 m. The shafts of size larger than 0.6 marc generall y designa ted as drilled
piers. A drilled pier is a type of deep foundation constructed to transfer heavy axial or lateral loads to a deep
strat um below the ground surface.
(b) Caisson . A caisson is a type of foundati on of the shape of a hollow prismatic box, which is built
above the ground lev el and then sunk to the required depth <IS a single unit. It is a watenl gfu chamber used
for laying foundations undcr water, as in rivers. takes, harbours. etc. The caissons are of three types : (I) Open
caissons. (iI) Pneumatic caissons, and (iii) floa ting caissons.
Open caissons arc hollow chambers, open both at the top and the bottom. The bottom of the caisson hes
a cutting edge. The caisson is sunk into place by removing the soil from the inside of the shaft (chamber)
until the bearing stratum is reached. Well foundations arc special type of open caissons used in India,
discussed in chapter 27.
Pneumatic caissons are closed at the top, but open at the bottom. A pneumatic caisson h:IS a working
chamber at its bottom in which compressed air L" maintained at the required pressure to prevent entry of
water into the chamber, Thus the excavation is donc in dry,
Hooting caissons arc open at the top but closcd at the bottom. These caissons are constructed on land and
then transported to the site. and floated to the place where these arc 10 be finally installed. These are sunk at
.hat place by filling them with sane, ballast, water or concrete to a levelled bearing surface .
Th is chapter deal.s with the design and construction of drilled piers and caissons.
26.2. DRILLED IJIEUS
The transfer of load to the soil from a drilled pier. like a pile. em lake place through end bearing, skin
friction or a combination of both. Drilled piers in cohesive soils arc generally belled or under-reamed to
increase the load-carrying capacity. Fig, 26.1 (a) shows a straight shaft pier. and Fig. 26.1 (b), a belled pier.
Belled piers are generally used when the stratum docs root have adequa te bearing capacity.
The load-carrying capacity of a drilled pier can be estimated using a method similar to that for piles. as
explained below.
(b) Drilled piers on sand . The analysis of drilled piers in sand is similar to that for bored piles in sand.
As the excavation for a drilled pier is likely 10 lead to some loosening of the sand deposit, the strength of rbe
sa nd is considerably reduced. The ultimate load of a drilled pier can be obtained from the following
equation s,
DRlll.FD PIERS AND CAISSONS 707

Fig. 26.1. Drilled Piers.

Q~ _ (q Nq) Ap + (K o~ ta nb)A, ... (26.1)
where IIp = unit tip resistance, q = effective vertical pressure at the base. 0" = effectiv e vertica l pressure at
any depth. tan () = frictio n coefficient, K '" lateral earth pressure coefficie nt, Ap = area of base, A, = surface
area of shaft.
As for piles, while calculating the effective vertical pressure at the base @, the limits imposed by the
concept of the critical depth shou ld be considered, if applicab le.
The value of K is approximately equal to the coefficient of eart h pressu re at rest (K.,). Thus
K_K,,_l _sin <\l
Generally, the value of K varies between 0.3 and
0.75.
The value of Ian b is taken equal 10 Ian t when the
excavauoc is done dry. However, if slurry is used, some 00
V
reduction should be applied to the value of tan 6-
The value of N q for drilled piers is gene ra lly lower
than thai for driven piles. The values given by Vcsie
t 100
80
(1%3) are appro ximately the lower bound, and are Nq 60
generally recomme nded for drilled piers in sand (Fig. 0 /
26 .2). Alternative ly. the values of the shallow foundations
30 /
(chapter 23) can be used conservatively.
20 ./
A factor of safety of 2.5 to 3.0 is generally applied
10 the ultimate load to obtain the safe load.
The allowab le bearing capacity can also be obtained 1
from N-value obtained from standard penetration tes t. 25 30 35 40
The bearing capacity of a drilled pier L<; ge nerally tuken 1>_
one ha lf of the value of an open caisson in identical
coodiuons, ob tained from Eq. 26.5. (Altt'r W-Sic..19&3)
The settlement of a pier under a given ncI soil
pressure is gcnernlly less than that of a comparable Fig. 26.2.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
''''
shallow foundatio n beca use of the confining pressure of the surrou nding soil . The allowable soil pres.surc am
be obtained from the curves for the shallow foundat ions g iven in cha pter 23, using the N·valucs uncorrected
for the confming press ure. If the water tab le is high, the water tab le correction is made as in shallow
foundations.
As the settlement due 10 self weight occurs before the pier is compl eted , it is not of much practical
signi fica nce . The self weight of the pier is usually subtracted from the total load when de termi ning the
allowab le load for the settlem ent. However, while com puti ng the factor of safety against bearing failure. the
we ight of the pier mus t be cons idered. Th e settlement of the pier can be computed using the procedure
developed for shallow footings .
Acco rding to Terzaghi and Pede (1967), the seu jemera of a drilled pier in sa nd at any depth is abon one
half the settlement of an equally loaded foot ing covering the same area. Bq. 23.83 can be used 10 dcIcnn iDe
the allowable soil pressw-c. TIle unit pressure for piers on sand is generally taken twice the value for a Iootiog
of the same size under identical conditions, obtained from Eq. 23.83 .
(b) Drilled piers on cla y, The analysis of a drilled pie r in clay is similar La that of bored piles in clay.
The ult imate load is give n by the following equations.
Q.. '" qpA p + [,A s
or Q.. • «s,», + ucA, ••.(262 )
where c = =
undrained cohesion, C average undra ined cohes ion on the shaft, u =
adhesion factor, Nt =
bearing capacity facto r,
In the case of drilled piers, the value of the Nt depends upon the DIDI ratio of the pie r, where D1 is (he
diamete r of the bottom (see Table 26 .1).
Tabl e 26.1. Val ues of Nt (A Rer Teng, 1962 )

D/BI 4.0 lind above

9.0

The value of u generally varies between 0.15 and 0.50, dependin g upon the drilli ng method and the type
of nie r. An average val ue of 0.4 is usually taken . If the sha ft is provided with a bell, only the straight poctioo
2
is conside red for friction (adhesion). For belled shaft drilled dry, (he uppe r limit of unit adhesion is 40 kN/m
2
and that for the belled shafts drilled with slurry is 25 kN/m • For straigh t shafts excavated dry, the upper limit
2
is 100 kN/m •
The safe load is determined by app lying II suitable factor of safe ty to the ultimate load.
Q. - Q./FS . ..(263 )
Generally, a factor of safety (FS) of 3 is taken .
Some times, the safe lend is obtained by applying a factor of safety only to the tip resistance. Thus
Q. _ Q,Irs • Q,
Q• .. (C ~~Ap) + ncA. .. .(26.4)

The SCltlemc nt of a drilled pie r in clay depends upon the load history of the clay. Settlement analysis can
be done a....sumtng the bo ttom of the pier as a footing and applying the conso lida tion theory (chapt er 12).
Drilled piers in normally' consolidated c lays arc not econo mical, as the settlemen ts are e xcess ive. In actual
practice. drilled p iers are used only in over-consolidated clays. In which case, the settlements are generally
small and within the permissible limits.
26J . CONSTRUCTION or DRILLED .)IERS
Construction of drilled piers am be divided into 3 stages.
( 1) Excav ation o f pie rs, (2) Providing SUPfXlrL", and (3) Concreting of piers.
DRlll.FD PIERS AND CAl~NS 709

(I) Excav at ion or piers Drilled piers are generally excavated using an auger drill or some other type of
drilling equipment. An auger is attached to a shaft and rotated under pressure to dig into the soiL When it is
filled wilh soil, it is raised above lhe ground and emptied.
For formation of a bell, the auger is replaced by an under- reaming tool. 111e tool usually consists of a
cylinder with the cutling bladcs that are hinged at lhe top. 1bc cutting blades are in the folded position when
the onder-reamer is lowered into the hole. On reaching the bottom of the hole, (he blades are spread outward
by a mecha nism . As the under-rea mer is rotated. a bell is formed and the loose soil falls inside the cylinder.
which is raised and emptied. The process is repea ted till the bell is completely formed. The d iameter of the
bell is kept two to three times the diameter of the shaft. The angle of the bell is 30" to 45" with the vertical.
The abov e method of dri lling is convenient for hard clays where the hole can be left open for a few
hours without a suppo rt. In cobesionlcss soils below the water table, the hole is prevented from colla psing by
providing a cas ing or by drilling in slurry. When rock is encou ntered during drilling. speci al machines are
required. For boulders and holes socketed in hard rock, special drilling tools are required.
Whe n excevetloc is in progress, the soil is exposed al the bottom and sides. II is e xamined carefully 10
check that lhe hole is straight and has been drilled to a stratum of adequate capacity. As uie hole is of a large
diameter; even a man can descend into the shaft for inspection.
2. Providing Supports (a) Chica go method. In this method . a circular hole is excavated upto the ocpth
at which the soil will stand unsupponed (abo ut 0.5 m for soft clays and 2 m for stiff Clay). Veni ca l boards,
known as leggings, are tben set in positio n around the e xcavated face and are held tigh tly egainst the soil by
steel rings (Fig. 26.3 (a)). The shaD is

ST
E
E
LtF
j:
then excavated further for 1 to 2 m and
another setting of boards and rings is RINGS
made. The process is repeated until the
desired level is reached . 111e base of the
shaft is then belled out. LAGGING TELESCoPIC
STEEL CASING
(b) Gow method . In this method,
excavation of the hole is done
manually. Telescop ic steel shells are . ,
used to support the soil [Fig. 26.3 (b)).
1he telescopic shells are extended as
/L- \} I \
the hole is deepened . The shells arc
removed a'> the coocrct ing progresses. ~- ----- -_..1

One sect ion of the shell is removed at (a) OIlCAGO METHOD (b) GI:JW METHOO
one time. The minimum diameter of the
hole in this method is about 1.25 m. Fig. 26.3.
3. Concreting of piers. After the hole has been drilled to the required depth. the shaft is dcw atercd and
the bottom is cleaned. The casing. if used. is removed before the concreting is done. The reinfor cement cage
is then inserted and concreting is done . As far as possible. concreting should be done in dry . Concret ing can
be done in a dry hole by gravity pouring. provided the concrete does not strike the sides. However; if
dewate ring is not possibleor slurry is used to support the shaft sides, concret e is placed using a tremie.
26.4. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DRIlLED PIERS
Drilled piers have the following advantages and disadvantages, a'> compared with pile foundations:

Advantages.
(1) As a s ingle drilled pier ca n lake up the load of a grou p of piles, it is more convenient.
(2) Drilled piers have higher resistance to lateral loads than piles.
(3) Const ruction of drilled piers generally requires lighter equipmen t for d rilling than that for pile
drivin g.
There is no noise due to hammer blow in the case of drilled piers.
710 SOIL Mr£ IIANICS AND FOU NDATION ENGINEERING

(4) Piles driven by a hammer cause groun d vibrations and ground heaving. Suc h conditions do not exist
in the case of drilled piers.
(5) The base and the sides of the drilled pier can be inspected. This is not possible in case of driven
piles.
(6) The base of a drilled pier can be enlarged to provide greater bearing capacity and also to provide
greater resistance 10 uplift.
(7) Drilled piers can be U'>Cd even when the soil contains boulders,. etc.
Disad va nta ges
(1) The concreting opera tion requires stricter supe rvision. Tbc qua lity of concre te cotaircd is generally
inferior to that in precast piles.
(2) Deep excavation of the drilled pier, if not properly suppo rted. can cause substan tial subsidence and
damage to adjo i ning structures.
(3) Strict supervision of drilling opera tion is required in drilled piers.
(4) Subsurface investigatio ns required in the case of drilled piers arc more than that in piles.
(5) Load tests in the case of d rilled piers are difficult.
26.5 nESIG N OF OJIEN CA ISSONS
Caisson" are carried to a hard stratu m. suc h as com pact sand, gravel. hard clay or rock . The
lead-carrying capa city can be estimated a"
in the QlSC of drilled piers. As a ca isson also acts like a rigid mat
foundat ion. the equations for the bearing capaci ty given in chapte r 24 for mats may also be used. The
allowable soil pressure (q_> for an open caisson in cohcsion lcss soils can be obta ined from the following
equation (F.S. = 3.0).
q"" - 0.22N2 nw, ..0.67(100 .. Jil)DfWq •• (265)

where q_ = allowable soil pressure (kN/m 2). N = corrected standard penetration number. B = smaller
dimension of the caisson. D, = depth of foundation. measured below scour level.
Wyand lV, are water table correction rectors.
According to IS : 3955. the allowable bearing pressure can be determin ed using the followi ng formula,
q"" .. 0.054N2 B .. 0. 16( 100 + N 2) D, kN/m2 .•. [26.3(a)]
If the caisso n (well ) rests on rock strata. the safe bearing pressure depends upon the crushing strength of
rock. The crushing strength can be de termined by taking the cores from the field and testing for co mpression.
JIcwcver, there may be fissures . faults and joints in the rock which would also affect the bea ring capaci ty and
whic h are not detected from the core srtmples .
Teng (1962) has sugges ted that the allowable beari ng pressu re of caissons on bed rock should not exceed
that of co ncrete seal. which is normall y taken as 35<Xl kN/m2 because the concrete seal is usually placed
under water and the quality of conc rete is poor.
In case of cohesive soil". undisturbed samples should be tested to determine the unit co hesion (c). The
ultimate bearing capaci ty is determined as
q. - c N, ...(26.6)
where Ne = beari ng capacity factor.
The vertical loads acting on the caisson are the 10.1<15 from the supers tructure and the self weigb t. The
buoyant forces should be determined for the lowest wate r level and deducted from the downward loads. The
lateral Joods acting on the caisson are due (0 earth pressure. wind pressure. water pressure and eanbquakes.
The lateral forces may also act due to tractive forces from traffic, ice pressure. and currents of flow.
The skin friction should be estimated for the most critical condition when the soil has bee n removed to
the maximum depth of scour. The lotal !ood is assumed to be carried by the base of the caisson if it pcoetratcs
a relatively shallow depth of soil
 DRILLFD PIF.R.'iAND CAISSONS 711
G

Bc...idcs the above-menti oned loads . a c aisson may also be sub jec ted to large "tresses durin g the sinking
st operat ion. When the caisson is hung up ncar the top by skin frlcrlon. the lower portion i s subjec ted 10 tension.
Large stresses a bo develop if the caL...son is iliop ped suJdenly during s inki ng or when it L<; pulled to us
correct position from the inclined posi tion. If the caisson is supported on one side only or on two opposite
comers at some sta ge during sinking. it is subjected to heavy SIre.s.."-CS. The caisson must be safe against all
Ie such co nditio ns.
The exterio r wall.. of the ca isso n lire oc..Igncd 10 w ithstan d the stresses due to ve rtical loads and the
lateral force s .
Sinkin~ FJTort. The CJi",.-.uIL" arc desig ned 10 have sufficient self weight in each lift to overcome the skin

iy friction. If the sel f weight is not sufflcient, additional ballast is required during sinking. Occasionally, water
jellin g i'> used to reduce the friction.
If it is desired to propo rt ion a circular Glisson such that no ballast is required. an expressi on for the unit
skin friction can he obtained by equating the weight of concrete to the frictional force (F ig. 26 .4). Ther efore.
(./4 ) (n; - fif) D y, _ (. D.) f) x f ...(26.7(a)\
where D" = exte rna l diam ete r of caisson, D; internal diameter of caisson. 'f~ = unit weig ht of concrete (= 24
kN/m) abov e water level . an d 14 kN/m) below water level). D = depro of penetration. [ = unit skin friction.

The refore. ...[26.7(b)1

re
Sim ilar equ ations can also be dev eloped for ca isso ns of other shapes.
"
te If lhe actua l unit friction (j) is greater than the value give n by Eq. 26.7 (b). odditional ballast would be
required for sinki ng. Terzagb! and Peck (1948) g ive the following value of the unit friction.
Silt and soft clay = 7.3-29.3 k N/m 2
Very stiff day = 4Q- 195 kN/m 2
2
Loose sand = 12.2-34.2 kN /m
Dense sand = 34.2---68.4 k~ /m2
Dense gravel = 49.0-98 kN/ni l
Thkknes... of concrete seal. Before dewatering the caisson. a concrete sea l is placed at the bottom of the
excav a ted shaft to plu g H. The concrete seal is also known as the bottom pl ug, It terms the perma nent base
1] of the caisson. The thickness of the sea l shou ld be sufficient to withstand the upward hydrostatic pressu re
)f after de watering is co mplete and be fore the co ncreting of the shaft has been done .
l. The seal may be des igned as a thick plate SUbjected to a unit bearing pressure d ue to the maximum
d vert ical loads. TIle thickness of concrete sea l may be obtained from the following equations.
For circu lar cai ssons . r .. 0.59 D; ..r;I;;; (26.8)

Fro rec tangular caissons. t .. a.866B j V(]~ (I +q 1.61 c ) (26.9)

wh ere t = thickness of concrete seal. [) i = interna l diameter. L;. Hj = interna l length. width, q = unit bearing
pressure at the base. U .. BIL; , (]~ = allowable concrete flexural stress (:I- 3500 kN/m1.
If /I is the de pth of water above the base (Fig. 26 .4). the value o f q can be found from the following
equation.
q .. '(",/I - '(~ t
2
w here q = uni t bearing pres...sere (kN/ m ) •
and II and t arc in metres.
3 3•
Taking l~ = 24 kN/ m and 1...:: 10 kN/ m
q =101l -24/ ..(26.10)
The thickness of the se al should be safe against perimeter shea r.
712 SOIL MF,cUAN ICS AN D FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

.
. ~~

SECTICJoI

PLAN

(~) CIRqJLAR CAISSON

Fig. 26.4.
AiH y.. - A;tYe
. .. (26.11)
Pit
where Aj =inside area ( =::t/ 4 Iif for circular caissons)
Pt = inside perimeter (= 1CDj for circular caissons)
The perimeter shear v should be less than the allowable shear.
There should be overall stability of the caisson against buoyancy . For example, foc circular caissons,
Total upward force, F• • (x/4d.) /ly. ... (26.12)
Total downward force, Fd • We + Ws + Qs .. .(26.13)
where We = =
weight of e mpty caisson. Ws weight of seal. Qs = skin friction.
If Fd is greater than F", the caisson is safe against buoyancy. However. if Fd is smaller than F.., the
thickness of the seal should be increasedto add weight.
C utt ing Ed ge. The cutting edge is provided at the base of the open caisson to facilitate penetration. It
al..o protects the walls of the caisson against impact and obstacles encountered in its path during penetration.
The inside bevel is generally made 2 vertical to one horizontal. The cutting edges are usually made of
angles and plates of structural stee l or reinforced concrete and steel, As the sha rp edges are easily damaged,
the blunt edges are commonly used. However; thc angle of the edge should not be greater than 35°(Fig. 26.5).
DRIlLED PIERS AND CAlS&JNS 713

Wl~~~
r-
35
' .'>".~~6:.s .~'"

.; '~
Cal SHARP EDGE Cb) BLUNT EDGE
Fig.26.s.
To avoid tearing off the cutting edge or any lower parts of the caisson. the caisson concrete must be anchored
or tied to the CUllingedge . The lower portion of the cutting edge is provided with a 12 mm thick steel plate
anchored 10 the concrete by means of steel straps. .
26..6.CONSTRUcnON OF OPEN CAISSONS
1be sinking of an open caisson is ge nerally done by penetrating it in the dry or from a dewatered
construction area or from an artificial island. An artificial island of sand is made for the purpose of raising
the ground surface above the water level Thus a ORBJGE WELLS
dry area is obtained for sinking the caisson . The
size of the sand island should be sufficient to
provide working area around the caisson. (fig.
26.6).
fur the construaion of a sand island. a .. sANa FIlL ' . : ' . ,11--=;;.,.--
wooven willow mattress is first sunk to the river . :. , -,",
bonon to provide protection against scou r; A SAN1l
timber staging is then constructed around the
periphery of the intended island. Sheet piles are .~T"-~---~l·;.:> ISLAND

driven to enclose the island area. 1be mattress is " 1 , .: ' ,

cut along the inside face of the shell formed by
sheet piles and the inside mattress is removed. I ,
The shell is then filled with sand upto the I J'
required level. L__ " - = -C-O:PLETE O
In case it is not possible to sink the caisso n . CAISSON
in dry, it is constructed in slipways or barges Fig. 26.6.
and towed to its final positio n by floating. False bottoms are provided for this purpose . Guide piles are
generally requi red for sinking the first few lifts of caisson. Sinking is do ne through open water and then
penetrating it into the soil.
The caisso n is sunk by its own weight when the ' soil is excava ted from the dredgi ng well. As sinki ng
prog resses, additiona l lifts of caisson steining are installed. When a hard material is encoun tered, under-water
blasting may be necessa ry. The excavati on is done by dredgi ng with grab bucke ts. 1be soil near the cutting
edge is removed by hand if it does not flow into the excavation. 'Thesinking operation is, of course, stopped
during the period the concrete for the lift is cast and cured. To facilitate sinking, the exterior surface is
applied with a film of grease. Alternatively, water jets are used.
Whe n the caisso n reaches the fmal depth. its bottom is plugged by a concrete seal . The concreting for the
seal is done by tremie . After the concrete has matured, the wate r in the caisson is pumped out. The top of the
concrete seal is cleaned and more concrete is placed over the seal
The caisson should be kept in the vertical positio n during the entire process of sinking . However. it is
extremely difficult to sink the caisson perfectly straight and true to its position . Corrective measure are
adopted when it becomes inclined (see chapter 27).
714 SOIL MECHAN ICS A ND fOUNDATION ENGINEERING

26.7. PNE UMATI C CA ISSON S

If the soil enclosed in an open caisson canox be excavated satisfactorily through its shaft during sinking
operation . a pneumatic caisson is required. This condition occurs when the soil flows into the open caisson
faster than it can be removed. A pneumatic caisson is also cscd when there is a greer influx of water or where
d ifficult obs tructioos are anticipated during sinking. Pneumatic caissons are !'uitnblc in soft. running sots
which cannot be excava ted in dry or whe re there is a grcatcr danger of scour and erosio n.
A pneumatic caisso n is a rigid,
inverted box with its bottom open (Hg.
26.7 ). A working chamb er is provided
at its bouom to keep the caisso n free of COMPRESSED-
water and mud by usc of compressed AIR
air. The design of a pneumatic caisson
is sim ilar to that of an open caisso n in
many respects . The ultimate 1000
carrying capacity , the design of walls,
concrete seal and cutting edge are
similar to that of open caissons.
Ifoweve r, the following differences
should be clearly noted.
(1) worklng cha mher. The
working chamber i.. made of mild steel.
It is abou L 3 m high. 1L co nsists of a
strong roof at its top. Th e chamber is
absol utely air Light. 'lbc air in the
f ig, '1h.7. Pneumatic Caisson.
chamber is kepi at a specif ied prc.<;surc
to prevent crary of water and soil into it. The walls of the chamber shou ld be thick and leak proof. 10 keep
the frictional resistance low. the outs ide surfaces of the walls are made smoo th. A cutt ing edge is prov ided at
the bouorn to facilitate the penetratio n of the ca isson.
The air pressure must be sufficient to balance the full hydrostatic pressure due to wate r outside. However;
there is a maximum limit 10 air pressure . Working under a pressure of greater than 400 kN/m 2 is beyond the
endurance limit of human beings. Therefore. the maximum depth of wate r through which a pneumatic caisson
can be sunk successfully is about 40 m. Working under a pre. ....sure greeter than 4CNJ kN /m 2 may cause a
specia l type of sickness, called caissonsickness.
(2) Air Sha n. An air shaft is a vertical passage which connects the worki ng chamber with an air lock al
the top. It provides an access to the working chamber for workmen. It is also used for the transport of the
excavated materials to the ground surface . In larger caisso ns, two separate air shafts are provided. one for
passage of workmen and one for transport of the materials. The shafts <Ire made of steel tubes. The joints of
the tubes are provided with rubber gaskets to make them leak proof. Each shaft is prov ided with its own air
lock at its top,
As tbe C3iss'IOnsinks. the air sha ft is extended to keep the air lock always above water level. During lht<i
period, the worki ng chamber is closed by a gate plate at the lower end of the shaft .
(3) Air Lock. An air lock is a stee l cham ber provided at the upper cod of the air sha ft above wate r level.
' [be purpose of providing an air lock is to permit the workme n and materials to go in or to come out of the
caisson without releas ing the air pres.<;urc in the caisson .
The steel chamber of the ail lock is provided with two airtight doors. one of wh ich open.. to the sha ft and
the other opens to the outside atmosphere. When a man corers the airlock through the outside door. the
pressure in the chamber is kept equal to the atmos pheric pfC'lSure. The outside door is closed and the pressure
in the chamber is gradually raised till it beco mes equal to th.1 t in the air shaft and the work ing chamber, The
door to the shaft is then openedand the man descends to the working chamber by a ladder provided inside
the air shan . The-proced ure is reversed when a man comes out from the ca isson. However, the decomp ression
DRlU.ED PIERS AND CAISSONS 715

is don e much more slowly to prevent caisson disease . A pcriod of about 30 minutes is necessary for
2
deco mpress ion from a pressu re of 300 kN/m to atmospheric press ure.
To prevent the air in the working chambe r from becoming stale, fresh air is circulated into the working
chamber by opening a valve in the air lock. The workers should not be Ic.ept inside the working chamber roc
more than two bours at a stre tch .
(4) Miscell aneons equipmen t, Misce llaneous equipment such as motors. compressors, and pressure pumps
are usually located on the shore . Pressure to the work ing chamber is applied throu gh com pressed air pipe. In
order to cope with an emergen cy. at leas t one stand-by unit consisting of all equipment must be provided.
16.8. CO NSTRU(.I10N OF IINEUM AllC CA ISSONS
Like o pen caissons, pneumatic caissons may be constructed at the site or floated and lowered from
barg es. Artifi cial sa nd isla nds may also be used. The cuttin g edge of the caisson is carefully positioned.
Compressed a ir is introduced in the workin g chambe r to expel water. A fter the wo rking chamber has been
dcwatercd, wo rkmen desce nd throug h the air lock into the wo rking chamber. The ma terial is excav ated by
hand tools in dry. As the excavation progresses. the caisso n gradually sinks . Concreting of the caisson is then
done . 1bc air pressure in the caisson is increasedto equalise the Increasein the head of water as the caisson
goes down . The excavated material is. removed by buckets through the air shaft . In granular soils. the
excava ted mate rial can be removed by the blowou t method through the blow-ou t pipe. Whe n the valve in the
blow pipe in opened, the gran ular material is blown out by high air pressure inside the wor king chambe r.
After the caisson has attained its design depth . the working chamber is filled wit h concrete. Precautions
must be taken 10 ensure full contact betwee n the concrete fill and the unders ide of the roo f of the work ing
chamber. The fresh concrete is Iirst lowered through the air shaft and a slab about 0.6 m thick is formed on
the bottom and well packed under the CUllingedge. 1be air press ure in the chamber is kept const ant till the
concrete has harden ed. A stiff m ix of concrete is then packed into the wo rking chamber up to the roof level.
An y spa ce left betwee n the roof and the concre te surface is filled with ce ment grout. There should not be any
empty space left in the chambe r, as it wou ld lead to settlement when the caisso n is subjected to superimposed
load. After concreting of the working chamber is comple ted, the shaft tubes are dis man tled. Tbe shaft itsel f i.s
filled up with a lean con crete.
16.9 . ADVANTAG ES AND DISADVA NTAGES OF P NE UMATIC CA ISSONS
Pneumatic ca issons have the follow ing advantages and disadvantages, as co mpared with open ca issons.

Advantages
(I) As there is an access to the bottom of the caisson, obstructions can be easily removed.
(2) The soil can be inspected and the soil samples can be taken. if required.
(3) So il bearing capacity can be detennined by conducting in-situ tests in the working chamber.
(4) Excava tion and pouring of concrete is done in the dry.
(5) As the posi tion of the groun d water table remains unchanged, there is no now of soil into the
excavated area.
(6) There is no settlem ent of the adjo ining struct ures as the water table is not 10000ered.
Dl<iadv anla ges
(1) Pneumatic caissons are highly expensive. Pne umatic caissons should be used on ly when open
caissons are not feasible.
(2) The penetra tion depth below wate r table is limited to 30 to 40 m.
(3) There is a lot of inconvenience caused to the workmen while working under high pressure . l be
workers may develop caisson disease .
(4) In pneu mat ic caissons. a large amo unt of man ual work is required which increases the cost .
(5) Extreme care is requir ed for the proper wor king of the sys tem and to main ta in the required air
press ure. Any slackness may lead to an accident.
716 OOILMECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

26.10. FLOATING CAISSONS CONCRETE CAP

Pleating caissons are large. hollow
boxes with top open but bottom closed. .' ~ . -.,: "
These arc floated to the place where
these are 10 be installed. The caissons
are then sunk by filling them with .~ . :SANO'AND, .
...• : .
ballast, such a" sand, dry concrete,
~ . 'A
gravel. Unlike the open and pneumatic • .: GR~V::..L-·.
caissons, a floa ting caisson does not
: . :.
penetrate the soil. It simply rests on a o
,,0
levelled surface (Fig. 26.8). The load
carry ing capacity depends solely 00 the o'
.A.:
base resistance. as there is no side .' ,; : ~ : ": " ,
friction. ' .. ~ ., ~ .. '
-, .
After the caissons has been sunk to
.... :.... ~< :. ..: '.: ."
:= :d
its final pos ition, it is complet ely ftlled

i
: 1~;V~~' ~~~~~ru:~~ .0 0;•.:.. ~: ~.'~" ,"..:. ;.+
loads. To prevent scour underneath. rip
fig. 26.8. floating Cai5rons after si nki ng.
rap is placed around its base.
Floating caissons are usually constructed of reinforced cement concrete or steel. The plan of the caisson
may be circular, square, rectangular, or elliptical. It usually contains a number of cells formed by diaphragm
walls . If the caisson is to be floated in rough waters, it is designed as a ship and suitable internal strutting is
provided.
26.11. STABILITY OF FLOATING CAISSONS
The caisson must be stable during flotation. According 10 Archimedes' principle , when a body is
immersed in water, it is buoyed up by a force equal to weight of the water displaced .
For equilibrium, W - U - 0 •••(26.14)
where W::: weigh t of the caisson. U = buoya nl force.
The weight W acts through the centre of gravi ty (G) of the body. The buoyant force U acts throogh the
centre of gravi ty of the displaced water, known as the centre 01 buoyancy (8) (Fig. 26.9) . If the caisson is
tilted through a small angle 8, the
centre of gravi ty (G) remains at the
same location with respect to the
caisson itself, but the centre of
buoyancy B changes its position as the
position of displaced volume is
chan ged. Some portion of the caisson
which was not submerged during the
vertical position becomes submerged in
the inc lined pos ition. The point of
intersed.io n of lhe vertical line passing (a) VERTICAL POSITION (b) TILTED POSITION
through B and the centre line of the .
caisson is known as melacentre (M). FIg. 26.9.
The caisson would be stable if the metacerare M is above G, ie., the metacmtric height MG is positive.
The metacemnc height can be determined analytically (see any text on Fluid Mechanics) as given below.
The distance BM between points nand M is given by
8M _ f lV ... (26.15)
nsruno PIERS AND CAISSO NS 117

where / '" second moment o f area of the plan of the caisson at water surface , V", volume of water displaced.
1be metacentnc heigh t is computed as
MG • BM :I: BG ...(26.16)
The plus sign in Eq. 26 .16 is used when G is below B.
If tbe caisson is unstable, it should be either redes igned oe ballast. shoul d be used to make it steole.
The free board w hen Iloering shou ld be aneest 1 m.

26.12. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FLOAllNG CAISSONS

Roo ting ca issons have the follow ing advantages and disadvantages as compared w ith open caissons.
Advantages.
(I) The installa tion o f the floati ng caisson is quick and con venient.
(2) As the floating caisscos arc pref abricated or precast , the quality of co nstruction is good.
(3) Hooting caisson s are less expe nsive than open caisso ns.
(4) Floating caissonscan be transsported by floating at a relatively low cost.
Disadvantages.
(1) The lead-carrying ca pacity of a floating caisson is much lower than that of an equivalent open
caisson.
(2) The foundat ion bed has to be levelled before installation .
(3) 1be base of the noaung caisson is to be protected agn in.s t scou r action .

ILLUSTRATIVE E.X.UIPLES

Illostrauve Example 26 .1. A srraight-s1ulft drilled p ier, 1.0 m in dimneter, is constructed in a deposit
consis ting of loose sand overlying dense sand (Fig. £ ·26.1). Determine the allowable load (F.s. = 3.).
Solution. Let us take critical depth Dc • 10 B - 10 m
From Eq. 26.1. Q.. - (q Nf ) A, + (K a" tan6) A1
where q '" effective vertical pressure at the base:
- 8 l( 17 +2 l( 21 _ 178kN/m 2
From Fig. 26.2, N _ 140 for
f
40°.+_
Therefore , QII _ 178 l( 140 l( ,v4 l( (1.0)2 + 05 l( (11: l( 1.0) l( 05 8 (t x 136 l( 8.0 )

+ 0.4 x 11: l( 1.0 l( 0.84 [ t(l36 + 178) x 2.0 + 178 l( 2.0 ]

LOOSE SANO
r.u. &:0·58
1\ : 0 ·50
f/ : 30·
T Clay la~r t
Cu:)5kNlm2
0( :0.)0

I
"4:17I<NI," 3 ... z ll k N/ m)

OENSE SAKI
'OI no: 0·'4
1<= 0 ·(,,(\ C\(Iy la y ~r II
t = (,,(f cu : 100 kNl m l
'( : 21 IrMlm3 00<::0. )0
Y : 18 IrNl m)

Ag . E-26.1. Fig, E-262.

". SOIL MECHANICS AND FOU NDA110 N ENGINEERING

Q. _ 2lJ74O.00 kN

Q. _ 2~4O _ 6913 kN
Illustrative Example 26.2. Determine the allowable load fo r the drilled pier constructed in a clayey
deposit, shown in Fig. £-26.2. Take FS. '" 3.0.
Solution. DIB) - 121 2 • 6
From Tab le 26.1. N~ ., 9.0.
From Eq. 26.2 , Q~ - c N( Ap + f1 CA,
_ 100 x 9.0 )( (lt/4) )( (2.0)2 + (0.3 x 35) (x x 1.0 x 8.0)
+ (0.3 x 100) (1t x 1.0 )( 3.0) - 3374 kN
From Eq. 26.3, Q.. _ 33 ,., 1125 kN
374
(If Eq. 26.4 is used. the allowab le load = 1488.4 kN)
Illustrattve Example 26.3. Determine l1u': outside diameter of an open caisson to be sunk lhroogh 40 m
of sand and water to bed rock if the allowable bearing capacity is 2000 Jc.."Ilm 2• Tile caisson receives a load
of 50 AIN from the supe rstructure. The mantle fric tion is J() kNlm 2•
Test the f easibility of sinking. Also calculate the thickn ess of the seal.
Soluli on. (sec Fig. E-2.3)

----t 01 :2.4 m t--

r--o..'m--j
Fig. E-263 .
From equilibrium in the vertical direction (when installed) ,
Load from superstruc ture + self weight - frictional resistance - uplift force - base reac tion = 0.0
or 50000 + (11:/4)0;(40) )( 24 - (ill,,) )( 40)( 30 - (11:/4).0;)( 40 )( 10 - (11:/4).0;)( 2000 - 0
n; + 3.33D o - 44.23 - 0 or D" _ 5.19m
Let us adopt outside diameter as 6.0 m
t'etl!'>ibility or sinking
From Eq. 26.7 (a), (.v4) (n; - Iif> )( 40 )( 24 - (11: Do) )( 40 )( f
Taking f - 30 kN/m 2 and Dtt _ 6 m, we have
36 - Dl- 30 D; _2.4m
Thickness of wall _ 6.0 ; 2.4 _ 1.8 m
 DRlll.ED PIERS AND CAISSONS 719

Thickness orseal
From Eq. 26.8. t = 0.59 o, ~
= 0 .59 x 2.4 ..J2000/35/XI
= I .07m say I. I0m
Illustrative Example 26.4. Check the stability of a floating caisson /0.5 m high and having a
rectangular base 20 m x 9 m. The weight of the caisson is 9 MN and its centre of gravity is 4.0 m aoove the
base. If the caisson is unstable, how would you make it stahle? Take unit wt!igh1 of water as 10.25 leN/ml.
(b) " ?tat is the maximum pressure on the soil when the caisson has been fully installed ? The base is at
a deplll of 9 m below the water level. The tornl .....ight is 50 MN. which acts"at an eccentricity of 0.1 m.
Solution. (sec Fig. E· 26.4 )
9m

.1 I
1
I IG
"M

..
J Is d

~-------J l !
Fig. E· 26.4.

Immersed Volume. V . ~ • 878.05 m

l

Depth of immers ion during floating.

d. 10.25 ~ x 9 .4.&'l m
I leigh! of centre of buoyant..-y n above base.
All - 4.88 / 2 • 2.44 m
As lhc distance AG is 4 rn, the distance BG is given by
nG .4.0 - 2 44 _ 1.56m
From Eq. 26.15. BM • ! / V

• (1/12)8;8~5 x (9f _ 1.38 m

Distance AM • All + JJM _ 2.44 + 1.38 = 3.82 m

As the mc tac emrc (AI) is below the centre of grav ity (G). the mctaccn tr ic heigh t MG is negative and the
caisson is uns tab le. The caisson ca n be made stab le by filling it w ith ballas t. say sand h = 22 kN/m). Let
the thickness of the san d layer be 05 m.
The height of the new cent re of gravity (GJ above the base is given by
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

AG' .. 9J(X) X~ !0~.5x x9 9x x20~ Xx ~ x 0.25 .. 3.32m

Th e new dep th of im mersion, tf .. 9000 +IJ~ : : : ;~ x 22) .. 5.95 m

AB' = height of new centre of buoyancy.. 5.95/2 .. 2.975m

From Eq. 26 .15. B' M .. (l/~2)x x9 :? 9

5><J )3 .. 1.134 m

Metaccntnc height , M' G' .. (AB' + B' M') - AG'

• (2.975 + 1.134) - 3.32 • 0.789
As the mctaceruric height is pos itive (Le.. M is abov e G1, the caissoo is stable.
(b) When the caisson has been fully sunk, wit h its base at a depth of 9 m below the water level, the
upward force is given by
F. .. (9 x 20) x 9 x ID.25 .. 16605 kN
As the upward fo rce is more than the downward force of 9000 kN, ballast is required . Let h be the
thickness of the ba llast.
Therefore, (9 x 20 x h) x 22 + 9000 .. 1660 5 or h .. 1.92 m
The max imum and minim um pressures when the caisson has been fully installed and subjected to design
loads are giv en by

qlJl:l.X ..
IV ( 1
A +
6<) 5CXXXJ
b .. 20 ( 6 x 0.1 )
x 9 1 + -W- I = 296.3 kN /m
l
-

q", ;n
. ~
A
(1_~
b
) • 5CXXXJ (1 _6 x 0.1) _ 259.3 kN/ 2
20 x9 9 m
2
Uplift pressure .. ID.25 x 9 .. 92.3 kN /m
Net maximum press ure .. 296.3 - 92.3 .. 204 kN /m 2
Net m inim um press ure _ 259.3 - 92.3 _ 167 kN / m2

PROBLEMS

A. Nume ri cal

26.1. ~:a:;I;s~a~ld::\~: l~~n:.ed~::e:: ~isru~m~n~:an:: :OOal=l~(~~~~::::3~~' tan b :

{Ans. 16.5 MN]
26.2. A drilled pier of 1 m diameter has a tOlal depth of 15 m. The diameter of the bell is 2 m and its height is 1 m.
If ell :: 80 kN/m2, y :: 20 kN/m3 and a :: 0 .3, detenni ne the allowable load (F.5. '" 3 .0). (Ans. 850 ItNj
26.3. An open caisson, 19 m deep. has externa l and internal diame ters of 8 m and 6 m, respeaivcly. [( the water level
is 2 m below the top of the well and the depth of the bese below the scour level is S m, determine the minimum
2
thickness of the seal that win enable complete dewatering of the caisson . Take ~ IE 2000 tNlm , 't« '" 24 kNlm)
and allowable perimeter shearof 650 kN1m .
2 (Ans. 1.0 mj
26.4. Determine the allowable soil pressure for a pier, 3 m diameter, 10 m long, on sand with N '" 30 for a faaor of
safety of 3 and for an allowable settlement of 40 mm. Assume full submergence. (Ans. 450 kNlm1
B. Descrfpttve Types
16.5. What is the basic difference between a drilled pier and a caisson ? What ace the oondilions in which a drilled
pier is more suitable than a caisson ?
26.6. Describe various methods for the consuuction of drilled piers.
16.7. lIow would you estimate the load carrying capacity of drilled pier in (a) sand, (b) clay?
DRILLED PIERS AND CAISSONS 721

26.S. How would you es timate the load carryi ng capac ity of an ope n caisson '!
26.9. Draw the sketch of nn o pen caisso n. How the various compone nts arc designed '!
26.10. Describe the: various components of a pneuma tic caisso n with the help of a sketc h.
26.11. What arc the: advanla~'Cs and disad vantages of pneumatic caissons over open caissons '!
26.12. How would you check fhe stability of floating ca isson du ring not ation?

c. Multi pl e Choice Questi on s

1. Pneo menc caissons are used where the soil now into thc excava ted area of an open caisson is
(a) faster than 11can be removed
(b) slower than it can be removed
(c) negligible
Cd) zero
2. The maximum depehof a pneumatic caisso n is usua lly limited to
(a) 10 m (b l 20 m
(d~Om /t/)40m
J . The adhesion factor to- drilled piers on day is usually taken as
(a) 1.0 (b) 0.80
(e) 0.60 (d) 0.40
4. The floating cai ssons generally
(a) have greater Il1ad-(;arrying capacity than open caissons
(b) have greate r depth below the grouTKI surface than open cais<;l.lOs,
Ie) are less experv..ive then open caissons
(ff) have pourer quality of construction !han ope n caissons .
IAns. J. (a ). 2. (J ). J. (d). 4, (ell

D. O bj ecli ve Ty p e Questions
Write whether lhe following :;latcffit'nls arc true or fa lse :
(u) Th e d rilled piers can be of d iameter tess than 0.5 rn.
(b) A pneumatic ca inon is ope n ;11 the rop .
(c ) The value of Nq for dri lled piers is genera lly smaller thall that for piles.
Q
Id) Th e angle that the inclined walls of the belled pier make with the horizo ntal is usually 45 •

k} The cons truction of d rilled piers genera lly requires lighter equipme nt than that for pile driving.
Q
ifI 111e ang le of the c ulling edg e ut" the caisson with the vcn ical shuuld nut be greater than 35 •

2
(go) 111e a ir pressure in the air lock of a pneum atic caisson is usually lim ited to 6lXl k N/m .
(II ) At the bottom uf a pneuma tic caisso n, a n in-situ can he conducted.
(i) Fur u tlu ,ltin!o! c usson. the metacentric height must be posiuvc .
(j ) If the shaft is provided wuha hell. (lnly the hell portion is consid ered fur friction
[A ns. True (c). (r ) . Ij). (hl .U) ]
 27
Well Foundations

27.1. INTRODUcnoN
Well. foundatio n have their origin in India. Well foundations have been used in India for hundreds of
years for providing deep fou ndations be low the water level Cormonuments. bridges and aqueducts. Taj Mahal
at Agra (lndia) has got well foundations.
A well foundation is similar (0 an ope n caisson d iscussed in chapter 26. Well found ations can be
constructed on the dry bed or after making a sand island. At loca tions where the depth of water is g reater
than 5 m to 6 m and the velocit y of water is high. wells can be fabricated on the river bank and then floated
to the final pos itio n and grou nded. Great care is 10 be exercised while groundir - a well 10 ens ure lhat its
position is co rrect . Once the well has loudled
the bed. sand bags are deposited around it to
WELL CAP
prevent scour. The well may sink into the river
bed by 50 to 60 em under its own weight.
Further sinking opera tion is similar 10 the
sinking of w ells on dry bed. The well is sunk
into the ground to the desi red level by ==d::/J':f-'-"-"--'-~'T:9";R""''''''
e xcavating through the d redge holes. TOP PLUG
Fig. 27.1. shows the section of a well. A STEJNJNG
strong CUlling edge is provided to facilitate
sinking. The tapered portion of the well above
the catting edge is known as well curb. The
walls of the we ll are known as steining. Steining
is made of brick masonry, stone mason ry. plain
o r reinforced concrete . As the steining later
becomes an integral part of the structure . it
shoul d be properl y designed for the imposed
loods. Further, it shoo ld be heavy enocg h to
overcome frictional resista nce during sink.ing.
CURB
After the well has been sunk to the final
position . the bottom plug is formed by
concretin g. The bottom plug serves as the base
of the well. The well is ftlled with sand partly or CuTTING EDGE
com pletely. Ai the top of the well, a top plug is
form ed by ro ncreting. A R.c.c. well C1p is
prov ided at the top 10 transmit the load of the
superstructure (p ier or abu tment) to t~e well. Fig. 27.1. Well FoundfiliOll.
 WEll. FOUNDATIONS 723

21.2. DIFFERENT SHAP ES OF WELLS

Differen t shapes of wells lhat arc commonly used are shown in Fig. 27.2 .
(1) The most commonly used shape is circular [Fig. 27.2 (a)}. as it bas high structural strength and is
convenient in sinking . 1be chances of tilting are also minimum in this shape. 1be shape is quite su itable for
piers of the single -line railway bridges and the double-lane rood bridges . Howeve r, when the piers are

o crJ
excessively long, the circular shape becomes
unc:eonomicaL The maximum diameter of
circular wells is generally limited to 9 m.
(2) Double-D wells [Fig. 272 (b) ] an:
generally used for the piers and eootmems of (a)CIRCULAR (bl DOUBLE - D
bridges which are too long 10 be
accommoda ted 00 a circular well of 9 m
diameter. The wells of this shape can also be
sunk eesily. However, considerable bending 00 00
moments are caused in the stcining due to the (c) DOUB LE OCTAGONAL (d ) TWIN CIRCULAR
difference in pressure between the outside and
the inside of Ihe well. Further. the square
comers at tile partition wall offer greater
resista nce to sinking.
(3) Double-octagonal wells [Fig. 27.2 (c»
C
(el RECTANGULAR
CD (I) DOUBLE RECTANGULAR
Fig. 27.2. DiCerenl Shapesol ~lls .
are better than the double-D wells in many
respects. The sq uare comers are eli minated and bending stresses are oonsiderably reduced. However, they
offer greater resistance than dolble-D wells against sinking on accoun t of increased surface area. Moreover,
the construction is more ditrlCUlL
(4) Twin-circular wells [Fig. 27.2 (d)] are two indepcndalt wells placed very close to each other and
having a canmon well cap. The wells are sunk simultaneoesly. These wells are suitable where the length of
the pier is considerable, which cannot be accommoda ted on a double-D or double-octagonal well. Twin
circular wells are advantageous when the depth of sinking is small and the bearing capacity of the soil is
high. TIle disadvantage of twin circular wells is that there is a possibility of the relative sentemenrof the two
wells even if a heavy R.CC top cap is provided unless the wells are founded on an incompn:ssible soil.
(5) Rectangular wells [Fig. 27.2 (e)} are generally used for bridge foundation having depths uptc 7-8 m.
For large foundations, double -rectangular wells [Fig. 27.2 (j)] a re used . For piers and abutments of very large
size , rectangular wells with mult iple dredge holes (not shown in the figure) are used . Bending stresses in the
steining are very high in rectangular wells.
27.3. GR IP LENGm
The well shou ld be sunk below the maximum scour level to sufficient depth such that the resistance from
the sides is able to resist the late ral forces acting on the well. The depth of the bottom of the well below the
maximum scour level is known as grip length. The depth of foundation should be chosen considering the grip
length and the bearing capacity of the soil. The maximum and minimum base pressures under worst loading
cond itions should be within the pennissible values.
The depth of sco ur in a stream can be asce rtained through actual soundin gs at or near the s ite proposed
for the bridge during or immediately after a flood . The maximwn scour would be greater than the measured
E scour because the design discharge is greate r tban the flood discharge for which the soundings have bcco
made. Moreover. there would be an increase in the velocity of water due to the obstruction of flow caused by
<XXlStruction of the bridge . An extra allowance should also be made in the measured scour due to the
proximity of piers.
In case actual soundings cannot be made, the normal depth of scour in alluvial soils may be calculated
by Lacey's formula.
724 ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

d - 0.473 (Q/J) ~ ...(27.1)

where d = normal sco ur depth, meas ured below high flood level (m), Q = desig n discharge (m)/soc), f =
silt facto r.
The sill factor may be calculated from the equation
f. 1.76>fd; . ..(271)
w here d,. = mean size of particl e (rom)
The regime wid lh can be competed as
W • 4.75 v'Q ...(273)
If the actual wa ter way (L ) is less tha n the regi me width . the actual scour depth (tI) is given by
d • d(W/L) o.•1 .••(27.4)
The maximum scour depth (d.na,;), 3.0; recomm ended by IRe (1966) and IS : 3955-1967 can be ob tained
from Thb le 27.1.
TIle gri p 1cnglh for we lls on railway brid ges is general ly taken as 50% of the maximum scour depth. Fa
road brid ges, a gri p length of 30% of the maximum scour dept h is generally pn:wided. Thus the base: of the
well is usually take n at a depth of 2.67 d' below the high flood level.
Tuble 27.1. Maximum Scour Depth

Maximum Sc0!4r
S. No. River Section
(d o=)
I. Straight Reach 1.27 d'

,.
2 Moderate Bend
Severe Bend
l.S0d'
1.75 d'
4. Right-angled Bend or at nose or Pier 200 d'
5. Upstrea m Nose or Guide Oanlts 2.75 tI
6. severe Swirls 2.50 d'

According to [5 : 3955 - 1967, the depth of foundation should nOI be less than 1.33 times the ma ximum
scour depth. Th e depth of the base o f the well below the max imum sco ur level is kepi not less than 2 m for
piers and ebuim erus with arches and 1.2 m for piers and abutments supporting other types of structures.
27.4. FORCES ACIlNG ON THE WELL FOUNDATION
TIle following forces shou ld be considered in the desig n of a well foundation.
(I) Dead loads . The dead loads carried by the well include the weight of the superstructure and the self
wei ght.
(2) Uve lauds. The design live toads for railw ay bridges arc taken acco rding to Indian Railw ay Bridges
Rules. For rood bridges, the live loads as speci fied by the India n Road Co ngress Standard Specifica tions and
Code o f Practice for Road Bridges----Sect. II should be used.
(3) Impact loads. Impact effect due 10 live load is considered only in the design of pier ca p and the
bridge seat on the abutment. For all other members of the well the effed of impact is ignored.
(4) Wind loads. Wind loads on the live load. superstruct ure and the part of the st.bsuucture located
above the water level are calculat ed acoording to the provisions of IS : 875. 1be wind load acts 00 tbe
ex posed area in elevation and thus it acts latera lly on the bridge.
(5) w ater pressure. Water pressur e due to water current acts on the part of substructure which lies
between the water level and the maximum scour level. On piers parall el to the direct io n of the water, the
intens ity of water press ure is given by
p - KV' ...(27.5)
where: P = intensity of pressure (kN/m1 . K = a constant, depending upon the shape of the well (= max. of
G WEU.FOQNDAll0NS 725

I) 0.788 for square ended pie r 10 a mini mum of 0 .237 for piers w nh rut and ease wa ter). V = velocity of cu rrent
(m/s<c).
It is assumed that y1 is maximum aI the free surface of water and ze ro aI the deepest scour level. 1be
variation is assumed to be linear. Tbe surface veloci ty is taken "ff times the average velocity.
Even when the flow is parallel to the pier, a transverse force equal to 20% of tha t acti ng parallel to the
pier is taken to allow for ob lique flow .
If the current makes an angle 8 with the axis of the pier, the pressure along the axis of the pier and
transverse to it are given by
PQ = press ure aloog axis =p a:JS2 (W O
:I: 8) ••.(27 .6)
Pt = transverse pressure = p sm2 (20 0 :I: 9) ...(27 .7)
(6) Longi tu di na l Forces . Long itudinal forces occur due 10 tractive and braking forces. These forces
depend upOn the type of vehic les and bearings. These forces are transmitted to substructure main Ly through
flxcd bearingsand through friction in movabl e bea rings. Acoordi ng to IRe code, a long itudina l force of I-tW
is taken on th e free bea ring and the bala nce o n the fixed bearing, where W is Ihe lotal reactio n and I-t is the
coefficient of friction.
(7) Ce nt ri fugal Force. A centrifuga l force is trans mitted throu gh bea rings if the bri dge is curved in plan .
(8) Buoyant Forces. Buoyancy reduces th e effecti ve weight of the we ll. In mason ry or concrete steining,
15% buoyancy is considered to account for the porous ness .
When the well is founded on coarse sand or shingle, full buoyancy equa l to the weight of an equ ivalent
volume of d isplaced wat er should be cons idered . For semi -pervious foundations. it is suitably red uced .
(9) Ea rth Pressure. The earth pressure is calculated acoording to Rankine's theory o r Coulomb's theory .
For the stability of foundations below the scour level, the passive earth pressure of the soil is considered.
To account for the efIt;ct o f live load p1aoed behind the abutment, an equivalent height o f surcharge is
considered if no approach slab is provided.
(10) Temperature Stresses. Longitudinal forces are induced due to temperature changes. The movements
due to temperature changes are partially restrained in girder bridges beca use of friction at the moveable end.
(11) Seism ic forces. For the wells constructed in the seismic zone, seismic forces should be considered.
The forces ad on all components of the structure. The force is usually specified as aW, where W is the
weight of the component and a is the seismic coefficient. The value of a depe nds upon the seismic zone (IS
: 1893) . lis value is generally taken between 0.01 and 0.08. The seismic force acts throu gh the centre of
grav ity of the component, It may act in any direction, bu t it is assu med to act in one direction only at a time.
The seismic forces are considered separately along the axis of the pier and tra nsverse to it.
Resultant Forces. The magnitude,
direct ion and the point of app lica tion of
all the above forces are found unde r th e
worst poss ib le com binations. '[b e
resultant ca n be replaced by an
'eq uiva lent vertical force W, and two
horizontal forces F and Q. as shown in
Fig. 27.3.
The horizo ntal force Q acting in
the transverse direction gives more
crincal condition for the lateral stab ility o
of the well.,

17.s. TERZAGDI'S ANALYSIS

Terzagbi's solution for free rigid ElE VATO'
1 SlOE VIEW
bulkheads can be used for an Fig. 27.3. Fon:u on. pier.
7'" SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

appro ximat e ana lysis of the we ll founda tion. When a rigid bulkhead embedded in sand moves parallel to its
original position. the sand 00 its front is transformed into passive state whereas thai on its rear, into active
Slate. Assuming thai bot h the active and passive resistances are fully mobilised , the net pressure at any depth
z belo w the grou nd surface is give n by
p • yZ( Kp - K.l ... (27.8)
A free rigid bulk head de pends for its stab ility solely on the lateral resistance. lei %1;U' be the horizontal
force per unit length act ing on the bulkhead o f tota l height /I I (Fig. 27.4). The pressure dis tribution on both
sides of the bulkhead at the instant of failure may be represented as shown in the figure. The bulkhead rotates
about the point 0 above the base B. As the soil around the well is generally submerged , the submerged unit
weight j ' is used.

1I
~t
R LINE

11 E lB
1.'O(Kp-Ka) .1
.
~~~:.}
n(Kp-Ka~1
C

Fig. 27.4. Terl.aghi's Analysis.

The applied force per unit length is given by
qrr",,..' - AreaAlJC - AreaFEC

• ~y' o'(Kp - K.l - ~(2 y' D)( Kp - K.lD,

where V I is the height of point F above the bottom .

9~' • IY' D (Kp - K. )(D - 2 D,) •..(27.9)

Thking momen ts abo ut the base 8,
9mM' H I • I y' o' (Kp - K. ) D/3 - I (2y' D)(Kp- K.l oj/3
where HI - H + D .
Sobstitutin g the val ue of qmu' from Eq. 27.9.

Iy'D(Kp-K. )(D -2D,)/I, • IY'(K;,- K.lo'/3-I (2y' D )(Kp - K. )oj/ 3

(D - 2 D,) H, • 0'/ 3 - 2 ojl3

Dt - 3V 1 II 1 + (I.5DII I - 0.501 _ 0
SolvingforD1 .wc:have 2 D I - 3 1 1I :1: V9 Jif -2D(3 J11 - D ) .. .(27.10)
By substituting the: above value of D, in Eq. 27.9. the value of qlfW,'can be computed . lbe coefficient
Kp and K,. can be obtained from Ranki ne's theory.
In the above si mpli fied ana lysis. the mome nts due to side friction and the base reaction are neg lected.
The error is on the safe side .
WElL FOUNDATIONS 727

lleavy Wells. A heavy well embedded in cohesionless soil rotates

about its base (Fig. 27.5). The force Per unit length. qrnu.', can be
obtained by taking moments aboul the base.

~
* ..
qmar.'H1 - &"f'(Kp - K,Jd x

qma' • ~ y' (K p - K o) (27.11)

Effect of Surcharge. The effect of surcharge due to the weight of
soil above the scour line can be taken into accocm in the analysis. The
soil below the maximum scour level is subjected to a surcharge of
beigbt Z of the unsecured soil (Fig. 27.6). The height Z may be taken
equal to one-half the normal depth of scour, in case it is not possible
to ascertain it by actual measurement.
The pressure distribution is shown in the figure. The maximum
Fig. 11.5. Heavy Well.
pressure at the base is equal to "f' (Kp - K,,)(D + Z).
In this case, qmlUl' is given by

q= 1 ' (K
- 6"'( K)d'(D+Z)
P - " --H- - ... (27.12)
1

,- r-----
UNseOURED BED

" Z R LEVEL

l
w
7,. SOIL MECHANICS AND roUNDATION ENGIN EERING

Ma ximum Pressu re at Base. U Q is the actual applied uarsverse horizontal force and Q. is the
allowable equivalent res isting force. the unbalanced force (Q - Q.) acting at a height of II above the scour
level would produce an overturningmoment M B at the base, given by
M. - (Q - Qo)(1l + D)
The maximum and the minimum pressure at the base are
W M.
q'- -A;+Z;
W M.
<lnd q ", in - A; - Z;;
where W = net vertica l load on the well base, after maki ng allowance for buoyancy and skin friction, Ai> =
area of the we ll base. Z" = section modulus of the well base .
The maximum pressure should nor be more than the allowable soil pressure. 1lte minimum pressure
should not be negative (tensile). II is a general practice 001 to give any relief due to skin friction while
calculat ing the maximum pressure in clays, bul to cons ider it for ca lcula ting the minimum pressu re.
Maximum Moment in Stet nleg. The ma ximum moment Mmv. on the ste ining occurs at poin t S at depth
x be low the scour line (Fig. 27.4) where the shear force is zero. i.e. lhe applied force and lhe earth pressure
just balance each ot her, Taking a factor of safety F,

~ [ ~Y'(Kp - K,,).l?L] • Q

Taking moments about point S,

x - [ Y'(K~~'iJL r ..(27.14)

M~ - Q (II + x) - (Pressure Force) x xl3

Taking pressure force equal (0 Q,
M~- Q(II + x ) - Q(x/3)

M~ - QIl + ~Qx •••(27.15)

If M is the applied moment at the scour -level, Eq. 27.15 becomes

M~ • M + ~ Qx ... [21.15 (a)]

If the well rests squarely on rock or an unyielding stratum, no tilt about the base or rotation about a point
above the base is possible . In such a case, the moment developed upto the base is transferred 10 the
foundation bed.
21.G. BANERJEE AN D GANGOPADIIYAY'S ANALYSIS
Banerjee and Gangopadh yay (1960) derived equations for the lateral load capacity of wells, making the
following assumptions:
• ( 1J The well is founded in a sandy stratum.
(2) The well is acted upon by a uni-direct.ional horizontal force Q in a direction across the pier.
(3) The resultant unit pressure on soil at any depth is in simple proportion 10 the horizontal
displacement.
(4) The ratio betwee n the contact pressure and the corresponding displacement is independent of the
magnitude of pressure.
(5) The coefficient of vertical suogrede reaction has the sa me value for every point of the surface acted
by the contact pressure.
WElL roUNDAllONS

1be methcxl of analysis can be div ided into follow ing 6 steps.
(,) Expression (or lIorizontal Soil Reaction. When a rigid well embedded in a sand y stratum moves
parallel to its original positioo, the sand on lhe front face is lmllSfocmed into pass ive state and that 00 the rear
face, into active state (Fig. 27.7). The net pressure at a depths z is given by (shown by the finn line).
p, • y z(Kp - K,,) ... (21.16)
Let P be the load per unit area of lhe vertical surface and P be the corresponding displacement. If PI is
the d isplacement required to Increase the value of the net pressure from zero to P L. we have
pip .. Pi lpi
~ Substituting lhe value of PI from Eq. 27 .16.
Rigid wall

T
~.yz~:~
p . p y z (K,.-K. )
\"
D
PI N~l pr~ssur~ \ _ _ ACI

where ~: ;&:_ K.) /p l :::~:~~ ~s~ p-es~/

The const ant m is known as the coelJicien.t ofhorizontal
soil reaction. It is an empirical coeffici ent which depends
upon lhe nature of soil. uie size and shape of the loaded
area.
(il) Bquatlons of Equilibrium. The stability of the well
/

"-- - --
' I,'

J~
p.:

f - - KpY O----=:r----l Ko'l' O

.
\ ~~ssu
\,

-----.1
~
J
can be checked assuming eithe r no plastic flow or partial FIg. 7:7.7.
plastic flow. The following anal ysis is based on the assumption of no plast ic flow. For lhe other case, a
reference may be made to the ori ginal pape r. Fig. 27.8 shows a well of length L and wid lh B, acted opon by

Nolt' : Rotot ion is

~~9gE'foted

lbl

'0)

Fig. 27.S.
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

a horizon tal force P pe r unit length at a height 1/ above the scour line. The well is embed ded to a depth D
belo w the scour line.
When the well rotates about a point 0 loca ted at a depth D 1 below the scour line.the following equations
can be written from statics .
P - P, - P, - " R •••(27.19)
PH. M 1 +M2 - M 1 + J.lR D+ J.I(P1- P:z) lC 812 •••(27.20)
and W - "(p, + P,) + R ... (27.21)
where P ::::: horizon tal transverse force, PI = =
resultan t force on the front face, P2 resultant passive force on
= =
the rear tece, J.IP J skin frictioo on the front face. J.IP2 skin friction 00 the rear race. =
R resultant vertical
= =
soil reaction at the base, "" R frictional resistance of the soil at the bese, MI moment at the scout line due
= =
to P b M 2 moment at the scour line due to P2 , M 1 moment due to the vertica l soil reactio n at its base .
Let PI = horizontal displacemen t of the centre line of the we ll at the scour level, P2 = horizontal displaceme nt
of the centre line of the we ll a t the base level, PJ z downward vertical displace men t of the we ll at the toe,
P'J ::::: upward vertical displacement of the well at the heel(p3' ... Pi), P. = uniform vertica l displace ment of
the well due to resultant vertical force W.

From Fig. 27.8 (a), ~ - D ~D ) • 872 ... (27.22)

(iii) E va lua llo n or P I a n d M ). Let P be the horizon tal displacemen t at dep th z be low the scour line. The
pressu re as given by Eq. 27 .17 is
P _ mpz
From Fig. 27 .9, p _ (p,ID ,)(D , - , )
Therefore, p - mz (p) ID ) (D) - z) .. .(27.23)
D,
Force per unit length. P t - J" nlZ (PI/ D I) (D 1 - z) dz

PI _ mpl~ •. .(27.24)
6
Moment . u, _f"D I (pdz) Z
- J" D im (PIID) (D I - z) i2dz

M, _ m p'(IY,/ 12) . . •(27.25)

Fig. 2:7.9. Fig. 2:7.10.

WEI..LFOUNDAl10NS 731

(w) Ev al ua ti on o r Pl .nd M 1 From Fig. 27.10,

P PI
z-DI- n;
(z - D,)
P · ~ Pl

(z - D ,)
From Eq. 27 .17, P - mz ~ PI

F~ per unit length, Pz • f D'"DP I Z (z - D I) dz

D, I

- :;,' (2 D' - 3 D, D' + Dh ...(27.26)

Moment, M2 • J D ~z (z -D I ) Z dz
D, DI

or M2 • ;~~I 4
(3D -4D J d . D1) ...(Zl.27)

(v) Eva lua tkm or R and M J Let K" be the modulus or vertical subgradereaction .
K, - pip .. .(27.28)
where P :: vertical deflection ( = P.) of soil c:orrcsponding to the vertical reaction p .
Therefore, vertical reaction,

R _
o
2[/2 P dz _ 2[n. K~ p.dx 0
or R _ K"B p. ...(27.29)
The rotation o f the well is resis ted by a mome nt M) acti ng at the base due to pressure developed on
accoun t of the downward deflection of the toe and the upward defleclion of the heel. Fig. 27.11 shows the

rromlhc=t",or'heba.se.Th=~ I ~ 1
rotation of the base , with a maximum displacem ent of Pl at the e nds. let P be the deflection at a distance x

~~ _x--.j . . _:
I--~ "i' ~--l
Fig.21.11.

e.x-B12
Pa
orp- n
2Pl
x

From Fig. 27.28, P.K"p.2;lK"x

Moment M). 2 { ' p x dx .. 4p)K~ , n. :l-dx

o B J,
 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

p,K.Ii'
M'· - 6- . ..(27.30)

Substituting the value of PJ from Eq. 27.22-

MJ •
( n:
ij / 2 ) K. Ii'
PI -6- • ~
K.B' p,
••.(27.31)

EvaJuadonor m PI
The maximum soil pressure at depthz below the scour line is given by
(PJ= • F (K" - K,,) .. .(27.32)
If no plastic flow is allowed in the soil the horizontal soil reaction p al any depth z must not exceed
(P1')Q:Wl' 1bcrefore,
d ~J " y(Kp _ K,.) ... (27.33)
The sand starts flowing as soon as theslope of the pressure parabola at scour level becomes equal to the
slope of the line whose abscissa represents the valueof (PJmax (see Fig. 27.8 (b») .
6P,
From Eq. 27.24. m PI • fj'f ••.(27.34)

From Eq. 27.23 . P.mz~(DJ -Z)

Therefore,
p. z(D I - z) (61',) . 6['1 (D -z)z
D oj oj
dp 6P, (D, - 2z)
Hence,
di" D1
tip 6P I D I 6P 1
At z. O. ••.(27.35)
di"---O;--vr
From Eqs. 27.33 and 27.35. 6P,/oj" Y(Kp - K,.)
y(K, - K,.)oj
or PI· 2 6 ••.(27.36)
Substituting the above value of 6 PI/ D I in Eq. 27.34.
m p, • y (K" - K,,) ...(27.37)
Substitutingthe above value of m PI in Eqs. 27.25, 27.26. 27.'l:7 and 27.31.
M, • Y(K, - K.)(oj/ 12) ••.(27.38)
y(K - K,.)
..J --' ""
P2 • ~ (2u - 3D 1LT + U J) •.. (27.39)

y(K, - K,.) . ..J. ...(27.40)

M2 • 12D (3D - 4D1u + D 1)
1

M "K.y (K, - K,.)

J m
(L )
12D I •••(27.41)

(l'I) Detenninadon or Base Pressu re. The total vertical readion is given by (see Fig. 27 .12)

R·i(p,+PJo)B .••(27.42)
WBlL FOUNDATIONS

Fig. 27.12-
where Pt '" pressure at the toe. PIr '" pressure at the heel
Moment M) am be expressed as
! (PI - Ph) )( "2
M) - '2 B )( !'2 (2
3" B )
M3 - (P, ;2 hh) 82 • •• (27.43)

The maximum pressure should nOI be more than the allowab le soil pressure. The minimum pressure
should not be negative (tensile).
27.7. SIMP LIFIE D ANALYSIS FOR n EAVY WELLS
The analysis given in the preceding section is considerably simplified if the well is heavy. For such wens.
the reaction R at base is very high, and, therefore, the sliding at the base does not take place (i.e. P2 '" 0).
The well however rotates at its base (Fig. 27.13).
As P2 - 0, mid D I - D, Eqs. 27.39 and 27.40 give r\""'- P

2
P - 0 and M '" 0
2
The equations of equilibrium (Eqs. 27.19 lo 27.21)
i "' \
I .
~e I

p. PI - ~R. PI - F .. .(27.44) ..."..+L-- Scour le'~ t

PH - M) - M I + FD + ~ PI (8/2) •..(27.45) \

and W. ~ Pl + R ... (27.46)

\
,
\

where F '" frictional resistance at the base to prevent \~

sliding.
Also by substituting D • D1• we have
P, • y (Kp - K.,er16 (27.47)
MI • y (K p - KJer/!2 (27.48)

and M,. YK. (~ - K. ) x IfD (27.49)

The ecove quantities are per unit length of the well

and are applicable for a rectenguler well. In case of a Fig . 27.13.
well with a non- rectangular base, the equations. are modified as
PL. P 1L - F I ... (27.50)
PLn . AlB - MIL + F1D+ ~ PJ (8 /2)L ... (27.51)
and WT • ~PIL + R1 ... (27.52)
,>4 sou, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

= = =
where L ma ximum leng th oCthe well base, D width oC the well base, M B total momen t induced in lhe
base due 10 tilting , F 1 = total horizonwl reacti on at the bose, R 1 = loInl vertica l reaction at the base, WT =
total vertical load oCthe well
111e pressures at the toe and heel are given by
R1 MB
Pt"'A;+Z;; ••.(275 3)

Rt MB
and Ph "'::t;-Z; ...(2754)

where Z" is section mod ulus.

Combining theaoovc two cquanoos,
2 R,
PI +P ~ •••(2755)

From Eqs. 27.41 nod 27.43 , M "t K~ (K _ K) JL... (P, - Ph) £f ... (2756)
3 III P "12D 12
The values oC P, and Ph can be

roun~~:ml~'I'~;1~5o~dp~7;: bceo ~
a-.
found, the moment Ms can be Cound
Crom Eq. 27.53, as
~1T -. )e
H

r-;.P-'-t----'
\. II \\
M s '" (P, - R 1I A") Z,, .. (Zl.51)

27.8. IR e M"""HOD
P \! \1 \ o

1
Indian Road Congress (IRe : 45- e \ .' \
1972) gave rccommendanons for \
csumanng the resistance of the soil
belo w the maxim um scou r level. The
~\ , I
J
reco mme nda tions are based o n the ld) PrU$UrI/ . lc)DtIlKti on L_-----
observed behav iour of models of well ~t;~~ion pr ofi~ on ..idn (c:I)E~Wllion

foundations and research. According 10

the rcconmendatlons, elastic lheory CM t-- .---l

It--~1 .'
be used to delcrmine the soil pressure at
the side and at the base due 10 des ign
loa ds. However, for estimation of the
factor of safety agains t shear failure, the
ultimate so il resistance is computed.
1. Elasti c Theory,
Tbe following assumptions
made in the elastic theory :
(I) The well behaves as a rigid
body.
(2) 1be coefficient oC horizo ntal
subgrode reaction KH increases
linear ly with depth,
(3) The unit soil react ion increases
Iincnely with the lateral
UJ IIJ
(fj PrtsSurt d is tr ib ut ion et bow
deflection . Fig. 27.14.
WELLFOUNDATIONS 735

(4) Th e well is acted upon by an externa l horizon tal force 11 and a moment Mo at the scou r level
Pressure Distribution on Sides. Fig. 27.14 (a) shows a rigid we ll with its base at a depth D below the
scou r level. TIle well may rotate at a point above the base, or at the base, or below the base. The base moves
low ard the centre of rotation if the point of rotation lies above the base and, therefore, the frictional force at
the base aas in the direaion of the horizontal force H. However, if the point of rotation lies below the base ,
the direction of the frictional force is in the direction opposite to that of 11.
In general, the frictiona l fQ'CC i1 given by
F _ ~ ~W ... (2758)
where ~ = roe fficien l of friction, W = total downward loed, ~ = a factor, which lies between - 1 and + 1,
depe nding upo n Ihe point of rota lion.
If tbe well rota tes at {KlintC (Fig. 21.14 (b)}. the horizonlal deflection at any depth z i1 given ,by
PH • (D -z) a ...(2159)
The horizontal soil reaction at tha i level is
0, • K II (z/D)(D - z) a ...(27.60)
0 ... - m K" (z ID)(D - z) e
where m - Kif/I<.
TOlal horiz on tal soil reca tion acti ng on the sides.

P-fLo.. o
dz

.fo LmK,(zlD)(D - z)adz

_ mK;L a (D' /6)

or P _ 2m:"a ' 1" .. .(27.61)

where I" _ LOS112 = moment of inertia aboul lhe axis passing through the e.g. of the vertica l projected 8rC8 .
Momenl of P at the base level is given by

Mp -f:.o L a...(D - z) dz

.f.o Lm K.,(z/ D)(D -z)' a dz

or Mp - mK"9 /,, ... (27.62)

Pressure Distribution at Base. Th e vertical deflecti on et a distance (x + x..) from the centre of rotation
is give n by [see Fig. 27 .14 (c)].
p -(x + xt ) 9
There fore, vert ical soil reactio n 0: - K.,(x + Xt) a
.an
Mo ment et the base, MB - f --812 K,J.x + z.,) 9 x d4.

MB _ K,,9 1+812 ;,? d4. + K" 9

- 8/2
j--812
B/2 x..xM.
As the reference axis is taken through the e.g. of the base . the second term is equal to zero. Therefore,
M, - K., I, a . . .(21.63)
736 sou, MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where 18 = moment of inertia of the base abou l an axis passing through the c.g. and perpendicular to the
horizon tal force H .
For equilibrium. the sum of all lhc horizontal forces is zero.
Thus H.PI.l.W -J3I.lI.l. 'P.P
P(I + ~~ ~') _ II + ~~W

P-~ ... (27.64)

1 + P"1I.1'
Taking moments of all the forces about the base.
. M o + lID. Ms + M p + j.1'P(nD) . .. (a)
where a D is equal to the distance from the axis passing through the e.g. of the base 10 lhe point at whim
the resultant vertical frictional force on side acts normal (0 the d irection of the horizontal force ( = Bf2 for
rectangular wells and 0 318 B for circu lar wells) .
Eq. (a) can be wriUen as
2 m Kv
M o + lID - K v 8/s +mKv 8/.. + II , aD x (- D - ' I v
e )
M o + liD . K v 8[18 + m l ..(1 + 1 j.l' a )] .. .(27.65)
e M o + liD
Kv .18 + m1v(l + 2J,l'a)

KvB. Is + mlv ~ + 2 J.l'a) ... (27.67)

Kv8 - ¥ . .. (27.67)

where M -Mo+JlD
and I- Is + mly(l + 2 j.l'a) . ••.(27.68)
p • ~ _ lmKy 8 1v
From Eqs. 27.61 and 27.64,
1 + PI.l.I.l' D

Using Eqs. 27 .67 , P_o;I (¥) v

r:~ ... [27.69 (an

where r.£·~ ••.[27.69 (b)]

2 m1v

Also II + ~~W • 7- (J + ~ ~ ~')

On simp lificati on, H + PI.l. W • 0/: + ~ • ~ (1 + J31.l. I.l.')

p[ j.1W-7M '] --;-11

M

~ -H
~. M •. .(27.70)
~W-7 (~~')

As - 1 < P< I, we have

WEll. FOU ND A,TIONS

7 ( I + "11.1') - \.lW < 1/ e 7(1 - \.lll') + II W . . .(27.71 )

Tbe vertical soil reacti on is given by.

0: • K y 8 (x + x..)

Now w- ~'P - f 0, d4 - K, ef (x u ,) d4
w .; ....' p . K y9 x..A
Kv Bx.. . W ~ ....'P

w 'P)
The refore . 0: • Kv B x +
(~ ... (27.72)

The pressures at the toe and heel are give n by

P,. W -A!J.'P + K y B (BI2) ... [27.73(0)}

aod P• • W - A ll' P - KyB (8 12) .. .[27.73(b)]

Substituting the value of K y B from Eq. 27.67 ,

p, _ w-/' P + ~: (rI.74)

arxl Pit . W -A f1' P - ~: (l7 .75)

For the soil to remain in elastic stale, the maximum soil pressure at any de pth shou ld not exceed the
maxif1.lum passive pressure, i.e., 0;<
} Pp

mKv(~) (D - z) at y( K, - K.) z

m K v8(D - z). .
A t z =0. the te rm - - D - - 15 a maximum.

Therefore, mKy 8 } y (Kp - K,,)

m¥- t y(K, -K.) . .. (27 .76)

Eq. 27 .76 should be sat isfied. Further. the maximum base

pressu re P, should nor exceed the allowable soil pressure. The
minimum pressure Pll should not be negative to avoid tension.
Scou r leve l
1. UlUmale Solis Resistance I
The friction al force mobilised along the surface of rupture
can be determined assuming the surfa ce to be cylindrical (Fig. I
27 .15) . For circular wells. the surface of rupt ure is assumed 10 be jw o
a part of sphere with its ce ntre at the point of rotation and passing
through the periphery of the base.
If W" is the ultimate load. equal 10 the total vertical load
mulr..iplied by a suitab le load factor; the load per un it width is
W.,IB. It will also be equal 10 the upw-ard pressure for a
.. ~..
'0
e ..............
;J
rectangular base.
Let us consider a small arc of length Rooat an angle a from .
me vertical a xis. Fig. 27.15. Ullim.te Soit ReNs.taooe.
738 OOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Vertical force on the elem ent = Rda cosa(W.,IB ) and normal force developed on the element
elF.. .. (W.,IB)Rdu rosa rosa

Total normal force, F" .. 2!. (W.IB) R cos2a da

o
F" .. WiR (8 + sin 8 cos 8) •. .(a)

w here B _ tan-I (812 nO)

and n D is the height of point 0 above the base

and R· i " + (nO) -'i.8-~

v(812 V1 + T

Bq. (a) can be written as F

II
_.'!'..
2
V1 + 4n'o' [
If -I-.!!.-
Ian 2nD +
!!J!!Ql]
l n2

F" ..
w.~
2"" I+ ~
[ tan_1 2 8nD + Ji2 2+n 4n2&
BD 1 .. .(27.77)

The moment of resistance of the base about the point of rotation is given by
M. _ (F. tan~) R ... [27.78 (al]
[Note. The right-baed side of Eq. 21.78 (a) is mURipHed by a shape Iectoe o f 0 .6 in the case of circular
wells.]
Assu ming the point of rotation at a height of 0.2 D above the base. the moment of resistance of the base
is given by
M • • C W 8 tan .p ... [27.78(b)J
where f = angle of shearing resistance . B = width parallel to the direction of forces or equal to the diameter
in circular wells. C = roefficient (see Thble 27.2).
Table 27.2. Values or Coefficient C
DIB 25
Rec:languku Well 0.64
Circular Well 0.38

Side-Resisting Moment
Fig. 27.16 shows lhe ultimate soil pressure distribut ion at lhe Ircot and back faces of the well. As the

T
1;;;
r~ 1
/ ° _\\.J·20
~O
l .llJ(Kp-l\a) .I!O(Iy-l\a) .1
Fig. 27.16.
WEll. FOUND A;rIONS

point of rotation is assumed at a height of 0.2 D above the base, from the similarity of triangles, it can be
shown that D. • ] / 3 D.
Taking momen ts of the forces about O.
M; - O.ll96D'[yD(Kp - K,J]
/II,' =O.ll& (I(,.- JQ per unit length
Taking submerged unit wcigl\t.' - 0.1 T' d (K" - KJ per unit length
r'OC a we ll of lenzth L, /II, - O.ll' rY(K" - KJL ... (27.79)
Restst tng Mome nr due 10 rridion on rronl and back races
The frictiooal forces on the faces ad in the vertical direct ion and produce resisting moment M,.
Force/un it width, F - ¥ T' d (K,. - K.) sin b
In the case of a rectangular well of lengtb L,

M, . [.!fY' d(K p -K..) sin6] I x L

AI, _ O.l83'Y'(K" - K..)LB& sin 6

MI =0.18y' (K p - K,JLBD' sm6 ... (27.80)
For circul ar wells, taking shape factor as 0.60,
MI - O.l1y'(Kp - K.)Ii'D' sm6 ... (21.81 )
Total Resisllnl!: Mom~nt
Tbe total resis ting momen t is given by
M, - M b + M, + Mf ... (27.82)
IRe: 4$-1 972 recom mends a reduction factor of 0.7 in the total resisting moment of soil. Thus
M, - 0.7 (All. + M, + M,) ••.(27.83)
The applied moment M shou ld be less than M r Thus
M t 0.1 (M, • M• • MI) .•. (21.84)
For the computation of applied moments, the effects of momen ts due 10 tilt and shift of wells, if any,
about the plane of rotation should also be considered .
If Eq. 27.84 is not satisfied, increase the grip length D and rev ise the calculation s.
Check Cormaximum aVCnl2C pressure
111e maximum average pressure should not exceed one half the ultimate bearing capacity.

~t~ .. .(21.85)

where q" = ultimate bearing capacity .

21.9. DESIGN OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF ms

WELL
. 1be overall design of the wcll has been discussed in the preceding sections. The individual components
are designed as explained below.
(1) CUlling Edg e. Tbc cutting edge should have a sharp angle for cuuing through the soil. It should be
strong enough so that it docs DOl bend when penetrating through a soil containing boulders . A sharp vertical
edge having an angl e of 30 0 with the vertical or having a slope of one horizontal to two vertical is generally
used[Fig. 27.17 (a)} . However, if the sharp edges are likely (0 be damaged , a cutting edge with a stub nose
[Rg. 21.11 (b)] is used .
140 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

0000ERi
:~ OUTER
FACE
ANCHOR

,
(a) SHARP EDGE (b) STUB !'()5E
Fig. 27.17. Cutting Edge.
The cutting edge should be properly anchored 10 the well curb.
(2) Well curb. Fig. 27.18 shows the curb of a well. Curbs are generally made of reinforced concrete.
During sinking operation, the curb cuts through the soil. The figure shows the forces acting on the curb when
the well has penetrated to a considerable depth below (he scour level.

Fig. 27.]8. Well Curb.

Forces acting tangentially 10 the bevel surface (imler surface),
Q . ~P ...(al
where I.l. coefficient of friction between soil and concrete of the curb. P = forces acting normal to the
bevel surface.
Resolving vertically , ", P sin B + Pcos B - N •..(b)
or p . . N ..·('1
(s!sm6+ cos ej
where N = vert ical terce on the curb, e = engle which the bevel edge makes with the horizontaL
Resolving horizon tally, Psin8 - f.l. Pcos8 - H
where H = horizontal force on the ClUb per m .

From Eqs. (el and (d), H· Nt~:.ee~:::e:)

Hoop tension.T - H )( d/2, where d is the diameter.
Thus T . O.5N(Sin .8 - IHXllS8) d ... (21.86)
","s108 + rose
 WElL FOUNDATIONS 741
o
Sometimes., sand -blow may causesuddendescend of the wen during sinkin g and an lncreesein the hoop
tension. To aa::ount for such an event uality, the hoop tensioo is increased by 50%. Th'1S

T. O.75N ('m,e -"=e)

a
j.l.sm 8 + cos
d ... (7:7.87)

Su itable reinforcement should be provided to resist the hoop tension T developed.

When the cutting edge is rKX able to move down ward due to reaction developed at the QJrb and the
boUcm plug, the hoop tension developed is given by

T . (~H ... (27$8)

what q = pressureat the base. ::;;e;f:~

" '- ~l~,~

1 . . ~-t
e,
fig . 21.19.
In case of granular soils, the hoop tension is relieved by active earth pressurearound the curb. The net
hoop tension is given by

T' - ~ [~ - (PI + p,) b I .. (7:7.89)

where PI - ~ KQY' d
~ ~.~~i~-~
in which b = height of the curb, D = deplh of the curb below the scour level.
.) AI the junction of the curb and steln ing, a moment M" deve lops due to the horizontal force Jl caused by
bevelled actio n, given by
,)
M. _ H x bl2 .. .(27.90)
Suilable rei nforcement is prov ided at the inner corner to take ca re of this moment aod is anchored into
lhc stein ing.
IRe : 21-1972 recommends a minimum reinforcem ent of 72 kglm3 in a well aub. 1be reinfcrcernent
should be properly arranged.
The slope of the inner face of the cum should be such as to PJsh forward easily. .Tbe angle with the
vertical should preferablybe not mere than 30" in ordinary soil and 45" for sandy soi ls.
(3) WeD Stelni ng. Th e thickness of the steining should be adequa te for the stresses developed during
S) sinking and after irSallation. 1be thickness t of the steining may be obtained from the following equation:
 742 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

.8(/1 - h)f - .(8 - I)y, 1 11 + P ... (21.91)

- where H = depth to which the well has progressed, h = height at which it has got suspended. B = external
diameter. P = weight added for sinking.
The des ign o f steining reinforcement depends upon the skin friction and the unit weight of well. It is
3
usual practice to provide re inforcement of abou t 5 10 6 kglm of the brick and concrete steining. About 75%
o f the total reinf orce me nt is in the form of verti cal reinforceme nt and 25% in the shape of latera ls or hoop
rings. Th e vert ical reinforcement is spread ncar both (the outer and inner) races. The laterals should be
checked for the moment developed due to eccentric kentledge and half the weight of the well at an
eccen tricity of coe-fccrth the width of well in any direction. This condition is generally critical when the well
has sunk 10 about half the designed depth.
The lhidmess of the steiniog is usually fixed empirically, For railway bridges in India, it is generally
taken as one-fourth of the outside diameter. For road bridges, it is kept as one-eighth of the octssde diameter
if it is in brick masonry and one-tenth of the outside diameter if in cement concrete. However. the thickness
is increasedby 12 em per 3 m of dept h after the Iirst 3 m of steining in brick mason ry and 15 em per 6 m
of depth after the first 6 m for cemenl concrete.
A thu mb rule common ly used is
1 _ K (B18 + /1/ 100) ...(27.92)
where B = external diameter of well. H = depth below low water level. K = a constant (= 1.0 for sandy soils;
1.1 for soft clay and 1.25 for hard clay and bou lders).
(4) Bott om Plu g. The bottom plug should be stro ng enoug h to transmit the load to the soil below . It is
designed as a thick plate Slbjected to unit bearing pressure under the maximum vertical load. as already
discussed in the case of open caissons in chapter 26.
The bottom plug is given the shape of an e lectric bulb to produce an ard::Jaction. to reduce hoop tension
in the cu rb and to provide large r base area. 1be bottom plug is constructed in (1 : 2 : 4) cement concrete laid
by means of a tremic or a skin "bo x. Abou t 10% extra cement is added because some cement is washed away
on acco unt of water. Th e water in the we ll musl be still and at its normal level. Bottom plugging shou ld
always be done in one cont inuous operation.
While founding the well o n rock. it should be properly anchored by taking it 25 em to 30 em deep into
tbe rock bcd. Adequate dowel bars should be provided .
(5) Well Cap. 1be bottom of the well ca p is generally kept at the low water level It is designed as a
slab resting on the well 1be well cap may be extended as cemilevers 10 accommodate piers of slightly larger
size than that of the well.
If the width of the pier is greater than the size of the dredge hole. it is assumed that the weight of a cone of
concrete having an apex angie of 60° is carried by the slab and the remaining load is transmitted 10 the stcining.
Th e well cap should have a minimum rein forcemen t of abou t 80 kglm).
(6) Top P lug. Th e funct ion of the top plug is 10 transmit the load of the pier to the well steining. If a
well cap is provided , there is no need of a top plug. However. it is generally provided as an extra safe ty
precaut ion . Offsets are provided at the top of the stei ning to provide bea ring to the plug.
Ceme nt concrete (1 : 2 : 4) is used for the construct ion of the top plug.
(7) Sand fillin g. The main purpose of sand filling is to provide stability to the well by increasing its
weight and 10 reduce the tensile stresses caused at the base by bending moment. However. sand cannot be
depended upon for transmitting the weight of the pier to the bottom plug and, therefore, it does no( contribute
towards the structural strength of the well .
O n the Indian railways, the practice is 10 do the sand filling upto the top plug. Some of the highway
engineers recom mend that the sand filling should be done upto the lowest scour leve l. The actual depth of the
filling should be fixed cons tdenng the requirement of the dead weight for the stabili ty.
27.22. SINKING OF WELLS
The sinki ng operation consists of the following steps :
WELL FOUNDATIONS 743

(I) Layi ng the Well Curb. It the river

bed is dry, the cutting edge over which the WELL
well curb is to be buill is placed at the
required position after excavenng the river bed
to about 15 an. When the defth of water is
upto 5 m, a sand island is made before placing
the aub. The size of island shoold be large
enough to accommodate the well with
adequate working space all around (Fig.
fig. 272JJ. Sand Island .
27.20). In the case of depth of water more
than 5 m, it is generally more economical to build the curb on dry grou nd at the rive r bank and float it to the
site.
It is usef ul to insert woode n sleepe rs be low the cutting edge et regular intervals to d istribute the load
evenly over the grou nd . The sh uttering of the well curb is then erect ed. The outer shu tterin g is generally made
of steel (or wood) and the inner shutteri ng of b rick masonry . The rein force ment of the curb is then placed in
prope r pos ition sum that the vertical bars project about 2 m above the top of the curb . Co ncreting of the curb
is do ne in one continu ous opera tion . TIle curb concrete is allowed to set at least for on e week before the
shuttering is stripped off. Th e sleepers are also then rem oved .
(2) WeD Steinl ng. After sinking the well curb , the sreining is raised by about 1.5 m at a time and its
sinking done ancr allowing atlcast 24 hours for settin g. The stci ning is bui ll using straight edges, preferab ly
of angle iron. 'The lower portion of the straight edges is kept butted with the steining of the earlier stages.
Tbe steini ng must not be buill in plumb at any intenn ediate stage when the well has lilted 10 one side. Once
the well has acquired a grip of about 6 m in ground. the steining can be raised by ebour 3 m at a time . 1be
height of steining built at any stage should be such that the well does not lose stability.
(3) SlnkJ ng Process. Sinking process is begun after baving cast the curb and the first stage of steining
and allowing enoogh time for curing . The well is sun k by excavating materia l fran inside the curb manually
or mecha nically . When the depth of water K ENTLEDGE
inside the well is upto 1 m, dredging can be
done manually. However, beyond this deplh of
water, excavation is done with the help of
'jhems' (a type of spade). The 'jham' is Liedto
a rope moving over a pulley. It is pulled by
the men. Every time; a diver dives and pushes
the j ham into the soil and comes up. The jham
is then pulled out. In an improved version, the
jham has been replaced by an automa tic grab
opera ted by diesel (or steam ) winches. Straig ht
."• kI'
..,
chisels are used for breaking hard material so .
that is can be taken out by grab . Under -cutt ing Fig. 27.21. Kenlledge on lhe Well.
chise ls are used 10 loosen the mate rial whi ch lies under the steining. Ex plos ives are used for si nking through
rodt.
As the well sinks, the friction on the sides increases. 1b accel era te the process of sinld ng. addit iona l
looding. known as kennedge, is applied on the well. Kenlled ge is ge nerally in the form of sand bags (Fig.
27.21) placed OIl a suitable platform erected on its top such that it does not interfere with the excave non .
Sometimes, even kemledge is not sufHcient to sin k the well. In such cases, the frictional resistance developed
OIl its outer peripbery is reduced by forcing jets of water on the outer face. How ever, this method is effective
ooly in the case of wells sunk in sandy strata.
10 some cases, pumping out the water from im;ide the well is effective in well sinking. However. this
method should be discouraged in early stages when the depth is shallow, It is not desirab le to resort to
pumping out water unless the well hes gone deep eoough or has passed through a clayey strata so that the
744 ~J1 . MECIlAN1CS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEER ING

chances of tilt and shift arc reduced. Dewatering is not allowed after the well has sunk to about 10 m. After
this stage. the sinking is done by usual methods of grabbing. chise lling, applying kcntled ge or blasting .
Great precaution is nccc...'WY if dewa tering of the well is done when it is al a shallow depth to avoid
blowing of sand from unde r the cutting edge . If blowing of sand occurs, it results in the loss of time and
labour in removing lhc sand. It a lso presenus danger to the men working inside; as the well may get filled
upto a height of a few metres if the blow is large. The well may also till suddenly. Scrap gunny bags and
grass bundles arc placed around the peripheryof the well on the outside into the funnel formed . It blocks the
passage through which the blow of sand is lak ing place.
27.23. MEASURES FOR REcnncAlloN OF TILTS AND SIIIFTS
The well should be sunk straight and at the correct position . However, it is IlO( an easy task 10 achieve
this objective. Sometim es, the well tilts on one side or it shifts away from the desired pos ition. The following
precau tions must be taken to avoid tilts and shifts.
(1) The oute r surface of the well curb and steining should be regular and smooth .
The diamete r of the curb should be kept about 4 10 8 em lager than the oute r diameter of sremiog, and
the well shoo ld be symmetrically placed .
(3) The cuutng edg e sho uld be of uniform thickness and sharpness .
(4) Dredging should be done unifo rmly on a ll sides in a circular well and in both pockets of a twin well.
lilts and shifts must be carefully chec ked and properly recorded.The correct measurement of the tilt is an
important field observation required during well sinking. It is not possible to speci fy the permissible limits of

:~~:i~U:~~~S~~~-~~~~~:::~~ PULLEY PULLEY

that tilt should gene rally be lim ited to I in 60.
The shift should be restricted to one percent
of the depth sunk . In 0lSC they exceed the
above limits, the follov.ring measures are
taken for their rectificati on:
(I) Regulation or Grabbing. To rectify
the tilt, the higher side is grabbed more by
regulating the dredging . However . this
method is effective in initial stages of
sinking. In case of tilted wells, dredging

~(:I;~ ~~~ ~t~:~~e~~~~n~u:e~;~; (a) Fig. 27.22. (b)

side and the rope of the grab is pulled through the hook. [Fig. 27.22 (b)]. Thus dredging with hooking is done.
Alternati vely. the well may be cewarered, if possible. and open excavat ion may be carried QuI on the
higher side. R S . JOIST
(2) Eccentri c loading. To provid e
grea ter sinking effort on the higher
side. eccen tric joedlng is applied by
adjusting the kcnnedge. A suitable
platform is cons tructed on the higher R .S .
side for this purpose (Fig. 27.23). A" JOIST
the sinking progr~<;cs, heavier
kentledge with greater ecce ntricity
woukl be required to rectify the tilt,
(3) Water JeU lng . If the water jets
arc applied on the outer faa: of the
well on the higher side. the side friction
is red uced and the tilt is rectified.
WElL roUNDA1l0NS
'"
(4) Excantkm under culling

-rl-_j]-
edge. A tilted well in a bard clay ey
stratum docs not sraigbren due to
unbroken hard stnUum on the higher
side. If dewatering of the we ll is
possjble, open excavation is done under
the cutting edge . In case dewatering Is

~~LEEPER
not possible, divers can be sent to
loosen the strata.
(S) Inse rt ing wood en Sleeper
under the cutting edge. Sometimes '-HOOK
wooden sleepers are inserted (0) (b)
tcrnporaril y below the cuttin g edge on
the lower side to avo~d further tilt [Fig. Fi . 27.24.
27.24 (a)l. Alterna tIVely, a hook is g
inserted below the cutting edge on the lower side and pulled with a wire rope and kept strained (Fig. 27.24 (b)J.
(6) Pullina: the wett, In C<l"ly stages of sinking, pu lling the well towards the higher side. by placing one
or more stee l ropes around the we ll with vertical sleepers packed in-between to distrib ute the pressure over
larger areas of well steuung, is qui te effective (Fig. 27.25).

SLEEPERS
PUll.
STEEL RQPE I.ll4JLU-.ll--",-+"1

/ \

Fig. 27.25.
(7) Strutting the well. Tbe well is stru tted on its lilted side with suitabl e logs of wood to prevent further
tilt. The well steining is provided wit h sleepers to distribute the load from the strut. Th e othe r ends of the logs
rest against a firm and non-yielding base having driven piles (Fig . 27.26).

fig. 27.26.
746 SOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Fig. 27Z1 .
(8) Pushing the wells by jacks. The til t can be reclined by pushing the well with a suitable arrangement
through mechanical or hydraulic jacks. Fig. 27.27 shows a tilled well being pushed by a jack resti ng agains t
the vert ically-s unk well .
In actual practice, a combinatio n of several methods d~ above is generally used .

illUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

D1ustraU"e Example 27. 1. A circular well 0[6 m external diameter and 4 m internal diameter is
embedded to a depth of 15 m below the maximum scour level in a sandy soil deposit. The well is subjected
to a horizontal force 0/800 kN ac ting at a heigh t of 8 m above the 'scour level. De termine the allowable total
equivalent resisting force due to earth pressure. assuming (a) the rotauo« is about a poi nt above the base, (b)
the rotation is at the base . TaJce y~", ::: 20 kNlm J, • :: 30°; facto r of safety for passive resistance := 2.0.
Use TeTZilghi's analysis.
Sol ution. (See Fig. E-21.!) Kp " 3.D, K • .. 0.333

Ca) (b)

From Eq. 27.10 ,

From Eq. 27 .9.

WEll. FOUNDATIONS 747

-t )( 10.0 )( 15 )( (3.0 - 0.333) (15 - 2 )( 6..48) - 408 .1 kN / m

From Eq. 27 .13, the allowable transverse load,

Q• • if -;'s' L • 408.~ • 6 • 1224.2 kN

(b) Rotation at base. From Eqs. 27.11, q_' - k y' (KI' - KJ ~

I
- '6)( 10 )( (3.0 -
illt
0.333»)( 23 - 652.3 kN/m

There fore, Q. _ 652~ • 6 _ 1956.9 kN

illustrative Example 21.2. Fig. E-27.2 shows a welL Determine the base pressure and the lateral load
per unit length of the well: The well is subjected to a net downward force of 10 MN. Assume mat the

~_·_-·~-" Y~~ r ~

fI:1r~
I• 1----·6~ _ . l ../
Fig. E-272 .
Use Banerjee and Gangopadhay'f simplified analysis. Take J.1 = 0.50; y' = 11 kNlm J ; 4' = 30"; K v =
25000 kNl.,'.
Solution. Area of cross-section, A/Io _ x/4 (6 2 _ 4 2) _ 15.70 m 2
Moment of inertia, 1 _ x/64 (6 4 _ 44 ) _ 51.03 m 4

Section modulus, Z" _ 5~:~3 _ 17.01m 3

From Eq. 27.1 8, m • l ' (Kp - K.)

p,
• 11 • (3.0 - 0.333) • 1466.9
20 )( 10....3

From Eq. 27 .47, P

I •
l' (Kp -
6
K.) d'
2
_ 11 )( (3:0 -60.333) )(8 _ 31Z.9kN

From Eq. 27 .48, M l ' (Kp - K.)Ti'

1 - 12
748 OOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

4
_ 11.0 )( (3.0 ;2 0.333) )( 8 _ 1251.7 kN

From Eq. 27.49, M,- l'KJK;;, - X,J x JfD

11 )( ~~~.O - 0.333) )( 126: 8 _ 1125 kN-m

From Eq. 27.52, WT .. IJ-Pt L + R,

10000 .. 0.5 )( 312.9 x 6 + R,
R1 .. 9061.3kN

From Eq. 27.55, Pt + p,. .. 2A~1 .. 2 x 1~~J13 .. 11543 kN/m 2

From Eq. 2756, P, -Pit" ~

tr
.. ~
(6)
.. 375kN/m
2

Solving the above two equations. p, .. 764.65 kN/ m2; PI. .. 389.65 kN/m 2

From Eq. 27.57, MB .. (P, - R1IA/Io) Z.... 906l3) x 17.01 - 3189.38 kN-m
764.65 - ~
(
From Eq. 27.50, PL .. PtL - F I
P x 6.0 .. 3 12.9 )( 6.0 - F I ...(a)
From Eq. 27.51, PL/I .. MB - MIL + F1D + ~ Pl (8/2)£
P )( 6.0 x 4.5 .. 3 189.38 - 1251.7 x 6 + F 1 x 8 + 0.5 x 312 .9 x (612) x 6
27 P .. - 1504.72 + 8 F J • •• (b)

Solving Ca) and Cb), P - IllO.2 kN

Illustrative Example 21.3. Design a well founda tion fo r the fo llowing site conditions using IRe method.
J1igh flood level = 103.50, Bed level = 100.00, Scour level = 88.20, Base level = 78.00, External
diameter = 8 m, Wuith of pier at top = 1.5 m, Total vertical load ::: 5000 leN, Total horizontal load at bed
level :: 750 leN, Moment on well at SCOUT level = 3{)()o JcN.m. Horizontal WQterpressure on well = 650 kN.
1
Take q_ .. 600 kNlm ; 1... .. 20 kNl"l:. = 30° t K = 1.25; 6 = 20°,' seismic roeffi cient = 0.10 ; Kp =
6.105. KII .. 0.297; q.. _ 1800 kNltll
Solution. (See Fig. E-273)
lei us assume that the low water level is at bed level
From Eq. 27.92, t - K (B18 + HIJOO)
01' t _ 1.25 (S/8 + W lOO) - 1.53 say 1.6 m
Internal diameter _ 8 - 2 )( 1.6 _ 4.8 m
Design orWeD Ca p. Let us assume tha t the thickness of the well cap is 75 an.
Weight of the well cap _ x/4 )( (8.0)2 )( 0.75 )( 24 - 904.3 kN
Assuming a buoyancyof 15%, the upward force
_ 0. 15 )( x/4 )( (8.0)2 )( 0.75 )( 10 _ 56.5 kN
Area of cress-section _ 1t/4 )( (S2 _ 4.82) _ 32.15 m2
Momel'll of inertia (lB) _ ";64 C8' - 4.8') - 174.92m'

Section modulus _ 174.92 _ 43.73 m3

4.0
WEll. RlUNDATIONS 749

Scour leve l 88 .•

Bow level. 78.00

1nso LI:I3tJtftt
I---- 4." m-.."--- '>Sm-l .1
T ~ '2'i2 . 2 1<N /m2
Q, T
Fig. B-21.3.
Total vertical load, neglectingbuoyancy= 5000.0 + 904.3 :=: 5904.3 kN
The maximum and minimumpressuresare given by

qaJD • ~~ + ~ - 252.2 kN/ m

2

%1in • 53~; - ~ • 115 kN / m 2

Averagepressure (q..) _ (252.2 ; 115.0) _ 183.6 kN/m2

Pressureat the face of the pier [sec Fig. E-27.3 (b)J.

q,. 115.0 + (252.2 ; 115.0) x 4.75 • 196.5 kN/ m2

750 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOU NDATIO N ENGI NEERING

Intensity of pressure d ue to self weight .

qc - 904.3 2 " 18 kN/m2

x/4 x (8)
In Fig. E·27.3, let the angle AOD be at and IJOC be 6:2.
cos 9 1/2 .. °4~ or 8 1 .. 158.38°

COS Oy2 .. ~~; or ~ .. 143.58°

Chord AD .. 2 x 4.0 x sin 8 112 .. 7.86 m
Chord BC .. 2 x 2.4 )( sin Gz/2 .. 4.56 m
Area of outer segment. AI .. t If (8 1 - sin 8 1)

.. !2x 402 (158.38 x

' 180
x _ 0.368) .. 1916
.
m2

Area of inner segment, Az .. .!.2 )( 2.42 (143.58 X:lt

180
_ 0.594) .. 5.50 rn2

The distances of the centroi ds of these areas are obta ined as under.
4 R sin) (8 1/2) 4)( 4 )( (0.982)3
Z, • 3(0, _ sinO , ) ' 3(2.763 _ 0.368) • 2. 1 m

Z .. 4 x 2.4)( (0.95») .. 144

a 3 (2.505 _ 0594) . m
Moment about face AD • q. [A,(Z, - 0.75) - A, (z, - 0.75)] - q, [A,(Z, - 0.75)]
M - 183.6 [19.[6 (2.[ - 0.75) - 5.5 (1.44 - 0.75)] - [8 x 19.16 (2.1 - 0.75)
.. 3588.3 kN-m
Maxi mum shear force .. q.. (AI - Au - qcAI
- 183.6([9.16 - 5.5) - [8 x 19.16- 2163.1 kN
It can be checked that the overall lhickncss of 75 an of cap is sufficient from the consideration of
mome nt and shea r stresses (see any text on R.C.C. design) for M 15 ccocrete.
Design of Ste fntng
Total ve rtical load .. 5(xx) + 904.3 .. 5004 .3 kN
Horizontal load . .. 750 kN
Moment at scour level .. JOC() kN- m
Weight of steining upto scocr level
• (";4) (8' - 4.8') x 24 x 11.05 • 8527.1 kN
Seismic force on sreinmg - 0.1 x 8527.1 _ 852.7 kN
Water pressu re on well _ 650 kN
Total horizont al force at scour level
Q - 750 + 852.7 + 650.0 _ ' 2252.7 1cN
Moment at scour level, M _ 3OCX) + 750 x 11.8 + 852 .7 x (11.812) + 650 x (213) x H. 8
• 21994.2 kN
The depth of the point of zero shear below the scocr level is given by Eq. 27.14.
WELL FOUNOl\ n ONS 751

Taking F • 2,
x- [ ~ l~
y'(Kp-KJL

2)( 2 )( 12S2 .7 l~ 44
x - [ 10)( (6.105 _ 0.297) x 8.0 -. m

From Eq. 27.15 a, AI...._ AI + 2/3 Qx

- 21994.2 + 2/3 )( 2252.7 )( 4.4 _ 28602.1 kN-m
Let us ass ume a tilt of I in 60.
Ea:cntricit yduc:to tilt at tbetop _ totat:gh1 _~ _ 0.367 m

Ecce ntricity at scou r level _ 0..367 )( 1~2 _ 0.17 m

Moment doe 10 tilt - (5004 3 + 8527 .1) x 0.17 _ 2453.3 kN-m
Let us assume a shift of 1%.
Tota l shift _ 0.0 1 )( 22 _ 0.22 rn
Moment due to shift _ (5004 3 + 8527 .1) x 0.22 _ 3174 .9 kN-rn
Total momen t _ 28602. 1 + 24533 + 3 174.9 _ 34 230.3 kN-m
Buoyaocy on the well portion upto lhe point of zero shear
- (.u4) )( (8.0)2 (11.80 + 4.4) )( 10 )( 0.J5 _ 1220 .8
Weight of steinin g upto lhe point of zero shear
_ 8527 .1 )( (l1.0:1~4.40) _ 11922 .5 kN

ilia! vertical weigh t _ 59043 + 11922.5 - 1220.8 _ 16606kN

The maximum and minimum stresses are given by

qlD:llJl - ~~ + ~7~9i )( 4 - 1299.3 kN/m

2

qmin - ~~ - 34~4~92)( 4 _ _ 266.3kN/m 2

Cement concret e (1 : 3 : 6) can be used for steining .
Lateral Stability of the Well
8527.1 I
Total weight of the srei ning - 1i:05)( 21.25 - 16398.3 leN

Weight of wat er in the well _ (11:/4) )( (4.8)2 )( 10 )( (11.05 - 1.0) _ 18 17.71cN

Weight of intermediate plug (I m) Ihick
- (></4) • (4.8)' x 1.0. 24 _ 434 kN
Weight of bottom plug (2.5 m lhick)
- 11:/4)( (4.8)2)( 24 )( 2.50 _ 1085.2 kN
Weight of sand fill upto scour level
- :ltI 4 )( (4.8)2)( 20 )( 7.7 _ 27853 leN
Tota l weigh t at the base - 5904 .3 + 16398.3 + 1817.7 + 434 + 2785.3 + 1085 .2
• 28424.8kN
Buoyancy on well _ x/4 )( (8.0) 2)( 22 )( 10 _ 11052.8 kN
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN EERING

Net downward force, W • 28424.8 - llQ52.8 • 17372 kN

Weight of water and intermedi ate plug
- 1817.7 + 434 _ 2251.7 kN
Horizmtai seismic force _ 0.1 )( 2251.7 _ 225.2 kN
Moment of se ism ic forces about sco ur level
- 18l. TI (1.75 + 10.0512) + 43.4 )( 0.50 - 1253.2 kN
Total horizontal force at scour level,
/{ - 2252.7 + 225.2 _ 2477.9 kN
Moment at scour level _ 21994.2 + 1253.2 _ 23247.4 kN-m
Moment at base level. M _ 23247.4 + 2477.9 )( 10.2 + 2453.3 + 3174 .9
• 54150 .2 kN-m
Elastic Analysis
The design forces and mome nts acting at the base are as under.
Vcrtkol forces (IV) = 17372 kN
Horiz ontal force (If) '" 2477.9 kN
Moment (M) = 54 150.2 kN·m
In Uris case , the grip length, D _ 10.2 m.
L _ 0.9 )( 8 - 7.2m

Now J~ _ L/; _ 7.2 )(1~1O·2)l _ 636 .72m4

From Eq. 27.68, J - Is + m I~ (1 + 2 Il' a)

Taking m '" 1.0, I - 174.92 + 1.0 )( 636.72 (I + 2 )( tan 20 Q
)( a)

where a _ 0.3~SB _ 0.3:g. _ 0.25

2)(S
Therefore, I _ 174.92 + 636.72 (I + 2 )( tan 20" )( 0.25) _ 92751 m4
D I
From Eq . V .69 (b~ r -"2' ml"
- 1~.2 )( 1.0 ~7~.72 • 7.43 m

From Eq. 27.71, H > ~ (I + Illl') - ~W

> 54;~~.2 (I + tan 30" tan 2OQ ) - Ian 30" )( 17372

/I > - 1205
As H of 24TI .9 is greater than - 1205, Ihe above condiUon is stalisfted.

Also H < ~ (1 - J!J!') + I! W

< 547~:·2 (1 - tan 30° tan 20") + tan 30" )( 1737.2

2477.9 < 6760 (satisfied)

From Eq. 27.76. taking submerged unit weigh t.
m¥} y'(Kp-K.)
WELL FOUND(\T10NS 753

1.0 x 59~i.~;2 • 10 (6.105 - 0.29 7)

58.4 t 58.2 (almost satisfied)

From Eq. 27.69 (a). P .. ~

.. 54;~~.2 .. 7288 kN

From Eq. 27.74, p,-~+ji:

(17372 - 0.364 )( 7288) 54 150.2)( 8
• 1t/ 4 )( (8.0)2 ... 2 )( 92 7.51
fJ, .. 526.5 kN/ m2 -c 600 kN/ m2 (sate)

From Eq. 27.75. .!!:....=..il AlB

PII- A -U
(In n - 0.364 x 7288) 54150.2 x 8
.. :tI4 x (8.0)2 - 2 x 927.51
P• .. 59.5 kN / m1
Ultima te Resistance

From Eq. 27.85. IV q"

A "2
Taking q" .. 1800 kN / m1•
17372 1800
.n/4 x (8.0)2 2
345 .R t 000 [satisfied]
From Eq. 27.84. At t ~J(Ah +Af. + M/)
From Table 27.2. C = 0.29 for DID = 10.2/8 = 1.23
From Eq. 27.78 (b), Alb" CWLJum41
.. 0.29 x 17372 x 8 Inn 30°
.. 23254.9 kN-m
From Eq. 27.79, M, • 0.1 y' D'(K, - K. ) L
.. 0.1 x 10 x (lO.2 )3 x (6 .105 _ 0.297) x 7.2
.. 44317.3 kN-m
From Eq. 27.81, M,_ OJ y' (Kp - K..) IrD 2 sin 6
.. 0.1 x 10 (6.105 - 0.297) x 8 2 x (w.zf sin 20°
- 13226.9
Now, 0.7 (MI> ... M, ... Mfl .. 0 .7 (2]254.9 ... 44377 .3 ... 13226 .9)
.. 56601.4 kN-m
AI .. 54150.2 kN -m
AI t 0.7 (M" ... M• ... Mf ) (satisfied)
 754 son, MOCHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING
PROBL EMS

A. Numericals
27.1. A we ll foundation has the following particulars .
Outer diameter '" 5.0 m
Inner diamete r '" 3.0 m
Dcplh below scour level '" 12.0 m
Mome nt '" 5000 ](N·m
Horizontalforce acting at 8 m above the scour level '" 600 kN
Factor of sa fety '" 2.0
Ass uming that the well tilts abo ut a certain point above the base, compute the allow able, total equiva lent
+
resisting force due 10 eanh pressure. Take y~.. :: 20 kN/m l, :r 30°. [Ans , 710.5 koHJ
27.Z. The followi ng data refer to a well foundation :
(a) Net downward load, including self-weight '" 12OlX1 kN
(b) Heigh t of point of applicalion o f horizonla l force above the scou r level =- 4 m
(e) Depth of well below scou r level ,. 10 m
(d) External diameter '" 7.0 m
(<!') Jnremal diameter '" 5.0 m
(j) Vertical subgrade reaction '" 3 )( 10· kN/m l
(g) Poisson 's ratio = 0.5
(h) Horizo ntal defonnalion of well cup at tbe scou r level (p I) ,. 20 mm
(,) Allowable soi l pressure ., 600 kN /m 2
the ~~~~~: :e~I~~:jea~~l=j~;~, dete rmine the base pressu re and loteral/cad per unil leng th of

D. n""rlpllve lYpe
27.3. Discuss the situatio ns where a well founda tion is more suituble than the ot her types of foundations.
27.4. What are different shapes of wells? Discuss the characteristics of each type.
27..5. Discuss the various forces acti ng o n a well foundation .
27.6. What do you understand by grip le ngth ? What is its imponance in well foundat ions 1
27.7. Describe various reerhocs for the design of well foundations. What are their relative merits?
27.8. What are the various components of a well foundatioo ? What are their uses ?
27.9. Describe tbe procedure for cons truction of wells . DiSOJSS the causes and remedies for tilts and shif ts.
27.10. Discuss IRC melhod for the desi gn of well foundation.
27.11. Explain'Ieraaghi's analysis for rigid bulkhead applied to well foundation .
27.12. Discuss Banerjeeand Ga ngopadhyay ',j method for the design o f well foundations .
C. Mult iple Choice Questi ons
1. A well foundation is a type of
(a) open caisso n (b) pneumatic caisso n
(e) floating caisson (d) drilled pier
2. The grip length below the maximum scour level for the rnilway bridges is usua lly
(a) 0.5 R (b) 0.2') R (e) R (d) 2 R
wher e R is the max imum scour depth.
3. In some well foundation , the fdlowing is no( provided :
(a) R.C.C . well cap ( b) Top plug
(e) Bottom plug (e) Curb
4. The most commoo1y used shape of a well foundati on is
(a ) Docele-D wcll ( b) Circular well
(e) Doubl e octagonal well (d) Rectangular well.
S. The thickness of Sleining for rnilway bridges is usually kcpl as of outside diameter .
(a) one-eight (b) one tenth
~C) cne-sixm (d) one-fourth. [Ans. 1. (a), 2. (a), 3. (b), 4. (b), 5. (d)]
 28
Machine Foundations

28.1. INTRO DUCflON

Foundations subject ed to static loads have been discussed in the precedin g chapters . In some alSCS, the
foundations are subject ed 10 dynamic loads. Thes e loads may result from various a1USCS such as vibratory
motion of machines. movement of vehicles, impact of hammers, earthquakes, winds, waves, nuclear blasts.
mine explosions. and pile driving. The dynamic loads transmitted to the founda tions and their effect on the
strata below can be determined using the principles of soil dynamics and theory of vibrations. The analysis
is, however, very complex.
Machine foundat ions arc subjected 10 the dynamic forces caused by the mach ine. Tbese dynam ic forces
are transmitted (0 the foundation supporting the machine. Alth ough the moving parts of the madlioe are
generally balanced, there is always some unbalance in practice which causes an eccernricny of rotating pans.
This produces an oscill ating force. lbe machine foundation must satis fy the criteria for dynamic loading, in
addition to that for sta tic loading already discusse d.
Basically, there are three types of machines:
(l) Machines which produce a period ic unbalanced Iorcc, such as reciprocating engines and
compressors. The speed of such machines is genera l ly less than 600 r.p.m. In these mactuoes, the
rotary motion of lbe cran k is converted irac the translatory motion . The unbalanced force varies
sinusoida lly.
(il) Machines which produce impact loads. such as forge hammers and punch presses . In these machines,
the dynamic force attains a peak value in a very short lime and then dies oct gradually . 111eresponse
is a pulsa ting curve . It vanishes before the next pulse. The speed is usua lly between 60 to ISO blows
per minute.
(iiI) High speed mach ines. such as turb ines and rotary compressors. The speed of such machines is very
high; sometim es, it is even more than 3000 r.p.m .
This chapter is devot ed mainly to the design of foundation for the machines of the first type.
28.2. TYPES OF MACmNE FOUNDATI ONS
The following 4 types of machine foundations are com monly used.
(1) Block Type . This type of machine foundation consists of a pedes tal resting on a footing [fi g. 28.1
(a)]. The Iccndatjon has a large: mass and a small natural frequency.
(2) Box Type. The foundation consists of a hollow concrete block [Fig. 28.1 (b)] . The mass of the
Ioen dation is less than that in the block Iype and the natural frequency is increased .
(3) watt Type. A wall type of Iocodauoo consists of a pair of walls havi ng a top slab . The mach ine rests
on the top slab [Fig. 28.1 (c)J.
(4) Framed Type. This type of foundation consists of vertica l columns baving a horizont al frame at their
)} tops. The machine is suppo rted on the frame (Fig. 28.1 (d)].
7,. SOiL MECHANICS AND FOUNDA110N ENGINEERING

(0 ) Block tyPf' (tj Bo~ Iy~

(c)Woll typ" (d ) Fro mPd ly pE'

Fig. 28.1. Type of Mach ine Foundation .

Su ltabi lily or ...a ricus types. Machines which produce periodical and impulsive forces er low speeds are
gene rally provided with a block I)'PCfoc ncar lon. Framed type fccndations are generall y used for the mach ines
working at high speeds and for those of the rotating types.
Some machines which induce very little dynamic forces, su ch as lathes, need not be prov ided with a
machine foundation. Such machin es may be directly bolted to the floor.
28.3. BASI C DEHNrnONS
The following terms arc used in the dynamic analysis of machine foundations .
( I) Vibration (or oscillation). It is the ume-cepcnccra. repeated motion of translational or rotational
type.
(2) l' eriodlc mollon. It is the motion which repeats itself periodically in equa l lime intervals .
(3) Per iod (I). Th e lime period in which the motion repea ts itse lf is called the period of motion or
simply period.
(4) Cycle. The motio n completed in the period is called the cycle of motion.
(5) Freq uency (f). The number of cycles of motion in a unit of time is known as the frequency of
vibration . It is usuaUy expressed in hertz (i.e. cycles per second ).
111e period (1) and the frequency (f) are inter - related as
T - II! . .. (28.1)
Circ ular frequency (00) is in radians per second.
(6) Free vtbrauon. Free vibrations occur under the influence of forces inhere nt in the system itself,
wilhout any extern al force. However, to sta rt free vibrations, some external force o r natura l d isturbance is
required. Once started , the vibration cont inue without an external force.
(7) Forced vibration. Forced vibrations occur under the influence of a continuous extern al force.
(8) Na tural frequency. The system under free vibrations vibrates at the frequency known as natural
frequency . The natural frequency is the characteristic of the system . A system may have more than one natural
frequency .
MAC HINE FOUNDATIONS 757

(9) Resonance. Whe n the frequency of the e xciting force is equal to one of tile natural frequencies of the
system, the amplitudes of motion become excessively large. This condi tio n is known as reso nance.
10. Damping. Tbe resistance to monon which develops due to friction and other causes is known as
damping.
Viscous damping is a type of damping in which the damping force is proportiooal to the velocity. It is
expressed as

F - c ~ .. .(28.2)

where c =dam ping coefficient, and ~ = velocity

(11) Degree of Freedom. The number of indepen dent co-ordinates requir ed 10 describe the motion of a
sys tem is called the degree of freedom.

Ca) Cb)
Fig. 28.2.
Fig, 28.2. (a) shows a system with one degree of freedom. and Fig. 28.2 (b) shows a system with two
degrees of freed om. An elastic rod has an infinite degree o f freedo m. Howe ver. for convenience, the rod is
divided into segmems. Th e degree of freedom is made finite by cons ideri ng the masses of these segments.
(12) Prindpal modes of vlb ruuens, A system with more than one degree of freedom vibrates in complex
modes. However , if eecn point in the sys tem follows a definite panem of commo n natural frequency, the
mod e is syste matic and orde rly lind is know n as the princi pal mode of vib ration.
A system with n degr ees of freedo m has n principal modes and hence n natural freque ncies .

28.4. DE GREE OF FHE EDOM O F A BLO CK FO UNDATION

A rigid block foundatio n has 6 degree of freedom (F ig. 28.3). Any d isplac ement ca n be resolved into 6
inde pende nt d isplacements as under.
(1) Transla tion along X-axis, (2) Translation along Y-axis, (3) Translation along Z-axis, (4) Rota tion abou t
X-axis , (5) Rotati on about Y-axL<;, (6) Rotation abou t Z-3J(is.
Translation along z-exes and rotation abou t Z-axis can occur indepen dently of any other motion. Howeve r,
translations and rotation about X -and Y-axis are cou pled, as these cannotoccur independent of one another.
X -, Y- and z-axes are called. respectively, pitching, rocking and yawing axes.
1be discussions in this elementary text are limited to one-degree of freedom.
29.5. G ENE RA L CRITERIA Jo'OR DESI G N OF MA CHIN E FOU NDATI O NS
A good madJ.ine foundation should satisfy the follow-ing criteria.
(1) Uke ordinary foondations, it should be saf e against shear failure caused by superimposed leeds, and
758 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Hg, 28.3 . Degree of Freedom ,

also the settlements should be within the safe
limits.
The soil pressure should normally not exceed
80% of the allowable pressure for static loading.
(2) There should be no possibility of
resonance. The natural frequency of the foundation
should be either g reater than or smaller than the
operating frequency of the machine.
(3) The amplitudes under service conditions
should be within the permissible limits for the
machine.
(4) The combined centre of gravity of the
machine and the foundation should be on the
vertical line passing through the centre of gravity
t
of the base plane.
(5) Machine foundation should be taken to a
level lower than the level of the foundation of the
adjacent buildings and should be properly
separated.
(6) The vibrations induced should neither be
annoying to the persons nor detrimental to other
structures.
Richart (1962) developed a plot for vertica l
vibration, which is generally taken as a guide for
various limits of frequency and amplitude (Fig,
28.4).
(7) The depth of the ground-water table should
be at least one-fourth of the width of the
foundation below the base plane. Fig. 28.4. Rchart's Chart.
MAatlNE roUNDATION S 159

28.6. FREE VIBRATIONS

The free vibrations may be dam ped or undamped.
(a) Undamped vlbrattcns . Fig. 28.5 (a) shows a rigid mass (m) resting on a spring of stiffness k, The
system has one degree of freedom. Let us assume that the system has been set in motion and it vibrates in
the vertical direaion.

(al
Fig.28.s.
The equation of motion can be written as under.
d',
mdr- - kz
d',
m di' + k z • 0 ...(283)

The solution of Eq. 28.3 is given by

z - A(X)S(t),,1 + B sin 00.. I
where A and B are arbi trary constants, and ru.. is the natural cfrcutar frequency (radianslscc).
The solution can also be written as
z -A sin '(ro.. t + a ) ... [28,4 (a)]
when: A and a are constants.
Alternatively, z _ A ros(oo. ' - a) ... [28.4 (b)]

From Eq. 28.4 (a), ~ _ A w. cos (W. I + a)

and ~ - -A 00; sin (w".' + a) ... (28.5)

Substituting these values in Eq. 28.3, -m A 00;sin (00,,' + a) + k A sin (00.. ' + a) _ 0
mw; _ k

or 00. - "J"k;; ...(28.6)

It may be noted that the greater the mass m, the smaller is the Irequency,
If /. is the natural frequency in cycles per second,

t; • ~ • t,W; ..(28.7)

If T is the time period, Eq. 28.1 gives

T • 11f" • 2 n./-Iflm ... (28.8)
Fig. 285 (b) shows the response curve of the system. As it is evident, the cycle repeais after time T.
7W SO IL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING

(b) Da mped VUX1lItlOn. Fig. 28.6 (a) shows a rigid mass m restin g on a spring of stiffness k aOO
connected to a viscous damper with a damping coefficient c. In this case , there is an additional force due to
damping. 1he equation of molion can be written as
d'z dz
m d? + C di+ k z - 0 ...(28.9)

It can be shown thai the general solution is of the form

z _ C,e S 11 + C 2e s: t ••• (28.10)

where " - oo"(- D + ~ ... [28.11(a)]

'z' oo"(- D - ~ .•.{28.11(b)]

and 00":: natural frequency , D :: damping factor ( :: clcc)' and Cc :: crit ical damping ( :: '2 v'mf)
If D > I, the system is overdamped and the
mot ion is aperiodic. If D = I, the syst em is
cri tically damped , which also gives aperiod ic
motion . If D < I , the sys tem is urxlerdampcd
and the response is periodic. as shown in Fig.
28.6 (b). Only urxlerdamped systems are of
z
,r J
-j.ID. I I 0 .
•
~-
-- -- --
. . _. t

practica l importance in the design of mach ine z _- - - -

foundations. k - -
- c
Eq. 28.11 can be written as (b)
' , - oo"(- D + i VI-ri') .. .[28.12(a)]
(0 )
'z • 00" (-D - i VI - D') · ··I28.l 2(b)] Fig. 28.6.

where t - v=T - iota

. Bq. 28.10 can be written as
z _ e-lJw·t [Ct d (l -dl"'-Ol"t + cze- i(l -d>""w"t] ...(28.13)
let us make the following substitution.

00., • 00" ~ ••• (28.14)

Th erefore, z _ e-Dw·t [(C l e i OJ"J t + C2e-iWm t ]

Dw t
or z - e- • [(C t + Cz) cosOOnd t + i: (C 1 - Cz) si n 00"""]

z .- e- Dw• 1 [ A I cos 00"" t + A2 sin ro..... t] ...(28.15)

1he term 00"" is know n as damped natural frequency. Eq. 28.1 can also be writte n as
z - e-Dw· 1 [A CQi (00..., t - g.)] ...(28.16)
The term e~ t gives an aperiodic exponent ial response; whereas, the term A cos (ro.... t _ a ) indicates a
periodic sin~idal response. The net result is a periodic but gradually decreasing motion [Fig . 28.6 (b) J.
For the undam ped system, as D _ 0 ,
z _ A cos (rollt - a)
This is the same Eq. 28.4 (b).
MACIIINE FOUND~nONS 761

28.7. FORCED VIBRATION

Fig. 28.7 show s D rigid muss with a single degree of freedom . Th e system is damped and subject ed to an
exciting force F (f). Tbe equa tion of motion can be written as
d'z dz
111 cJil + C di + k z - F(I) ...(28.17)

(0) (b)

Fig. 28.7.
LeI us assum e th..'lI the exci ting force is sinusoidal of the form
F (I) - F.. si nro f
where F.. = magnitude of the exci ting force,
co = circular frequency of exciting Ioecc.
d'z dz .
l b us tIId? + (" di+kz -F.. sm os . .. (28.18)

11lCsolution of Eq. 28.18 is

z _ e- DliJ~ 1 [A cos (wnJ t _ a)] + F g sin (rot - tn .. .(28. 19)
f
V(k - m ro2 + ("2002
The first pert or the so lution is transient nnd dies out a fter some time. The seco nd part is the stea dy-state
response. lbus

. . .(1.8.20)
V(k _ III (02) 2 .. C2 002

Substituting ro, - Vf7iii. and D- 20;m'

z _ Fgsin (001 - B)
... (28.2 1)
vll (1 - r2)2 + 4D2 r2k 2
where r = Crequcncy rauo = oo/w n .
For undamped system. c = 0 and D = O. Therefore,
F.. sin (WI - 13)
. .,(28.22)
'(1 - ' '')
When r = 1.0 ,;.(".• tu = ron. res ponse is inlflnitc . The condi tion is known as
As an ideal undam ped sys tem is non-exis tent, damping always ex ists and the response is finite. However,
whenopcmung frequ ency (co) is CI05C to the natural freq uency (00..), Lhc rcspoosc is very h igh . To avoid Ihis
762 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

condition. the operating frequency should not be close to the natural frequency. For a safe design. the
frequency ratio is nonnally kept outside the critical runge of 0.4 to 1.50.
The magnitude of the displacementL" given by
1'1- _F_._ -
k (1 - r' )
-----f'----,
m (w" - "')
...I28.23(a)1
In • general case, 1'1_ F,/k .. .[28.23(b)J
VO - r')' . Hi'f'
Tbe static displacement under a force F" is given by
F.
'" - T ...(28.24)
The ratio of the magnitude of the steady-state displacement of a forced system to the static displacement
is known as magnification factor (M). Thus
AI. Isl , F,/k
zIt (F,.Ik) V(l _ , 2)2 + 4 Jil ?

AI _ 1 (28.25)
V(1 _ '')'. 40','
Thus z - M~
Fig. 28.8 shows the variation of tbe magnification factor M with r for different values of D . II may be
,
noted that the magnification is high for the value of r between 04 and 1.5

,
,
, b 1\\-0'0
I
~M'~
r-----.l~
0 0. 0;
I
10 i.s
'.0 a.s ac a.s <n
Fr~ ~enc y rati o (r) - " " -
fig . 28.8.
Force Transmissibility T. A damped forced vibratory system derives its support from the foundation.
Tbe foroe transmitted can be expressed as

FT. C ~ + fa ... (28.26)

lei us express z . (F,/k) sin(oot - P) as Bs in (ro, _ p) .

V(l- ")' • .r)2r'
B _ F,/k
.. .(28.27)
VO -r')' .4 0'f'
MACH INE FOUNDATIONS 763

Eq. 28.26 can be written as

Fr. c Bro ca>(rol - P) + k BSin (OO I - P)
Fr. B "k 2, + c2oo2 [ca>(rol- p - y)J
where Y • 130- 1 (k/ctlJ).
The magnit ude of F r is given by

I FTI·D ~
I FTI _ (F,,/k) ~
V (1 - r')' + 4d ?-
or IFrI- F. M ~ ...(28 .29)
Force transmissibility (1) is defmed as the ratio of the force transmi tted to the applied force Thus

T. !i.
F.
- M~ ... (28.30)
Like magnifica tion factor (M), the transmissib ility is also a function of rand D . The plot is similar in
shape to that shown in Fig. 28.8.
28Jt VIBRATION ANALYSIS 010'A MACHIN E FOUNDATION
Although a machine foundat ion has 6 degree of freedom, it is assumed to have a single degree of
freedom for a simplified analysis. Fig. 28.9 shows a machine foundation suppo rted on a soil mass. In this
case. the mass m, of the system lumps together the mass of the machine and the rnass of foundat ion. The total
mass m, acts at the cen tre of gravity of the system. The mass is under the supporting action of the soil. 111e
elastic action can be lumped toget her into a sing le elastic spring with a stiffness k. Likewise, all the resistance
to motion is lumped into the damping coefficient c. Thus the machine founda tion reduces to a s ingle mass
having one degree of freedan, as shown in Fig. 28.7. The analysis of damped. forced vibration. discussed in
Sea. 28.7, is, therefore . applicable to the machine foundation .
Determinat ion orParameters. For vibra tion analys is of a machine foundat ion, the parameters m, c and
k are required. These parameters can be determined as under.
(1) Mass (m). When a mach ine vibrates, some portion of the supporting soil mass also vibrates. The
vibrating so il mass is known as the participating mass or in-phase so il mess. The refore, the total mass of the

FOUNDATION

I
I

I
I
I
I

"," ' - BOUI'I>.A.R'fOF

.... - ........ VIBRATING SOIL

Fig. 28.9.
764 ~IL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

system is equal 10 the mass of the found<ltion block and machine (mf) and the mass (m6 ) of tbe participating
soil. Thus
m _ m/ .. m6 • •• (28.31)
Unfortunately . there is no rational method to detenn ine the magnitude of M r II is usua lly related to the
mass of the soil in the pressure bulb. The value of m6 genera lly varies between ze ro and mf In other words,
the total mass (m) varies be tween m, and 2 m, in most cases.
(2) Spring stiffness (k). The spring stiffness depends upon the type of soil. embedment of the foundation
block, the contact area and the contact pressure distribution. The following methods are commonly used.
(a) Laboratory test. A triaxial lest with vertical vibrations is conducted to determine Youn g's modulus
E. Alternatively, tho modulus of rigidity (G) is determined by conducting the test under torsional vibration,
and E is obtained indirectly from the relation E = 2 G ( I + ....). where ....is Poisson's ratio.
Th e stiffness (k) is determined as
k - AEIL ••.(28.32)
where A = cross-secuonat area of the specimen, L = length of lhe specimen.
(b) Blll"kan's met hod. lbe stiffness am also be obtained from the value of E using the following relation
given by Barkan.
k• ~
1 _ ",,2
VA ...(28.33)
where A = base area of the mach ine, i:e. area of co ntact.
(e) Plate load test . A repealed plate load lest is conducted and the stiffness of the soil in the test (kp ) is
found as the slope of the load-deforma tion curve . The spring constant k of the foundation is determ ined as
under.
(I) For cohesive soils
... (28 .34)
(il) For cohes ionless soils
2
k. k (B
B
P
+ 0.3 )
0.3p
'+
. . .(28 .35)

where B is the width of foundation and Bp is the diameter of the plate.

Alternatively, the spring constant can be obta ined from the subgrade modulus (t.), as
k: • k, . A ... (28.36)
w here A = area of foundati on.
(d) Resonance test . The resonance frequency (f,,) is ob tained using a vibrat or of mass m set up o n a steel
plate supported on the ground. The spring sti ff ness is obtained from the relation '

fft - ~
t; - fnwm
or k. 4;r.2/"m .. .(2837)
(3) Damping co nsta nt c. Damping is due to dissipation of vibratioo energy. which occurs mainly
because of the following reasons.
(I) Internal friction loss due to hysrerisa and viscous effects.
(;1) Radiational loss due to propagation of waves through soil
The damp ing factor D for an undcrdamped system can be determ ined in the laboratory. Vibration
response is ploUed and the logarithmic decrement b is found from the plot, as
MACIIINE FOUNDATIONS 765

... (2838)
where ZI and z2 are ampli tudes of two consecutive cycles of an amplitude-response curve.
The damping factor D and the logari thmic decrement 6 are related as
6. -l.1!1L .. .(28.39)
~
or D: .E... . ..(28.40)
z"
The dampin g factor D ma y also be obtained from the area of the hysterisi s loop of the load d isplacement
curv e, as

. ..(28.41)
D · ":
w here lV =tota l work =
done . /1 W work lost in hysterisis.
The value of D for most so ils generally varies between 0.01 and 0.1.
28.9. nITERMINATlON or NATURAL Hl.EQUENCV
The natural freque ncy of the Ioondcuo n-soil system can be determ ined using the theory o f vibra tions
discussed in Sect. 28 .7. The equat ion of motion. neglecti ng damping. is

m .~/ + kz • /0".. sin tu I ...(28.42)

where m = mass of machine, found ation and the participation soil . k = equi valent spring consta nt of the
soil.
The meth ods for determination of k: and III have been discussed in the preceding sect ion.
The natura l frequency of the system is give n by
w" • .ff7m ... (28.43)
where w" is in radians per serond.

Also t, • t.ff7m .• .(28.44)

where tIl is in cyc les per second .

1• • .1-
2 11:
V k
m,+ m,
.••(28.45)

where nI, = mass o f mach ine and foundation .

and nI,= mass of the participating soil mass.
Harken (1962) gave the following relation for the nat ural frequency .

w. #
• m •••(28.46)

where COl =coefficient of elastic uniform compression, A =comeo area of foundation with soil.
Comparing with Eq. 28.43. k. C.. x A ... [28.46(a)]
The maximum amplitude is given by

... (28.47)

where F" = excit ing force .

766 SOIL MECHANI CS AND FOUNDATION ENGI~EERING

The coe fficient of elast ic uniform compression (CJ de pends upon the type of soil. II can be obtained
from the following relation .
E
C•• 1.13 (1 _ .'> . {A1 .. .(28.48)
As it is evident, the coefficient varies inversely proportional to the square root of the base area of the
foundation . Thus

(c.),
(C.h ·
(A,)"
A,
...(28.49)
Table 28.1 gives the recommend ed value of CIt for A = 10 m2 (or d ifferent soils (Barkan, 196 2).
'Iable 28.1. Coefl-.clent of Elastic Uniform Compression
Allowabl e soil Coefficiell/ of e1lJstic
Soil prusure ~q....) uniform com~sion
Soil type J
Category lN lm (C,.J kNl m
4
I Weak soils (clays lind silty da ys with sand in II upro 150 upto 3 x 10
plastic state; clayey silts; soils of categories II
and III with laminae of org,mic silts and of peal).
11 Soils of medium strength (c111yS and silty days 1:'il}-3SO 3 x 10 4 - 5 X 104
wit.h da ys lind silty da ys with sand d ose 10 the
plastic limi t; sand)
III Strong soils (da ys and silty clays with sand of 350-500 5 x104 _105
",,," consistency; gravels and gra velly """";
loess and tocsstet soils).
IV Rocks > 500 > 10'
28.10. DESIGN C1ffi'ERIA ron FOUNIlATIONS or IlECII'ROCATING MACIIlNES
The followin g design criteria for the foundation of reciprocatin g machines should be satisfied (IS : 2874
Q}-1982).
( I) The mach ine foundation should be isolated at all leve ls from the adjoining foundations (See Sea.
28. 13).
(2) The natural freq uency of the foundat ion-soil system should be higher than the highest d isturbing
frequen cy and the frequency ratio should be less than 0.4, as far as possib le.
However. if it is not possible 10 satis fy above criterion. the natural frequency shou ld be lower than the
lowest d isturbing frequency and the frequenc y ratio should not be less than 150.
(3) The amplitude of vibration should be within the permissibl e limits, as given in Fig. 28.4 or any
specified permissible limits (For example . chart given in IS : 2874 (I) - 1982).
For most soils, the limiting amplitude for low speed machines is usually taken as 200 micron ( = 0.2
mm).
According to another cri terion, me amplitud e in mm is limited to 4/{ for frequencies less than 30 hertz
arxl 125/t for higher frequencies . where I is frequency in hertz (cycles/sec) .
(4) Coccrere block foundations should be used . However. when the soil is not suitabl e to support bkxt.
foundat ion, cellu lar founda tion may be used.
(5 ) TIle size of the block in plan shou ld be larger than the bed plate of the machine. There sho uld be a
minimum all-round cleara nce of 15 rnm.
The total width of the foundation measured at right angles to the shaft should be least equ al to the
distance between the centre of the shaft and the bottom of the foundation.
(6) The eccen tricity of the foundat ion system along X-X and Y-Yaxes should not exceed 5% of the length
of the corres pond ing side of the co ntact area.
MAC HINE FOUNDATIONS 767

(1) The combined centre of gravity of machine and foundation should be as much below the top of
foundation as possible. In no case. it should be above the top of foundation.
(8) The depth of foundation should be sufficient to provide the required bearing capacity and to ensure
stability against rotation in the vertical plane.
(9) The stresses in the soil below the foundations should not exceed 80% of the allowab le stresses under
static loads. The base pressure is limited to half the nonnal allowable pressure (q"..) in extre me cases .
(to ) Where it is not practi cable to desig n a foundation to give sausroctory dynamic response. the
transmitted vibrations may be reduced by providing antt-vibrauon mountings either betwee n the machine and
the foundation or between the foundation and the supporting system .
(11) The machine should be anchored to the foundation block. using a base plate and anchor bolts. Bolt
holes should be backfilled with concrete and the space below the plate should be filled with 1 : 2 cement
mona ro
(12 ) A number of similar machines can be erected on individual pedestals on a commo n raft. The analysis
for such machi nes can be made assuming that each foundation acts independently with an area of foundation
equal to that obtained by dividing up the raft into sections correspcoclng to separate machines.
28.11. REIN.·OR CEM ENT AND CON STRU cnON Dhi AILS
(1) The reinforcement in the concrete block.should not be less than 25 k.glm3 •
For machines requiring special design consideration of foundations, such as machine pumping explosive
gases. the minimum reinforcement is 40 kg' m3.
(2) Steel reinforcement around all pits and openings shall be at least equal 10 0.5 10 0.75% of the
cross-sectio nal area of the pit or opening.
(3) The reinforcement shall run in all the three directions.
The minimum reinforcement shall usually consist of 12 mm bars at 200 to 250 mm spacing extending bolh
vert icall y and horizontaly near all faces of the foundation block. Th c ends of all bars should always be hooked.
(4) If the height of the foundation block exceeds one metre, shrinkage rein forcement shall be placed at
suitable spacing in all the three direct ions.
(5) The rover should be a minimum of 75 mm at the bonom and 50 mm on sides and the top.
(6) The concrete shall be at least M· IS with a charadcristic strength of 15 Nlmm2.
(7) The foundation block. should be preferably cast in a singte, continuous operation.
In case of very thick blocks (exceeding 5 m], construction joints can be provided.
28.12. MASS OF FOUNDATION
Heavy foundations eliminate excessive vtbrauons. Manufactures of machines sometimes recommend the
mass of foundation required for the machines. However. the mass recommended are generally empirical and
based Largelyon experience.
Couzens (1938) gave the ratios of foundation mass to engine mass suitable for various types of machines
(See Thble 28.2). These ratios can be used for rough estimates.
28.13. VIBRATION ISOLATION AND CONTR O L
Vibratioos may cause hann ful effects on the adjoining structures and machines. Besides. these vibrations
cause annoyaoce to the per.;ons working in the area around the machine. However. if the frequency ratio is
kept outside the critical range of 0.4 and I so. and the amplitude is within the permissible limits. the harmful
effeas are considerably reduced. especially if the system is damped.
Transmission of vibrations can be controlled and the deterimcntal effects considerably reduced by
isolating either the source (active isolation) or by protecting the receiver (passive isolation). The following
measures are generally adopted.
( 1) The machine foundation should be located away from the adjoining structures. This is known a<;
geometric isolation.
768 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOU NDATION ENGI NEERING

Tab le 28.2. Rat io or Fcundat lon mass to Eng ine mass

5.Na Types of ElIgiMo Rsuia

i. Gas Engines
l --Cyl indcr '. 0
2--Cylinder ' 3.0
4-Cyl inder 2.75
6-Cylirnkr 2.25
8--Cy ljndcr 2.0
Diesel Engines
"2-Cyljnder 2.75
4-Cylioder 2.4
6-Cylindcr 2.1

,. 8--Cylindcr
Rotary converter
1.9
0.5 to 0.75
,.8
4. vertical compound steam engine coupled [0 generator
5. Venical inpte-expansronsteam engine coupled to s.s
gcncraex
6. Ilorizontal coss-ccmpoend coupled 10 gcnetator '.25
7. Horizontal steam lurbi ne ooupled to generator 3.0 to 4.0
8. Vertica l gas engi ne coupled 10 geeeraex '5
9. VertiQl,I diesel engine coupled 10 gene rator 2.6

The amplitude of surface waves (R~waves) reduces with an increase in distance. A conside rable reduction
in the amplitude is achieved by locating the foundation at a great depth, as the R·waves also reduce
considerably with an increase in depth .
(2) Additional masses known as dampers are attached to the foundations of high frequency machines to
make it a multiple degree freedom system and to change the natural frequency.
In rectprocaung maca lnes, the vibrations are coosiderably reduced by coun terbalancing lhe exciting
forces by attaching cocnterwelghts to the sides of the crank.
(3) Vibrations are coosidcrably reduced by placing absorbers, such as rubber mountings, felts and corks
between the machin e and the base .
(4) If an auxiliary mass with a spring is attached to the machine foundation. the system becomes a
two-degree-Ireecom system. Themethod is especially effective when the system is in resonance.
(5) If the strength of the soil is increased by chemi cal or cement stabilisation , it increases the natural
frequency of the system . The method is useful for machines of low operating frequency .
(6) Tne natural Ireqoency of the system is mod ified by making struct ural chan ges in foundation, such as
cmnecting the adjoining foundations, changing the base area or mass of founda tion or use of attached slabs.
(7) The propagation of waves can be reduced by providing sheet piles, screens or trenches.

ILLU!ITRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illustra uve Example 28.1. Determine the nmural frequency of a machine foundation having a base area
2 m x 2 m and a mass of 15 Mg, including the mass of the machine. Taking C, = 4 x 1(/ kNlmJ•

Solution . From Eq. 28.46, (I)" - -lSi

m
3
Expressing e" in N/m and m in kg,
MACHINB FOUND~ONS 769

w" •
V 4 )( 10
1

15 )(
)( (2 )( 2)
1<Y·
103.28 radI
sec
t· IO:~28 • 16.43 Cp' (hertz)
Iltustreuve Example 28.2. The natu ral frequency of a machine foundaJion is 4 hera. Determine its
magnifk:ation oJ 1M operating ~uency 018 hertz. Take dampin g lactor (D) as 0.30.

Solution. From Eq. 28.25, M. 1

V(I -?)' + 4lr?
In this case, r • 81 4 • 2. Therefore,

M. 1 _ 0.31.
Y(1 - 22) 2 + 4 )( (03 )2 )( (2)2
Il lustra tlve Examp le 283 . The ox:it ing force 01 a machine is 100 IN. De termine 1M transmitted force
if the natural ~uenq of the machine foundat ion is 3.0 Ilz. Take D = 0.40 and the operatin g frequency as
5 HL
Solutl~ From Eq. 28.29. I F r l - FoMV I + 2IP)'

where Itt • 1
V(I - ? )' + 4rr?
_ 1 .0.45
V[1- (5/ 3)'j2 + 4 x (0.4)' x (5/3)'

Therefore, I Fr i · 100 )( 0.45 " 1 + (2 )( 0.4 )( 5/3)2 • 75 kN

Illustra tive Example 28.4. Determine the coefficien t of uniform compression if a vibration t~t on a
block 1 m )( 1 m )( 1 m gave a resonance frequency 0{ 30 Hz in 1M vertica l direction. 1'he mass of the
oscillato r used was 60 kg.
Solution. Mass of foundation block
• (1 )( 1 )( 1) )( 2400 • 2400 kg
Thtal mass • 2400 + 60 .. 2460 kg

From Eq. 28.46, w- #

• m

t--'--
2. # m

In this case,
30 _ .L y C. x ( I x I)
2x 2460
C., _ 8.74 )( 101 N/m l • 8.74 )( 104 kN/m 3
D1ustra tive Example 28.5. A 2.50 Mg vertical compressor- fowuJatw n syste m is opera ted at 40 Hz. The
soil at the site is medium stiff clay (C., _ 4 )( 104 lNlmJ) . Determ ine the natu ral frequency and the
magnifICation factor, assuming m, '" 0.2 m" The base area is 2.5 m1• Tak D • O.
Solution. 1btal mass = 2.5 + 0.2 )( 25 = 3.0 Mg = 3 )( 103 kg

From Eq. 28.46, w• - # m

770 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUN DATION ENGINEERING

f _...L
2x
# _...Lm 2x
";4 X to? x 2.5 = 29.06 liz
3)(103

From Eq. 28.25, M= 1

V(I _ ,')' + 4ri'Y'

,=====::;:=====-
V{1-(2:(>j )' r 4 O. (2:06 f
1.12

+ x

illus trative Example 28.6. In a test block oj the size 1.5 m x 1.0 m x 0.75 Tn, resonance occurs at a
frequency of 20 cycles per second in the vertical vibration. Determine the coefficient of elastic uniform
compression (C..) if the mass of oscillator is 70 kg and the force produced by j't at 15 cycles pc r second is
1000 N. Also comp u te the maximum amplimde at 15 cycles pe r second.
So lution. w,, " 2l't/1l - 211 X 20 _ 40x
Mass of oscillator ::: 70 kg
Mass of block = 1.5 )( 1.0 x 0.75 x 24:00 = 2700 kg
Total mass = 70 + 2700 = 2770 kg
2
Contact area = 1.5 x 1.0 = 1.5 m
From Eq. 28.46, (0" - ";C"Alm
40 l't vr;C~.-'.-'I".5"/'V27"7"0
_

or e" _ 29.16 x 106N/ m2 _ 29.16 )( Ht kN/ m3

From Bq. 28.47 , maximum amplitude
F. 1000
z.,.. • m OJ; (1 _ Y') • 2770 x (40 ~)' [I - (15120)']
_ 5.23 x 10-5 m _ 0.0523 10m
Jltustranve Examples 28.7. A foundation block of weighl 30 kN rests ott a soil for which the stiffness
mo.y be assumed ill 25000 kNlm. The machine is vibrated vertically by an exciting force of 3.0 sin (30 t) leN.
Find the natural frequency, natural period, natural circular frequency and the amplitude of vertical
displacement. The damping factor is 0.50.
Solution. The exciting force F 0 sin mt is 3.0 sin (30t).
Therefore, F 0 =3.0 kN and (I) =30 radian/second
Now from Eq.-2S.43, mIl .. Vk7ii1

(I)" .. V 25000 ~
1ft .. 90.42 rad/s
(30 x 10 /9.81)

From Eq. 28.44, t: .. t Vk7ii1 - 14.39 cycles/sec

T .. *_ 0.069 second

r .. 00/00" .. 30/90.42 .. 0.33

MACllI NE roUNDATIONS m

From Eq. 28.25, At - !

V(I - ;>J' + 4iJ ,'
_ 1 _ 1.05
V[I - (033)' J' + 4 X (0.5)' X (033)'

Static denecuon, 6s1 - F/ k _ 3.~OO _ 0.012 em

Amplitude - At 6" - 1.05 x 0.012 • 0.013 em

PROBLElIIS

A. Numeri cal
28.1. Determine the natural frequency o f a machi ne fou ndation hllving a base area 2 m x 2 m and a mass of 10 M g,
assuming thaI the soil mass panlctpa rtng in the vib ration is (a) negli gible (b) 20% o f the mass.
4kN 2
lake C" '" 10 /m . (An.s, 17.43 cps, 15.92 cps]
28.2. Resonan ce occurs at a frequency of 20 cps in the venlca l vibration of a test block (1m x 1 m x 1 m). Calculate
the coe fficient of clastic uniform compress ion [C...). The mass of the oscillator is 50 kg .
4 3
[Ans.. 3.87 x 10 kN/m ]
28.3. In Problem 28.2, if !he fa ce produced by the oscillator 81 10 cps was 1000 kN, compu te the maximu m
amplitude in the venical direction at 10 cp>o (Ans . 3 .4 x 10- 2 mm]
28.4. The foundation for a gas engine with a vertical cylinder and venically oscillating parIS has the following data.
Total mass of engine :: 5 Mg
Speed of rotation '" 300 r.p.m.
M~ of block '" 20 Mg
M<& of participating soil :: 2S Mg
'" 60 x 10 ~Im
4
Spring stiffness
Detamine the I'I3IUl1lI frequency and maximum ampIinJdc. Thlte D :: 0.1. The unba1anood venicaI foroe is 12 ~ .
[ADs. 17.43 cps; 0.022 nun]
B. Descriptive Type
28.5. Explain the following terms:
Natural frequeocy; period; resonance; magnification.
28.6. Discuss the use of stngle-degrce-rreccom system in the analysis of machine focndatims. What are its
limitunons?
28.1. Describe the methods for the determination of the mass , spring constant, damping factor and the mass of
participarlng soil.
28.8. Briefly explain the Barkan method of machine foundation design.
2!t9. What is meant by vibration isolation ? How is it done ?
28.10. Discuss criteria for the designof fountJation in the following cases.
(a) Free vibration without damping.
(b) Free vibration with damping.
(C) Forced vibration without damping.
(d) Forced vibration with damping.
c. Multipl e Ch oice Quest jon...
1. If the circular frequency «(1) is 30 radians per secced, the time period is
:II:
(a) I scand (b) 2 seconds
(c) 4 seconds (d) none of atcee.
2. The frequency of .a system increases with
(a) an Increase in stiffness of system
m SOIL MEC HANICS AND FOUNDATION ENG INEERING

(h) a decrease in the mass of system

(c) both (a) and (h i
(tI) neither (a) nor (11)
3. Magniticmion factor (M) is very high if the value of frequency ratio (r) is
(a) less than 0.4
(bl betwee n 0.4 and 1.50
(e) greate r than 1.50
(J)unity.
4. For most ,..oils. the limiting am plitude for low speed machin e s is usually
(el) 0.1 0101 (h ) 0.2 0101
(e ) 0 .5 mm (eI) 1.00101
S. For dies el engines. the ratio of fou ndation mass III engine mass is
(a) less than 2.0 (h ) betw een 2.0 and 3.0
(el betw een .to am.! 4 .0 (d) grea ter than 4.0
(Am. I. (c). 2. (c). 3. (b) , 4. (h ). 5. (b)J
Ob jec tfve type
Write whetber the follo wing statements an: true or false
(al Th e speed 01'turbi nes and rotary co mpressors is uMially less tha n 600 r.p.m.
(Ill Fo r lathes. generally bloc k-type foundatio n is pro vided .
(c) In general. a rigid block foun dauon has (, degrees of freedo m.
(,I ) The stresses in the soil below the mac hine tou ndano n should normally he less than 50% of the allowable
stres s under stat ic load s.
( t') Th e minimu m quantity o f rcm torccmcru in mac hine founda tion is 15 kglm ) .
if) The min imu m cover for reinforcemenl at the bottom of the machine foundation is 75 0101.
19) Th e dep th of pound water table below the machine founda tion shoul d not be less than the widr.h of
foundat ion
(11)l1Jc machm e tcundcuons are take n lower than the level o f the found: llion of adjace nl buildings.
{Ans. True (c), f/). (h))
 29
Pavement Design

29.1. TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

A pavement is a hard crasr constructed over the natural soil for the purpose of providing a stable and
even surface r~ the vehicles . 1be pavement supports and distributes the wheel loads and provides an
adequate wearing surface. Pavement are bas icall y of 3 types: (1) Flexible pavements. (2) Rigid pavements
and (3) Sem i-flexible pavem ents.
(1) Flexible PavemenL The fle xible pavement is built up in severa l layers. as shown is FIg. 29.1 (a). The
nmwa l soil benea th the pavement is known IB sub grode. Sub-base is built over the scb -grede and the base is
ronstrueted over the scb-bese. The lop layer is known es surfacing, which is usually bitumen.
The fle xible pavement can resist on ly very sm all tensi le stresses because of lim ited rigidity. Any
derfonnation of the sub-grade results in a corres pond ing chang e in the surface of lhe pavem ent .

.: )(.. SURFACING ··:: ~ .: .>~. :

aGo-OOO'et o • r~aNT CONe
81'0·
...~o
BASE•• 000
'0. 0.0: J!I' ...•~.. ;:~ :.;":': ~":~."';' " ;}'~:
'

gJ{ U,~,"~":3R> -.0,-: :B4SE 1.\:':

YJKG"'tJg:t'))LM
SUl-GRAOE
(a) (b)

Fig. 29.1 (0) Flexible Pavement. (b) Rigid Pavement.

(2) Rigid Pavement. The rigid pavement is made of cement concrete. As the concrete layer is quite
strong, the sub-base may not be required [Fig. 29.1 (b)]. The rigid pavements have high flextural strength and
can resist very high tensile stresses. The pavementsare capable of bridging small depressions in the subgradc.
(3) Seml·flexlble pavement, A semi-flexible pavement has flexural rigidity in-between that of a rigid
pavement and a flexible pavement. Such pavements are usually made of pozrolanic concrete, lean concrete,
or soil-cement in the base course or sub-base. As the flexural strength of such layers is limited, the pavement
can resist only moderate lensile stresses.
The chapter deals with the methods of construction and the design of various types of pavements. As the
space is limited, the treatment is necessarily elementary. For more details, a reference may be made to
advanced works on pavement design.
29.2. BASI C REQUIREMENT OF PAVEMENTS
1be basic requirement of a good pavement is to provide a stable. non-yielding surface for the movement
774 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUND~ON ENGINEERING

oC heavy ve hicles, lbc pave ment surface should be even along the longiludiMt profile to have least rolling
resistance so thai fast, heavy vehicles <::10 move safely and comfortably, Unevenness of the surface causes
vertica l oscillations 300 thus increcses wear and tear and the fuel consumptio n of vctncjcs. It ctso aods 10 the
discomfort and fatigue 10 the passengers of fast moving vehicles .
Th e pave men t carries the wheel 100<1.. and distributes it over a wide area 00 the subgreoc. Consequcnlly,
the stresses transferred to the subgrade are considerably smaller than the contact pressure. Ttc distribution of
the load depends upon the thickness and the characteristics of lhe material used in the pavement. A pavement
layer that distributes the wheel lood through the largest area per unit thickness of the layer is the most
efficient.
The JXlveme nt layers should not be over-stressed. Eve n for a wcll- designed pavemen t, there would be a
sma ll, temporary def ormat ion when loads pass over it. These deformations must be kept within lhe
permissible limits. If the pavemen t is not properly desig ned, repeated epplications of loads may a1USC
excessive deformat ions. compaction and consolidation of Ihe subgrade and even failure of the whole
pavement. .
The pavement may be constructed over no embankment or in a CUll ing. Th e pavement should be
constructed above the maximum level of the ground water table to keep it dry. Moisture variation and frost
action are the main causes of deterioration of the subgmde. On the other hand, when Ihe water content is
decreased, shrinkage cracks develop, which cause differential movement in rigid pavements and cracks in
flexible pavements. The pavements should be provided with a suitable drainge system.
In case of rigid pavements, Ihe temperature and shr inkage stresses should be properly controlled.
In case of flexible pavements, there should be a good bond between the individual particles of tbe
materials used and also between the surfacing arxl the base to check stripping or breaking up of the
pavement.
29.3. FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERE NT COMPONENTS OF A PAVElIIENT
Different ro mponents of a pavement have the following characteristics and functions.
(1) Subgrade. The subgradc is a layer of natural soil prepared 10 receive the layers of the pavement. The
sobgrade should be strong enough to take up the stresses imposed due to loads without shear failure oc
excessive deformations. It is the general practice 10 compact erlcast !OP 50 on layer of the subgrade under
controlled ro nditions of opumum water content at the maximum dry dens ity (see chapter 14).
It is essential to evaluate tbe strength properties of the subgrnde .required. As the loads are ultimately
received by the subg rade, if it is weak. it will fail. Th e soil is generally treated to increase its strength and to
improve its properties.
(2) Sub-base and Ruse Courses. These courses provide a medium 10 sp read the wheel loads to the
subgradc. The courses usually consist of broken stones, bricks or aggregates. Boulder stones, bricks on edges
and stabilised soils arc also used for sub-bases. However it is preferable to usc small size graded aggregates
because large stones and bricks have a tendency to penetrate lhe wet soil and cause undulation and
unevenness in the pavement . As the stresses in a sub-base arc much lower than those in the base, the material
used is inferior to that in the base. The sub-base is also known as soling.
The base and sub-base in a flexible pavement improve the load- su pporting ca pacity of the subgradc by
dislributing the load over a large area. In a rigid pavement, the base course helps in preventing pumping out
of the soil from below. These also protect the sobgraoe agamst frost action.
(3) Surface Course. The purpose of the surface course, also known as a wearing course, is to give a
smooth riding su rface and to resist pressure exerted by wheels. The surface course also provides a water-tight
barrier against the infiltration of surface water;
In flexible pavements, a surface course usually consists of a bituminous surfacing. In rigid pavements, the
cement concrete may act as a base course as well as a surface course. .
The re are various types of surface treatments, depending U[XX1the availability of materials, and plants 200
the magnitude of the IODd.
PAVEMENT DESIGN

29.4. FACIURS AFFECIlNG PAVEMENT DESIGN

The factors affecting the design of pavements are discussed below.
(I) W heel Load. The thickness of the pavement depends upon the design whee l load. The design wheel
Iood ~ selected after considering the actual wheel loads of the various vehicles, contact pressure. lood
repetition, the dy namic effects and many other factors . lhe design wheel load will depend upon the
multiple-w heel load assembly . as in the dual or mu ltiple whee l loads.
(2) Subgrade. the thickness of the pavement depends upon the properties of the subgrade. A thicker
paveme nt is required over a weake r so il. The thickness also depends upon Ihe stress-strain characteristics of
the soil under static and repeated loads.
As the strength and the volume change of the soil depend upon the moisture changes, the worst
conditions should be cons idered in tbe design.
(3) CUmale. Tbe climatic [actors. such as rainfa ll and temperature changes. affect the properties of the
soil. The rainfall affects tbe moisture changes in the soil which affect the strength . The tempera ture changes
affect the pavement. In [kxibk pavements, the choice of the bituminous binder depends upon the
temperature. In rigid pavements, the warping stresses are caused by temperature changes.
If the temperature is likely to fall to the freezing point. the possibility of the frost action is to be
coosidered.
(4) Pevemenr mat er ials. The stress distribulion in the pavement Layers depends upon the behaviour of
the materials used. 1be fatigue behaviour of the pavement materials and their durability under adverse
conditions should be considered .
Aggregates bear the stresses occurring in the pavement and have to resist wear due 10 abrasive action of
traffic. The aggregate should be hard, strong and of the required size and gradation to bear the stresses.
(5) Loca tion. The design of the pavement should be done considering its location with respect 10 the
ground surface. The height of embankment, the depth of CUlling and the level of water table should also be
considered. All these factors affect rbe performance of the pavement.
(6) Miscellaneous fact ors . There arc some special factors which aITea the design of pavements. For
example, in case of semi-rigid pavements. the format ion of shrinkage cracks, the creek pattern and the mode
of their propagation should be considered in its design. Load

29.5. CAL IFORNIA BEARING RAllO TEST

California bearing Ratio (CB R) test is a type of Dio l gouqe
test developed by the Califcm ia Division of Highways ,
in 1929. The test is used for evaluating the suitability Plui"l<3er
of subgrade and the materials used in sub-base and
base courses. The test results have been correlated with
the thickness of the various materials required for
flexible pavements.
The lest may be oonducted on a prepared
specimen in a mould or on the soil in-situ oondition.
Th e laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould ISO
mm diameter and 175 mm high, having a separate base
plate and a collar (Fig. 29.2). The load is applied by a
loading frame through a plunger of 50 mm diameter.
Dial gauges are used for measurement of the
expansion of the specimen on soaking and for
measurement of penetration. BoH plo lt

It may be noted that with the displacer disc inside

the mould, the effective height of the mould is only ! - - - -ISOmm - - - i
125mm. Fig. 29.2.C.B.R. Tcst Appratus.
776 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDA1l0~ ENGINEERING

The test consists of causing the plunger to penetrate the specimen at lhe rate of 1.25 mm per minute. The
loads required for a penetration of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm are recorded by a proving ring attached to the
plunger. The load is expressed as a percentage of the standard load at the respective deformation level, and
is known as the CDR value. Standard load values are for crushed stone and are given in Table 29.1. The CBR
value is determined corresponding to both 2.5 rnm and 5.0 mm penetration. and the greater value is used for
the design of flexible pavement.

CBR value - St:~~:~~d x 100 ...(29.1)

Table 29.1. Standard Load Values

S. No. Penemuion (nun) Standard Load (kN)
1. 2.5 13.44
2. 5.0 20.16
3. 7.5 25.80
4. 10.0 31.20
5. 125 35.3 2

The load-penetratio n curve is drawn as soown in Fig. 29.3. The load corresponding to 25 mm and 5.0
mm penetration values are laken from the plot curve (1), and the value of CBR determined using Bq. 29.1.

•.of----+--+-~,j.__e:::< '---!--- f - - - I

e.o] _+~L.+ --L--_+=~+-_____j

2l

·60 kN

~!e ~
8 1

7·5 10.0 1M
tortec~~: zero s.c Pl.'nelrotion (mm) ----.-
Fig. 29.3.
Generally, the CBR for 2.5 mm penetration is high. However, if the CBR for 5.0 mm penetration is greater
than that for 2.5 mm penetration, the test is repeated. If the results are unchanged, the value for 5.0 mm
penetration is used for defining CBR value.
In some tests, there is an upward concavity of the load- penetration curve . This may be due to the
following reasons . •
(I) The plunger surface does not come in full contact with the top of specimen.
(il) The top layer of the soil is very soft.
In the case of the initial upward concavity. the corrected zero is obtained by drawing a tangent to the
curve at the point of the greatest curvature, as shown for curve-2 in Fig. 293. The points corresponding to
2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration are measured from the corrected zero.
To simulate worst conditions in the field, the soil specimen is kept submerged in water for about 4 days
before testing. If the test is to be conducted on an unsoaked specimen, the moulding water content should be
equal to the equilibrium water content which the soil is likely to attain after the construction of the pavement.
To simulate the effect of overlying materials, the specimen is covered with surcharge mass in the test.
PAVEMENT DESlGN rrt
TIle minimum surcharge mass for the tests in the mould is specified as 4.5 kg. lbe annular surcharge mass
of 147 m m diameter are used for this purpose.
[See Cbepeee 30 (Sect. 30.19) (", laboratoryexperiment).
29.6. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTs
A flexible pavement consists of a number of layers in whim the stress is transmilted by point-to-point
contact. TIle maxi mum intensity of stress occurs in the top layer of the pavement. Therefore, the superior
materials are used in the top layer .
Tbere is no perfect rational method for the design of flexible pavements. The design methods can be
classified broodl y as empirical or sem i.empirical
I. Emplrkal method..
(a) Group index method . (b) California Bea ring Ratio Method, (c) California Revalue Method, (d)
McLeod Method .
2. Sem i empi rical methods
(a) Tria xial test Meth od, (b) Bunnister Met hod.
All these met hods arc discussed briefly in the followin g secti ons .

19.7. GROUP INDEX ME"11I01l

The gro up inde x (GI) to; a parameter used in the classification of soils by AASIITO system (Chapter 5).
The grou p inde x is used in the grading of soils. The highe r the value of the group index. the poorer is the
subgrade.
In the group index method (Steel 1945). the thickness of the base and surfacing is related to the volume
of the traffic. Depending upon the number of vehicles, the tra1T1C volume is divided into 3 categories.
Ught volume : Less than 50 vehicleslday
Medium volume : 50 to 300 vehicles/day
Heavy volume: over 300 vehicles/day
To determine the thickness of the pavement by this method, the group index and the anticipated traffic
volumes arc fouad. The appropriate design curve (8, C or D) is used according to the traffic volume (Fig .
29.4) and the total thickness of the pavement (surfacing. base and sub base) is determined. Curve A gives the
thickness of the sub-base required. Curve E gives the additional base thickness whim may be substituted fa
sub-base thickness of curve A .
Tbe method is essentially empirical, which assumes that the soil with identical group indexes possess

Fig. 29.4.
778 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

identical strength after compaction in the field. The method assumes that the subgrad e wo uld be com pacted
to a density not less than 95% of the maximum Proctor density. For base and sub-base materials, the density
should not be less than 100% of the maximum Proctor density. The water table should be at least 1 m below
the surface.
29.8. CRR ME11l0D
In this method, the CBR values are used to determine the total thickness of the flexible pavement and the
thickness of vario us layers. Fig. 29.5 give the design curves for different wheel loads and traffic conditio ns.
The design curves are based on the data C B R (0' . ) - . . .
collected on a large number of pavements
which performed satisfactorily. The curves
0
3 4 s 6 7 es 0 , 20 30 t.Q soso eo
give the required thickness of construction
above a material of a certain CDR value. As
it is evident, lhe required thickness of 100 II III
~~
construction above a material decreases as
the COR value increases. Ught IraHic -------':
(31·75 kN Wheel load) >:;
~:*~~~:e~r~~~:~:~~~?~ I
0

U.K. The soaked eRR value of the ~

10
300 ~""'i
T "m t.o"i'
' ' '·81 kN wheet <0o",
subgraoe is evaluated and the volume of the ~
traffic is estimated , The total thickness of "5
the pavement is determined using the loO
~a vy
appropria te curve. Likewise, the CBR value ~ o /. t ra ffic
(55.!") kN \'l'heet loa d )

~~te:ines~~~~~~=~;~ffi~=ov~~ ~ 500
/1
V
thai material. Obviously, the thickness of
the sub-base is equal to the total thickness
above the subgrade minus the thickness of 600
construction above the sub-base Likewise,
the thickness of the base is determined.
The CDR method is based on strength 700
/
parameter of the material and is, thcrerore, .
more rational than the group index method. FIg. 29.5.
The basic assumption in the method is that a layer of pavement is of superior quality than the layer below it.
The shortcoming of the method is that it gives the same total thickness above a material irres pective of the
quality of the overlying layers.
IRe : 37-1970 gives some important recommendations for the dctcnnination of CBR valu e and its use.
29.9. CALIFORNIA RESISTANCE VALDE MJo."TIIOD
The method uses the California Resistance value , called the R~value.
The Revalue is determined by placing the specimen in the stabilometer and by applyin g the lateral and
vertical pressur es as specified. The R·value is given by
R '"' 100 _ 100 ••.(29.2)
(2.51D,) (P,/p, - 1) + 1
2),
where Pv "" vertical pressure applied (1120 kN/m Ph = horizontal pressu re transmitt ed, ~ = displacement of
stabilometer fluid required to increase the horizontal pressure from 35 kN/m 2 10 700 kN/m 2, measured in
number of revolutions of the calibrated pump handl e.
Hvecm and Carmany (1948) gave the following expression for the total thickness of the pavement
 719
PAVEMENT DESIGN

C B R (.,.) - . . . .
KT(~h- R)
1- .. .(29.3)
, • , ~ 20 '0 6000 '"

II
0
where f ::: thickness (an). K :::
numerical co nstant ( = 0.166), T =
traffic index, R = stab ilometcc 00
resistance value , C = cotiestom erer
value. determined
cohesiomctcr test.
from the
a
y
ta~
~1/ I I
The traffic index T has been
empirically provided to estimate the
traffic volume, as 1 30 a
./
e
T • 1.35 (EII7,)'·" .. .(29.4)
where EWL = equivalent wheel load. 2 1/ I / IJ ~"I r/ Troll ic cla s sification

i
~ 400
"i~
0
Cur ...
19.10. MCLEOD ME11IOD ~~.~W:h~':~ l:~ ~<P
McLeod gave the following -
1
'; I IIV
formula for the thickness.
A 0_ l'i
+--
I - K 10g IO (PIS) ...(29.5)
where t = thickness oC gra vel base
(an). P = gross wheel load (!<N). S
1600
t;; I
f/I/ C
B

4';; _1'50
\ '; -

1--
,, ';

::: total subgrade support (kN). K =

base course const ant (varying
11/ [/ 0

E
ISO _ 1,'; 0

450 _ 1':.00
70 1--
non-linearly from 75 far bearing 0 /
plate of diameter of 12.5 em to 210
for diameter of 125 em)
The repet itive plate bearing tests
esc
1

// F

G
"00
A b~
{"SOO

4 SOO
f----
are conducted using plates of
( Rl" c omm~ by IR C)
different sizes.
The subgrade support (S) is Fig. 29.6.
determined from the unit support measured or computed for 30 an diameter plate at 0.5 em deflection and
len repetttloos . Fig. 29.7 can be used for determinin g the ratio (T) of the unit sub- grade support (SV for the

d;o m.l« ~
60cm ",m l'ie m

0.12 0.16 D.lO ().24

(Perlmt'l('r f Are-o ) rat io 01 pte te tern') - - . .

Fi&-29.7.
"'J SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

design wheel diameter 10 5 1 that 00 30 em d iameter plate. The ca rves for differe nt de11edions between 0.25
em and 1.75 em are shown. Thus
52 • ,5. . .. (29.6)
The design subgrade support 5 is obtained by multiplying the value of 52 by the ccetect area of the
wheel Thus
5 .52)( a .. .(29.7)
where a = contact area of the wheel (em1 .
29.11. TRIAXIAL TEST METIIOD
The triaxial compressiontest is oondueted o n a soil specim en under a lateral pressureoC 140 kN/m2 and
Ihc value oCthe modulus of elasticity is detennined from the stress-strain0JI'Ve.
The thidtncs<i of Ihe pavement in an can be detenn ined using the formula given by the Kansas Highway
Deptt.

t V/( ~
• •
z c t:« ), - a
a
where P = wheel load (kN). E = modulus of elasticity (leN/an1, x ~ trafflc coefficient (05 to 2.0), y •
saturation a:dlkient ( = 0.5 to 1.0), a = area of contact (cm\ h. = design denedioo ( = 0.25 em) .
29.12. BURMISTER'S METIIOD
Burmister deve loped a method considering the pavement as a layered syste m. 1bc Burmister theory is
based on the follow ing assumpti ons.
(1) The materia l in each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic .
(2) The surface layer is infmile in the horizontal din:ctioo and futile in the vertical diredion. The
underlying layer is infU1ile in both cirecnoas.
(3) The layers are in continuous contact.
(4) The top layer is free of shearing stresses and normal stresses outside the loaded area.
The displacement equation given by Bunn isler can be written as, assuming JA, . J4p • 0.50.

A . 15P~F2 foe Ilexible plates ... (29.9)

paF2
and A - 1.18~ forrigidplatcs . . .(29 .10)

= =
where p uniform pressure. a = radius of plate, F2 = deflection factor. and E, modulus of the so il.
Fig. 29.8 gives the values of the deflection factor F2- II depe nds upon the ratio of the modulus of the
subgrade (E, ) and the modu lus of pevemen t tayer E,. Tbe ratio (hla) is equal to the thick:ncss of the base layer
divided by the rad ius of the load . It may be noted that for a s ingle layer. h = 0 and E,IE, :: 1.0.and hence
F2 :: 1.0 and the solution reduces to Boussinesq's seulement equation .
The design procedure am be summarised as under.
(I ) Determ ine E, by conducti ng a plate bea ring test on a 30 an diameter plate over the sobgrad e.

E, • l.1 : pa ••.(29.11)

(2) Catenate F 2 by conducting a plate bearing test 00 the pavement.

A)( £,
F , • 1.18pa .. .(29.12)
(3) For the compu ted value of F 2 and the given value of (hla) ratio. determine E, /E p from Fig. 29.8.
PAVEMENT DESIGN 781

0
8
,
-
E~ IE p • 112

.
c. <, r---.
o.
r-, I"'---: i--, --....!.!!..
1~.... 0 1 \\\
<: t-. '-- t--- ~
-
lL!.Q.

., ~~ ~~
r-, r. ~ 1/ 100
t-- r---
t-- I---

11100

-- r--- ---
0.0
<, <,
IIS
oa F=:::
<, <,
<,
~
1I ?!!Po
<, r---
O~ ,o
'0 '0

+--
--- ----
r-, ............ """
'.0 ' .0 '. 0 '.0

Fig. 29.8.
(4) Determine the contact radius of the design load, as

a. VI- "P
... (29.13)

where P = design load and p = tyre pressure.

(5) Compute the new value of F 2 for the design deflection 6. ( = 0.5 an or 0.25 an).
F • 1i:K E. ... (29.14)
2
15pa
(6) For the compu ted values of F 2 and E. / Ep ratio, determine the h/a ratio from Fig. 29.8 .
(7) Determine h from the hla rauo.
29.13. COEFFICI ENT or SUBGRAllE REACTION
For the design of rigid pavements, the coefficient of subgrade reaction is required . As discussed in
chapter 24, the coeffici ent of subgradc reaction (k) is defined as the pressure per unit deformation of the
subgrade at a specified defo rmation or pressurelevel. Thus
k _ ~ •..(29.15)

where k = mod ulus of scogrede reaction (kN/cm~, p = pressure (kN1cm1. and Ii = deforma tion (em)
(Note. In this chapter,l,. is also used for 1).
The test set-up for the detmnination of the coerficiem subgrade react.ion is similar to that in a plate load
test (chapter 23). II ccestss of a loading frame which has a hydraulic jack, a proving ring and a reactioo
beam (Fig . 29.9). Tbe dial gauges are used for the measure ment of the settlement of the plate. These gauges
rest on a separate datum frame. The standard size of the plate is 75 an diameter .
The test site is levelled and the plate is prope rly seated on the preparedsurface. The stiffening plates of
782 SOI L MECHANICS AND FOUND ATION E NG INEERING

Fig. ~.9. Set-up fOf Delc:rminatioo of Coefficient oCSubgrade Reaction.

progress ively decreasing diame ters are placed over the plate. The jack and proving ring assembly are fit ted to
provide reectioa . Three or four dial gauges are fixed on the periphery of lhe plate from the datum frame.
2
A seatin g load of 7 kN/m is firs t applied and
released after a few seconds . The load is then applied OIl
t
the plate to cause a settlement of approximately 0.25
mm. When there is no percept ible increase in set tlemen t ~
or when the rate of seu lemcra is less than 0.025 mm per
minut e, the dial ga uge read ings are taken and lhe average
settlement is found . The procedure is repeeed till the
settlement is about 0.175 em.
A gra ph is plotted between the mean bearing
pre'lSure (P) and the seUlement (Fig. 29.10). The pressure
t>' ~

~
i1
corresponding to a settlement of 0.125 em is read from lJ :O. 12'5cm
the plot, and the value of k is determined as
o.z
k - 0.;25 kN/an' (29.16) (em) ---.....
Fig. 29.10.
k - P O~I~o' kN/m ' [29.16(0»)
To allow for the effect of poss ible future so ftening of subgraoe. the vatoe of k: oblained is corrected foc
fu ll sat uration. Two specimens are prepared for the coosolidanon lest, ooe wilhout soaking and the other
fully soa ked. TIle conso lidat ion tests arc cond ucted and the pressures required for a deformation of 0.125 em
are determined for the two specimens. The corrected mod ulus of subgrace reaction is give n by

k: - k(tcst} x ~ •. .(29.\7)

where r » pressure for the unsoaked specimen,

and p, = pressure for the soaked spec imen.
29.14. WESTERGAARD'S ANALYSIS
1be rigid pavements arc consr.ructed of cement concrete. whidl may or may not have reinforcement.
These pav ements develop 51.., aetioo doe to their high lem ile strength. The stresses in the subgrad e below a
rig id pavem ent are greatly reduced d ue 10 the load -spreading capacity, lbe failure of rigid pavem en ts usually
occurs by ove rstressing of the concret e and not by overstressing of the scogrece, TIle thickness determination
is generall y based on the ca lculatio n of stresses in the concrete.
The stress es in the co ncr ete slab due to wheel loads are determined using Westergaard's theory.
Westergaard co nsidered the rigid pavement as a thin elastic plate rest ing on soil subg rade. The upward
reaction at any point is assumed to be proportional to the de rJedion at that point. The slab de flection deperxls
PAVEMENT DESKN 783

upon the stiffness of the sebgrade and the fl exural strength of the slab . Thus the pressure-deformation
charact eristics of a rigid pavement depend upon the relative stiffness of the sla b and the subgrade.
Westergaard defined the radius of relative stiffness as

where I = radius
I- [12(1£~'~2)k r ..
of relative stiffness (an ), E = modul us of elasticity of cement concret e (lcN/cm2~ ....
(29.18)

=
Poisson's ratio of cement ccocrete, h = slab thickness (an). k K modulus of subgrade react ion (kN/an').
A<; the pavement slab has a fini te length and width, the intensity of maximum stress induced due to a
wheel load depends upon the locat ion of the load. The follow ing three locations are critical.
(1) Int eri or loa di ng. When the load is applied in the interior of the slab at any po int away from all
edges .
(2) Edge loading. When the land is applied on an edge of the slab at any point away from a comer.
(3) Co mer loading. When the cen tre of the load is located on the bisector of the come r angle formed
by two intersecting edges of the slab, and the loaded area is at the comer touchin g the edges.
Westergaard gave the followin g equations for the critical stresses based on the assump tion that the
cemen t concrete slab is hom ogeneous aOO has uniform elastic propert ies . It is further assumed umt the vertical
scbgraoe reacti on is proport ional to the deflection .

Int erior loading OJ'' O.3~: P [4 1og10( I/ b) + 1.069] ... (29 .19)

Edg e loading 0 ... .. OS; : P 14 1og1o(l / b) + 0.359 ] . •.(29.20)

Co mer loading ... (2921)

where P wheel load (kN). h = slab thickness (em). I = radius of effective stiffness (an), a = radius of wheel
load d istributioo (em), b '" equivalent radius of res isting action (an).

The value of b is given by b _ VI.6 a 2 + h2 - 0.675h for a < 1.724h (29.22(a)]

and b _ a for a :it 1.724 h (29.22(b»)
1hc above eq uations req uire trial and error solution if the slab thickness h is 10 be found for the given
aUowable values of stresses . Bradb ury gave a s implified so lution in the form of charts.
Weste rga ard's equati ons as given above have been modified by various investigators. "The stresses at the
edge and the comer are gener ally found to be critical for the design of rig id pavement s. IRe reco mmends the
follow ing equation for the determination of stresses at the edges and the corners.
Fo r edge loading (feller and Sutherland. 1943)

cr._ 0.529 f, ( I + 0S4 ~) [41 og lO(l/b) + log lOb - 0.4048 J .. .(29.23 )

Fo r comer loading (Ke lley, 1939)

c, - 7 [I - (Q;'2r 1 ...(2924)
are a~=ef=CUa:~:ii~u;~:nete~=P~ ~~ ~i~I:E~I;)~ ~ :ra:
~ .. 0.15. However. diffe rent cerves are given for differen t value of the coefficient of subgrade reecoco (AT)
between 60 N/an l and 300 Nlan l . 1be design curves are for slab thickness from h = IS to 25 an .
 784 sou, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

: _1-....~ ....----K"IOONlcm)

o ~ ~K ~ .ll ON/cm)
I I ~~K • • 60N"mJ
K ~=I'iON Ic..;JJ
20 0
K s = 300 Nl cmL J
rsc
! I I I I I I I I """"~
10 0
I ! I I I I I I t IOOrt----t-+-f--f--fr-r-t-+-+-+-+--l
SO
~ 'j0l-t--+--+-+-f-fi-I---l--I-+-+-+-l
0 I I I I I I I
4 20 22 24
S lo b
" tl'1itkn~ss (em) - .
Sl o b ( cm)-----'
Fig. 29.11. Fig. 29.12.

29.15. TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

A cement concrete slab expands when the temperature increases and contracts when Ihe temperature
decreases. If the slab is free to change its length, there would be no stresses due to temperature changes. In
rigid pavements, the slab is restrained against free deformation either by its own weight or by action of
frictional forces. Consequently. the stresses are induced due to temperature changes. The stresses due 10
tempernture cbanges can be divided into two categories.
(I) Warping stresses, (2) frictional stresses .
1. Warping Stresses. lbese stresses develop due to differential changes in the top and bottom surfaces
of the slab. The temperature change that occurs on the top surface is not transmlued immediately throughout
the entire thickness. 1be temperature difference causes different changes in lhe top and bottom surfaces aIXl
a warping or bending in the slab occurs during lhis period .
Bradbuny gave the following equations for warping stresses.

At Interior, a (i) •
t
E2a I (C,lI: +_ j.l C, )
}Ao2
...(29.25)
At edges, o,(e) • C,l: ~ al or o,(e). c,~al. whicheverishigber. ... (29.26)

At comers, a, (c) • 3 (~~ I }Ao) Vi7i ...(29.27)

where a coefficient of linear expansion (10 )( 1O...{j per "C) and C",and C, are warping stress coefficients (Fig.
29.13).
2. Frictional stresses. If the temperature of the coocree remains coestanr for a long time, tbe
temperatures of the top surface and the bottom surface become equal. At that stage, there is a uniform
leoglheoing or shortening of the slab and there is no warping. As the slab is in contact wilh the seogrede, the
slab movements are restrained duc to the friction between the bottom surface of the pavement and the
subgrade.
The frictional stresses are given by
roLf
Of - 271ii' ...(29.28)
where Of = frictional stress (leN/an1 . L = length of the slab (m). Yc = unit weight of concrete (kN/cm\ f =
coefficient of subgrade restraint (- 1.5).
PAVEMENT DESIGN 785

.z

.0 '--
V
0.8

1 /
3- 0.e

.4

.z
,

V
/
1/
toI---L x ------I
-

0 . /,
0 4 6 8 10 u 4

~ ( or .!:t- )-
Fig. 29.13.
To reduce temperat ure stresses, expansio n joints, contraclion joi nts and warping jo ins ace provided in the
pavemen t.
29.16. COM BINED STRESSES IN RI GID PAVEMENTS
For proper design of a rigid pavement, it is necessary to conside r the most critical combinalions of the
stresses due to loads and te91pcroture stresses.
(1) During summer , the critical combination for interior and edge regions occurs during mid-da y when
the slab lends to warp downward.
Maximum stress at the bottom fibre '" load stress + warping stress - fricti ona l stress .. .(29.29)
(2) However, during winter. the cri tical combina tion for the above regions occu rs when the slab contracts
and the slab warps dow nward during mid-day.
Maximum stress al the bottom fibre '" load stress + warpi ng stress + frictional stress . . .(29.30)
Generally, Eq. 29.29 govern s, as the differential temperatures are more in summer than in winter.
(3) For comer regions, the most critical combination occurs during the midnight when the slab warps
upward.
Maximum stress at top fibre", load stress + warpin g stress ... (293 1)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Illus trative Example 29.1. A sample of subgrade has €I group index of 8. Design the pavement for the
QJJticiparedtraffic volume of over 300 commercial vehicles per day.
Soluti OIL As the traffic is heavy, curve D of Fig. 29.4 is applicab le.
Total thickness '" 500 rom
From Curve A, the thickness of sub-base :: 200 mm
lbcrefore, thickness of base and surfacing '" 500 - 200 '" 300 mm.
Illustrative Example 29.2. The CBR value 01 subgrade is 10%. De termine tlu! total thickness of the
ptNement using IRC method. There are more than 4500 vehicles per day.
7ss SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

So lution . From Fig. 29.6, using ca rve G,

total thickness '" 360 mm
illustrative Example 29.3. Determine the stresses 0.1 interior, edge and corner regions of a rigid
pavement wing Westergaard~ method.. Take P = 411cNj E = 3 )C UllcNlcm 2, h = 20 em. J.l =0.15, k: :::: 4()
NlcmJ and a = 15 em.

So lution. From Bqs. 29.18. I [ Eh' lV'

- 12(1 - ~')k

I. [ 3 x 10' x (20)' ]" _ 84.57=

12 (1 - 0.152) )C 0.04

From Eq. 29.22 (a), b _~_0.675h

.. "';1.6 )( 152 + (20)2 - 0.675 '* 20 .. 14.07 em

From Eq. 29.19, 0; .. 0.31~P [4 1og 10 (lib) + 1.06~1

h

OJ'' ~ [410&10(84.57/14.07) + 1.069] .. O.1JSSkN/cm!

(20 ) .
From Eq. 29.20, 0 .. " 0.5Z;P[41og I0 (ll b) + 0.359]

• 0.572)(
(20)
i 1JXJ [41og 10 (84.57/14-01) + 0.359] - O.2Q37kN/cm!

From Eq. 29.21,

O'-~ [l -(a;Zr I 0.'
_ 3 x 41.0 [ 1 _ ( 15
(20)'
v'2) ]_ 0.1734 kN / cm'
8457

PRO BLEMS

A. Nume rical
29.1. A sample of subgrade gave jhe following results.
(a) Soil ponion passing 0.074 mm sieve = 55%.
(b) Liquid Limit = 45
(c) Plastic Limit ,. 2S
Design the pavemen t by group index method for an anticipated traffic volume o r over 300 oommercial
vehicles per day. [Aas, Total lhickness '" 50 em, Sub-base = 10 em)
29.2. The CBR value o r subgrade is 8 percent. Determine the totalthickness or flexible pavement using design charts
reamunended by IRC. There are more than 4500 vehides per day. lAos. 40 em)
29.3. ~I~~:;~t:=~ ~~t~ge and comer or a",cet:nllrrco:;~rvemenl by Westergaard 's equatims.
(b) Poisson's rauo '" 0.15
(C) Thickness or concrete pave ment = 22 an
l
(d) Modul us o r sub grode reaction '" 0 .03 kNJcm
(e ) Whee l load '" 41.0 kN
(j) Radius or loaded 1Ire8 '" 12 an
1An.s. 0; = 0 .1265 , 0.. = 0 .1946, 0.- '" 0 .1652 kN,tm1
PAVEMENTDESIGN 787

19.... Determ ine the warpin g stresses for a concrete pavement o f thickness 20 em with tran sverse joi nls at 15 m
1 2
spacing and longiludin.d jom ts at 3.5 m spac ing. For co ncrete. E = 3 X 10- kNlcm . 1J. = 0 .15. Take the modulus
o f subgrade reaction as ]0 Nlcm ' , Assume tempe rature differential for da y conditions to he 1°C per em of slab
thickness lind the coeffi clcnr uf linear expa nsion or concrete a~ 10 x 10- 6 per °C. The radius of load area is
lScm,
B. Descr ip tive Type and O bjec tive Type
19.5 . What are different types of pavements ? Explain their salie nt cbarac rensncs.
29.6. What are the various rectors that affect the design of pavement ?
29 .7. Descnbe the fo llowing nK.'1hods or the des ign of flexib le pavemen t.
(al Group moc x method
( b ) CBR method
(e) Burnustcr's Meth od .
29.K. Discus s Westcrgaard's ana lysis for the rigid pavement s.
29.9. Explain the following. terms
(ul Modulu s of subgrade reaction.
(b) Rad ius of relative sntfness.
29.10. Discuss the effect of temperature stresses on the desig n of rigid pavements.
29. 11. Write whether the fUII~wmg stutemcrus are true or false
~'" Th e ncx tbtc pavements are capable o r bridging small depressio ns in the subg rade.
(b) Ge nera lly, the CBR for 5.0' 111m is greater than that fur 2.5 mm.
\e ) T he higher the value of the group iOlIc1L. the poorer is the su bg tad c.
(dl 111e uni ts Io r the coetfic icnr of suhgr ade reaction are kN/em 2.
(r) Fur corner region!'> (li lhe rigid pavements, the critica l !'>treSSCl' usually occur during the midni ght.

[Ans. True (e). (1")1

C. M ultip le Choic e Q uestions

I. For rigid pavements. generally the follow ing compone nt is omitted
(a l Surfacin g (11) Base
(cl Sub bas e (,II Subg rudc
2. Th e minim um surch arge loud fo r the C.H.R. test is
la) 2.5 kg (bl 3.5 kg
Ic) 4.5 kg (<115.5 k!!-
J. Th e standard size uf Ihe plate for the coefficient of subgrade reactio n test is
(a) SO em (hi 75 em
«(") 100 (if) 125 em
tAns. I. (e). 2. (c) •.1. lbJ]
 30
Laboratory Experiments
Some of the more comm only cond ucted lebore roey experiments are described below.
30.1 . Experim ent No.1 . To determine the wat er -content of 8 soli sample by oven-drylng method.
Theory, The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to !he mass of water divided by the mass of solids.
M 2-M)
w - AI) _ M X 100
I

where M l = mass of empty container. w illi lid,

M 2 "" mass of the container with wet soil and lid,
M l = mass of the container with dry soil an d lid.
EqulpmmL (1) Thermostatically controlled oven, maintained at a temperature of 1l0" :I: 5°C; (2)
Weigh ing balance , with eccurecy of 0.04 % of the mass of the soil taken ; (3) Dcstccetor, w ith any suitable
desiccating agen t; (4) Airti ght container made of non -corrodible materia l. with lid ; (5) Tongs .
Soli Specimen. The soil spec ime n should be representative of the soil mass . The quantity of the specimen
taken would depend upon the gradation and the maximum size of panicl es. For more than 90% of the
particles passing 425 ~ IS sieve. the minimumquantity is 25 g.
Procedure (1) Clean the container, dry it and we ight it with lid (M)).
(2) Take the requin:d quantity of the wei specimen in the container and close it with lid. Take the mass (Mi).
(3) Place the cont ainer, wit h its lid removed. in the oven till its mass becom es constant (norm ally for 24
hours) .
(4) When the soil has dried. rem ove the rontainer from the oven, using tongs .
Replace the lid on the contai ner. Coo l it in a deslcceror.
Data Sheet for Water cont ent by Oven-drying Mefhod
Determina tioo No.
S.No. Observtllion.r Q/ld ca lcu lQliOlU
1 2 J
Obsen¥llion.r
(I) Container No. 401 402 403
(2) Mass of empty container (MI) 20.12 g
(3) Mass of container + soil (M 2) 44.32 g
(4) Mass of container + dry soil (MJ) 41.18 g
Calculations
(5) Mass of water,M... - Ml - Ml 3 .14g
(6) Mass of solids, ME - MJ - Ml 21.06 g
(7) Water content, W - (5)/(6) )C 100 14.91
ResulL 1be water cont ent o f the sam ple = 14 .91 % .
lABORATORYEXPERIME1'ITS 789

(5) Find the mess (M) of the containe r with lid and dry soil sample.
Obsenations end calculations. Observations and calculations are shown in the data sheet.
30.2 Experiment No.2. To determine the wat er con ten t or II soil sample by pycnomete r method.
Theory. A pyroom eter is a glass jar of about 1 litre capacit y, fitted with a brass conical cap by means
of a screw-type cover . TIle cap has a small hole of about 6 mm d iameter at its apex.
1be water COOleD! (w) of the sample is obtained as

w -[lZ: =Z:~ ( G~I ) - 1] x 100

where M 1 = mess or empt y pyroometer;
M 2 = mass or pycnometer and wet soil;
M) = mass of pycnometer and soil. filled wit h water;
M. = mass of pycnometer filled with water ooly;
G = specific gravity of solids .
EqulpmenL (1) Pycnometer; (2) Weighing balance with an accuracy of 1.0 g; (3) Glass rod.
Procedure. ( I) Vh<;h and clean the pycnometer and dry it.
(2) Determ toe the mass o r the pycnom eter. with brass cap and washer (M I ) . accurate to 1 g.
(3) Place about 200 to 400 g of wet soil speci men in the pycnometer and weigh it with its cap and
washer (Mi).
(4) Fill water in the pycnometer containi ng the wet soil specimen to about its half height.
(5) Mix the contents thorougl y with a glass rod . Add more water and stir it. Fill the pycnometer with
water, flush with the bo le in the conical cap.
(6) Dry the pycnometer from outside and lake its mass (M).
(7) Empty the pycnomete r, Clean it thoroughly. Fill it with water, flush with the bole in the con ical cap
and weigh (M.) .

Observations and calculations

Sec the data sheet.
Data sheet for water-content by pycnometer met hod
Specific gravit y of solids '" 2 67
IXtenninaJion No.
SRa Ob servations rmd calculatiotu
1 2 J
Observation.s
1. Mass of empty pymometer eMI) 580 8
2. Mass of pycn<meter and wei soil (M2) 844 8
3. Mass of pycnometer soil, filled with water eM) 1606 g
4. ~ of pycnometet filled with water only (M4) 1470 g
CakularWM
5. M z-MI 264 8
6. M) -M. 136 8
7. (G - l)/G 0.625

8. w-[l2 X (7) - I ] X IOO 2132%

Res ult. Water content of the sample = 21.32%.

30.3. Experlment No. 3. To determine the spectnc gravltr or solids by the density bottle method.
Theory. Tbe specifi c gravity of solid particles is the raiio of the mass density of solids to that of water.
It is. determined in the labonltory using the relation
790 SOIL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

G . M 2-M1
(M, - Mil -
(M, - M.l
where M I = mass of empty boUle;
M , = mass of the boule and dry soil;
M 3 = mass of bottle . soil and water;
M. = mass of bonk filled with wate~ only.
Eq uipm enL (I) 50 ml d""ity bolOe with stopper, (2) Oven (105' to 1l0"C); (3) Constant temperature
wate r bath (27'C); (4) .... cau m desiccator; (5) vecc om pump; (6) Weighing balance, accuracy 0.001 g; (1)
Spatula.

Procedure,
(1) Wash the density bottle and dry it in an oven at 105°C to 110°C. Cool it in the desiccator.
(2) Weigh the bottle , wi th stopper. to the nearest O.£XH g (M 1)'
(3) Take 5 to 10 g of the oven -dried soil sampl e and transfe r it to the de nsity bottle .
Weigh the bottle with the stopper and the dry sample (Mi) .
(4) Add de-aired distilled water 10 the density bottle just enoug h to cover the soil. Shake genUy to mix
soil and water.
(5) Place the bottle containing the soil and water, after removi ng the stopper, in the vacuum desiccator.
(6) Evacuat e the desiccator gradually by opera ting the vacuu m pum p. Reduce the pressure to abo ut 20
mm of mercury . Keep the bottle in the desiccator for at least 1 hour or until no further movemen t of air is
noticed.
(7) Release the vacuum and remove the lid of the desia::ator.
Stir the soil in the bottle carefully with a spatula. Before removing the spatula fnxn the bome, the
particles of soil adhering to it shou ld be washed off wilh a few drops of air-free water .
Replace the lid of the desiccator and again apply vacuum .
Repeat the procedure until no more air is evolved from the specimen.
[Note . In case a vacuum desiccator is not available, the entrapped air can be removed by heating the dersny
bottle on a water bat h or a sand bath .]
(8) Remove the boule fnxn the desiccator. Add air-free water until the bottle is full. Insert the stoppe r.
(9) Immerse the bottle upto the neck in a constant -tempera ture bath for approxima tely 1 hou r or until it
has attained the constan t temperature .
If Ihere is an apparent decrease in the volume of the liquid in the bottle, remove the stopper and add
more water to the bottle and replace the stoppe r. Aga in place the bottle in the water ba th. Allow sufficient
time to ensure that the bottle and its con tent attain the constant temperature .
(10) Take out the boUle from the water bath. Wipe it clea n and dry it from ou tside.
Fill the cap illary in the stoppe r with drops of distilled wate r, if necessary.
(11) Determine the mass of the bottle and its content s (MJ>.
( 12) Empty the boUle and clean it thorough ly. Fill it with distilled water. Insert the stopper .
(13) Immerse the bottle in the constan t-temperature bath for 1 hour or until it has atta ined the constant
temperature of the ba th.
If there is an apparent decrease in the volume of the liquid , remove the stopper and add more water.
Again keep it in the water bath .
(14) lake out the bottle fnxn the water bath . Wipe it dry and take the mass (M..).

Obse rvat ions a nd calculations

See the data sheet.
 791

Data Sheet tor Speclflc GravUy by Demit)' Bottle

Detmrlinati£NINo.
SHo. Observations and calculations
1 2 3
ObseTVOJions
1. Density RottIe No . 301 302 303
2. Mass of emply den...ily bottle (MJ) 41.302 g
3. Mass of bottle dry soil (M2) 54.103 g
4. M ass of bottle, soil and water (M3) 99.002 g
5. Mass of bottle filled with water (M4) 91.112 g
CakulatioM
6. M2 - M I 12.801 g
7.

8. Con
M3 - M .. 7.970 g

2.65

Result. Specific gravity of solids ,. 2.65.

30.4. Experiment No. 4. To det ennirw:the specinc gravity of solids by pyawmeltr method
Theory. Tbe pycnometer method can be used for the detetm ination of the specific gravity of solid
particles of both nne-grained and coarse..grained soils. The specific gravity of solids is determi ned using the
relation
G o (M, - M,)
(M, - M ,) - (M, - M.l
where M l '" mas.s of empt y pymometer;
M2 = mass of pycnometer and dry soil;
AI) = mass of pyceoneter, soil, and water;
M I, '" mass of pymometer filled with water ooly,
Equipment. (1) Pycnometer of about I litre capacity; (2) Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 1 g; (3)
Glass rod; (4) Vacuum pump.
Procedure. (1) Clean and dry the pymorn eter. lightly screw its cap. Take its mass (M.) to the nearest
0.1 g.
(2) Mark the cap and pycnometer with a vertical line parallel to the axis of the pycnometer to ensure that
the cap is screwed to the same mark each time.
(3) Unscrew the cap and place about 200 g of oven-dried soil in the pycnometer,
Screw the al p. Determine the mass (Mi) .
(4) Unscrew the cap and add sufficient amount of de-aired water to the pycnometer so as to cover the
soil. Screw on the al p.
(5) Shake well the contents. Connect the pycoom erer to a vacuum pump . to remove the entrapped air, fa'
abou t 20 minu tes for fine - grained soils and for about 10 min ulcs for coarse-grained soils.
(6) DiscoMed the vecaum pump . Fill the pycnometer with water; about three fourths full .
Reapply the vacuum for about 5 minutes, till air bubbles Slop appearing OIl the surface of the water.
(1) Fill the pycnometer witb water completely, upto the mark. Dry it from outside. Take its mass (M),).
(8) Record the temperature of contents.
(9) Empty the pycnometer, Clean it and wipe it dry.
(10) Fill the pycnometer with water only. Screw on the cap upto the mark. Wipe it dry. Take its mass (M 4).
792 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDAIlO N ENGINEERING

Data Sheet Cor Specmc G nn' ity by Pycno meter Method

INtermination No.
S.No. Ob~rvations and calculations
J 2 3
Obsenu/ioll s
I. Pycnometer No. 401 402 403
2. Room temperature 26"C
3. Mass o f empty phcnometcr (Ml) 580 g
4. Mass of pycnometer and dry soil (M2) BOO 8
5. Mass o f pycn ometer, soil and water (MJ) 1707 g
6. Mass or pycnometer and water (M4) 1570 g
Calculations
7. M 2 -MI 220 8
8. Ml -M4 137g

9. G - (7/~\8) 2.65

Res ult . Specific gravity of solids at 26°C = 2.65.

JO.s. Experi ment No. S. To determi ne the dry density or the soil by core cutter- methods .
Theory , A cy lindrical core cu tler is a seamless stee l tube. For cetcrminerion of (he dry dens ity of the soil.
the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so thai it is filled with the soil. The cutter filled wilh the soil is lifted
up. The mass of the soil in the c utter is determined. The dry density is ob tained as

p - ~ .~
where M = mass of the wet so il in the cutter;
V :: internal volume of the cutter; w = water conten t.
Equip men t (1) Cylindrica l core culler , 100 mm internal d iameter and 130 mm long; (2) Steel rammer,
mass 9 kg. overa ll length, with the foot and staff about 900 mm; (3) Steel dolley, 25 mm high and 100 mm
internal diam eter, (4) Weighing balance , accuracy 1 g: (5) Palette knife; (6) Straigh t edge, steel rule, etc.
Procedure. (1) Determine the internal d iame ter and height of the are cutter to the nearest 0.25 mm.
(2) Determ ine the mass (Md of the cutt er to the nearest gram.
Data Shee t for Dry Density by Core CUller M et hod
Determinanon No.
S.No. Observations olld calculations
J 2 3
Observa tions
I. Core cutter No. 501 502 503
2. Intemaldiamct cr lOOmm
3. Internal height 129.75 mm
4. Mass of empty coo: culler (MI) 1130 g
5. Mass of are culler with soils (M2) 3120 g
CalculatiOiIS
6. Mass of wet soil, M _ M2 - Ml 1990 8
7. Vt:iumeof caner, V 1019.05 mI
water ccntem (detennined as. in Experiment 30-1),
8. 17.75 %
sa y.
9. DrY densiIY=~ 1.66 gmlmI

Result . Dry densi ty = 1.666 glm!.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS 793

(3) Expose a sma ll area of the soil mass to be tested. Level the surface, ebour 300 mm square in area.
(4) Place the dolley over the top of the core cutter and press the core cutter tnro the soil mass using the
ramme r.
Stop the process of pressing when about 1-5 mm of the dolley protrudes above the soil surface.
(5) Remove the soil surrou nding the core cutter, and lake out the core cutler . Some soil would project
from the lower end of the cutle r.
(6) Remove the dolley. Trim the top and bottom surface of the core cutler carefully using a straight edge.
(1) Weigh the core cutter filled with the soil to the nearest gram (Mu.
(8) Remove the core of the soil from the cutter; Take a representative sample for the water content
determination.
Determine the water content, as described in Experiment 30.1.
30.6. Experi me nt No. 6. To dete rm ine In-sit u dry densUy by the sand reptecemenr method.
Tbecry. A hole of specified dimensions is excavated in the ground. The mass of the excavated soil is
determined.
The volume of the hole is determined by filling it with clean, uniform sand whose dry density CPs) is
determined separately by calibration. The volume of the hole is equal 10 the mass of the sand filled in the
hole divided by its dry density.
Tbe dry density of the excavated soil is detcnnined as

Pd'~
= = =
where M mass oCthe excavated soil; V volume of the hole; and w water content.
Eq uipment . (1) Sa nd-pouring cylinder; (2) Calibrating containe r, 100 mm diameter and 150 mm height ;
(3) Soil ccuing and excavati ng tools, such as a scraper 1001, ben t spoo n; (4) Glass plate, 450 mm square, 9
mm Ihick; (5) Metal container to collect excava ted soil; (6) Metal tray, 300 mm square and 40 mm deepwith
a hole of 100 mm in diameter at Ihe centre: (1) Weighing balance; (8) Mo isture co ntent cans; (9) Oven; (10)
Desicca tor.
Clean, uniform sand passing 1 mm IS sieve and retained on 600 micron IS sieve in sufficient quantity.
Part -I Ca lib ra tio n
Procedure (1) Determine the internal volume of the calib rating container by filling it with water and
determining the mass of wate r required. The mass of water in grams is approximately equal to the volume in
millilitres. The volume may also be determined from the measured dimensions of the container .
. (2) Fill the sand-po uring cy linder with sand, within abou t 10 rom of its top. Determine the mass of the
cylinde r (M I) 10 the nearest gram.
(3) Place the sand-pouring cyli nder ve rtically on the calibrating container.
Open the shutter 10 allow the sand run out from the cylinder into the calibrating co ntainer till it fills the
cone of the cylinder and the calibrating container. When there is no further move ment of the sand in the
cylinder, close the shutter.
(4) Lifl the pouring cyli nder from the ca librating contai ner and weigh it to the nearest gram (M) .
(5) Again fill the pouring cylinde r with sand, within 10 rom of its top.
(6) Open the shutter and allow the sand to run oct oCthe cylinder . When the volume of the sand let out
is equa l to the volume of (he calibrating contai ner, close the shutte r.
(7) Place the cylinde r over a plane surface, such as a glass plate. Open the shutter. The sand fills the cone
of the cylinder. Close the shutte r when no further movement oCsand takes place.
(8) Remove the cylinder. Collect the sand le ft on the glass plate.
Dererrmne the mass of sa nd (Mi) that had filled the cone by weighing the collected sand.
(9) Determine Ihe dry density of sand, as-shown in the data sheet, pa tt-I.
794 IDI L MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

Part-c-H, Dry Densit y

Procedure. (1) Expose an area of about 450 mm square on the surface of the soil mass.
Trim the surface down to a lev el surface , using a scraper tool .
(2) Place the metal tray on the levelled surface.
(3) Excavate the soil through the central hole of the tray, using the hole in the tray as a pattern.
The depth of the excavated hole shou ld be abou t 150 mm.
(4) Collect all the exca vated soil in a metal container, and determine the mass of the soil (M).
(5) Remove the meta l tray from the excavat ed hole.
(6) Fill the saed-pocringcylinder with in 10 mm of ilS top. Dcrermtoe its mass (M 1)'
(7) Place the f:)'linder d irectl y over the excav ated hole. Allow the sand to run out of the cylinder by
opening the shutter.
Close the shu tter when the hole is completely fill ed and no furthe r movement of sand is observed.
(8) Remove the cylinde r from Ole ru led hole. Determine the mass of the cylinde r (M..).
(9) Take a represe ntative sample of the excava ted so il. Determine its water content, as explained in the
expcnmera 30-1.
Determine the dry density of soil as shown in the data sheet.Part-ll.
Data Sheet for Sand Replacement Method
Part-I. Ca libration for Dry Densit y of Sand
DeterminationNo.
S.No. ObservaJioru and calculat ions
1 2 3
Observotions
I. \bIume of calibrating aDC (VI') 980 mI
2- Mass of pouring cylinder (Md . filled witb sand 11040 g
Mass of pulin g cylinde r mICe pouring sand into
3. 9120 g
the cal ibrati ng container and coee (Ml)
4. Mess of sand in the cone (M2) 45<>8
CaJOIlotions
5. Mass of sand in the calibratin g container
1470 g
M, • (2) - (3) - (4)
6. Dry density of sand
Pi - MI'/Vt 15g1m1
Pa rt-II. Dry Den'ilty of sod
Determi1UlJion. No.
S.No. Observaioes WIdCaJOIlaJions
1 2 3
Ooservanons
I. Mass of excavated soi l (AI) 2310 g
2- Mass of pouring cylinder (Mt) . filled with sand 11040 g
3. Mass of pouring cylinde r a fter peering lmc the
8840 8
hole and cone (M4)
CakuJorions
4. Mass of sand in the boIeM, - M l - M4 - M2 1750 g
5. \bIume of sand in the hole V _ M, I p, 1166.67 mI
6. Dulk densi ty, p _ M / V 1.98 gIml
7. Water comera, delenni ned as in ex perime nt
30-1 (w), say. 150>
8. Dry density - I7-;; - tM:Vw 1.72 glml

ResulL Dry densIty = 1.72 gtml.

LABORATORYEXPERlME1'ITS

30.7. Experimmt No. 7. To de term ine the dry density or a soU sa mple by wete r- dbplacemen t method.
Th eory. A soil specimen of regular shape is coated with paraffin wax to make it impervious to water.
The total volume (V,) of the waxed specimen is found by determining the volu me of water displaced by the
specimen. The volume of the speci men (\I) is 'given by
V_ 1\-
(M,-M)
Pp
where M, :: mass of waxed specimen; M :: mass of the specimen wilhout wax; Pp = density of para ffin.
M
Dry dens ity of specimen . 1 : :
Eq ui pment. (I) ware r-disptecement apparatus; (2) Weighting balance. accuracy 1 g; (3) Paratfin wax; (4)
Cutting knife ; (5) Heater; (6) Oven; (1) Measuring jar ; (8) Brus h; (9) water con tent contai ner.
Procedure. (1) Take the soil specimen. Trim it 10 a regular shape . Avoid re-entrant corners . Weigh the
specimen (AI).
(2) Take some paraffin wax and melt it on a heater. Apply a coat of melted paraffin wax 10 the specimen
with a brush. When it has hardened. apply another coot.
Take the massof the waxed specim en (M,).
(3) Fill the water-displacement apparatu s with water, When the overflow occurs, dose the valve .
(4) Place a measuring jar below the ove rflow tube of the apparatus. Open the valve .
(5) Immerse the waxed specimen slowly into the water in the apparatus . water overflo ws. Collect the
overflowed water in the jar.
Determine the volume of the water collected (V,).
(6) lake out the waxed specim en from the apparatus. Dry it from outside.
(7) Remove the paraffin wax by peeling it off.
(8) OJt the specimen into two pieces. Take a representative sample for the water content detennination.
Determine the water content, as in Experime nt 30.1.

nata sh eet for Wat er- displa cement Method

Density of paraffin (Pp) = 0.91 glm!.

Determinarioll No.
ss« Obserwt;ons and caJ(Illations
1 2 J
Omervat;otlS
1. Mass of specimen (M) 650.
2. Mass of waxed specimen (M,) 681 .

,. \blume of waxed specimen by weter-dtsptacerrent

l.
(V,) l62.
CalCJllations
4. Mass of wax _ M, - M
s. \blume of wax (Vp ) - (M, - M)/p,. 34.06 mI
6. volume of specimen (\I) _ V, - Vp 327.06 ml
7. water-comenr, as in experiment 30-1, (w) B%
M::
8. Dry denslty (pd) _ 1 1.75 gImI

ResulL Dry dens ity of soil = 1.75 glml .

796 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

30.8. Experiment No. S. To determine the pa rticle size distrlbutJon or a !IOil by sieving .
Theory. Th e soil is sieved throu gh a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is determined.
The percentage of material retained on any sieve is given by

PII • o/i )C tOO

where M" '" mass of soil retained on steve 'n"

and M :: total mass of the sam ple.
The cumulative percentag e of the material retained,
ell -PI +P2+ .. . + P.
where Pl.h etc. are the percentages retained on sieve ' I" '2" etc, which are coarser than sieve on' . 1'he
percentage finer than the sieve -e ',
N. .. 100 - C.
EquIpment. ( 1) Set of Ilne sieves. 2 mm, 1 mm, 600 J.l, 425 JL,212 II. 150 J.l, and 75 j.l: (2) Set of coarse
sieves, 100 mm, 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm and 4.75 mm; (3) Weighing balance, with accuracy of 0.1%
of the mass of sample ; (4) Oven. (5) Mechanical shaker; (6) Trays; (7) Mortar . with a rubber covered peslle;
(8) Brushes; (9) Rimec.
Part -I. Coarse sieve Anal ysis
Procedure. (1) Take the required quantity of the sample. Sieve it through a 4.75 mm IS sieve. Take the
soil fraction retained on 4.75 mm 15 sieve for the coarse sieve analysis (part l) and tha t pesstng through the
siev e for the fine sieve analysis (part II).
(2) Sieve the sample through the set of coarsesieves. by hand
Wh ile s ieving throu gh each sieve. the sieve should be agitated such that the sample rolls in irregular
motion over the sieve. The materia l retained on the sieves may be rubbed with the rubber pest le in the morta r.
if necessary. Care shall be taken so as not to break the individual particles. The quantity of the material taken
for siev ing on each sieve sha ll be such that the maximum mass of material retained on each s ieve does not
exceed the specified value .
(3) Determine the mass of the material retained on eac h sieve.
(4) Calculate the percentage of soil retained on ead1 sieve on the basis of the total mess of the sample.
taken in step (1).
(5) Determ ine the percentage pass ing throogh each sieve.

Part-IL Fin e sieve analysioi

(6) Takethe portion of the soil passi ng 4.75 mm IS sieve. Oven dry it at 105° to tOO°C. Weigh it to 0.1%
of the total mass.
(7) S ieve the soil through the nest of fine sieves . The sieves should be agitated so that the sample rolls
in irregular motion over the sieves. However. no partic les should be pushed through the sie ve.
(8) Take the material retained on various sieves in a mortar. Rub it with rubber pesne, but do not try to
break: individual particl es.
(9) Resieve the material through the nest of sieves.
A minimum of 10 min utes of shaking is required if a mechan ical shaker is used.
(10) Co llect the soil fraction retained on eac h sieve in a separate coaralrer, Take the mess,
(11) Determ ine the percenta ge retained, cumulative percentage retained, and the percentage finer. based
on the total mass taken in step (1) .
lABORATORY EXPERIMENTS 797

Data Sheet for- Sieve Anillysis

Total mass of dry so il = 400 g
Mass of soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve :: 200 g
Mass of soil passing 4.75 mm siev e = 200 g.
Ob$en'QtiOfIJI Caiculo/ions
s. Na Size of Mass o/ soil Perren/ age Cumula/ive
IS Si~~ fetained % retained %ftner
Opening retained
Coarse Fraction Part I)
r, lOOmm 100 mm - -
2- 80 mm "'mm - -
3. 40mm ao mm - -
1_'10
4. 20 mm 20 mm 30.0 g 7.50 92.50
5. 10mm lO mm 62.0g 1550 23.00 77.00
6. 4.15 mm 4.15 mm 108.0 g Z7.00 50.00 50.00
Fine Fraction (Part I/)
7. 2mm 2 mm 30.5 g 1.62 57.62 42.38
8. I mm Imm 24.0 g 6.00 63.62 3638
9. 600 . 0.600 mm 11.5 g 438 68 .00 32.00
10~ 42.') 11 0.425 mm 16.0 g 4.00 12.00 28.00
11. 300. 0300 mm 14.0 g 350 7550 2450
12- 21211 0.212 mm 18.0 g 450 "'.00 20.00
13. 150 • 0.150 mm 220 g 550 8.'50 1450
14. 75 . O.o15mm 36.0 g 9.00 9450 5.50
15. PM - 22.0 g 550 100.00

Res ult . Perce ntag e finer given in the last co lumn can be used to plot the particle size distribution curve
wilh particle size as abscissa on log scale and the percentage fmer M ordinate.
[Note. If the nne fraction oontains an appreciable amoun t o f clay particles. the wet sieve analysis is required.
Alterna tivel y. the follow ing method may be used .
Before cond ucting step (1), add the water cont aining sodium hexa- meta phosphat e at the rate of 2 g per
litre o f wa ter to tne soil fract ion. Stir the mix Ihoroughly and leave for soaking. Wash the soaked specim en
on a 75~ IS sieve until Ihe water passing the sieve is clear, Take the fract ion reta ined on the sieve and dry it
in an oven. Sieve the oven dried soil through the nest of sieves as d iscussed in step (7). Perform further steps,
as before.
Ob viously. the mass of material which wou ld have been retained on pan is equal to the original mass of
the soil be fore washing minus the dry mass of the soil retained on 75~ IS siev e after washing.J
30.9 . Experiment No. 9. To detennlne the purtlcle size distribution by the hydrometer method.
Theory. Hydrometer method is used to determ ine the particle size distribution of Fine-grained soils
passing 751J. sieve. 1be hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the soil suspension at the centre of its
bulb. The specific gravi ty depends upon the mass of solids present, which. in tum. depends on the particle
sue. The particl e size (D) is given by
D - MVii;i
~

where M =[ g (GO: 1)p...] • in which, TJ - viscosity of water (poise). G =speciOc gravity of solids; P...=
density of water (gm/ml); g = 981 cm/stt2, He =
effective depth (em); t = time in minutes at which
observation is taken, reckoned with respect to the beginning of sedfmentauoo.
The percentage finer than the size D is given by
798 OOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

N- (G~ 1) ft;X HX) x

where R = rorrected hydrometer reading ; M. = mass of dry soil in UXX> ml suspension.
EqulpmenL (I) Hydrometer; (2) Glass measuring cylinder (jar), HXXJ mt; (3) Rubber bung tee the
cylinder fj"'); (4) Mecaanical stirrer; (5) Weighing balance, eccuracy 0.01 g (6) Oven (7) Desiccator; (8)
Evaporating dish; (9) Ccolcat flask or beaker, 1(0) ml; (10) Stop watd1; (11) V/a<;b bottle; (12) Tbemomeier;
(13) Glass rod; (14) Water bath; (15) 75 "sieve; (16) Scale; (17) Det10cculating agent .

Procedure.
Part-I Calibration of hydrometer
(1) Take about·800 mt of water in one measuring cylinder. Place the cylinderon a table and coserve the
initial reading.
(2) Immerse the hydrometer in tbe cylinder. Take the reading after the immersion.
(3) Determine the volume of the hydrometer (VH), which is equal to the difference between the final and
initial readings.
Altematively, weigh the hydrometer 10 the nearest 0.1 g. The volume of the hydrometer in ml is
approximately equal to its mass in grams.
(4) Determine the area of cross-section (A) of the cylinder. It is equal to the volume indicated between
any two graduations divided by the distance between them. The distance is measured with an accurate scale.
(5) Measure the distance between the hydrometer neck and the bouom of the bulb. Record it as the
height of the bulb (h).
(6) Measure the distance (II) between the nedc to each of the marts 00 the hydrometer (R.).
(7) Delermine the effective depth (H~). oom=spooding to each of the mark (R,.)' as

H.. H+Hh-~)
[Note. The factor VH/A sroukJ not be considered when the hydrometer is 001 taken out when taking reedings
after start of the sedimentation at 112. I, 2 and 4 minutes].
(8) Draw a calibration curve between II~ and R•. Alternatively. prepare a table between II., and R..
The curve may be used for fmding the effective depth II, corresponding to reading R,..

Part-II Meniscus correctlon

(I) Insert the hydrometer in the measuring cylinder containing about 700 mt of water.
(2) Take the readings of the hydrometer at the top and at the bottom of the meniscus.
(3) Determine the meniscus correction, which is equal to the difference between the two readings.
(4) The meniscus correction (elll ) is positive and is a constant for the hydrometer.
(5) The observed hydrometer reading (RII' ) is corrected to obtain the corrected hydrometer reading (RII ) as
RII ~ Rio' + e", '
Part-m Pretreatment and Dispersion
(I) Weigh ecccrerely, to nearest 0.01 g. about 50 g air-dried soil sample passing 2 mm IS sieve , obtained
by riming fran the air-dried sample passing 4.75 mm IS sieve.
Place the sample in a wide mouthed coeical flast...
(2) Add about 150 ml of hydrogen peroxide to the soil sample in the flast.
Stir it gently with a glass rod for a few miranes,
(3) Cover the flask with a glass plate.and leave it to stand ovanight.
(4) lleat the mixture in the conical flask gently after keeping it in an evaporating dish.
Stir the contents periodically. When vigorous frothing subsides, the reactkJn is complete. Reduce the
lABQRAlORY EXPERIMENTS 199

vo lume to 50 ml by boiling . Stop heati ng and coo l the contents.

(5) If the soil contains insoluble calcium compounds, add about 50 ml of hydrochloric acid to the cooled
mixture .
Stir the solu tion with a glass rod for a few minutes . Allow it 10 stand for one hour or so . The sol ution
would have an acid reacti on to litmus when the treatmen t is complete.
(6) Filter the mix ture and wash it with warm water until the filtrate shows no acid reaction .
(7) Transfer the damp soil on the filter and funnel to an evaporating dish, using a jet of distilled water.
Use the minimum quantity of distilled water.
(8) Place the evaporatingdish and its contents in an oven, and dry it at 105 0 to 1l0"C.
Transfer the dish to a desiccator, and allow it to coo l.
(9) Take the mass of the oven dried soil after pretreatment. and find the joss of mass due to pretreatment.
(10) Add 100 ml of sodium bexa-merephcspoete solution to the oven-dried soil in the evaporating dish
after pretreatment.
(Il) Wann the mixture gently for about 10 minu tes.
(12) Trans fer the mixture to the cup of a mechanical mixer. Use a jet of distilled wa ter to wash all traces
of the so il out of the evaporating dish. Use about ISO ml of wate r. Stir the mixture for about 15 minutes .
(13) Transfer the soil scspensico to a 75 \.l IS sieve placed on a receiver (pan).
\Yash the soil on this sieve using a jet of distilled water . Usc: about 500 ml of water .
(14) Transfe r lhe soil suspension passing 75 IJ sieve to a 1lXX) ml measuring cylinde r.
Add more water to make the volume exact ly equa l to 1000 ml.
(15) Collect the materia l retai ned on 75 \.l sieve . Dry it in an oven. Determine its mass. If required. do
the sieve analysis of this fraction.
Part-I V. Sed ime nta tion Tesl
(1) Place the rubber bung on the ope n end of the measuring cyli nder containing the soil suspension.
Shake it vigorously end-ove r-end to mix the suspe nsion thoroughly .
(2) Remove the bung after the shaking is complete.Place the measuring cylinder on the table and start
the stop watch.
(3) Immerse the hydrometer gently to a depth slig htly below the floating depth , and then allow it 10 float
freely,
(4) Take hydro meter reading (Rj,' ) after 1/2. I, 2 and 4 minutes. without remo ving the hydrometer from
the cylinder.
(5) lake out the hydromeler frem the cylinder. rinse it with distilled water.
(6) float the hydrometer in another cyli nder containing only distill ed water at the same temperature a'>
tha t of the test cyli nder.
(7) Take out the hyd rometer from the dist illed water cy linder and clean its stem .
Insert it in the cylinder containing suspension to take the reading at the lolal elapsed time interval of 8
minutes. About 10 seconds should be taken while taking the reading . Remove the hydromet er, rinse it and
place it :.. the distilled water cylinde r after reading.
(8) zepea t the Step (7) to take read ings at 15,30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes elapsed time interval.
(9) After 240 minutes (4 hou rs) reading, take readings twice within 2A bours . Exact time of each reading
should be noted .
(10) Record the temperature of the suspension once during the first 15 minutes, and thereafter at the time
of every subsequen t reading.
(II) After the fina l reading, pour the sus pension in an eva poratin g dish. Dry it in an oven and fmd its
dry mass .
(12) Determine the composite correction before the start of the test. and also at 30 minutes, I, 2 and 4
hours. Thereafter, just after each reading. composite correction is dc:tennined.
800 so n, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(13) For the derermlnction of the composite correction (C). insert the hydrometer in the compartsoo
cy linde r containing 100 ml o f dispersing age nt solution in 1000 ml of distilled water at lhe same temperature .
Take the reading corresponding 10 the top of meniscus. The negative of the reading is the composite
correction.
nUb Shed for Hydrometer Test
Mass of dry so il (M,) = 50 g; Meniscus axrection (C..) = +0.4
Specific gravity of solids (G) = 2 67

Observaions Cak uloJions

Elapsed Hydrometer Tempera- Composite Corrected }feigJu Reading Factor Particle Per-
S.
fjme(t) Reading ture correction Reading JI~«('m) R = M size cm mge
No
(R,,') (C) Rio .. RIt' RJ,' + C D= M finer
• c. ..fH;Ii (N)

l.
2- ..
l llminu. 2l.BO 22.0 -050 22.2 11.8 213 1.33 x 10- 0.065 mm 68.10

3.
1
2 .
..
4.
5.
4
8 ..
6. .
7.
15
30 .
8. 1 nr
9. .
2
.
10. 4
.
11. 8
..
12.
13.
12
24 ..
Res u lt. Particle siz e distribu tion CUIV C can be plaited using the last two columns.
30.10 . Expe rime nt No. 10. To determine the liquid Umll of a soil specimen.
Theory. The liqu id limit o f a soi l is the:water conten t at which the so il behav es practically like a liquid, but
has a sma ll shear st rengt h. It flows to close the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrande's liquid limit device ;
As it is difficult to get exactly 25 blows in a test , 3 to 4 tests are rondueted, arxl the number o f blows
(N) required in each test is dete rmined . A semi-log plOi is drawn bet ween log N and the water con rem (w).
The liqu id limit is the wa ter conten t correspond ing to N = 25, as ob tained from the plot
Equipme nt . ( 1) Casag rande 's liquid limit device ; (2) Grooving tools of both Standard and ASTM types;
(3) Oven ; (4) Evapora ting dis h or glass sheet ; (5) Spatula; (6) 425 IJ.IS siev e ; (7) Weighin g balance. accuracy
om g; (8) Wash bo ule .
Procedure, (1) Adjust the drop of the al p of the liquid limit device by releas ing the two scre ws at the
top and by using the handle of the groo ving 1001or a gauge .
The drop should be exact ly I em at the po int of contact on the base. Tighte n the screw after adjustm ent
(2) Take about 120 g of the air-dried so il sam ple pass ing 425 ....IS steve.
(3) Mill: the sa mple thoroughl y with d istilled water in an evaporating d ish or a glass plate to fonn a
uniform paste. Mi xing should be continued for about 15 to 30 minu tcs, till a uniform mix is obtained .
(4) Keep the mix under hum id conditions for obtaining uniform moistu re distribution for sufficient
peri od . For some fat c lays. this maturing time may be upto 24 hours.
(S) Take a paction of the matured paste and remix it thorou ghl y. Place it in the cup of the dev ice by a
spa tula and level it by a spat ula or a straigh t edge to have a maximum deptho f the soil as I an at the pain!
of the maximum thickness.
lABORATORY EXPERIMEI'ITS 801

The excess soil. if any. shou ld be transferred to the evaporating dish.

(6) Cut a groove in the sample in the cup by using the appropri ate too l. Draw the groo ving tool through
the paste in the cup along the sym metrical axis, along the diameter through the centre line of the cam. Hold
the tool perpend icu lar to the cup.
(7) Tum the handle of the de vice at a rate of 2 revolutions per second .
Count the number of blows until the two halves of the soil spec imen come in contact at the bo tto m of
the groove a long a d istance of 12 mm due to flow and not by sliding.
(8) Col lect a representative speci men of the so il by moving spa tula width-wise from o ne edge to the
ceber edge of the soil cake . at right-angles 10 the groov e. Th is shouki include the po rtion of the groov e in
which the soi l flow ed to close the groove.
Place the specimen in an air-tight contai ner for the water cont e nt determina tion. Determine the water
content.
(9) Remove the remaining soil from the cup. Mix it with the soil left in the evaporating dish.
(10) Change the water content of the mix in the evaporating dish. eithe r by adding more water if the
water cement is to be tocreased, or by knead ing the soil, if the water con tent is to be decreased.
In no case. the dry soi l should be added to reduce the water content .
(11) Repeat steps 4 to 10. and determine the number of blows (N) and the water content in each case.
(12) Draw the now curve between log N and w. and determine the liquid limit corresponding to N '" 25 .
Data Sheet for Uquid Umil Test
Ik'umi"Qlion No.
S.No. O~rvaJjOtLf and CalCUWtiOfU
1 2 3
Observanons
I. No. or btcws (N) IS
2. wa ter content can No. 10'
3. Mass of emply can (MI) 25.15 g

,.
4. Mass or ca n -t wet soil (M2)
Ma...." of can .. dry soil (M3)
36.93 g
33.8 1 s
C alc ulatiofU
6. Mass of water .. M2 - M 3 3.12 g
7. Mass of dry soil _ M 3 - Ml 8.66 g

8. water conrent, w - ffi )( 100 36 %

Result. Draw a now curve between log Nand w. Liquid limit (for N '" 25) '" ...
30 .11. Experiment No. 11. To detennlne the plastic limit of a soli spedmen.
Theory. The plastic limit of a soil is the water content of Ihe soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It
begins 10 crumble when rolled into threads of 3 mm diameter.
Equipment. (1) Porcelain evaporating dish, about 120 mm diameter or a Oat glass plate, 450 mm square
and 10 mm thick; (2) Ground glass plate. about 200 mm )( 150 mm; (3) Metallic rod, 3 mm dia. and 100 mm
long; (4) Oven; (5) Spatula or palette knife ; (6) Moisture content can.
Procedure. (1) Take about 30 g of air-dried soil from a thoroughl y mixed sample of the soil passing
4251J sieve.
(2) Mix the soi l with d istilled water in an evaporating dish or on a glass plate to make it plastic enough
to shape into a small ball.
(3) Leave the plastic so il mass for some time for maturing . For some fat clays, ifus period may be even
optc 24 hours .
(4) Take about 8 g of the plastic soil. and roll it with fmgcn on a glass plate. The rate of the rolling
81)2 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

should be about 80 to 90 strok es per minute to form a thread of 3 mm diamete r; cou nting one stroke when
the hand moves forward and backw ard to the staring point.
(5) If the diameter of the thread becomes less than 3 mm wi thout creeks, it show s thai the water conrera
is more Ulan the plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water content. and roll it agai n into thread.
Repeat the process of alterna te rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles, and the soil can no longer
be rolled into thread.
(Note. If the crumbling occurs when the thread has a diameter slightly greater tha n 3 mm. it may be taken as
the plastic limit. provided the soil had been rolled into a thread of 3 mm diameter immediately before
kneading. Do not attemp t to produce failure exactly at 3 mm diameter.]
(6) Coiled. the pioccs of the crumb led soil thread in a molsuee coo tenr container.
(7) Repeal the procedure at least twice more with fresh sam ples of plastic soil each time.
Du ta Sheet for PlasU c U rnl. 'Ies t

De termina tion No.

SNo. Observations and calculations
1 2 3
Observa tions
I. Moislure content conta iner No. 101 102 103
2. Mass of empcy con tainer (MI) 24. 12 g
3. Mass of con tainer t wet soil (M2) 30.28 g
4. Mass of container t dry soil (Ml ) 29.12 g
Co1culatio/1S
5. Mass of water =. M2 - }.I) 1.16 g
6. Mass of dry soil ", }of) - M I 5.00 g

7. wa ter Content. w - m lC 100 232 ..

ResulL Plastic limit of soil = 23.2%.

30.1:'. Expe ri men t No. 12. To determine the shrinkage limll of. speci me n or the remoutded soiL
Theory. Tbe shrinkage limit is the wate r conlent of the so il when the water is just suffkient to fill all
the poresof lhe soil , and the soi l is just saturated. The volume of the soil does not decrease: when the water
content is red uced be low the shrinkage li mit It ca n be determin ed from the relation
- M,) - lV, - V,)P.
W,. (M, M, x 100

where M 1 = initial wet mass; VI = initial volume; M, = dry mass; V2 = volume afte r drying .
Eq uipment . (1) Shrink age dish, having a flat bottom. 45 mm diame ter and 15 mm heigh t, (2) 1\vo large
evapora ting dishes about 120 mm diamete r. with a pour out and flat bottom ; (3) One small me rcury dish, 60
mm diamete r; (4) Two glass plates, one plain and one with prongs, 75 mm x 75 mm x 3 mm s ize. (5) Glass
cup. 50 mm diameter and 25 mm high; (6) IS sieve 425 J.l; (1) Oven; (8) Desiccator; (9) Weighing balance,
accuracy om
g; (10) Spatula; (II) Straight edge; (12) Mercury.
Procedure. (1) Take a sample of mess about 100 g from a thoroughly mixed soil passing 425 J.ls ieve.
(2) lake about 30 g of the soil S3IT1ple in a large evaporati ng dish . Mix it with d istilled water 10 make a
creamy paste which can be readily worked without entrapping uie air bubbles.
(3) Take the shrinkage dish . Clean it and determine its mass.
(4) Fill mercury in the shrink age dish. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the plain glass plate over
the lOp of the shrinkage dish . The plate should be flush with rbe lop of the dish, and no air should be
entrapped .
(5) Transfe r the mercury of the shrinkage dish to a mercury weighing d ish and determ ine the mass of lbe
LABORAlURY EXPERIMENTS so
mercury (0 an accurncy of 0.1 g. The volume of Ihe shrinkage dish is equal to the mass of mercury in grams
divided by the specific gra vity of mercury (viz. 13.6).
(6) Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a th in layer of silicon grease or vase line.
Place the soil specimen in the centre of the shrinka ge dish. equa l to abcct one-t hird the volu me of the
shrinka ge d ish.
Tap the shrinkage dish on a fum , cush ioned surface and allow the paste to flow to the edges.
(7) Add more soil past e, approxi matel y equal to the (lISt portM>n and tap the shrink age dish as before,
until the soil is thorough ly compacted,
Add more soil and continu e the tapping till the shri nkage dish is completely filled, and excess soil peste
projects out abou t its ed ge.
Strilc.e out the top s urface of the paste with a straight edge. Wipe off all soil adhering to the o utside of
the shrinkage dish . Determine the mass of the wet soil (M I ) .
(8) Dry the soil in the shrin kage dish in air until the colour of the pat turns from dark to light. Then dry
the pa t in the oven at 105 0 10 110°C to constan t mass.
(9) Cool the dry pat in a desiccator. Remo ve the dry pat from the des iccator after COOling, and weigh the
shrinkage dish with the dry pat-to determ ine the dry mass of the soil (Ms ) '
(10) Place a glass cup in a: large evaporating dish and fill it wilh mercury. Remov e lhe excess mercury
by pressi ng the glass plate with prongs firmly over the top of the cup. Wipe off any mercury adhe ring to the
outside of the rep.
Remove the glass rep full of mercury and place it in another evaporating dish, taking care not to spill
any mercury from the glass cup.
(11) Take out the dry pal of the soil from the shrinka ge dish and immerse it in the glass cup full of
mercury. Take care not to entrap air under the pat. Press the plate with prmgs 00 the top of the OJP fum ly.
(12) Ccll ca the mercury d isplaced by the dry pelt in the evaporat ing dish, and transfer it to the mercury
we ighin g d ish. Determine the rnass of the mercu ry to an ecciracy of 0.1 g. 1be volume of the dry pat (Vi)
is equa l to the mass of the mercury divided by the specifi c gravi ty of mercury.
(13) Repea t the test eueesr 3 times.
Data Shee t for Shrinkage Umlt Test
IJdmrlination No.
S.Na Ob~rvalions and calcu larions
] 2. J
ObservatiQflS
I. Mass of empty mercury dish 74.2 g
2. Mass of mercry dish, with mercury equal 10
361.1 g
,. volume of the shrinkage d ish
Mass of mercury . (2) - (1) 286.9 g

4. \bl ume of shrinkage dish, VI - ~ 21.1 mI

..
5. Mass of empty shrinkag e dish
Mass of shrinkage dish .. wet soil
235,
68.4g

..
7.

9.
Mass of wei soil, Mt • (6) - (S)
Mass of shrinkag e dish .. dry soil
Mass of dry soil, M s • (8) - (5)
44.9 g
57.3 g
33.8,
10. Mass of mercury dish . mercury equal in
304.3 g
volume d. dry pal
n. Mass of mcrewy displaced by dry pat, = (10) - (1) 230.1 g

12. \bIumc of dry pat, Y2 • m 16.92 mI

 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

DeJenrt;nalion No.
S.No. Observations and calculoJions
1 2 J

"l
Calculations

13. Sh rinkage limit, w. _ (M I-M.)- (Vl - Vi) 20.5 ,.

M,

'4. Sh rinkage ratio. SR - v7~ 2.0

15.
. .
\bIumctnc shrinkage, VS - (V._ V' ))(
-----v;-- 100 24.70

Result, Shrinicage Limi t = ZO.5%.

30.13. Experiment No. 13. To detennine the permeability or a soli specimen by the con...tent -head
permeemeter,
Theory. 1be coefficient of permeability is equal to the rate: of flow of water through a unit
cross-secti onal area under a unit hydraulic gradien t In the cocstanr head penn eameter, the bead causi ng flow
throu gh the: specimen remai ns coostam throughout the test. 1be coe ffki ent of permeeotlity (1) is obta ined
from the re lation
k- 'l!:.. f2!,.
Ah Aht
where q :: discharge ; Q = lotal volume of water; t :: lime: period; h = head causing Dow; L :: length of
specimen; A .~ crcss-secncoat area .
Equipment. (I ) Permeameter mould, internal diameter = 1m mm, effc:etlve height:: 127.3 mm,
cepecuy e lOCO ml; (2) Detachable collar. 1m mm diameter. 60 rom high; (3) Dummy plate, I~ mm diameter.
12 mm thick; (4) Drainag e base . having a porous disc; (5) Drainage cap. having a porous disc with a spring
attached 10 the top; (6) Compaction equipment. sudl es Proctor's rammeror a Slalic oompactioo equipment; (7)
Coostent- head water -supply rese rvoir; (8) Vacuum pump; (9) Constant-bead collecting chamber; (10) Stop
watch; (11) Large funnel; (12) Thermometer; (13) Weighing balance, accuracy 0.1 g; (14) Filter paper.
Procedure. (1) Remove the cottar of the mould. MClSUre the internal dime nsions of the mould. Weigh
the mould, with dummy plate. to the nearest gram.
(2) Apply a little grease on the inside to the mould.
Clamp the mould between the base plate and the extension colla r. and place the assembly on a solid base.
(3) Take about 2.5 kg of the soil sample , from a thoroughly mixed wet soil, in the mould. Compact the
soil at the required dry density, using a suitable compacting device.
(4) Remove the collar and base plate. Trim the excess soil level with the top of the mould.
(5) Clean the outside of the mould and the dummy plate. Find the mass of the soil in the mould.
(6) Take a small specimen of the soil in a container for the water content determination.
(7) Saturate the porous discs (stones).
(8) Place a porous disc on the drainage base, and keep a filter paperon the porous disc .
(9) Remov e the dummy plate, and place the mould with soil on the drainag e bese, after inserting a
washe r in between .
(10) Clean the edges of the mould. Apply grease in the grooves around them.
(11) Place a filler paper, a porous disc and fIX the drainage cap using washers .
(12) Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the base, and alloYo' the water to Dow upwards till it has
saturated the sample. Let the free water collect for a depthof about 100 mm on the top of the sample.
[Alternatively, the soil of low penn eability can be saturated by Slbjecting the specimen to a graduall y
increasing veccum with bottom outlet closc4 so as to remove: air from the voids. Increase the vacuum
LABORA1ORYfl.XPERIMENTS 00'
gradually to 700 mm of mercury and maintain it for 15 minutes or more, cepe iding upon the type of soil.
Follow the evacuation by a process of slow saturation of the sample from tho: bottom upward under full
vacuum. When the sample is saturated, close both the top and bottom outlets].
(13) Fill the empty portion of the mould with deaired water; without disturbing the soil.
(14) Discoonect the reservoir from the outlet at the bottom .
(15) Connect the constant -heed reservoir to the drainage enp inlet.
(16) Open the siop cock, and allow the water to flow downward so that all th e air is removed.
(17) Dose the stop cock, and allow the water to flow through the soil till a steady stale is attained.
(18) Start the stop watch, and rollect the water flowing out of the base in a measuring flask for some
convenient time interval.
(19) Repeat this thrice, keeping the interval the same. O1eck that the quantity of water collected is
approximately the same each time.
(20) Measure the difference of head (h) in levels between the constant head reservoir and the outlet in
the base. .
(21) Repeat the test for at least 2 more different intervals.
Data Sheet for Constant Read Penneameter
Diameter = 100 mm; Length = 120 mm; \blume = 942 .48 ml, G '= 2.67; Area = 7854 mm2•
Detetminauon No.
s.s« Observations and calculations
} 2 3
Observations
I. Mass of empty mould with base plate 5101 g
2- Mass of mould, soil and base plate 6918 s
3. Hydraulic head (h) tsomm
4. Tlme interval (t) soo s
s. Quantity of flow (Q) 1210 mI
(a) First time in period t 1205 mI
(b) Second time in period t 1215 ml
(c) Third time in period t 1210 mI
Average Q 1210 l( 103 nunl
Calculations
6. Mass of soil = (2) - (1) 1817 g
7. BuJk density, p - v~ 1.93 glmI
8. waree-conrem, W, de termined as in Test 30 - 1 14 %
9. Dry density, pd - t7-; 1.69 glmI

10. \bid Ratio, e _ ~-l 058

11.
k _ !J!.
Aht
"" 0.205 mmeec.
Result. Coefficient of penneability = 0 .205 mm/sec.
30.14. Experiment No. 14. To determine the penneablUty or • soil specimen by the variable-head
permeemeter,
Theory. The variable-held permeameter is used to measure the permeability of relatively less pervious
soils. The coefficient of permeability is given !>y

k _ 2.~:L loglO(hllh~
806 son, MECHANlCSAND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

w here hI= initial head; h z = fmal head ; I = lime interval; a = cross sectional area of the stand pipe, A =
coss-secuooat area of the specimen, L = length of specimen .
Eq uJpm enL All lhe equipment required for the constant-bead permeebltiry lest (Experiment 30---13) , and
the follow ing.
(1) Grad uated glass stand pipe, 5 to 20 rom diame ter.
(2) Sup porting frame for the sta nd pipe. and the clamp .
Procedure. Steps 1 to 14, same as in Experiment ~13.
(15) Connect the stand pipe of suitable diameter 10 the inlet at the lop. Fill the stand pipe with water.
(16) Open the stop cock al me lop. and allow the water to now out till all the air in the mould is
removed,
(11) Oose the stop cock. and allow the water from the stand pipe 10 flow lhrough the soil speci men.
(18) Select the heights hi and h z measured above the centre of the outlet such that their diff erence is
about](X) to 4(X) mm .

Ma rk the level corresponding to a height Vh;h-;.

(19) Open the val ve and start the SlOp watch. Record the time interval for the head to fall from h i to
Vh;h;. and also from ...rh':h-;
to hz. These two time intervals will be equal if the steady condi tions have
established.
(20) Repeat the step (19) al1~ tw ice. aiter changing the heights h t and h2-
(21) Stop the flow of water. DisconnecI all the parts.
(22) Take a small quantity of the soil specimen for the water content determination .
Data Sheet for Varia ble-head Penneameter Tesl
Length of specimen = 120 mm. Diameter = 100 mm
Area of specimen = ,,/4 )( (100 )2 = 7853.98 mm2•
Volume of specimen = 1t/ 4 )( (100)2 x 120 _ 942.48 )( l(f mm 3
Water con tent - 18%
Diameter of stand pipe = 10mm
Area of stand pipe, a = ;t/4 )( (10)2 • 78.54 mm 2
Specific gravity of solids - 2.67.
Iktermination No.
S.No. Obse7Wltions and CalculaJions
1 2 3
Observations
1. Mass of mould t- base plate 5090g
2. Mass of mould t- base plate + soil 7120g
3. Initial head , ht SOOmm
4. Final head.1rz 200mm
5. Head~ 316mm
6. TIme lnrerval
ht 10 v1ii7ii ,5>
v1i11i2 to h2 , 5>
hi 10 h2 SO,
Calc/.llmw1l$
7. Mass of soil • (2) - (1) "'30g

'-
!.AllORATORY EXPERlMENTS &11

D.: tt:J'7Ii/latiOIf No.

S. No. O bsCT\'tJliOlLJ am i Ca /nJ/alions
J 2 J

8. Bulk density. p - ~:: 2.15 glmI

9. Ory density. PJ - 6 1.83 glml

10. \obid rotio, e .. ~ -1 0.46

p.

11.
k _ 2.3~: L loglO (hi /ill) 0.022 mmls

Result. Coefficient of permeability = 0.022 mm/scc.

30.l5. Expt"rlm~nl No. IS. To determtne Ute consolidation chanu::l~rist k:s or H soil sample.
Theory, Ccosolidctlon of a saturat ed so il occu rs due to expu lsion of water unde r a static , sustained load .
Thc consolidation chara cterist ics of soi ls are requ ired 10 predict the magnitude and the rate of settlement. The
following cnaract cn sucs are ob tained from the cooso bdeuon lest. As per usual notctlons (sec c hapter 12).
Coefficient of compress.bn y, a.. _ -Ii ~/1i (j

Coefficient of volume change, m.. - ~ ~: ( Ii\j )

Compression Jndex, C( .. (o~: Ii 0)

10&10-_-
O.

Coefficient of consolidation, C.. _ TO' till

Equipment. ( I) Consolidometer, with a loading device; (2) Specimen ring, made o f a non-co rroding
material; (3) water reservoir" to saturate the sampl e; (4) Porous stones : (.5) Soil trimm ing tools, like fine wire
So'IW, knife , spatula , etc. ; (6) Weighing balance, accurocy 0.01 g ; (7) Oven ; (8) Desiccat or; (9) Press ure pad ;
(10) Steel ball; (11) Dial ga uge. accuracy 0.002 mm ; (12) Walcr con tent cans ; (13) Large conta iner,
Procedure. (1) Qca n and dry the metal ring . Measure its diameter and height. Tak.e the mess oC the
empty ring.
(2) Press the ring into the soil sample contained in a large container at the desired densit y .and the water
content. The ring is to bc pressed with hands.
(3) Remov e the soil around the ring. The soil specimen should project about 10 mm on eilher s ide oCthe
ring.
Any voids in the specimen due to the removal oC large size particles should be filled back by pressin g
the soil lightly.
(4) Trim the specimen flush with the lop and bottom of the ring.
(5) Remove any soil particles s.ticking 10 the outside of the ring . Weigh the ring with the specimen.
(6) Take a small quantity o f the soil removed during trimming for the water CODtCllI delamination.
(7) Saturate the porous stones by boiling them in distilled water for about 15 minutes.
(8) Assemble the ronsolidometer. Ploce the boUom porous. stone, bottom Iilter paper, specim en, lop filler
pcpcr and the lop porous stone, one by one .
(9) Pos ition the loading block centrally on the top pofOl5 stone .
Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame. Centre it such that the load applied is axial. 10 the case
of the lever-loading system. counterbalance the system .
(10) Set the dial gauge in position . Allow sufficient mergtn Cor the swclling of the soil
808 OOILMECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(11) Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir having the water -level at about the same level as
the soil specimen.
Allow the water to flow into the specimen till it is fUlly serurared.
(12) Take the initial reading of the dial gauge.
2 2
( 13) App ly an initial setting load to give a pressure of 5 kN/m (2.5 kN /m for very so n so ils) 10 the
assembly so thai there is no swelling.
Allow the setting load to stand till there is no change in the dial gauge reading or for 24 hours.
(14) Take the final gauge reading under the inilial set ting load.
2,
(15) App ly the rim lood incre ment to app ly a pressure o f 10 kN/m and start the: Slop watch,
Record the dial gauge readings at O. 0.25. 1.0. 2.25. 4.0. 6.25 . 9.00 , 12.25, 16.00 . 20.25 . 25.00, 36. 49.
64 , 81. 100. 121. 144, 169. 196. 225. 256, 289, 324. 36 1, 400. 500, 600 and 1440 minutes .
(16) Increase the load 10 appl y a pressure of 20 ~/m2i and repeal the step (15) . Likewise, increase the
load to apply a pres..surc of 40 , 80 , 160. 320 and 640 kN/rn o r upto the desired pressure .
(1 7) After the last load increme nt had been app lied and lhe readings taken, decrease the load 10 114 of
the last load . and allow it to stand for 24 hours . Take the dial gauge reading after 24 hours.
Further reduce the load to 1/4 of the previous load and repeat the above procedure. Likewise. further
red uce the load to 1/4 of the previous load and repeat the procedure. Finall y. redu ce the load to the initial
setting load, and keep it for 24 hours, and take the final dial gauge reading.
(18) Dismantle the assembl y, Take ou t the ring with the speci me n. Wipe o ut the excess surface water
using a blonin g paper.
( 19) Take the mass of the ring with the specimen.
(20) Dry the specimen in the ove n for 24 hours, and dete rmine the dry mass o f specim en .
Data Sheet for consolidulion 1es1
Speci fic gravity of so lids. G = Diam eter o f ring =
Area of ring (A) = Volume of ring =
Mass of ring + we t soil = Mass of ring + dry soil ,.
Mass of water = Initial height, No =
Water con tent before tes t = Mass of dry soil (M s ) =

Heig ht of solids. s, = G ~sp", Initial void ratio, eo • !ff - 1

Height of ring = Mass of ring =
Degree of saturation S = 7 Water coarent after lest =
(a) Coefficienl of Compresslblllty

Initial dial Final dial Change in Height Heighr of voids Final void ratio
a (kN / m 2) Reading Reading hight (All) H ~ Ho:l: All (ll'-,Jls) e ~ (H - Hs)/H,
10
20
40
fJ(J
160
320
610

Plot a curve between (j as abscissa and final void ratio (e) as ordinat e for det ermination of a , and mil"
Plot a graph between log (j as abscissa and final void ratio as ordina te for de termlnauoe of Cr.
LABORAl'ORY EXPERIMENTS 809

(b) Coefficient of consolidation

Dial gauge reading"

~
10
20 40 80 160 320 640
(kN/m1
(R)
0.0 min.
0.25
--
1.0 -

1440 -
For each load increment, plot Vi as abscissa and the dial gauge reading (R) as ordinate . Determine the
value of rso from the plot.
Now C~ - O.84&iI!go

30.16. Experiment No. 16. To detennlne the shear parameters of a sandy soil specimen by direct shear test.
Theory. Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing stresses. The shear strength is
expressed as
s-c'+otantfl'
=
where c' effective cohesion; a= effective stress; and t' = effective angle of shearing resistance .
The shear tests can be conducted under three different drainage conditions. The direct shear test is
generally conducted on sandy soils as a consolie1ated-drainedtest.
Equipment. (1) Shear box. divided into two halves by a horizontal plane, and fitted with locking and
spacing screws; (2) Box container to hold the shear box; (3) Base plate having cross grooves on its top
surface; (4) Grid plates, perforated, 2 nos; (5) Porous stones, 6 mm thick, 2 nos; (6) Loading pad. (7) Loading
frame; (8) Loading yoke; (9) Proving ring, capacity 2 leN; (10) Dial gauges, accuracy 0.01 mm, 2 nos.; (11)
Static or dynamic compaction device; (12) Spatula.
Procedure. (1) Measure the internal dimensions of the shear box. Also determine the average thickness
of the grid plates.
(2) Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part using the locking screws. Attach the base plate to the
lower part.
(3) Place the grid plate in the shear box keeping the serrations of the grid at right angles to the direction
of shear. Place a porous stone over the grid plate.
(4) Weigh the shear box with base plate, grid plate and porous stone.
(5) Place the soil specimen in the box. Tamp it directly in the shear box at the required density. When
the soil in the top half of the shear box is filled upto 10 to 15 mm depth, level the soils surface .
(6) Weigh the box with the soil specimen.
(7) Place the box inside the box container, and fIX the loading pad on the box. Mount the box container
on the loading frame.
(8) Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring. Cleek. the contact by giving a slight
movement.
(9) Fill the container with water if the soil i.s to be saturated ; otherwise omit this step.
(10) Mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on the loading pad.
(11) Mount one dial gauge on the loading yoke to record the vertical displacement and another dial gauge
on the container to record the horizontal displacement.
(12) Place the weights on the loading yoke to apply a nonnal stress of 25 kN/m 2•
810 SOIL MECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Allow the sample to consolidate under the applied normal stress. Note the reading of the vertica l
displacement dial gaug e .
(13) Re move locking screws. Using the spacing screws, mise the upper part slightl y abov e the lowe r part
such thaI the gap is slightly larger Ulan the maximumparticle size.
Remove the spacing screws.
(14) Adjust all the dial gauges to read zero. The proving ring should also read zero .
(15) Apply the horizontal shea r load at a constant rate of stra in of 0 .2 mm/minute.
(16) Record readings of the proving ring. the vertica l displacement dial gaug e 801 the hor izontal
displacement dial gauge at regular time intervals, .Take the first few readings at closer inte rvals.
(17) Con tinue the test till the specimen fails or till a strain of 20% is reached .
(18) At the end of lhe rest, remove the specimens from the box. and take a representative sam ple for the
water rontenl determination.
2
(19) Repeat tbe test on identical specimens under the norma l stresses o f SO. 100, 200. 400 kN/m , etc.
(The range of stresses selected should correspond to the act ual flekl cooditlons).
Da ta Sheet for Direc t Shear Test
Size of bo x = Area of box =
Thickness of specimen = Volume of specimen =
Mass o f soil specimen = Bulk density =
Water content = Dry density ...
Void ratio = . Tare mass of hang er =
Mass on hanger = Total mass =
Norm al stress =
Mass of box + base plate + porous stones + grid plate =
Mass of box + base plate + poI"OlJS stone + grid plate + soil specimen =
Observations Calc ulations
S. No.
....
Elapsed Horizon tal Vemc al di41
dial gauge g~g<
PnMflg
ring
51""" Vertical
""p"=m<nJ disnlm:ement tz Sh.tar
,,=

Use separa te data sheet for tests under diffe rent norma l stresses. Determine the shear stress ar failure in
each case. Summarise the results as follows.
Nonnal Sl=rSn= SMiU displDcemenl lnitialWOJ ~r rJIIiJ lwat~r
T~.aNo.
Sn= ai/ai/un "'fai~re
1. 25 kNlm
""""" """""
2. 50
3. 100
4. 200
5. 400

Plot the Cou lomb envelope betwee n the normal stress as abscissaand shear stress et failure as ordinate.
Result,From the plot, c' = ; .' =
LADORATORY EXPERIMENTS 811

30.17 . Experiment No. 17. To determine the unconfined compressive strength of 8 ccbeslve soil.
Theory. The unconfined compressive strength (q..) is the load per unit area at which the cylindrical
specimen of a ~hesjve soil fails in compression .
'p
q• • A
where P =axial load at failure; A =corrected area. 1 A-"E' where A o initial area of the specimen; E =axial
strain = change in length/original lengLh.
The undrained shear strengui (s) of the soil is equa l to one half of the unconfined compressive strength,
s .. q/2.
Equipment. (1) Unconfined compression apparatus. proving ring type; (2) Proving ring , capacity 1 kN,
accuracy 1 N; (3) Dial gauge. accuracy 0.01 mm; (4) Weighing balance; (5) Oven; (6) Stop watch; (7)
Sampling tube; (8) Split mould, 38 mm diameter, 76 rnm long; (9)Sarnple extractor; (10) Knife; (11) Vernier
callipers; (12) Large mould.
Procedure. (1) Prepare the soil specimen at the desired water content and density in the large mould .
(2) Push the sampling tube into lhe large mould, and remove the sampling tube filled with lhe soil For
undisturbed samples, push the sampling tube into the clay sample.
(3) Saturate the soil sample in the sampling tube by a suitable method.
(4) Coat lhe split mould lightly with a thin layer of grease . Weigh the mould.
(5) Extrude the sample out of the sampling tube into the split mould, using lhe sample extractor and the
knife.
(6) Trim the two ends of the specimen in the split mould.
Weigh the mould with the specimen .
(7) Remove the specimen from the split mould by splitting the mould into two parts.
(8) Measure the length and diameter of the specimen with a vernier callipers.
(9) Place the specimen on the bottom plate of the compression machine.
Adjust the upper plate to make contact with the specimen.
(10) Adjust the dial gauge and the proving-ring gauge to zero.
(11) Apply the compression load to cause an axial strain at the rate of 1/2 to 2% per minute .
(12) Record the dial gauge reading, and the proving ring reading every thirty seconds upto a strain of
6%. The reading may be taken after every 60 seconds for a strain between 6% to 12%, and every 2 minutes
or so beyond 12%.
(13) Continue the test until failure surfaces have clearly developed or until an axial strain of 20% is
reached.
(14) Measure the angle between the failure surface and the horizontal, if possible.
(15) Take the sample from the failure zone of the specimen for the water content determination.
Dutil Sheet for Ilnconflned Compression Test
Initial length of the specimen, Lo :: Initial diameter of the specimen, Do =
Initial area of the specimen, Ao :: Initial volume of the specimen , Vo =
Mass of empty split mould = Mass of split mould + specimen ::
Mass of the specimen, M :: Bulk density, p :: MIVo
Water content, W = Dry density, Pd =
Specific gravity of solids, G = Void ratio, e _ G p... - 1
Pd
Degree of saturation, S = weG x 100
812 son.MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Ob5ovations Cakulations

S. No.
....
Elaps ed
DioJ gouge

Readin g
Deformation
Provingring

Reach'ng
Load
"'' 'Ii)'
e ...
AL
Corrected COt1Ipressive
area A -AM stress
(0) ... PIA
(AL) (Pi (1 - E)

Plot a curve be tween the com pressive stress as ordinate, and axial strain , as abscissa.
Results. From the plot, unronfined comp ressive strength, q.. '"

Shear strength, s .. ~ ..

20.18. Expe riment No. 18. To determine the compactlon characterist ics or a soil spec lmen by Proctor's
te.L
Theory. Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The degree of
compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of Its dry density. The dry denslty is maximum at the
optimum water con tent. A curve is draw n between the water content and the dry density to obtain tbe
maximum dry density and the optim um water con tent.

Dry derstty e IM:~

when: M ::: total mass of soi l; V = volume of soil; and w = water content .
Equipment. ( 1) Compact ion mould, capacity HXXJ rot; (2) Rammer, mass 2.6 kg; (3) Detacha ble base
plate : (4) Collar, 60 mm high; (5) IS sieve 4.75 mm; (6) Oven; (7) Desiccator; (8) Weighing balance,
accuracy 1 g; (9) Large mixing pan; (10) Straight edge; (11) Spatula; (12) Grad uated jar ; (13) Mixing tools,
spoons. trowels, etc.
Procedure, (1) Thte about 20 kg of air-dri ed soil. S ieve it through 20 mm and 4.75 mm IS sieves.
(2) Ca1aJlate the percentage retained 00 20 mm sieve, and 4.75 mm sieve, and tbe percentage pessing
4.75 mm sieve. Do DOt use the soil retained on 20 mm s ieve. Determine the ratio of fraction retainedand that
passing 4.75 mm sieve.
(3) If percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve is greater than 20, use tbe larger mould of 150 mm d iameter.
If it is less than 20% , the standard mould of 100 mm diameter ca n be used. The follow ing procedure is for
the standard mould.
(4) Mix the soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve and that passing 4.75 mm sieve in the proportions detennined
in Step (2) to obtain about 16 to 18 kg of soil specime n.
(5) Clean and dry the mould and the bese plate. Grease them lightly.
(6) Weigh the mould with the base plate to the nearest 1 gram.
(T) Take about 16--18 kg of soil speci men. Add water to it to bringthe water content to about 4% if the
soil is sa ndy and to abou t 8% if tbe soil is clayey.
(8) Keep the soil in an air-tight container for about 18 to 20 hours for maturin g. Mix the matured soil
thoroughly . Divide the processed soil into 6 to 8 parts.
(9) Attach the collar to the mould . Place the mould on a so lid base .
(10) Take abou t 2t kg of the processed sou. and place it in the mou ld in 3 equal layers.
Take about one-tbird the quantity first, and compact it by giving 15 blows of the rammer. The blows
lABORAl'ORY EXPERIMENTS 813

should be uniform ly distributed over the surface of each layer.

The top surface of the ftrst layer should be scrercned with a spatula before placing the second layer. The
second layer shou ld also be compact ed by 25 blows of rammer. Likewise, place the third layer and compact
it.
The amount of the so il used shou ld be just suflkient to fill the mould and leaving about 5 mm above the
tq> of the mould to be struet. off when the collar is removed.
(11) Remove the collar, and trim off the excess soil projecting above the mould using a straight edge.
(12) Qean the base plate and the mou ld fran outside. Weigh it to the nearest gram.
(13) Remove the soil from the mould. 1be soil may also be ejected out .
( 14) Thke the soil sampl es for the water cootent determination from lhe top, middle and bottom portions.
Determine the water conten t, as in Experiment 30---1.
(15) Add about 3% of the water to a fresh portion of the processed sou. and repeat the steps 10 10 14.

Data Shee t ror Compaction Test

Diam eter of mou ld =
100 mm Height of mou ld = 127.3 mm
Volume of mould. V .. x/4 )( (10.0)2 x 12.73 .. 1000 ml
Specific gravity of solids , G = 267

S. 1JeferminaJion No.
Observalions ond Caku lolions
No. I 2 3 4 5 6
Ob~rvations
l. Mass of empty mould + base p1ale 5105 g
2- Mass of mould + base plate + caupaaed soil 6710 g
Calculations
3. Mass of compacu:d 0 1. M • (2) - (1) 1605 g

4. Bulk density, p .. ~ 1.61 gIm1

5. Water conten t. w (De termined as in Sect . 30-1) .%

.. Dry deosity . p.I .. t7-; 1.48gtm1.

7. Void ratio. e • Q.£!! - 1 0.80

f'J
8. Ory dens ity at 100% saturation
(p.t) theomax = 1 ~;; G
:l.lS glml

s, Degree o f saturation, S .. 7- )( 100 30%

PIOI a curve between w, as abscissa, and Pet as ordinate .

Result Max. dry density (from plot) =
Opti mum water cooIent (from plot) '"
30.19. Experiment No. 19. 10 determine the Ca lif'omia Bearing Rallo (CB R) of a soil specim en.
1beory. The California Bearing Ratio lest i:S rooducted fOC'evaluating the suitability of the subgrade and
the materials used in sob-base and base of a flexible pavemen t
The plunger in the CBR test penetrates the specimen in the mould at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute .
The loads required for a penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 .0 mm are detc:mtined. The penetration load is expressed
as a percentage of the standard loads at the respective penetrntion level of 2.5 mm OC'5 .0 mm .
814

CDR value. p;::: = SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

x 100
The CDR value is determined corresponding to both penetration levels. The greater of these values is
used for lhe design of the pavement.
Equipment. (1) CDR mould, inside diameter = ISO mm, total height = 175 mm, with detachable
extension collar, 50 rom high. and detachable base plate, 10 mm thick.
(2) Spacer disc, 148 mm diameter. 47.7 rom high.
(3) Rammers, light compaction. 2.6 kg. drop 310 mm: heavy compaction, 4.89 kg, drop 450 mm.
(4) Stoned masses, annula r. 2.5 kg each. 147 rom diameter, with a hole of 53 mm diameter in the cen tre.
(5) Cutting couar, steel, which can fit flu.'ih with the mould both outside and inside.
(6) Expansion measuring apparatus, consisting of a perforated plate, 148 rom diameter, with a thread
screw in the centre and an adjustoole contact head to be screwed over the stem, and a metal tripod.
(7) Penetration piston, 50 mm diameter, tOO mm jong,
(8) Loading device. capacity 50 kN, equipped with a movable bead (or base) at a uniform rate of 1.25
rom minute.
(9) 1\110dial gauges. accuracy 0.01 mm.
(10) IS sieves, 4.75 mm and 20 mm s ize.
Procedure. (1) Sieve the sample lhrwgh 20 mm IS sieve. Take the material pessing 20 mm IS sieve fa
the test. However , make allowance fa large size material by replacing plus 20 mm size material by an equal
amount of material which passes 20 mm IS sieve, but is retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve.
(2) lake abou t 4.5 to 5.5 kg of the material, as obtained in step (1). Mix it thoroughly with the required
quantity of water .
If the sample is to be compacted at optimum water coctem arxl the correspondi ng dry density, as found
by rompaction test (light compaction or heavy compaction). take exact quantity of water and the soil to make
sure lhat the water content is equal to the optimum water content.
(3) Fix the extension collar to the lap of the mould. Also fu: tbe base plate 10 the bottom .
(4) Insert the spacer disc over the base. with the central hole of the disc at the lower face. Place coarse
filter paper disc on the top of the displacer disc.
(5) Take the soil sample in the mould. Compact it us ing either the light cornpactioo ramme r or tbe heavy
compaction rammer, as desired. For light compaction, the soil is to be compacted in 3 equal layers, each layer
is given 56 blows by 2.6 kg rammer with drop of 310 mm. For heavy compaction, the soil is compacted in
5 equal layers, each layer is given 56 blows by 4.89 kg rammer with drop of 450 mm.
(6) Remove the extension collar. Trim even the excess compacted soil carefully with a stl1light edge with
the top of the mould. Any hole that may fonn on the surface of the compacted soil by the removal of the
coarseparticles should be patched with small size particles and levelled.
(7) Loosen the base plate. Remove the base plate and the spacer disc.
(8) Weigh the mould with the compacted soil.
(9) Place a filter paper disc on the base plate, Invert the mould with the compacted soil Clamp the base
plate. Place a perforated disc fitted with an extension stem 00 the specimen top after placing a mter disc.
(10) Place annular masses to produce a surcharge equal to the mass of the base material and wearing cost
of the pavement expected. Each 2.5 kg annular mass is equivalent to 70 mm of const ruction material.
However, a minimum of two annular masses should be placed.
(11) Immerse the mould assembly in a lank full of water. Allow free access of water to the top and
bottom of the specimen.
(12) Mount the tripod of tbe expansion measuring device on the edge of the mould. and take the initial
reading of the dial gauge .
(13) Keep the mou ld in tbe tank undisturbed for 96 hours. Take the readings of the dial gauge every 24
U\BORAlURY EXPERIMENTS 815

hours, and note the time of reading.

Ma intain water level constant in the tank. Take the final readi ng at the end of 96 hours.
(14) Remove the tripod. Take out the mould from the tank. Allow the: specimen to drain off for 15
minutes. Remove all the free wate r on the mould, without dist urbing the surface of the specimen.
(15) Weigh the: mould with the soa ked specimen.
(16) Place the mou ld containi ng the specimen. with the base plate in position but the top face exposed.
on the lower plate of the loading machine. Place the required surcharge masses on the top of the soaked
specimen.
To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge mass, one 2.5 kg ann ular mass shall be'placed
on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger. After that the remaini ng masses are placed
(17) Seat the penetration plunger at the cerare of the specimen to establish fuU contact between the
plunger and the specimen. The seating load should be about 40 N.
(18) Set the load dial gauge and the displacement dial gauge: to zero. The initial load already applied to
the plunger should be considered a'S zero.
(19) Apply the load on the plunger. Keep the rate of penetration as 1.25 mrnJminute.
Record the load corre.spooding to penetrations of 0.0.0.5. 1.0. 1.5.2.0.2.5.3.0. 4.0. 5.0. 7.5. 10.0 and
12.5 mm. However. record the maximum load and the cceresporsnng penetration if it occurs at a penetration
of less lhan 12.5 mm.
(20) At the end of the test, raise the plunger. and remove the mould from the loading machine .
(21) Take about 20 to 50 g of soil specime n from the top 30 mm layer for the water coorem
detennination. If the water content of the whole specim en is required, take so il specimens from the entire
depth.
Da ta Shee t for Cal ifornia Bearing Ra tio lest

Optimu m water conte nt = Mass of empty mould =

Mass of mould + compacted soil = Mass of compact ed so il =
Bulk densit y = Dry dens ity =
Soaking and S welling
Dry density before soaking =
Bulk density before soaking =
Bulk dens ity after soaki ng =
Surcha rge rnass during soaking =

Date and
time
Dial glluge
readin g
Total
expansion

Final expansion ratio _ Final rc~:~ia~t)~~t~~ reading

Pen etration Test

Surcharge mass used =
Water content after penetration Iesl =
8'6 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATIONENGINEERINO

Pmetration diIll gouge Load dial gCUlge

Corrrct~d
S.NG. Dial gauge Peltl! trQliOil DiJ11 gQUge Lood load
-.Jing (~) -.Jing (kN)
I. 0.0 mm
2- O~
3. 1.0
4. IS
5. 2.0
6. 25
7. 3.0
8. 4.0
9. 5.0
10. 7~
11. 10.0
12. 125

Plot the load-penetration curve. Fmd the corrected loads, after zero correction, com:spooding to
penetrationsof 2.5 rom and 5.0 rom.
Resu lt.

CBR (2.5 mm) • Colred.ed;c;~812.5 rom )( t OO

CBR (5.0 mm) • Correct ed : :6at 5.0 rom l( 100

 31
Introduction to Rock Mechanics

31.1. INTRODUenON
Rock mech anic> is the science which deals with the properti es of rocks and the speci al methods related
with the des ign and construction of engineering works on the rock. through the rock and below the rock . 1be
basic know ledge of rock mechanics is useful for civil engineers. Some of the common civil eng ineering
applications are bridges. dams and buildings constructed on the rock foundatio ns, various underground
installa tions and tunn eling . deep cuts for spillwa ys, stone quarries, etc .
Rock mechanics is an inter-disciplinary subject covering various disc iplines sum as geology. mining,
petro leum industry and civil eng ineering. As defmed in chapte r I , roc k is the conso lidated. cohere nt and
relat ive ly hard portico of the earth 's crust . It is a naturally Conned, solidly bonded mass of mineral matter
which cannot be readily broken by band, and which does not disintegrate on its Ilrst wetting and drying cycle.
In general, rocks are strong materials and can take up much more loads as compared to that by soils.
However. the stre ngth of the rocks is also limited . 1be rock may fail whe n the loads are e xcessively high.
The actual behaviour of a rock. mass subjected to a change in stress is gov erned by the mech anical prope rties
of the rock. material and the geo logica l dis continuities suc h as faul ts, joints, fissures. etc.
Large bridg es, high dams, tall build ings, long tunne ls and deep mines induce large st ress chan ges in the
rock: mass . For exact ana lysis and proper predictioo of the rock: behaviour, a com plete understandin g of the
engineeri ng properties and the behaviour of rock masses unde r d ifferenl load ing condi tions is essen tial, This
chapter gives a brief introduction to the engineering prcperues and behaviour of rocks.
3 1.2. GEOLOGI CAL C lASSlflCATI ON OF ROCKS
Accor din g to 'the geol ogical class ification, the rocks can be broadly class ified into 3 groups.
1. Igneous roc ks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metam orp h ic rocks.
1. Igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are fonned by solidification o f molten or liqu id material called magma.
The igneoes rocks have the minerals augite, feldspar, home blende, mica, quartz, etc. Before solidificatioo
into rocks. all these mineral are in the molten state. The igneous rocks may be aystallinc or gJois y (vilreous)
or a com bination of both. The igneousrocks may be furthe r Slbdivided acaxding to the grain size and colour.
Example of igneous rocks are granite, basalt , diorit e, etc.
2. Sedlmenlary rocks. Sedim entary rocks are formed from mineral particles which had been transported
by water , wind, etc., or which had been precipitated in water Md then solidified. Thus the sedimentary rocks
are formed by the depos ition of fragments o f materials like sand , c lay, disint egrated rocks, etc. on the
pre-existi ng rocks . Th e process of depos ition continues in regular layers. In due course o f tim e. the depos ited
mass becomes a sedimentary rock. Becacse the sedim ents gel romolidated in horizontal or nearly horizontal
layers, tbe sedimentary rocks show characteristic d:iffert:ot layers distioctly. The sedim en tary rocss can be
818 SOIL MEC HANICS AND FOUNDAllON ENGINEERING

easily split up along the bedding planes. Sed imentary rocks come from man y sources and include distinctly
different families.
Examples of sedimentary rocks are sand stone, shale. lime stone, etc.
3. MdamolJ>hlc rocks. Metamorphic rocks are fooncd from igneous and sedimentary rocks by very
large heat and pressure. Sometimes, metamorphic rocks are also formed from already exist ing metamorphic
rocks. The process of change 10 metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure is called metamorphism, Due to
metamorphism. the origi nal rocks change their diameter and the resulting mass of rock change into a bard
and durab le foliated mate rial.
Examp les of metamorphic rocks an:: quenzue, marbl e, gneiss. slate. schisL, etc.

31.3. BASI C TER MINOLOGY

The followingterms'are oommonly used.
1. Rock mat erial . The conso lidated aggregate of mineral particles which foem the solid materia l of the
rock. is called rock material. In other words, rock ma terial is the matrix of the solid phase of the rock mass.
2. Intact rock. Tbe intact rock consists of rock materia! which is free from major disco ntinu ities. An
intact rock is generally quite strong. Moreove r. it can be readily sampled and tested in the laboratory.
3. Maj or d tscontlnun y. The major discontin uity is a relatively large discontinuity in the rock which is
fairly well-developed and conunoous. However. the shea r failure along a major discontinuity does not involve
any shearing of intact rock. material.
4. Struct ura l disco nlinully. The struct ural discon tinuity of the rock is a fracture which makes the rock
mass a discon tinuous mass and separates solid blocks of a rock mass.
The structural discontinuities are generally is the form of jo ints, bed ding planes, fissures, faults. shear
zones. cleavage planes, and solution cavities. lbese are planes of weakness due 10 which the strength of rock
mass is considerably reduced.
S. Rock mass. The rock mass is defmed as the aggreg ate of regular or irregu lar blocks of rock material.
These blocks are separated from one anolhcr by struct ural features such as bedding planes. joints, cavities and
fissures. The rock mass has anisotropy and structura l d iscontinuity.
The rock mass is ccocelved of discrete intact blocks separated by thin joints. The behaviour of the rock
m3S.'.is govern ed by a combination of blocks and join t c haract eristics.
6. Block slze. TIle block size is defined as the averag e d iameter of a typical rock. It is usually expressed
as a range and a typical values. ru example, the block. size (10-40 an). 2S an .
The concept of block size in rock. mechani cs is ana logous to that of grain size on a microscopi c scale.
7. Joint Set. A jo int set consists of ind ividual jo ints which have similar phys ica l aDd mecbanical
characteristics and wh ich OCOJr in a nea rly para llel array. The joints of a rock mass are usually subd ivided
into two o r more soch sets, which together coosuune the jointing system. The charncteristics of different joint
sets are generally different because of different geological origi n and his tory.
8. Faults and sh ears. Tbese are joints alo ng which there bas been sheari ng movem ent in the rock mass.
9. Rock q uali ty deslgn enon. Rock quality designation (ROD) is frequently used to indicate the quality
o f rock mass. The rock quality designa tion is defined as the sum tota l of lengths o f the cores of the length
10 em and longer recovered from the drilli ng. expressedas a percentageof the lOI3.1 length of tbe hole drilled
(Dee re et al, 1967) . Thus
RQD _. TotallengthOfcor~~:;sn:fl0cmandlooger )( 100 .•.(31.1)

Eq. 31. 1. is for core sticks of NX cores (57.2 mm diameter).

The RQD o f a rock mass indicates the quality of the rock . It is a measure of the degree of fracturing and
the amount o f weat hering in the rock mass. Tbe rocks with ROD from 100 to 90 are classifi ed as excelkot
rocks, and those with RQD from !Xl to 75 as good rocks. The rocks with ROD from 75 to 50 are fair codes,
whereas those with 50 to 25 arc poo r rocks . The roc ks with ROD less than 25 are very poor rocks.
INTRODUCIlON TO ROCK MECHANICS 819

10. Joint and Bedding Descripti on. As already mentioned, the strength of a rock mass is considerably
reduced due to the presence of discontinuities. In general, the greater the number of discontinu ities, the more
is the reduction in strength. Moreover, the degree of such reduction depends upon the spacing, orientation and
size of (he discontinuities.
Table 31.1. gives the general quality of rock mass depending upon the spacing of discontinuities in the
form of joints and bedding (Deere, 1968 and Singh. 1990).

TABLE J 1.1. Quality or rock based on spa dng or discontinuities.

Average Joint Bedding Roc'
spacing of Description Description q.wlity
discontinuties
Grea ter than 3m Very wide Very thick Solid rock.
1103 m Wide lhiclt Massive rock
0310 1 m Moderately close Medium Blocky (se amy) rock.
0.05 10 0.30 m CI= Th" Fractured rock
Less than 0.05 m very erose 'very thln Crushed rock

31.4. INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Because of a vast range in properties of rocks due to different structures, fabrics and materials, it is
difficult to determine the properties and 10 describe rocks quantitalively. Certain properties that are relatively
easy to measure are used to classify the rocks. These properties are known as the index properties of rocks .
The following are the main index properties of rocks :
1. Unit weight (or mass density) 2. Porosity
3. Permeability 4. Point-load index
5. Slaking and durability 6. Sonic velocity
All these properties are discussed in the following sections.
31.5. UNIT WEIGHT (OR MASS DENSITY)
The mass density (P) of a rock is the mass per unit volume. It is expressed as kglm3 • In rock mechanics,
the term urrit weight is commonly used . The unit weight (y) is the weight per unit volume. It is expressed as
kN/m3. Sometimes, the term density is also used for unit weight.
The specific gravity of solids (G) is the ratio of the mass density of the rock to the mass density of water.
The mass density of water is usually taken as 1000 kglm3• The specific gravity of solids is also equal to the
ratio of the unit weight of rock to the unit weight of water. The unit weight of water is 9.81 kN/m 3 or
approximately 10 kN/m 3. Thus the rock with a specific gravity of the solids of the rock of 2.7 will have a

s= ~h:i~~u:~g~~f:itw:~~f~~t: =
unit weight of 27 kN/m 3• 1be specific gravity of the grains of the rock: material can be determined by
grinding it and using the methods discussed in chapter 3 for soil particles.

det~::
average values of the dry unit weights of some common rocks.
~~~iJs~es:::e~~gh.:a~I~ ~~.~iV:Z~
TABLE 31.2. Dry unit wejghts or some common .recks

Roc' Gabbro Diorite Baso.lt Marble Granite Share Gyp=" Dense lime
aone
Dry unit 29.4 V.9 27.1 27 .0 2M 22.1 22.5 ~.9
weigh t to
(kNlml 25.7

The dry unit weight can be obtained from the wet unit weight by the relatioo
8IB ~IL MECHA NICS AND roU NDA1l0N ENGiNEERINO

;:~~:~~~il~~~~~~~O;;l~~lm y:~ ~ l.J . <. ~.; r;;'~~:.t .~r. j Jo'~': ~J Il\ l n .:t!,~.l..:)
J

Where ; ~dllsJih~ 4t'Y:;JUni( we ight.',y is thc'wcr unit weigh t and w is the ' water contcor r 1 ' H i ,.j J\ c'n :IJ,~

A knowledge of unit weight of rock is important for various engineering applications. , Fof" cxamplc;
~ ~hr'tOiich;;tthtltk!c from hccvy'e ggreg atee wou ld require 'a smaller volume of concre te in a' retaining wall
than thai from ligh t aggregates. In oil shale deposits. the unitweigbt indicates theamount of -the mineral
commodity, as the oil yield is re lated directly 10 the unit we ight. In cool depos its, lhe unit weigh t is related
to the ash coruenr. .(>1iJwniJI10 'f">10 ar.H{ .... lr.... ;A n (. ".t It oJ... l F.'

31.6. POR~SNY I ,,\: :.~

The pOi6stty (n) of a" rock is defined as the ratio of the void space 10 the total volume in the -rock. It is
expressed Wi,.a_'pcrccnt3g
)')<1\
U s.....c.j-Jb
\I'ln ? V :'l
._-t
v J
U\lI( _+ .
:il::>< fl ~w.:t:!1 n - -{7 x 100 f • •••(3 1.3)

where V:i's(~'"::> .• voids (or pores) and Vis the total volume .
The po~JY,.; upon a~depends ,?f ~~m.bc:
such as .. fact~ grain partic~ ~~ize di~bution. ·sort.i~g.
.shape.- degree::or : cnlatlOO.,Jabnc, solUllOO eITcas and rmneralogkal composmon. The
porosity is h ig~ when all the particles are of the same size. Howeve;~ ~.I lh:. f'¥: .of u:-~g~larly shaiW

.
:~J~{~~: ~,J~~:;ei~~jng,,~:~ .'ocC.uV~ . ~ we1th~r. i.n g
.
r.~r.=~m'i· ~9J.>t!f ~e!1, ~o~. .I ~~~~ t,?Cvalue of porosity
..' '1 :.J ,>,:>']'l'X!01n x: bn r.I,,,,·Hi ',-",", ,'1 J ""~' ' " ~
In sedime ntary rocks. porosity is .,~j'i ~~gh. n may vary from a~~.,~~~,!o.;~ m.u~ ~ ?'?%' In some
extreme cases. For an nveraqS~~..~~~:.,)~.lypical value is 15%. QlaI k IS one the .m ~. P9,~ of all ot
rocks" wi th a porosity in ~e~ ..~r£D greater than 50%. 10 sedimentary ~ , po~ity,.: general ly
decreases with the age of rock . ' It also d~ iY~tlh ~ Jn~ wi(h ,~ ,~~ptjI ;bl:lo~,-, l ~,--;>\.Iff~:: UA

mod~~u~:7~~~~;:y:~b:h~I:~C~~n;:~~~~:e~:~cchLs ~£~;llih~~1ttaTJe~t~\~I«~f~;~~r:
,G)i.r~'Fhe' ~tY' tn) l'b r!ii r~ ':aln~·be 'de lehnliicd 'rtorn :_ ~the>lWEi(eF·cOr\icnt 1:w) bylIUJC'rclatioo r: -.!':m'11)1"
II .ernctov I!HU 1".lCJ Jrlgi"J"! {;,l(;"~ (r) lr1~l:r ... nne ~-,! n ~;:wu (IOlWW1W ~~ W~I':HI nn j !i,}";l; ~1.1
a> b-:w.~nGx~ 'I
n - 1 +"wO' '''' mn lUI OOai.' ~.h. ti {; ;,r:lf) rm • :Jf'J .....;wl:Jm(.r-:... (3 L4)
1 oust 5.-i: -d \ v) eonoe10 '{:bl"-l~ ;>/1J'5.Jq<: ,;f I

~~it;lfi~~v<~l~1p.iA#·~~·.~th~~~~~~~~c~~;
s evsrt .Uiw \.!: ro Jl:xn J rI ) to cb i!lM lrf I 1\ Wit! , {aIO"') l i~F I: ;!;l W ;/::II,n ~ri : Glllff <' Ul\11~ 01 '(bwm':l(i13 '
t d WiIlrr n :lJ:Jll , 11 rrso li;l1:>fIHrJ :J:~ ~r:l "'+ (wh\!:I:q'IG ':'),il
'(J;'i h1!l ")i1c;)f1"' )rfl f"n\\1;i IS: 'l~l lii~';·';., ll i'> d
where w'" is the mercury oonte nt. , t~ i'iii:l 8 'pIbpoition'of t~welghedf :(l rY wetght Tbr lhe'r&k'before
~~~~~{~~;,..~~;~; itt;~i~~~ lt ~~~~~!~;~r:,; ~~:~~ :~:~~
31. 7. PERMEABILITY ?..ll':x n rornexo ~[GlJ;> 10 ~"'i' :':w l~rru '(lD oru :r> ".. . . ,!I:V '~Sl.J·"C
As already defi ned i~~N£.SBiln.A9.F R!~lfiAt I ~ .~ :~ i~h...;w ll~ a fluid can flow through
J.lJbt<~ilil y _depc;nds u.wn Lhe in-'t<...rconriect~o~ on ts pores and r~. It has been foundJl@t
1JmCY''s< rdw lso~ij) fi r rnOit.-of rbcksl~FOti ntw~:wat anabour 2bo~ the'.diSCharge (q} can 00 obta med

Eon;'~~ re 11O;.! S I~ _o O!(~) . A

q k dx
t1'il:. I ~~--;\
I ~--h~I ·~~
L'\!. J~ .. . y131 6)

-wh~1s ~rmeabilitY;dh-tS-ttlC l1ydrau1ic'head aamg 'oo the distance"-tb- aOcl AI<:~)area

of cross-section normal to ":<I irccrion:of~lt ,'Wtlicb tk:is~ measured ..oc ,IO'! n:.."J ::1d o w nne '( It ",:iT
INTRODUcnON TO ROCK MECHANICS I .1 I R 821

For flow of water at a temperature much differe nt rrom 20 0 e or flow-,oUhrids odI(7;lha n :wa1er..:Eq~3t .6
is mod ified as ~ 'J., '~;q nOlnr.qr.:llJ 10'1 .mmnr 11/
K) (2)')'" r.101 1;:rn:nJ2 iJol:<l! Jnt(K] =nil noqar (11 ~Jj t").r:lq
'''..... A·;:.'~
:}IIl to l:.l:~mliib :)rtJ 11 .1=>!·}m~,t i(3 klf)
q - (-; dr A
where K is the coefficient of absolute permeability , with' a dimrcniiori ~f (f:!l:i}j; a\c4dym~ti6R~ i1i~sq~;
~' dK is i~~,:~en\b~$the rpcnies of the pennca nt (fluid). It ~ 2PJ3f!XJ~~£'3Ys;.t1! i~dfj.':ffis J1f~~r£S{Yro1fhde
arc~ - . )(. em ", , i.'.' :.>err ./,. l <'I n Hul -1l>) ed bluor12
I! ~ the cocmCl~t of vscosuy of the pcrm ecnt. For water at 1.6~ ,r :J'f'i ,~~0jlj"l;l~2~rIJ 01 :rtU r<'!\:.>':
tip 1S the change 10 pressure (Note. P = 't h). u o ornta 00& )/:J,fI.;p <.i ~:Jl rtJ~n:JllI t.r~'"II
l be coe fficient of permeabilit y (k) of a rock spec imen C30 ~,~Cf.~ i ~jft~)~\¥¥",~9fY[p.y f!1~!7~
the vOl.ume (Q) of fluid ~sssed t~ough ~he specimen under a CO~IH,% P,H' p,F~:W rn ;f£li\lg £yqI Wc" ~~ m
the Ihnd for a known penod of u me l (Le, q = Qll). l'~n:n'i' :.onJ ')f'ltrrm\I'Jb 01 b.'Jt.)l.lbrnn ~ bluntk

CYlin~~~a~~::=:~yis°~~~a:Xb~~~i~teann~J?~~u=ii~~~n~~~~;:I~~:~~t[~:o;;
permeability is determined from the relation. fIlI.\· \ +o~ \1
q log, (R /R ) II (11~n'l1l<': :j" i~.;>,:)'IIlm<.r) b~)f';ilfll..nnu :J~l d ..£I :n:Jrl."
2 1
k: -~ ' "I tbbill')m r1~n')'1J~ bllil'; m.oq :Jill ~ 1~)">.U.(:lL8)
where L is the length of the specimen, lih is the difIerc~(&H)r'hehc1;tfr&S"tfft1Wtcill (~1'8tJ, ~RT1s1lhtINfftt
radius of the specim en and R z is the outer radius oflthe: 'i~e?f.l ":llj l&·' IInill'( J cmoa ae vtg k if. ::Jkk:1
In the radial pecmcability test, a very large Oo~ :~~!¥_ q:1J,PF~Uy generated to measure even very
small penn eabilities quite accu rately. Fissured _rock.s show higher pertneabjlity for outward flow as com~
to thaL for inward flow. It is due 10 the fact that when th\;~t1Pw ~ o~ward.\fIc,If;lWfle b y fOJ:Q.1,~ ld\f.X~loped
which opens out the flssurcs. On the other hand, when the.,11oW,1. is inward, a compr ess e force is deve loped
which closes the Ilss ures. ., ",
1be meas ureme nt of perm eab ility of the rock is
I u.J1ult~ foc-esunuim
I. g.rlitw...nLw
'l.O' . • u-o.e ;" !J! x,cn i b6?' lnio'l
mID orOUI
~~:rf~~~~~id~n ~ ~~"OfloU:~; ~o~e~c:~:;n::~~~ water tightn~r~iIW~~ri"gi~:~~~e;i~~ tir
lBb le 3 1.3. gives some typical valcesor the Coeffidenr()f'pc:rlltCl8bilit yr'Orldi~t'rik.1ris~ fOt' iw~cr at
2O oe. ·.I:111 'l:.>dmun ru :Jj1rJ .:JJiup T.I> 'ibr11 ,rtJ 10 '{Jil idGlub :)rtJ ~mr.):J11s
TABLE 31.3 . Typleel values or the coefficient of pitht~~ilt)rlJ :'Jrlfl')<l;:)b '(bY.lt qlT"lO:;l
, ri " :' ." ~ ,..n~ ;"., .. ., .. ~" . ..,' , , ..n
Type of Basalt _,,". Shale~ Ob l:)ji (l tJUJit«1ili:: l ~ Jkhi#.) ;:11, ::pl n ~n bI 'ocli! SanML"lUb
~. ....,)./)',,1,..., .".f'i'·;i[r"ly~, ~ r1")iJ~ .'H UI I:l'I n ~ nr-A/M.o UY r,(J ..-s!~; ... vd
7
Coefficient of 1 x 10-
U
1 x 10- 9 1 x 10- 1 x 10-' 1 x 10" 3 X 10-3 :>1'J
permeability
" 10 II acu: norob to o'.)t'.iJ rnornrnoa .:111: IJl:.:ll:JnII&WI.lj Ol noUo1 roiT
(""""=) 5 x 1O-;-Mu,1 nib ~; 10-¥ .s )(~ Wif.3db' b ,.B: ,xZl Or~

.'"
,0 nsc x:Jooi ,!lili<ir.lub ·j;tt:!;? 51fT .J:'JIHli '(Jifi<hrm b S)j 1l1~ .1
31.8. POINT LOAD ~~m. . rn . ni mm 01.1 rrunh s 10 ere rencoII .(~\~ I ) miln/:rf..) bou niUrun··1 '(II
The point load strength is frequently u~~~)~, ' ~'L~.J?giPJ ~4:hH;!igt bJ »

=~n~sl~la~ ~~e~a:~
loading.1be point load strength or poiJitlOOd 'j" :?'Hollol en l.xmirm~jf,b l i (\,\) xc bni

I, .. ~r )( mU1b 5rtJ(Ii t.:JoirJ:n :bo ?' •. .(31.9) _ b\

- *)1)1 :)(1110 Jds.b..., 'rID uuoT
where P is ~~ ~oadr,. ~t ~ptu~ ~ (? ll;"~i}b~;~~~t~fCnIhRer,t'~~I.' )~~1'd~~tn~ I'Drl[~4.,}.1r1P~~wi31 ';. 1t . ,)Iru:~
The length 0 the pieces of tin core used ror e tcs stiou be at cast 1:4 times the·'dmmeter'.r \ ~
been found that the strength depends upon the size of the specimen . Tbe point load stren gth reduces. LO 12 to
822 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

1/3 as she diameter of the core is increased from 10 mm

to 7Omm. For comparison purposes, it is the standard
practice to report the point load strength foc a cure of 50
mm diameter. If the diam eter of the test specimen is
different from 50 mm, a suitable size..corTection is
applied .
For reliab le resuns, it is essential that the specimen
shoul d be cerennly prepared, The results are high ly
sensitive 10 the method and style of loading . 'The point
load st rength lest is qu kk and simple and is fa irly
Fig. 31.1 .
reliab le. It can even be ronduc:ted in the field at the site
o f drillin g. For rocks with strong anisotropy. such as slates, shales, schists and laminated ston es, the test
should be rondueted to detmnine the strength along as well as perpe ndicular to the bedding planes .
1be point k>ad stren gth is related to the uncon fmod compressive strength by the relation
q. - 24J~ (SO) .. .(31.10)
where q" is the unconfmed compressive st rength of a cylinder of rock with a length 10 diameter ratio of 2 to
I , and JI( !() is the po int load strengt h corrected 10 a dia61eter of 50 mm . Eq. 31.10 does 001 give correct
resutu for w eak rocks for which speci al correlation studies are required.
Tab le 3 1.4 gives som e typ ical values of the point load inde x for differe nt rocks.

TABLE 31.4. Point Load Index

Tertiary sand stone

and clay st otU!
Point load indeJ: 0.05- 1 MPa

31.9. SlAKING AND DURADlLfIY

To Indicat e the durability of a rock. some sort of index is requir ed. However. because natural processes
affecting the durability of the rock are quite large in number and the y are also varied, no inde x can
completely describe thc durability.
Durability of the rock is essential for various engineering applications. For long life, the rock shou ld be
durable. It should nOl disintegrate; otherwise its life and strength would be reduced . The rock may disintegrate
by various process occurring in natu re, such as exfoliation. hydration, slaking, solution, oxidation, abrasion,
etc.
The following two indexes arc commonly used to determine the durability of a rock .
1. Slake durability index 2. Change in liquidity index .
1. Slake durabil~ly Index. The slake durability index can be determ ined using the apparatus suggested
by Franklin and Chandra (1972). It consists of a drum 140 mm in diamet er and t OOmm in length. A sieve
mesh forms the cylindrical walls, with a 2 mm size openings in it.
About 500 g of rode. is broken into 10 lumps and placed mside the drum . The drum in turned at 20 f.p.m.
in a water bath for about 10 minutes. The rock retained inside the drum is then weig hed. The slake durability
index (Jd) is determined as follows:

J., _ Rockretaincdinthedrum )( 100 . •.(3 1.11)

Thtal dry weigh t of tbe rode
Table 31 .5 gives the classification of rocks based on the slake durnbilit y index, as proposed by Gam ble
(1971) .
INTRODUcnON TO ROCK MECHANICS

TA BLE 31.5. Ga m ble's Slake Durability Cles....lfka tion

Durability SiaM d#rability index SlakL durability inda
after 0IIt: after two
I O-mi,w te c:yck IO-minute cyc les
Very high Great er than 99 Grea ter than 98
High ' 98- 99 95-98
Medium high 95 - 98 85- 95
Medium 85 - 95 60 - 85
Low 60 - 85 30 - 60
Very low Less than 60 Less than 30

2. Change in U(luldity Index . Morgenstern and Eigenbrod (1974) used a water absorption lest to
determine the amount and rate of slaking of argillaceous materials. lbcy came to the conclusion that
non-ceme nted claystone or shale absorbed water tester than other materials. Moreover, all materials eventually
attained a final water content equal to their liquid limits. It has been established that the materials with high
liquid limit are more severe ly arfect cd by slaking as compared to those with low liquid limit.
Table 3 1.6 gives the amount of slaking for different values of liquid limit.
TA BLE 31.6. Amount of slaking f(M" dirr~rt'flt Hquid limits
Liquid Greaer than
Limit 140%
Amount Very high
oC slakin g

1be rate of s laking depends upon ttl" change in the liquidity index (A It ) after immersion in water for 2
hours from the reletion

Ah .~
WL - wp
... (31.12)
where Aw ::: change in wa ter cootem of the rock after soaking for 2 hours 00 filter paper in a funnel,
wL ::: water content at the liquid limit,
wp = water content at the plastic limit.
All the water conten ts in Eq. 31.12 must be expressed as a percentage of dry wc.ght. Tbe methods for
the determinat ion of Aw, wL and wp are the same as tbose for soil, discussed in (.:haptl"r 4. Based on the rate
of slaking, the rocks nrc classified slow if A h is less then 0.75, fast when A ft is between 0.75 and 1.25 and
very fast when ~ It is greate r than 1.25.

31.10. SONIC VELOCITY

The son ic velocity is the velocity with which stress waves travel throu gh an intact rock. The sonic
veloci ty for an intact rock depends upon its elastic propcnies and density (unit weight). If there are fissures
in the rock, the sonic veloci ty is reductd. Therefore, the extent of fissures and discontin uities in a rock mass
can be assessed by comparing the in-situ wave velocity with the sonic velocity of an intact rock core obtained
from the same rock mass as detennined in the laboratory.
Founna intraux (1976) gave a classification system based on longitudinal wave veloci ty to indicate
rJSSuring in rock specimens. The theoretica l loogitudinal wave velocity (Vi) that the specimen could have if
there were no pore or fissures can be esnmatcd from the mineral composition of the rock from the relation

.!.. • i
Vi i
s..
Vl, i
... ( 13.13)
8" SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

where VI; is the long itudinal wave veloci ty in mineral constitue nt i which has a volum e proportion Cj in the
rock and n is the number of such min erals.
Table 3 1.7 . gives the typical values of VI" for a few rocks:"
TABLE 31.7 . Typical values of longitudinal velocity
lind Gabbro Basalt, LimeSlone Sand stone. Granit e
dolomi te quarrziJe

Longitudinal 7000 6500 - 7000 6COO - 6500 6000 5500 - 6000

Velocity
(11) (mI»

111c act ual longitudinal wave velocity (VI) in the rock specimen as determined in the laboratory is less
than the theoretical velocity (l'j). Tbe quality index (/Q) is the ratio of the act ual velocity to the theoretical
velocity . expressed as a perce ntage . Th us

IQ - ( ~) )( 100 ... (31.14)

Founnaintra ux estab lished thai lQ is affect ed by pores(spbc rtca l holes) in the rock. and can be exp ressed
as percentage
...(31.15)
where np is the porosity of the
no n-fissured rock e xpressed as a
perce nt.
It may be DOled that Eq.
3 1.15 docs not give reli able
results even when there is a
small fraction of Oat cracks
(fissures) in the rock . Based on
labora tory measu reme nts and
microscoplc coservenoos of :;:
fissures in the rock,
Fou rmaintraux proposed a plot ~
between IQ and poros ity n
whic h can be used to determ ine
the deg ree of fracturing of a
rock speci men (Fig . 31 .2).
There are 5 zon es in the
plot . For exa mple. zone I is for
non- fiss ured to slightl y fissu red n ,.
rocks; and zone II for slightly
(AFTER FOURMAINTRAU); )
fissured to mode ratel y nssurcd
rocks . Fig. 31.2

31.11.' CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

J BieniaWSki"(1974) gavethe geomechanics classifi cation sys tem , which is commonly used for engineeri ng
purposes. It 'provi des r ock mess' rating (RM R) values for d iffcrenl rocks . Th e RMR value depends upo n the '
~ quality and it may vary from 0 to 100 . The RMR is de rived from 5 universal parameters given below
(GoOdman. 1980) .
INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS 825

1. Strength of rock 2. Drill core quality 3. Joint spacing

4. Joint characteristics 5. Ground water conditions
Sometimes, orientation of joints lscatso considered as the sixth parameter, especially for specific
applications in tunneling , mining and foundations.
Increments of rock mass rating corresponding to each of the above parameters are determined . These
depend upon the characteristics of the rock as explained below. All these increments are added up to
determine the RMR value.
1. Strength or rock. The RMR value depends upon the unoonfined compressive strength of the rock. The
unconfined compressive strength (qu) of the rock can be determined from a laboratory compression tcst on a
prepared core of tbe rock . However for the classification of rocks, an approximate value of the compressive
strength as determined from the point- loud test on intact pieces of drill core can be used. The following
equation is commonly used.
q" - 251, ... (31.15)
where l , is the point load strength.
Table 31.8 gives the rock mass rating increments depending upon the point load index and unconfined
compressive strength of the rock. The increments vary from 15 to O.
TABLE 31.8. Rock mass rating Increments depending upon compressiv e strength
Pain! load Index Unconfined Compressive Rock mass rating
1, (MPa) Sireng/Ii (MPa) increment
Greater than 8 Greater than 200 15
4 -8 100 - 200 12
2-4 50 -100 7
1-2 ,7 25 - 50 4,
- 10 -25
- ., 3 -10
2.
1 Do nOIuse this rock.
- Less than 3 I o·
2. Drill core quality. The drill core quality is related to the rock quality designation (ROD). As already
discussed, the ROD of a rock is determined from the percentage recovery of core in lengths greater than 10
cm for NX cores (57.2 mm diameter). For other types of cores, the percentage recovery is determined in
lengths greater than twice the corresponding diameter.
The rock mass rating increments for drill core quality depend upon the ROD value. The increments vary
from 20 to 3 (sec Thble 31.9).
, ' TABLE)1.9. Rock mass nting Increments for drlU core qualIty
Less than 25
Rating increment
3. Joint spacing. The rock mass rating' depends upon the spacing of joints. The rating increment should
reflect the joint set which is the moot critical for a particular application. If the rock mass has fewer sets of
joints, the rating is increased . I
The rock mass rating increment depends. upon the spacing of the most influential join t (fable 31.10). The
increments vary from 30 to 5.
TABLE 31.10. Rock mass.ratlng increment for spacing or Joint<>
Joint Less than
sparing (m) 0.005
Rating increment
826 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

4. J oint characterisllcs. The rock mass raling also depends upon the charact eristics of joints. The condition
of jo int sets most likely to inOuence a particular application shoul d be considered for the rating. Tbe increme nt
of rock mass rating for joint chara cteristics depends upon the roughness o f the jo int Th e desc ription of join t
surface rougness and coa ting material is weig hed towards the smooth est and weakest joint set.
Table 31.11 gives the rating increments depen ding upon the joint characteristics. TIle increments vary
from 25 to O.
TAULE 31.11. Rock m ass I"1IItf ng lnaement for joint amditiOll
SNo. Joint Description
1. Very rough surfaces of limited extent; hard wall rock 25
2. Slightly rough surface; aperature less than 1 mm; hard wall rock zo
3. Slightly rough s urface; aper ature less than 1 mID; so ft wall rock 12
4. Smooth surface, or gauge filling 1-5 rom thick or aperanu . of 1-5 rom; joints 6
extending more than several meters.
5. Open joints filled with more than 5 rom of gouge, Of OJlCD more than 5 lDIll;
joint extendingmore than several meues

S. Ground wate r condition. Ground water condi tions can influence the rock mass beha viour to a large
exten t. The rock mass rating depends upon the general condition of the rock. which, in tum . depends upon
the gro und water. The rock: is ass igned the category dry. moist. water under mode rate press ure or severe water
probl ems and the rating incre ments vary from 10 10 0 (Table 31.12).
The raung increment can a lso be related to the inflow per 10 m length in lit/m in if a n explora tory adit
or pilot tunnel is available at the site for measurement of water inflow. It can also be related to the join t water
pressure divided by the major princi pal stress, as given in Table 31.12. It varies from 10 to 1.
TABLE J 1.12. Increments or rock m SM ra Ung due to ground wate r rondition
s. No. General Inflow per / 0 m tunel Joitu water pressure Rating
condhion length (lit/min) divided by major ;w:remelll
pr incipal stress
1. Completely dry None 0 10
2. Moist 25 0.0-0.2 7
3. Water under Moder.ue 25 - 125 0.2 -05 4
p=ure
4. severe water problems 125 05 1

6. O rientation of Joints. 1be odemauoc of the joints relative the the work under consideration can have
an effect on the behaviour of the rock. Accordi ngly. the sum of the first 5 rating numbers discussed abov e is
adj usted. If the orientation of join ts is very favorable for the wo rk: under oonsideration, no points are
subtracted from the sum . Howev er, for unfavorable orientations, there are negative ratings as give n in Table
31.13 . For tunnels, the rat ing decrem ents are from 0 to 12 and for foundation, the rating decrements are from
o 10 25, depending on the orientat ion of join ts. Fa assessment o f influence of orientation of the jo ints for 8
particular wert, the advice of an eng ineering geologi st is usually required .
TABLE 31.13 . Adj u.s tments In roc k mass rating for joInt orienlatkln
Assessment of Influence of .. RnJiJJg iw:rements Rating jn~nl$ for
orientatioo of ,he work fortuMels foundati ons
Very favourable o o
Favourable - 2 - 2
Fair - 5 - 7
Unfavourable - 10 -15
Very unfavoumblc - 12 - 25
INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS 827

Rock mass Rating (RMR). As already mentioned, the rock mass rating is obta ined by adding up the
rating increments given in Thbles 31.8 to 3Ll2 and adjust ing the sum for orientation of jo int as per Table
3Ll3. Table 3 Ll 4 gives the geomechanics classification of rock messes based on RMR.
For example, a rock mass with the particulars given below will have the RMR of 84, and the rock will
be classified as very good rock as per Table 31.14.
1. Point )oad index of 6 .MPa = 12 (fable 31.8)
2. RQD of 80% • 17 ( noble 31.9)
3. Joint spacing 2 m "" 25 (fable 31.10)
4. \lory rough surface = 25 (noble 31.11)
5. Mo ist ronditioo = 7 (TOOle 31.12)
1bta 1 = 86
6. Favourable orientat ion for foundation = - 2 (fable 3 1.13)
RMR _ 84

TABLE 31.14. Geomechanlcs clesstncatton or Rock masses

el= Description of Rod mass RMR

--
I Very good rock 81 100
rccc 61-80
"
III
IV
Good
Fair red 41-60
21-40
V Very poor rock 0 -20

31.12. STRENGTIf CLASSIFfCATION OF INTACT ROCKS

Intact rocss can be classified according to the uniaxial compressive strength. Deere and Miller (1966)
suggested the classiflcauo n given in Thble 31.15. The uniaxial compressive strength is determined by tesneg
a rock specimen with a length to diameter rat io of 2.
TABLE 31.15. Strength classification or Intact rocks
Uniaxial compTl!ssiw el= ~n'ption
strength (MPa)
Grealer than 224 A Very high strength
112-224 B High stre ngth
56 - 112 C Medium strength
28-56 0 low s trength
Less than 28 E Very low s trength

Deere and Miller also classified the intact rocks according to the modulus ratio. The modulus ratio is the
ratio of the modulus of elasticity to the uniaxial compressive strength . Th e modulus of elasticity used in the
classification is the tangent modulus obtained from the stress-strain curve of the specimen in the uniaxial
compression test at a stress level equal to one half the ultimate strength of the rock. Table 3 1.16 gives the
classification based on the modulus ratio.
TABLE 31.16. Rock Classification Based on Modulus Rati o
MoJ. lus el= Description
ratio
o.e,5OO H High modulus ratio
200-500 M Medium modulus rene
Less .... 200 L Low modulus ratio
828 son, MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING

Combi ned classification based on strength and modulus ra tlo

1bc ctessfflceuon based on compressive stre ngth and that on the modulus ratio can be combined 10
indicate the quality of rock:. Two letters are used for clessifcanon. The first letter indicates the strength rating
and the second jeuer indicates the modulus ratio rating. For example; a high strength rock with a medium
modulus ratio will be designated as 3M.

31.13. lABORATORY TESTS FOR D~TEJU.UNA1l0N O F STRENGTI I OF

ROCKS
The following laboratory rests are commonly used for determination of the strength
of rocks :
1. Unconfi ned compression test
3. Splitting tension test
5. Ring shear test
2. Triaxia l compression test
4. Beam bendi ng test

All these tests are briefly described below (Goodman, 1980)

1. Unconlined compresston test, The unconfmcd rompression test is the most
.r: . .. ..-
commonly used strength test on rocks. For accurate results, the lest should be performed
carefully. The specimen should be in the fonn of a cyli nder of length to width ratio varying
from 2 to 2.5. The ends of the specimen should be fiat. smooth and parallel. The ends should
be exactly perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Cores obtained during explorations are
u.s uaIly trimmed for this purpose. TIle specimen is sLbjected to compression between lhe
cross-head and the platen ofa compression testing machine (Fig. 31.3)
According to IS ': 9143 -1979. the specimen should preferably have a diameter of 45
mm. In no case, the diameter should be less than 35 mm. 1))(: load should be applied
cootinuously with a stress rate of 0.5 to 1.0 MPa per second.
Table 31.17 gives some typical values of compressive strength of some rocks. Fig. 31,3.
The compressive stre ngth (q..) ,is dete rmined f~m the relation
q... PIA •.. (31.16)
where P is the peak load and A is the initial area of cross-sectloe of the specimen.
2. Triaxial compression Test. 1be triaxial compression test in principle is similar to that used for soils
(dlaptec 13). The cylindrical specimen is (1lS1 subjected to the lateral pressure and the n devialoric stress is
applied. As the st resses are quite large . a special type of equi pment
is required for conducting the test (Fig. 3 1.4).
The usual procedure is to lim: apply the conftning press ure
(P) all around the cylinder and then 10 apply the devtatodc stress
when the confining pressure is kept constant.
The all round pressure p increases the strength of the rock.
Howeve r, the increase in strength is realised only when the
specimen is enclosed in an impervious jac ket. Normally, hydra ulic
oil is used as a ronfming fluid The jacket is usually made of
oil-resistant rubber such as polyurethane.
3. Splitting 'Ienslon Test. The splitti ng tension test is also
called the Brazilia n test. In this lest, the rock spec imen is split by
applying the load along the d iametric plane . The rock core having
a lengt h-diame ter ratio of unity when loaded on its side in a
compression testing madline splits along lhe diameter and parallel
to the: cylindrical axis (Fig. 31.5). The: horizontal stresses
pc:rpeodicula r to the loaded diamet er arc: uniform and tens ile. The
tens ile StI'eMis give n by
2P
0, - :lid' . .. (31.17)
Fig. 31.4
INTRODUCIl ON TO ROCK MECHANICS 829

when: P is the '~pplicd load, d is the d iame ter of the cyli nder
and t is the thickness of the disc (i.e. the length of the cylinde r).
IS : 1 ~2- 1 981 recom mends tbat the diameter o f the
spec imen should be at least 45 rom and the thickness o f the d isc
shall be approximately equal to half the diameter. the lood
should be applied at the rate of 0 .2 kN/sec . the load should be
mcasurcd at least to an accuracy of 1%.
The splitt ing tens ion test generally gives a value of tensile '
strength higher than 'thutobtaincd from a direct tens ion test. This
is probably due to the less effect of fissures in the splitting SlOE VIEW ELEVATION
tensio n test as compared to that in a direct tens ion rest.
4. Beam Bending lest. The beam bc~ing lest is atso fi g. 3 l.5 .
ca lled the JlexlJral "": In. ~ !s I~~tf.le rock beam . is subject ed to
~nd~'g 1~ .~ailure :~lIIt .!S, ~4any r~~c'~ ~J~k ,cores p
Obtaincd' rrom the: s ue <e xplor:a~o.n . Ocnef.dly . ·4-JX:!lOt flexura l ~
loodfrlg ·system ~ usar'~g.j.3'r.6).j ,Thc"bOtton; s:uff*·; o~ l1e"

~F~~I~4.~t!'~1~1~~~i~E~~" /@· r<::'~;i:}:-;::' X.0: ~:':;:

lJl.a!,!imu~' '".tcn.silc....§.Ir~ , [atj>:U-l~ .~_I 9ffi:l, surfacc;. l?f the .' co~e ):".'Slt>E " lEW "
~cspondi ng tgt .t.hc .~k. )oad~ )ll11!~ 91~U.m!C:4 f~ornlhe , ~IJ'!lp.I,<:' r' ·1 em .... ,:D ...
-.. ELEVATION

beam theory assuming that the -material remains clasticright

upto..: ~ge ;~ ~ ~ . 'lbc ,flex~clL~[rcEgth J?:"')"is given, by I " ~V1
~ rtuw Jl.j\11 r( ??I::'ll:Y..lb r ,.:; ::r ' 6 ,Pji·\;.;
,,'ill 3:it' . ~
'1
'" r:._'·L .':J' ~_
I" .:I.~;.:.. . t o .. n (I.: __.(3 Ll 8)

~.fw1;;.f.,.tsJ~e .max.i,mum 10011 arencre, Lp sJXU1 i.e:..distance between reactions onjne lower surface and d
i'tJ.l¥.f ~Le () .af)hc .~ ,f It~ 'Il:.. n! ] .1'.1 d> { .;Ll >~.. "I
S. Rl ngsbear test, The ring shea r test is generally used..! 9)esl. in-situ rocks . II gives lh.e shear strength
of the rock as a fWlClion of the con fining pressure . The rock core specimen in this lest docs -not require
perfectly square and smool h;ends."1 OJ 1.....~'1quKY..J ~:ii 10 <t'".J1~ !,,·~iq·(l .\1 If :;t ~:;
The cmfming pressure is appHodJby the .lOOlj ·p8rit1lel'lo 1hefamm f p
' oore:-~, ~ .~- ~P!i~ 1OIfie1 pIuriger~,,~"'!e1.m--:-9,f.:';'O~l~-rraaure- - -- j,:;: ~ -
surfaces fonn ~~gi the two PlanCS10f the un(X'SCd(~ (Fig . 31.7). The
· shcar strengt h ;ts..v~If? k'\tro <lS I p- - ---;:;:oo;--- l -- - -- . . .
. ~~:: r .- 2A fX~ I ;l}\l'" .. . .(3l.19~
whe~c P IS l~r,( ~k load and ~ IS the area Ofj l~'pss-scclion of the
specuncn. um .n: , l.l. i'",!: I
As in the (.w. ~of the triaxial h~st. then: is a ~~ nt ial increase pC
strength ~~Jt!!c ~!Wing pressure . t\" ~ P J I
31.14. srR£SS.S'rnAIN CURVES II,i t ,
~ulus ~elasticity and· thl:. Poisson ratio are two im~nt-------I""'"
~nQtic)j·~ rtidl'btarll~?~ ~(cl~i& j&"pehd 1Jpoo l.{hu'ffi6et~/,..,;,:<O/'~~~~~""
o f factors such as the siz e of the roes mess, constituent minernls..w tbe fi g. 31.7
degree of fracture, ere. ,,3
10 :JLt~"Mtii:lulti...'Of !to1it.'.ti cify"jThet'lt1OdiJ1lJs:.df 'ela.t ib'ity hr ! RiCk; liS~<rult rm'IJiO\!·, rrom-· ; lM'; ~stram 'curVe
obtained from a uniaxial compression test. Most .w.tne :rocU;ha/.!e:llletxlore:"s ;sttaimll:Ul"W:' of ,the ~.~
.1ow.JlllR$s,k veJ&.i the mflfJuJJ.IS,of,.clO"tilic:itf; iecreasesewah an .ina'e8St10n.:iIl'e:SsI;llbc dniWlLiangentllmodulus is
.:m Jih,'1 Is: Ot, O ·10 ~1I.l ... iIlu mb:nffi i&':li bliXlcll 'JdJ ~1 ;bJ m ti tna
 830 SOlL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGIN E~ING

A
L./ ' -TANGENT MODULUS
P AT P

/,

/
a

~
E C AN T
MODULUS
AT a »".
/'
)J ~-
/ ,, / _ - - -- "'---INITIAL TANGENT MODULUS

STRAIN ~ ____
Ftg.3tA
the slope of the tangent drawn to the curve at the origin . The secant modulus in a particular range is obtained
by joining the stress point with the origin and determining the slope of thai line. The tangent modulus at any
I stress is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn at that polm. The initial tangent modulus, the secant modulus
and the tangent modulus are shown in Fig. 31.8. Generally, the modulus of elasticity is taken equal to the
50% tangent modulus, t e: the slope of the tangent drawn at one-half the failure stress.
IS: 7317 -1974 gives a method for the dcterminatioo of the modulus of elasticity .
Farmer (1968) gave the following three types of elastic behaviour in rocks.
1. Ouasi-elasuc behaviou r 2. Semi-elastic behaviour 3. Non-elasti c behaviour
1. 'Thequasi-elastic behaviour is observed in flne-grained compeer and massiv e rocks. Th e stress -strain
curve in this C3SC is almost linear right upto Iailure . The initial tangent modulus ranges (rom 6 x ut
to 11 x 1(1' MPa.
2. 1be semi-elastic behaviour is observed in coarse grained igneous rocks and also in fine -grained
compacted sediments. In this case , the stress-strain curve shows a decrease in slope with increasing
stress . The initial modulus ranges from 4 )( 10'- to 7 )( 104 MPa .
3 . The non-elastic behaviour is observed in rocks which are less cohesive and wbich have large pore
space . The initial modulus is usually less than S )( lIr MPa. Table 31.17 g ives some typical values
of modulus of elasticity of some rocks.
TABLE 31.17. TypIcal values of the almpresslyr strYngth lind
modulus or daslldtr of scene rocks.
Type of rock Modulus of elasticity (E)
(Mr.)
Diabase 490.0 1,00,000
QuMlzilc .... - >00 78,llOO
Dolerite 33Q 84,llOO
Granite 230.0 56,llOO
Llme stone: 225.0 51,llOO

""".
....... iS3 -
170.0
T1
68,llOO
48,000-65,(00
"""" "one 37.0 9,700

2. Poisson's ratkt. 1be Poisson ratio (v) is the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain of a rock . Thus
v _ ~

'.
where Ed is the diametric strain (or circumferential strain) of the rock and £.. is the axial strain . The value of
v generally varies between 0.125 and 0.34Q.for most rocks.
In rocks subjected to uniaxial cornpresstoe, v remaim more or less ooostant with an lncreese in stress,
and if. rt.aehes the lheoretical maximum value of 0.50 at failure.
 - - - - - - - - ----

INTRODUcnON TO ROCK MECHANICS "1

The laboratory uniax ial compress ion lest can be conducted on a rock 10 obtain the c ircumferential and
axial strain. For the measurement of strains various devices, such as electrical resistance strain gauge,
compressomctcr, optical instruments,are used.
IS: 9221 -1979 recommends that at leasttwo circumferential strain and two axial suain measurements
shou ld be taken for each incremen t of 100<1. Moreover. tbe gauge length should be at least 5 times the grain
size diameter.
31.15. MODECi OF FAILURE OF ROCKS
1be following modes of failure may occur in rock (Goodman, 1980):
1. Flexure failure 2. Shear failure
3. Direct tension failure 4. Crushing or compression failure
Howev er, in actua l practice, there are !I large number of load configuration and no single mode of failure
predominates. 1be act ual failure ponem is usually highly complex in which two or more modes of failure
may occur simultaneously.
I . Flexure ruilun'. TIle flexure failure occurs because of lhe bending action in the rock. Because of
bending, tensile cracks develop and propagate and caLL<;C failure. For examp le. flexure failure occurs in the
rock layers above the roof of a mine [Fig. 31.9 (a; j. A gap is formed in the roof of the mine and a bcum of
,.~.

)F ];
' '., Ag.31.9. (d )
rock sags downward under its own weight. As the sag increases , the tensile cracks at the bottom surface of
the beam propagate upward and the beam ultimately fail. It causes the rock to become loose and fall,
2. Shear railure. This type of failure occurs when a surface of rupture is formed in lhe rock. because of
the shear stresses becom ing critical. After the formatioo of the rupture surface, there is release of shear
stresses as the rock suffers a displacemen t along the rupture surface . This type of failure may occur in slopes
cut in weak rocks such as weathered clay shale and crushed rock of fauk zcecs. Fig 31.9 (b) slows shear
failure in a mine wbich has a stiff ore and a sorte r (soil-like) roof. The shear stresses developing in the roof
or pillar base allow the pillar to punch relatively upward in the roof. If the floor is weak, the pillar may punch
relatively downward into the floor.
3. Direct teusjon failure. Direct tension occasionally 0CC'lm> in rock . for example, the rock layers resting
on convex upward Slope surfaces are SUbjected 10 direct tension ({fig. 31.9 (c)] . In this case. the layers at the:
base of tbe Slope are inclined more steep ly than what is allowed by friction. To resist !he gravity forces, the
balance of support is provided by the slable pan of the slope above by dirccl pull. As the pull is increased in
the roes layers. the tension failure may occu r in which two adjacenl parts of the rock arc pulled apart.
83' SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

When the rock.breaks in direct tension, a surface of rupture is formed. 1be rupture surface is quite rough
and free from the crushed rock particlesand Jragmehts. The surface is quite ditTerent from that found in shear
failure. wh ich is slic k and has more powder formed from the crushing of rock.
4. Crushing or compression failure . Very high direct com pression occurs in intensel y shortened rock
when penetrated by a stiff punch. When the compressive stresses reach the limi ting val ue , the crushing failure
may occur;
The crushing failure mode is h ighl y complex. II includes formation of tensile cracks and their grow th and
interactio n through flexu re. Fig. 3 1.9 (d) shows an example of crush ing and tensile cracking which. is
follow ed by shear failure .

31.16. MOIIR ·CO ULOMB CRITERION FOR ROCKS

The Mohr-Co uiomb cri terion is commonly used for delennining Lhcshear stren gth of rocks. As d iscussed
in chapter 13. the Mohr-Coulomb criterion represents a linear envelope wh k:h touches all Mohr's circles
drawn for critical oombination of principOll stresses (oJ and (3) at which failure occurs (Fig. 31.10). The
criterio n may be written as (Goodman, 1980 ).

Ag,31.10.
Tp • Sj + o tan t ...(31.20)
whcre Tp is the peak shear stress or shear strength, Sj is the shear strength intercept , 0 is the normal shears
on the shear plane, rind 41 is the angle of internal friction.
The Mohr-Co ulomb envelope is extrapo lated into the tensile stress region upto the point where o}
becomes equal to the uniaxial tensile strengt h (T..). The minor princi pal stress (a}) can never be less than T...
In terms of the principa l stresses at peak load andition, the Mohr-Coul~b criterio n can be writte n as
2
to iJl.. j 0l,p" q" + 0 }lan (45" + 41/2) .,,(3 1.21)
where 0i;'p is the major principa l stress corresponding to the peak of the stress-strain curve and qu. is the
unoonfincd com pressive strength. I( 'n
11,' 'The uncon fined compressive strength(qJ is given by
...::::.~k u:' 1<,1 ," "';_10>';, q,," 2Si tan (15: + t~) Jl. . .. (31.22)
lo(, .r~J?m Eqs. 31-71"and 3~.22. vr:e t ', 'J:. :0" '" .."
roneq ;,'; ,ht.!,\ Jil' )~I .' OhP dl. 'l + (~) , l'ai12(450i'"'+ "'~12)" .1 II ... (31.23)
q. q.
'I lr'l,; ~ ~rjf . .J-, Ol ru ",J.L. .' IL,:(}J" i;>" ",I

(.,.'1: f,O; "P i' i ,YJis~y'q..>" '::'

fl ' "~.~ ~~~ u , LX~' ~'J J d;up :~ i . ~;N (~;qS{;, I", , • •..(31.24)
INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS 833

The co nstants M and N in Eq. 3 1.24 can be determined by fiUing a curv e to the fsrnily of points drawn
between (oy q,,) and (o j /q ..- l) obtained from the lest .
111e ma ximum tension criterion must be superimposed on the Mohr- Coul omb criterion (Eq. 31.21). It
means mat the fail ure will occur because of lensile stress wherever the minor princi pal stress 0 3 becomes
equa l to - T"" whatever may be the val ue of 0 1'

Empirical Failure En velope

The Moh r-Cou lomb crne rioo is q uite simple and easy to usc. B~ it gives uoccnse rveuve results when
one of tbe principal stresses is negative (Le, tensile) A more accurate failure cri terion em be obtained hy
fiuing an envelope t~ Mohr circles co rresponding to stresses at failure as obLained from four types of tests,

TESTS -
(1) DIRECT TEN SION
(2) BRAZILIAN
(J) UNCONFINE D COt-1PRESSION
(10) TRIAXIAL CQMPRESSC N

- TO J1"o fig. 31.11

name ly. d irect tens ion test, Braz ilian lest. WlCOllfmed compeess jco test and triaxial test . Fig. 31.11 shows the
empiri cal failure enve lope . The enve lope is generally curved downward and the shape is in-be tween a stra ight
and a parabola .
It may be noted that the empirical failure envelope lies beneath the Mohr·Coulomb criterion with the
superim posed tension cutoff (shown doIted). Inside the hatched portion, the Mohr·Coulomb cn ted oo with
tension cuto ff ove restimates the strength. Tbercfcre, it is necessa ry 10 reduce the tensile strengt h Toa nd the shear
strength intercept S/ when applying the Mohr-Co ulomb criterion to practical problems involving such conditions .
31. 17. SHEAR STRENGTH O F ROCKS
The shea r strength of rocks is generally found from the triaxial compression test and adop ting the
Mohr-Coulomb criterio n (Eq. 31.20). As already mentioned , the peak stresses are considered for dra wing the
enve lope. Hence the shear strengt h parameters So and , in Eq. 31.20 are for the peak streng th.
As in the case of dense sands discussed in chapter 13. the Mohr·Coul o mb a ilerion can also be adopt ed
for the residual stresses, i.e. the stresses at the ultimate failure conditions which occu r after the peak stresses .
The res idua l she ar stren gth is the minimum strength reached by the rock when subject ed to deform alions
beyond the peak stress. In this case, the subscri pt r is genera lly used to identify tbem as parameters for the
residual strength. Th us Eq. 31.20 becomes
r, • S;" + a tan t, ...(3 1.25)
The" res idual shear stren gth intercept (S..,) may approach a value of zero. Howev er. the value of the
residual fridional angle . , usually lies between zero and the peak friction angle (+).
When water is added to some rocks , the strength is considerab ly reduced because of the chemical
deterioration of cement or clay binder of the rocks. Friable sand stone may even jose 15% of its strength by
mere saturation .
A substantial reduction in shear strength occurs when pore water pressure (p....) develops inside the pores
and fissures of the rock. For such cases, Terzaghi's effective: stress law (as discussedin cha pter 13) can be
used . Thus Eq. 31.20 becomes
8J4 SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

ip • s. + 0 tan q. ...(31.26)
where a is the effective stress ( = CJ - Pw).
Eq, 31.26 indicates tim! the pore water pressure p.., will cause the same reduction in Ihe peak normal
stress as that caused by a reduction of confining pressure by an equal amount of PWl"

31.18. HARDNESS OF ROCKS

Hardness of a material is its ability 10 resist scratching. The relative hardness is used as an index for the
identification of minerals. Mob's hardness scale is commonly used for this purpose.The use of hardness for
identification of rocks is however quite complex and not well-established. In fact, rock hardness indicates the
combined resistance to displacement and penetration. It is also observed that both hardness and toughness of
rock depend on the same factors.
Sometimes, the concept of hardness is applied to rocks as a synonym for strength (e.g. soft rock, hard
rock). Actually, hardness is a property of the rock-forming minerals and metals. Attempts have been made in
the past to determine the hardness of rocks. Various tests have been suggested . Depending upon the test, the
hardness has been defined as scratch , indentation, abrasion, impact and rebound baronesses. However , only
the rebound tests such as Shores rest and Schmidt test have been used for the characterisatioo of rocks.
Deere and Miller (1966) analysed the data obtained from Shores ' and Schmidt's tests. They gave
correlation charts between the uniaxial compressive strength and the Schmidt hardness. These charts can be
used to predict the uniaxial compressive strength of rock with a fairly high degree of confidence limits.
Abrasion hardness and impact toughness measurements arc useful for the evaluation of building stones and
for the suitability of the rock drilling and cutting equipment. The hardness of a rock also affects drillability.
31.19. IN·SITU STRESSES IN ROCKS
AI a point below the rock surface of the undisturbed rock mass, there are stresses due to weight of the
overlying materials, and also due 10 the confinement and past stress history. These stresses are known as
in-situ stresses. The in-situ stresses vary considerably from one point to the other. Tbe in-situ stresses may be
almost zero at some points, whereas at some other points, they may be very high, even approachin g the
failure stress. When the in-situ stresses are almost zero, rock mass may fall from the surface and underground
excavations because joints are open and weak. On the other hand, when the in-situ stresses are very high, any
small disturbance to the stress field by tunneling or even excavation may trigger violent release of stored
energy in rock and caus e failure.
The in-situ stresses may be approximated and the order- of their magnitude determined by various
methods, but the accuracy of estimating is always doubtful. Accurate field measurements are usually required
10 ascertain the margin of error. Field measurements of in-situ stresses are quite common in the mining
practice . However, in the civil engineering practice , the field measurement are rarely done because of high
cost of measurements.
A basic knowledge of the in-situ stresses in quite useful in several civil engineering problems such as
follows (Goodman, 1980).
1. Orientation for a cavern. While selecting the orientation for a cavern, care is taken to avoid
alignment along the longer dimension perpendicular to the major principal stress Ot -
2. Selection of shape. The shape is selected to minimise the stress concentration if the initial stresses are
very high .
3. Layout of complex underground works. Cracks in rocks tend 10 extend in the plane perpendicular to
the minor principal stress 03. A knowledge of the direction of the stresses is useful in selecting a layout to
reduce the risk.
4. Sevlng In untng of tunnels. If the in-situ stress in the rock in which a pressure tunnel (or penstock)
is constructed, is greater than the internal water pressure. lining need not be provided.
5. Large surface excavation. Substantial economy can be e ffected when making large surface excavation
with pre-splitting technique by orienting the excavation perpendicular to the minor principal stress.
lNTRODUGIlON TO ROCK MOCHANH..::s

in-situ Stresses
1. Vertical Stress. The in-situ vertical stress at any point in the rock can generally oe taken equal to the
weight of the overlying rock per unit area. Thus
Vertical stress, o, • 1 z .. .(31.27)
wbere z is the depth of the point and 1 is the unit weight oflhe rock, which is usually taken as 271tN1m
3.
When the ground surf ace is
horizontal, the princ ipal stress
directions are vertical and
horizontal at points near the
surface. It is generally assumed
that the diroctions a re the same
even fa points at large depths
below tbe surface, although the
acl.ual directions are somewha t
different . However, tbl s assump-
tion is not justified in the case of
hilly terrains. Beneath a valley
side, there is one principal stress
normal to the slope. which is
equal to zero as the stresses
nonnal to a free surface cannot
-+- Fig. 31.12
exist. The other two princi pal stresses lie in the plane of Slope (Fig. 31.12). These stresses approach zero
when the rock slope is convex upward, but have high values when the slope is concave upward. In the case
of a steep, v-shapec valleys, these stresses may even approach the failure stress or the strength of the rock .
2. Horizontal stress. The magnitude of the txxizontal stress (0/1)is usually estimated from the relation
o• • Ko.. . ..(31.28)
where K is the lateral stress roefflcient.
In the case of recent sed imentation, the value of K can be taken equal to v/(I- v), as obtained from the
theory of elasticity (dtapter 11). In general. the value of K usually lies between KtJ and Kp , where Kr.
corresponds to conditions for normal faulting and K" corresponds to condiuons for reverse faulting.
In the nonnal faulting, the vertical stress is the major principal stress and failure OCOJrs due to horizontal
extension. (Ibis is similar to the active conditions discussed in chapter 19). Assuming Coulomb's law, the
value of K.. is given by

K•. d(4S', .12>_[(~)"",2(4S" .12>] ± x ... (31.29)

In the reverse faulting, the vertical stress is the minor principal stress and the failure occurs due to horizontal
compression. (Ibis is similar to the passive conditions discussed in chapter 19). The value of Kp is given by

K,. - 2
tan (45° + +/2) + ~ l( ~ •• • (31.30)
In case there is 00 existing Iault, the range of possible values of K is quite wide . However, q.. can be
assumed as zero near a pre-e:dsting fault and the range of K is coosiderably reduced.
Brown and Hoek (1978) suggested a hyperbolic relation for the limits of K According to them,

( 0.3 , 1~) < Ii: < ( 0.5_' 15,(0) ... (3131)

where z is the deplb of the JXlintin metres and K is the ratio of the average borizontal stress to the vertical stress .
The: range of values of K is considerately less than the range of K given by Eqs. 31.29 and 31.30 even
when q.. is DOl zero. II may be noted that in Eq. 31.31, the average horizontal stress is considered, wberees
in Bqs. 31.29 and 31.30 , the maximum and minimum values of the horizontal stresses are ronsidered.
8 .. SOIL Mf CHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERlNG

3 1.20, MEASUREMENT OF IN·SI11J STRESSES

The following methods are com monly used for lhe measurement of in-situ stresses in rocks (Goodman.
I"""),
1. Hydraulic fracturmg method
2. FLat jack method
3. Over-coring method
1. Hydraulic fracturing method. In this method. water pressure is used 10 create a crack in a bore hole.
Water is pumped into a section of the bore hole isolated between two packers. As the water pressure is
increased . the initia l co mp ressiv e stresses exist ing in the rock at the walls of the bore hole start reducing, and
at some stage become tensile. When the tens ile stresses become eqca t to the tens ile strength of the rock (-To),
a crack is formed in the waiL If the pumping is con tinued. the crac k extends funhe r, and eventually the
pressure dow n the hole falls 10 a steady value. called the shut-i n pressure.
Knowing the o rien tation of the hydrnulically induced Iracture and using the equations of the theory of
elastici ty, the in-situ stresses can be esti mated .
The method can be used 10 estimate the in-situ stresses in the rock only when the point is at conside rable
depth below the surface .
2. flat jaek method. In this method. II stot is first cut in the roc k. The de formation occurs in the rock
surrounding the s101:. After the deformations have taken place, a fiat jack is inserted into the slot and load is
app lied. The in-situ stress is related 10 the pressure neede d to balance the deformations which occur as a
result of slot cutti ng.
The first step is to mark the 10000tion of the slot on the wall of the rock. Tben one or more sets of the
measuring points are insta lled such that the locati on of the slot is
midway between them. The spaci ng d of the measuring points is kept
equal to the gauge length of the extensometer, which is gencrnlly
15,24 an (6'),
A deep slot is then cut perpendicular to the rock face between
the meesurtng points (Fig. 31.13). As a result of lhe slot cutting, the
pins installed at the measuring points move and the spacing between
them is reduced if the rock was under initial compression normal to
the plane of slot.
The n al jack is oow inserted into the slot and cemen ted in place. Fig. 3] .13.
Tbe pressure in the jack is g radua lly increased. When the pins have been returned to the initial spaci ng, the
pressure in the jack is eq ual to the: in-sit u stress.
The method ca n be used only when there is an access 10 a rock face; for example, in an underground
gallery in the rock.
3. Over-coring method . In this method, a small diameter bore hole is first drilled into the rock. A
suitabl e deformation gauge is then inserted into the bore hole to measure the change in diame ter. A larger
diameter hole is then cored conce ntrically over the small diameter OEFORMATI()'II . ,' •
bore hole (Fig. 3 1.14). Thus a thick cylinder of rock is formed, GAI..GE
wh ich is detached from the roc k mass and which is free of stress.
[f the rock Wa1 unde r initia l compression, there would be
enlargement of diame ter, wh ich is measured with the help of the
deforma tion ga uge. Analyt ical methods based on the unloaded
thick-walled cylinde r model are used to determine the in-situ
stresses.
The over-coring method can be used only to measure the
in-situ stresses at some distance away from the rock: face. Tbe test
is normally discontinued beyond about 5 m from the rock face. Fig. 31.14.
INTRODU CfION TO ROCK MEC HANICS

PROBLEM S

A. Desceipnve type
. 31 .1. De fine rod. mec hanic... Wh al is us importance tor a civil engineer ?
31 .2. Discu ss geolog ica l c1aS!>ificalionof rocks Give at leas t 3 e xamples of each type of roc k.
31 .J . Elt plain the fo llo wing terrru.. :
(a) Roc k uuuen al (h ) Intac t roc k
(c) Din'ontLnuity (ll) rock mass
k) Joinl set (jl Rock quality desig na lio n (RQ D)
3 1.4. What are differen t ind ex properties of reeks '! How would you determine them '! what is their imponuncc '!
3 1,5. Explain rhe gcornc chanics cla ssification of roc ks . How woul d you determ ine the rock mass ratin g (RM R,1 " I ;1
giv en roc k '!
31.6 . Discu ss lhe str en gt h classificano n of roc ks
31.7 . Expla in ven ous labo rato ry tests (or the cc rcrmtnanon or the strength of rock s .
3 1.8. Draw a typical stres..s-stram curve of a rock. How would you determine the modu lus of e last icity and the POI SM JI'
ratio ?
31.9 . what are different modes of fai lure of rocks ? G ive one ex ample of eac h.
3 1.10 . Discu ss the Mohr-Coulom b criterion for roc ks. Wh at is an e mpirical failu re envelope ?
31. 11. Write sho rt notes nn
(a ) Shear stre ngt h of IUI':ks
(b) Hard ness ct rock .
3 1.11 . Wh at is the im portance of in-shu stresses in ruc k '! How wou ld you meas ure them ?

B. Objective Type
w rite whether the followi ng stme mcr us are true or false .
(a ) Slat e is n se di me ntary ruck.
(h ) Fau lts are j uints along which there had been shea ring mov ement s.
(c) Th e RQD of a rod ca nnot be grea ter than 100 %.
(dl Th e poin t load stren gth o f a roc k spec imen is inde pe nde nt o f the dia meter.
(t') Th e RMR va lue is red uced because o f u nfavo urable joi nt oriemau on .
ifJ 11le shear streng th of the specimen as determined by Ihe ring shear lest is eq ua l to Pfl A.
(g) Ge nera lly. the modulu s of elasncity of the roc k is taken equa l 10 the 50% secant modu lus.
(h ) Th e e mp iric al fai lure envelope is biased on fou r d iffere nt types of iesrs.
(I) Th e m-suu stresses in rocks are oo t signi fic ant for mining operations.
IAns. True ( b ), (e) , (t' ), (j) . (11)1
 32
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

32.1. INTRODUCfIO"
An eart hq uake is sudde n shaking of the earth surface caused by a source of d isturbance inside the earth.
Earthq uakes occ ur due to sudde n mass shini ng in bed rock caused by forces within the ea rth. Shifting in
bedrock occurs along faults. Such earthquake s are called tectonic earthquakes. Besides tectoni c earthq uakes,
there arc other types of ea rthquakes such as volcanic eart hquakes, nuclear explos ion eart hq uakes and mine
collapse earthquakes. but such earthquakes arc sma ll. TIle discussions herein are limited only 10 tectonic
earthquak es. There is sudden release of strain energy in the zo ne where the shifting in bedrock occurs. Shock
waves arc ge nerated due 10 release of energy. These shock waves are propagated outwa rd from the earthquak e
source. when these waves reach the earth surface. its shaki ng occurs .
The mo vement of the bedroc k along the fault
occ urs at a pai n! ca lled the focus (or hypoce nter)
(Fig. 32.1 ). The focu s is ge nerally 5 to 50 km
below the earth surface but muy be deeper in SIJIlII:
cases . The epicente r is the point o n the earth
surface vertica lly abov e the focus. The distance
between the epicenter and the focus is ca lled the
foc al depth , The d istance between any poi nt on the
earth surface and the epicen ter is kno wn as the
epicentral distance .
Earthqua kes cause one of the most des tructive Fig. 32.1. Basic Tenninology
natural di sasters leading 10 heavy losses of life and property. Unfortunately. the earthq uakes arc. so far.
unpredictab le and unpre ventablc. The only course lef t to eng ineers is tll des ign and cons truct the struc tures in
such a manner that the damages caused by the ea rthquakes are minimum.
Earthquak e engineering deals with the des ign and co nstruction of structures that arc ear thquake resistant .
The various structural comp onents arc desig ned 10 withstand the earthq uake forces. Geotec hnical ear thquake
engineering is a yo ung branch of earthquake engineering that developed in the last two decades or so. It is
concerned with geo technical aspec ts of earthquake e ngineering. such as the type and de pth of founda tion soil.
amplification of eart hq uake's intensity l1y SOl i depos its. liquefaction of so ils. e tc.
Th is c hapter d iscusses the basic concep ts of the geotech nical earthqua ke eng ineering .
32.2. HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA
India is onc of the seismic cou ntries of the world. Some of the seve re eart hquakes of the world occurred
in India. The earthqua ke of the highest magnitude. represe nted as M and de fined later. occ urred in Assa m
(Ind ia) on the 12th of Jun e. IK97. The earthq uake was of il magn itude (If 8.7 on Richter 's scale. Tha t eart h-
q uake caused extensive dama ges in Assam .
In the period from 1905 to 1950 . f(l~r severe earthquak es of magnitude greater than 8.0 occurred in India.
GEOTECH NICAL EARTHQU AKE ENG INEERING

e 71" 76 ,0 '4
,. ,," 96

MAP OF INDIA
SHOWING
SEISMI C ZONES OF INDIA

,,"
,,"

'8

'0"

,," '6

0 ZONE

0 ZONE
II
(II
,,"
0 ZONE IV
0 .lONE V

.. ,"
,,. '8
( Redraw n after [5 : 1893 .2002 )
.. '8

Fig. 32.2. Seismic w iles of lndiu

C OUrl f'.!V: The Bureauof Indian Standards. New DeJhi-ll OOO2
'40 SOIL MECH ANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

These earth quakes occ urred in Kangra in 1905 (M = 8.6), Bihar in 1'.H4 (M = 11..4), Andaman in 1941 and
Assam in 19 50 (M = 8.6). Besides these ea nbc uakes. there were some less seve re eart hquakes. In the period
from 195 1 to 2000. seven mod erate earthquakes o f magni tude between 6 and 7 occ urred. The se earthquak es
OCCUlTed at Anjar in 1956 (M = 6.1) , Koyna in 1967 (M = 6.5) , Bihar -Nepal border in 1988 (M = 6.6),
Uttarkash i in 1991 (M = 6 .4). Kilian (Lutur) in 1993 (M = 6 .2), Jabalpur in 1997 (M = 6 .0), and Chamcli in
1999 (M = 6.6) . The Killari (Latur ) earthqu ake was the worst , which caused abo ut 10.000 deaths .
In the beginnin g of this ce ntury. on 26th Janu ary. 200!. a strong earthq uake with a magni tude of 7.9
occ urred in Bhuj (G ujaratj. It caused heavy damages and more than 20.000 perso ns die d and about 1.6'1.000
perso ns were inju red. About 3.00,OJO houses were destroyed and huge losses of property occ urred.
Th e Bhuj eart hq uake has dem onstrated the vulnera bility of various Indian regions to eart hquakes. It has
very clear ly shown that most co nstruc tion in the se ismic regions do not co mply with the requir ed safety
requir em ent s. The general public has bec ome more concerned about earthquakes and the great dama ge they
can cause . It is a major challenge to ensur e that our constructions arc made earthquake resistant to limit the
damage s in future. .

32.3. SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA

The sever ity of earthqua kes in d ifferent parts of India is different. Tbc seismicity at a placed is assessed
by its d istance from the active fault in the rock format ion. It is also decided from the earthqua kes elreedy
occ urred in that reg ion. In ge neral. the seismic zoning of a co untry depend s upon the seismic history of
.d ifferent regions unless some significant changes in tectoni c features occ ur.
As pe r IS: 1893 (Part I): 2002. India has been divided into four zones. de signated as Zone II. III. IV and
V (F ig. 32.2). The erstwhile zone I has now been merged in zone II. Th e zone numbers increase as the
seismic severity increases. Thu s zone II has the low est sei smic ity and zone V has the highest seismicity.
Zo nes IV and V are locat ed in the north ern and north eastern region s of the cou ntry. the Kutch and
Mahar ashtra area and Andam an . TIle res t of the cou ntry has o nly zones II and III.
Variou s zones ind icate the regions in which the seismicity wo uld be approx imately sam e. However. the
se verity of the earthq uake in a zone may be different because of loc al si te cond itions.
32.4. MAGNITUDE OF AN EA RTHQUAKE
The magnitude (M) of an earthquake is a quantative measure of its strength in terms of energy released
at foc us. It has a unique value for an earthq uake.
Charl es Richter de velope d the first sca le for magni tude in 19 35. Magnitud e is defined as the logarithm
(10 base 10 ) of the ma ximum trace amp litude ( A) of the grou nd motion reco rded in micron s ( =IO-6m) at a
d istance of 100 km fro m the epi cent er o n a Wood -Ande rson Type Tors ion Se ismograp h having damp ing equaJ
to 80% of the crit ical dampin g. natur al period of D.Ss and magnifi cation of 2800 . Thu s
M = 10SIO A . .. (32.1)
where.
M is mag nitude on Rich ter 's scale.
A is amplitude of ground motion at a distance of 100 km from the epi cent er. in micron s.
Sinc e the distance of the instrument from the epicenter ma y nOI be alway s 100 km, the followin g
mod ified equation ca n be used to est imate the magnitude.
M = loglo '" - 10g lOAo ...(32.2 a)
or M = 10gioA + distance correc tio n .. .(32.2 b)
where A and A o are usually measured in millimetres ( = IO-~ m).
The quantity (r-Iogro Ao) is known as the distance correction. The distance correc tion ca n he obtained
from Fig. 32.3. FOf" a distance of 100 km. the distan ce correction is +3. Alternatively, the following equation
may be used :
GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 841

l·~
.f
~ / ~elese;:!~
~I w it h t imesurface way
.!. per iod 20 s
c
~-8
3 I ~~; t~e -r---

~ 3
~ .~ 2
./
/
E
1

0
10 10 0 1000 10000
Distance in km
Fig. 32.3. Distance Corro; lion
M = 10810A - 2.48 + 2.76 log 6. ... (32.3 )
where 6. is the epicentral distance (km)
For illustration, if the amplitud e of the ground motion at a distance of 100 km is I 04~m ( = 10 mm j.
From Eq. 32. 1. M = loglo l<t = 4.0
From Eq. 32.2 (b), M = loglo 10 + 3.0 = 4.0
From Eq. 32.3 . M = loglo 10 - 2.48 + 2.76 logl o 100 = 4.04
Table 32. 1 gives a typical classification of earthquakes based on their magnitudes. The table also gives
the a nnual average numbe r of earthquakes across the Earth in each of these groups.
Ta ble 32.1. Global occurrence of earthquakes of different magnitudes
Magnitude Group A"'m al a verage number of globol occurrence
8 and higher Great I
7 -7.9 Major 18
6 - 6.9 Strong 120
5-5.9 Moderate 800
4 - 4.9 Light 6200 (estimated)
3-3.9 Mi nor 49,CXx) (estimated )
Less than 3 Very Minor Abot.t 9000 per day ( '" 3.285 )( 1Of> per year)
Eanhquakes with a magnitude of 3 or Jess are not felt. Earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5
norma lly do not cause significa nt damage . The maximum magnitude of the earthquak e occurred so far was
8.7 (Assam . 1897).
The magnitude correspondin g to the orig inal formulation proposed by Richter is also called the local
magnitude (MtJ. In addition 10 the local magnitude , three more magnitude scales have been proposed. The
body wave magnitude (M b) is based on tbe compressional body waves (or P·w aves ). The surface wave
magnitude (M I ) is based on me surface or Rayleigh (R) waves. The seismic moment magnitude or the wave
energy magnitude (Mw ) is based on the seismic moment.
 SO IL MECH ANICS AND FO UNDAT IO N ENO JNEERI NG

For small earthq uakes. a ll the four magnuude sca les give almost the same value. but for large earth-
quak es. the values of magnitudes on differen t scales may be diffe rent For exam ple. for the 1964 Alaska
Earthquake. the es timated magnitudes were M" = 6.8. M. = 8.6 a nd M w = 9.2. Although there are some
advantages in these magnitude scales. probab ly the Richte r scale is still quite popu lar and is co mmonly used
in practice.
Energy released in an earthqua ke
A relatio nship betwee n the amoun t of the stra in energy released by an eart hquake and its magnitude is
given by Richter as
logJOE = 11.4 + 15M ... (32.4)
where E is the ene rgy released in ergs ( I erg = 10-7 1)
and M is the magn itude of the ea rthq uake.
Earthquakes release huge amount of energy. An earthqu ake of magnitude 6.3 would release e nergy equal
to about 8 x 1020ergs. which is equal to that of the atomic bomb dropped at Hiroshima in 1945. Fortunately.
the most of ene rgy released by an earthquake is dissipated inside the earth into heat and fracturing of rocks.
Only a small fraction of the energy goes into seis mic waves that cause shaking of the ground surface.
It may he noted that with an increase of one on the magnitude sca le would result in an increase in
amplit ude of ten time s and an increase in energy of 3 1.6 time s.
The affected area and the durat ion of the earthquake increase with an increase in magnitud e of the
earthqu ake. The a ffected area depend s upon a numbe r of factors such as the depth of focus, type of strata,
etc. The affected area s by the earthquakes of magnitudes 6. 7 and 8 respectively would be of the order of
6O.{)(X}. 120.000 and 200.000 squa re kilometres. The corresponding durati on of eart hquakes would be of the
order of 15. 30 and 45 seconds. For e xample. the Koyna earthquake of 1967 (M = 6.5 ) affected an area of
abo ut 400 km radius . with an area of about 126000 sq. km.
32.5. INTENS ITY OF EARTHQUA KES
The intens ity of an eart hquake is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it <It a partic ular
location. In general. the larger the eart hqua ke, the greater is the inte nsity. For the same earthq uake. the
intensity decreases as the epicentral dis tance of the location increases. Thus the maximum intensity of an
earthquake is ncar its e picenter.
Severa l intensity scales have bee n proposed by different investigators. Generall y. mod ified Merca lli
Intensity (MMI) sca le is used in practice. IS: 1893-20::>2 a lso recommends the use of Co mprehensive Intensity
Sca le (MSK 64 ). Both MMI and MSK 64 scales are similar. However. MSK 64 scale gives more detailed and
specifi c descriptions of the dam ages ca used. Both the scales c ategorise the damag e s in twel ve classes or

@
degrees. The intensity is usuall y e xpressed in Roman Numerals . I. II....XII. Som etimes, the intensity is also
expre ssed in grades I, 2. ... 12. In general. the greater the intensit y at a location. the greater would be the .'.
damag e caused by the eart hquake. Table 32.2 gives
an abridged version of the MMI sca le.
An isosrismai map represents the affected
regions with the sa me intensity , us co ntours.
On-the-spot study of the damages caused by an
earthqu ake is made soo n after its occurrence. The
(91 ....~
<--A
locatio ns with different intensities are marked on IX
the plan of the area. The isoseisma l lines are then
drawn by join ing the points of the same intensity. VIII ~\\
The proced ure is sim ilar to that of drawing of ..
ele vation con tours from the e levat ions of different
points. Fig. 32.4 shows the isoseis rnal map of the
Bhuj earthqua ke of 2001. The maximum intensity Fig. 32.4. I ~ i smal map of lhe 2001 Bhuj (India) EarthqUOlke
(MS K inte nsily)
 GEOTECHN ICAL EART HQU AKE EN G I~EER I N G
""
Tabl e 32.2 . Mod ified Mercall i Int e nsi ty (MMI) Sca le
lntr nsity Evaluatio n Description M ug'l i/lI clt' IlII
Cl lI u Richte r's scale
I I n~i~n ificam Not felt by humans. de tec ted by ins tru me nts only 1- 1.9
11 Very light Felt only by sensitive humans; delicately suspended objects may 2 - 2.9
swing
III Ughl Felt notice ably Indoors: smJII vibratory monon 3 - 3.9
IV Moderate Fell by many persons: windows and doors make crdCking so unds . 4 -4.9
V Slighlly slrong Felt by almost everyone; some panic; minor damages 5-5.9
VI Strong Felt by all; mallY frightened ; some damage 10 ordinary slructures 5 - 5.9
VII Very strong Everbody runs outdoors: negligible damage 10 well- built wrucnncs: 5-5.9
considerable damge 10 other structures
VIII Destrucnve Sfight damage (0 well-built structures; serious damage 10 ordinary 6-6.9
structures
IX Ruinous Consi derable damage to well-built structures 6-6.9
X Disas rocs Serious damage to w ell-built structures; almos t total destructio n of 7 - 7.9
non-seismic resistant struct ures
XI Extremely dtsastrous Al most total destruction; broad fissures in ground 7 - 7.9
XII Ca tast rophic Total damage; waves seen on ground; objects thrown into tbe air. 8-8.6

observed was X. The cont ours of intensity IX. VIn , VII arc also marked . From the MMI sca le. it can be
observ ed that lhe eart hquake was of intensity cla ssified as di sastro us.
Th e difference between the magnitud e and the intensity should be carefully noted. Wh ile the magni tude
of an earthquake has a unique value. the intensity decre ases as the d istance from the epice nter increases . In
othe r words. fIJI'a ce rtain ea rthquake. the intensity varies with the distance . So metimes, a sound sourc e (or an
elect ric bulb) analog y is used 10 de mon strate the difference between the ma gnit ude and the inte nsity. Whi le
the strength of the sou nd so urce (or electric bulb) is constant. the inte nsity of sound (or light)· decreases as
the observe r move s awa y from the source.
1. Relationship between magnitude and maximum intensity
The Gute nberg-Ric hte r rela tion is co mmonly used in practice : accord ing to which, the magnitude and

j inten sity are approx imat ely related as

M = 1.3 + 0.6 / 0
where M is the magnitu de of the earthquake, and 10 is the maximum intensity on MMI sca le (ex pressed in
•• • (32 .,5)

Arabic numerals ).
Table 32 .3 ' gives the commo nly Used values of inten sitie s for different magnitud es of earthquakes.

J Table 32.3. valu es of the maxi mum intensitie s for different magnitu des of earthq uakes.
Ma gllill1dt' (M )
MaximulII il l/( 'II $;I .\' /III
MMfscole
XI

2. Relationship between peak gro u nd acceleration and intensity

Th e earthquake eng ineers require the value of the maximu m ground acce leration so that they ca n design
lhe structures and asse ss the liquefaction cha racteristics of soils. The e xact va lue of the maxim um seismic
acceler ation cannot be theo retically dete rmined with prese nt state of knowledge.
The follo wing expre ssio n is somet imes used to estima te the peak ground acce leration from the intensi ty
of the eart hquake at any location :
844 SOIL MEC HAN ICS AND FOUNDATiON ENGINE ERING

laglo a = l '-
0.5 .. .(32.6)
where a is the peak ground acceleration in cn1l52, and I is I.he intensity o n MMI scale (expressed in Arabic
numera ls).
11is the usual practice to represe nt groun d accelerations in terms of me acceleration due to gravity (x).
Table 32.4 gives the approximate values of the peak. ground accelera tion for differen t intensit ies of
earthquake as given by Bolt (1993) .
Table 32.4. Peak ground accele rations for d ifferent intensities of earthquakes
x
> 0.60

According to IS: 1893: 2002, the basic zone factors (z) given in the code are reasonable estimates of
effective peak ground acceleration for the design of various structures. Table 32.5 gives the zone factors for
different seismic zone s. The intensity as per MSK 64 broadly associated with the various zones is also given.
Table 32.5. Intensity and Zone factor s for different se ismic Zones
Seismic Wile
Illteruit}' OJ per MSK 64 Jcale VI or less IX and-above
ZoIle factori: tin terms of g} 0. 10 0.36

32.6. EFFECT OF GROUND MOTION ON STRUCTURES

An earthq uake produces seis mic waves that cause the earth's crust to vibrate. These waves impart a
mome ntary acceleration to the earth's crust and it starts moving in the d irection in which the wave is
travell ing at that insta nt. The characteristic.. of vibratio n, such as inte nsity, d uration, etc.. at any location
depend upon a number of factors, includ ing the following:
(I) the magn itude of earthquake
(il) the depth of focus
(iii) the epice nua l d istance
(iv) the charac teristics of the material through which the seismic waves travel.

Inertia Force
Whe n the ground motion occ urs, the founda tion of the struct ure must also move with it to avoid its
rupture . When the foundation moves, the structure on it tends to stay back because of inertia. Conseq uently,
the structure is subjected to inertia forces. In the earthq uake-resista nt design of structures, the inertia forces
due to earthq uake are considered in additi on to the normal loads and forces.
To get a clear idea about the inertia forces, let us consider that a person is sitting upright in a railway
train not in motion. When the train suddenly starts moving, his lower body on the seat moves. with the train
.l
but his upper body tends to stay back beca use of inertia. An inertia force acts on his up per body in the
back ward directio n and his head may strike the back of the seal.
Accord ing to New ton's second law of motion. the inertia force is eq ual 10 the product of the mass and
acceleration, and it acts in a d irection opposite to thai of the accele ratio n. Thus the horizontal ine rtia force is
given by the express ion
F" =: Mass x acce leration

F. =: (7)
(A ItR) =: WAit ... (32.7)

where Ait is the seismic coefficie nt in the horizontal d irection, and W is the seismic weight.
GEOTECHNICALEARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

When the horizont al sha king

of the ground occ urs. the hori- FLOOR SLAB
zontal inertia forces are generated
at the level of the mass of the
structure. which is usually assumed
tNER TlJo
to be co nce ntrated at the floor FORCE
levels (Fig. 32.5). These inertia
forces are transferred from the
floor slab, through the walls (or
columns), to the foundation, and
finally LO the strata below the
foundation. In the earthquake-
resistant de sign. it is e n..ured that
eac h of the structural elemen ts. COLUMNS
including floor slabs. walls.
columns and fo undations. can
safely transfe r the inertia forces
through them . Moreo ver. the
co nnections betwee n the various
structural e lements are properly
designed and co nstructed .
Respon se spectrum
If the buildin g were rigid, the n
e very poin t on it would move by _
the same amou nt as the ground, EARTHQUAKE SHAKING
a nd co nsequently, the inertia force Fig. n .s. lnerua force on a ~i m ple structure
would be equal to the mass mult iplied by the ground acce leration. BUI the buildings are flexible, and different
parts move beck-and-forth by different amounts during ground shaking.
The natural period of vibration of a structure is the lime period of its undamped . free vibration. The
f undamenta l natural period of vibration is that for the first (or fundament al) mode of vibration of that
structure. Each structure has a unique fundamental period of vibration at which it tends to vibrate when it is
allowed 10 vibrate freely without any ex ternal exc itation. The fundamental natural period depe nds upon the
form a nd con figuration of su ucture. the stiffness (or fle xibility) of the various structura l members, the type
and materi al of co nstruction. ere. Methods for the determination of the fundamenta l period of a structure are
outside the scope of this text. Howe ver. IS: 1893-2002 gives the empirica l formu lae for the estimation of
fundamental natu ral period of vibration for buildings that can he used (see See n, 32.8).
For the e stimation of seismic forces in structures, the response spectra arc co mmonly used in practice.
The response spectrum of a str ucture shows the maximum response ind uced in the structure by the ground
motion. It is usually plotted in terms of the max imum absolute accelera tion against natural per iod, although
sometimes the maximum relative veloc ity or the maximum relative displacemen ts are also used. While
plo tting the response spectrum. it is assumed that the structure has single deg ree of free dom and it may have
d iffere nt da mping. In other words, the maximum response spectrum represents the maxim um acce leration of
a n idea lised single degree freedom systems ha ving a ce rtain natural per iod of vibration and dam ping when it
is subjected to ea rthquake ground motion.
Fig. 32.6 shows the maximum response spectru m for a typical struct ural syste m with a certai n natural
period and damp ing.
The fo llowing points may be noted :
I. The response o f the system decreases a.__ the dampi ng of the system increases.
In buildings, usually 5% dampin g is assumed .
 SO IL MEC HANICS AN D FO UND AT IO N ENG INEER ING

2. As the natural period

increases. the accele-
ration first increases
to a maximum value
and then il decreases.
For the structural
system shown, the
greatest accelera tion
occurs when natural
period is about 0.3 s,
3. It is the usual practice
in the earthq uake-
resistant desig n to
represent the struc-
tural response by the '·0
' ·0 ' ·0
response factor or
Per io d (5)
spectral coefficient in
the normalised for m
as 5../ g. Fig. .n .6. The maxi mum response spccuum (If a typicat slruc tural system

4. The response spectrum helps the earthquake engineer to predict how a particular structure with a
certain natural pe riod will respond to the earthquake .
5. TIle response spectra are commo nly used in the estimation of seismic forces. as disc ussed later.
32.7. GENER AL PRINCI PLES OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN
Some of the general principles of the design of earthquake-resistant design of structures arc briefly
discussed below. For more details, a reference may be made to IS: 1893-2002.
I. Design ba sis earthquake. In the earthquake-resistant design, it is not the objective to make the
J
structure absolutely earthquake proof that witt not suffer any damage during the rarest of the earthquakes. A
fully earthquake-proof structure will be very huge and highly expensive. Instead. a n attempt is made that the
structure should be able to withstand the minor earthquakes that occur frequently in that region. Moreover,
the structure should be able to resist moderate earthq uakes. called design basis earthquakes (DRE). without
significant structural damage. Such eanhquakes could occur once duri ng the life of the structure. Even a
major earthq uake. called the maximum considered earthq uake (MCE). with its intensity greater than that of
the design ba...is earthq uake. would not cause complete collapse of a properly desig ned and constructed
structure and the losses would be limited.
2. Pseud o-sratk analysis. Earthquakes cause dynamic loading on structures. However, for the design of
earthquake-resistant structures, the dynamic analysis i ~ usually not carried out. Instead, a pseudo-static
analysis is used in which the earthquake forces are replaced by equivalent static forces. These forces are
considered in addition to the normal loads on the structure for its design.
It is assumed that the forces due to earthquake are not likely to occur simultaneo usly with other
occasional forces such as wind loads, maximum 1100d forces or maximum sea waves forces.
3. Co mpo nents of acceler at ion . Earthquakes can cause acceleration in any direction. It is the usual prac-
tice to consider the compo nents of acceleration in the venlcel direction and in two perpendicular horizontal
direction. Moreover. the acceleratio n compo nents can be either positive or negative in these three directions.
Since the three components of earthquake acceleration may not act at the same time with their ma ximum
magnitude. the code recommends that when the maximum response from one component OCCUP.i. the response
from the other IW O components can be 30 perce nt of their maximum values. All possible combinations.
including plus or minus signs. should he considered in the des ign.
Generally, the horizontal acce leration is the most predominant.
GEOT ECHN ICAL EA RTHQU A KE ENGINEERlr-;C;
""
4. Increase in permissibl e st res ses. The vertical component of acceleration can increase the normal
vertical loads on the structure. BeCilUSC of the provision of ade quate factors of safety used in the normal
design of structures. most of the suuc rurcs are ab le to resist the addi tional momentary vertical loads due to
earthquakes.
According 10 the code. when eart hqua ke forces arc co nsidered along with the norma l design forces. the
permiss ible stresses in mater ials in the clastic method of design car. be increased by nne-third. However. for
stee ls having a definite yield stress. the increased stress lTIay h(- limited to the yield stre!lis. and for steels
without a definite yield point. the stress may be limited to SO percent of the ultim ate streng th nr 0.2 percent
proof strain. whicheve r is smaller,
5. Incre ase in all owabl e beaeing pre ssure . The allowab le bearing pressure in soils ca n be increased by
25 to 50% . depe ndi ng on the type of soil alld type of fo undat ion as per de tails given in the code.
Howe ver. for so ils thai arc liable 10 liquefaction. this increase is not applicable. Soi ls fallin g under Indian
Standa rd Class ification category SP ti.e.• poor ly graded sands). with standard penetration test (SPT ) Ncvnlues
less than 15 in se ismic zones III. IV and v and less than 10 in zone II may become lique fied. Suitab le
measures for preventi on of liquefaction. as discussed later. arc adop ted.
6. Horizonlal and Vertic,.1 inntia for ces. TIle prcdorninunt direction o j ground motion is usually
horizontal. Th erefore. the horizontal se ismic forces are most imp ortant for the earthquak e-resistant design. The
methods for the estimatio n of horizontal seismic forces are discus sed in the next section.
According to the code. the vertical inertia forces arc to he considered in the design unles s c hecked and
prove r'!that they are not signiticu m. When effects due to vertica l earthquake loads arc to he co nsidered. the
design vertica l acce leration spectrum is taken a...two..thirds of the design horizonta l acceleration spec trum.
Vertical inertia forces arc important for structures in which stability is a crit erion for des ign. such a...
retaining walls. cantilevered members and prestressed horizontal mem bers. Red uction in grav ity forces due 10
vertical component of ground OIntion can he de trimen tal in some structures.
7. Resonance. Accordi ng 10 the code. resonance of the type as visualized under steady-sta le conditions
will not occur becau se the earthq uakes have irregular motion of «hen dura tion in wh ich there is not adeq uate
time 10 build up the required am plitudes.
However. if the struct ure's fundamental period is close to that of site. resonance may occur. Such
conditions ha ve been observed for some tall huild ings on dee p soft soils.
H. Base she ar . Inertia forces genera ted in the structure due 10 an eart hq uake are assumed 10 he transferred
to the base of the structure as the base shear. The base transfers these forces to the foundat ion. which. in tum .
transfers them to the grou nd.
All the components of the structure and foundat ions arc designed to resist these forces in addit io n to the
normal forces.
The distribution of the seis mic forces in different structural cleme nts is done by the methods of structural
analysis beyond the scope of this text.
32.8. DESIGN SEISMIC COE FFIC IENT
According to IS: 1893· 2002 , the design horizontal coe fficient Air for a structure can he determined from

the following "p:,.,,~o(~ J(~ J(: J ... (32.8)

where.
Z = Zone factor of the seismic LOne (For seism ic zones II. Ill . IV and V. the va lues of zone factor are .
g iven as 0. 10. 0. 16. 0.24 and 0.36. respectively).
I = Importance factor. II depen ds upon the functiona l usc of the structure. The value of I is 1.5 foe-'
important serv ice co mmunity buildings. such as hospitals. schools. railwa y sialions. fire stations
c inema halls. etc.
For all other buildings. its value is 1.0.
 SOIL M ECH ANI CS A NI) FOU ND ATION ENGINEERING
""
R = Respon se red uction fuctor. It

i1'"
depend s o n the perc eived sci..mic
damag e performance of the struc-
lure. The value of R vanes tmm 1.5 z
s-o
~
10 5.0 for diff erent type s of buil -
din gs. For ord inary R.C. moment - I ( Roc k ,H.lr d Soi l)
resisting frames, its value is J .O. 8 '-5 II ( Ml'd iu m Soil)
TIle rati o IIR ..hould nOI he greate r
than 1.0. s '-0 III (Solt Soil )

S,lg = Average respo nse acceleration

coe fficie nt. It indica tes the ave rage ~ '-5
smoot hened rlOi o f ma ximum acce -
lerat io n. II de pends upon the ty pe o f
~ ' -0

simla and natur al period .

Fig . 32.7 gives the values o f (S'/JO (Of
g 0 -'

rock (or hard soil), medium soil and son soil

sites for 5% da mping . Fur ot her values of
~ 0-0
0-0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 a-s 4·0
dampin gs, the code g ives the multi plying PERIOO (~ )

fac tors. Th e ma xim um value of S,IR is 2.50 . ( ~rawn aft ('l' IS : 189 3 - 1001 )

Nat ural per iod

For detennining the value of (SiN) for a Fil!. 32.7. Rcspnnsc spct:tra for rock a.m.
1 soil sites for 5 percen,' damping
give n struc ture. its natural period of vibrunon Courtrs v: The Bureau of Indian Standards, New Deihl
is req uired. The code gives the follow ing approx ima te fo rmul ae fo r the co mputation of the fundamen tal
natura l period of vibrauon (T ,) .
(a) Moment-resisting f rame Imifdi/lX.\· ""itholll brick: infil -panels
(I) s.c. fram e buildin gs
T, = n .075 h07.~ .•• (32.9)
(iii Steel frame hu ilding s
T, = 0.08 5 h0 7~ . •. (32. 10)
Ib) All other buildings. il/cll/dill/: moment-resisting Jm mn with brick infil- panels
T _ O.09h ___ 132_ 11)
, - '7d
where,
T, = natura l period of vibration, in seconds .
II = height of build ing, as specified in the code, in metres.
d = base di mensio n of the buildi ng at the plinth level alo ng the d irec tion of the lateral force, in met res .
The code specific s tha t for any stru cture with 1'., :s; 0. 1 s. the value of A~ will not be taken less than
(7/2), whate ver be the value of fIR .

32.9. DESIGN SE ISM IC FO RCES

The design seism ic force s are comp uted as explained bel ow;

(a) Design lat eral Coree

The total design late ral force actin g on the structure is eq ual to the produ ct of the de sign hori zontal
coefficient (A It ) and the seis mic weight of the structu re. The seismic weig ht of a building is equal to the sum
o f the seismic we ight s of all the floors of the build ing. lbe
se ismic we ight of each Floor is equa l to its fu ll
- dea d load plus an appropriate fract ion of the imposed load . as spec ified in the code . While computing the
GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 849

seismic weight of any Floor. the dead we ight of colum ns and walls in any storey i .~ eq ually di stributed to thc
floor s abo ve and below them.
Th e desi gn seismic base shear act ing on the structure is equal to the total design latera l force and is given
by the express ion
. .. (32.1 2)
where
A~ = des ign hor izo nta l seis mic coeffic ient
W = seis mic weight (If the buiklin g
VB = desig n base shear
The design hase shea r is divribured to di fferent floor le vels. us spec ified in the code . The ho rizontal force
act ing o n the foundation is equal 10 the design base shear.
(b) Design vert ical force
Since the design vertical coefficient is equa l to the two-t hirds of the desig n horizon tal coefficient (A,,).
the design vertica l force is given by the ex pressio n

F" = ~ A~ W .. .(32.12 a)

where W is the se ismic weight of the build ing, and F,. = desig n vertica l force .
Th e design vertical force is transferred from the structure to its fou ndations.
(e) Design of struceuee
Buildin gs and portions the reo f sho uld he des igned and co nstruc ted to resist the e ffect o f design seis mic
forces. Since the seismic forces occ ur suddenly and witho ut warnin g. it is essenti al to avo id co nstruction
practice s that lead to britt le failure. The membe rs should be designed to behave in a du ctile manne r so that
comp lete co llapse o f the structure is avoided eve n du ring severe earthquakes. Ac tual des ign is beyo nd the
scope of this text.
(d) Design of foundation
Since . the ea rthqua ke-resis tant designs arc ge nerally performed by pseud o-stati c analy sis. the seismic
loads on the fo undation are consi dered as static loads . These loads arc capable of produci ng settleme nts like
other load s.
The code permits increa se in allow able hear ing pressure depend ing nn the so il-foundation syste m. The
increase in all owable bear ing pressure is 25 or 50 percent. In soil-foundation systems. where small settlements
are likely 10 occ ur during earthquake. the increa se in a llowab le bearin g pressure is larger, and vice- versa. For
exampl e. for a ll type s of foundations on rock s or hard soil. the permissible increase is 50%. For soft soi ls. the
perm issible increas e for piles resting on hard rock or hard so ils and the raft foundat ions is 50%. whe reas that
for other type s of foundation s. it is 25%,
32.10. SITE-SPECIFIC RESPONSE SPECT RA
,I
The response spectra o f structure urc site -spec ific. as they depe nd upon the type of strata at the site.
Se ismic waves travel differently through soils and rocks . Therefore. the ground shak ing at sites underlain by
soil is d iffere nt From those underlain by rock.
It was obse rved during the 19 S9 Lorna Prieta Earth quake that the sites under lain by deep depo sits of soft
soils expe rienced peak ground accelerati on 'two to three times greater than that at nearby sites on stiff soils or
rock. The structure s founded on soft soils collapsed. whereas adja cent buildin gs found ed On stiffer soils
withstood the shoc k without co llapsing.
Similarly . in the 1985 Mich oacan Earthquake. the damages 10 buildings in Mexic o city. 350 km from the
epicenter, were much worse than in othe r citie s that were much closer. The reason for thi s d ifference is
attrib uted to the difference in site co nd itions. The build ings in Mexico ci ty were underlain by deep deposits
of soft clay .
 SOIL MECHANICS ..... ND FOUNDAT ION ENGIN EERING
8SO

0"

soils

00 0 I 0·2 0 ·3 0 ·'" 0·5 0·6 0·'

Peak horizontal eccejerenco in bedrock (9)
(Redrawn after !driss , 1990)

FiC. 32.8. EIT~1 of sire ~"Ondiljons on the peak h{lfiwnlal eccclc r atlon
Fig. 32.8 gives a simplified, approximate relationship for different soi ls (Seed, et al 1976, and Icr iss.
19'JO),
0·9r------~-__,:__---~
5 .,. DA MPING

0-8

Layer)

'"0'6
I

z
Q 0 ·5
~
~ 0"
'"
u
~ 0·3

1 3
PERIOD (Seconds)
(Redrawn ahe r Seed et at, 1987)

Fig. 32.9. AlXcler31illn respon~ specjra in MC\i~"Il eitv durinJ! the t9115 earthquake
GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQ UAKE ENGI NEERING 851

Even in Mexi co c ity. the

spectral accel erati on for diffe -
rent sites was different (fi g. ' ·0 0 , - - - - - - - -- - - - - ,
32.9). The obse rved response
at rock and liard {!'Jo ils was
fairly low, and the damag e Soil 10 m~d ium cl ays
caused was negligible . and sa nds (soil type 3 l
AI the ce ntral market site
(CAO site). spect ral acce le-
ratio ns were amplified at
periods of 1.3 s and with in the
range o f 3.5 s to 4.5 s. How-
ever , the dama ges we re fairly
minor . since the building s at
the CAO site did not have
fundamental peri ods within
these ranges and rcson- ance
did not occ ur.
However , rea r the SeT
building sites, the soil depo-
sit's fundamen tal period at
which amplification of spectral PE RIOD T t seceoes l
acceleration occu rred ma tched
with those of struc tures and
major dam ages occ urred due
to resonance, Fill. 32.10. 1991 UBC Normalised· occctcrauon response spectra
Uniform Bu ilding Code (199 1) gives the normalised acce leration response spectra for different site
condi tio ns (F ig, 32.10) . The spectral accele rat ion of a structure can be estimated if the followin g parame ters
are known :
(l) System ' s fundamental period (f)
(ii ) Peak ground acceleration of the design earthquake
(i i i) Type of the soil at the site. -
It may be noted that for fundament al periods greater than about 0.5 s. the spec tral acceleration for deep
soi l sites are co nsiderabl y higher than lhal for rock and sliff soils .
32.11, HAZARDS DUE TO EAR TH QUAK ES
T here are man y hazard s due to earthq uakes. The hazards rela ted to geotechnical engincering include the
followin g:
l. Liquefaction of soils. In saturated. cohesionless soils . earthquakes may ca use liquefaction (or q uic k-
sand) cond itions whe n the shear stren gth is reduce d to almost zero .
Liquefaction of soils ca n lead to many types of failure s. such as bearing ca pac ity failure s. sinking or
tilting of build ings . land slides. lateral spreads. notation o f underground struc tures .
liquefaction of soils is discu ssed later.
2. G ro u nd sha ki n~, Shaking of ground occ urs durin g an earthq uake. The intensi ty, durauon and wav e
form of ground shaking depend upon a number o f factors such as the magnitude o f earthquake . the depth of
focus, the epicentra! distance . the energ y absorbing nature of the strata. etc.
The intensit y of ground shaking at a give n location is usually specified in tcrms of peak ground acce lera -
tio n (PGA). There is an approx imate re lationsh ip betwee n the PGA and intensity on MM I scale . as discussed
ear lier. To predict the response o f so ils and foundations, the characteristics of gro und shaking are required.
3. Surface ru p ture. For eart hquake s of sma ll magnitudes, the rupture zone occu rs deep inside the earth
8S2 SO IL MECHAN ICS AND FOUNDATION BNCilNEERING

and it docs not extend to the ground surface. However. for the earthq uakes of magnitudes greater than about
6.0. the rupture surface usually appears at the ground. Moreover . as the magnitude of the earthquake
"increases. the length of rupture surface also increases.
Surface rupture creates a number of problems for buildings, bridges. railways. highways. water supply
lines. etc. that arc located directly above the fault. It is the usual practice 10 locate the buildings and structures
susceptible to heavy damag e not directly over the active faults.
4. La nd slides. Eanhquake s can cause land slides and failure of slopes. Even when the slope failures do
not occur. tension cracks may appear in the soil. These tension cracks may -lead 10 the formation of water
c hannels. ca using softe ning and saturation of soils.
5. La teral sprea d ing. Lateral spreading of soil is the massive horizontal movement of soil layers in a
direct ion parallel to the grou nd slope. Latera l spreading due to earthquakes is usually observed on very gentle
slopes.
If the lateral spreading occu rs beneath a structure. it can tear it apart, causing heavy damages. In the
design of such structures. suita ble provisions are made to withs ta nd tensile stresses.
6. Sh ear I'ailure of foundations, Seismic loads acting on a structure arc transmitt ed to the ground
through the foundation . This results in an increase in the stresses acting on the soil. However, the soils can
withstand seismic stresses without failure if they are not very large. In some cases. when the stre sses exceed
the shear strength of the soil. the hearing capacity failure may occur.
However, shear failures of found ation are not common so long as liquefaction of the soil docs not occur.
7. Seutements of structures . The earthquakes cause cyclic loading on soils. which may lead to large
settleme nts. Loose sandy soils often compact during the earthquake.
Differential settlements can also be substantial. Adequate provisio ns should be made in the design of
structures so that differential settlements do not cause damage.
8. Failure of reta ining walls. If the movements caused by the earthquake are large. the retaining walls
may fail. When a reta ining wall fails. the support it was providing to the soil mass is removed . It may result
in heavy damage to adjace nt structures such as ports. etc.
9. Tsunamis and Sejeb es. A tsunami is' a huge wave generated in the ocean by an earthquake . These
waves travel very fast and cannot be easily detected in ope n sea. However. when they approach the beach,
they suddenly appear as tall waves. These ta ll waves may cause heavy damages 10 onshore structures and can
ha d to loss of l i~e .
A seiche is similar in nature to a tsunami, bUI it is of much smaller size and it occurs in lakes or rivers.
The seiche usually occurs when resonant conditions occ ur in the lake due to an ea rthquakes. i.e.• when the
natural frequency of the lake a nd that of the ea rthquake arc equal. Somet imes a se iche occurs in a lake when
the ruptur e surface is beneath the lake bed.
Early warning systems should he instal!ed so that suitable actions may be taken by the people at the
places where tsunamis and seiches can occ ur.

32.12. LIQ UEFACTION PHENOM,ENON

Liquefaction is a state of saturated
cohesionless soil when its shear strength is'
reduced to zero due to pore water pressure
caused by vibration durin g an ea rthquake.
The soil sta rts behaving like a liquid. To
understand the liquefaction phenomenon. lei

:::o~~~;: ~;a~1 :~::n~~f ~~~u:'~1 ~:~~t

(G.S.). let the depth of water table (W.T.) be
h below the ground surface (Fig. 32.11).
As discussed in Chapter 10. the ' cftec- Fig. 32,II . st resses in a soil ejemem
GEOT ECI INICA L EARTl IQUA KE ENG INEERING

live stress {represented a" rr in this chapter) at a depth z below the G.S. is ,given h)
a' =yh + Y.." (<.-11) - Y.., {z - h)
c' = yh
+ y' (z- II)
where y' is the submerged density ( = y"" - y...)
The shear strength of a cohes ionless soil is due to internal tnct ion and is given by
s = tan cf rr
If the soil deposit is subjec ted to ground vibrations. it lends to compac t and decrea..e in volume.
However. if the drainage of pore water is prevented. this tendency 10 decrease in volume results in a n increase
in pore water pressure. Let II J he the excess dynamic pore water pressure developed due to ground vibration.
The dynamic shear strength is expressed as
SJ = (rr - 11 ,/) tan $'
For sandy soils. the angle of internal friction 41' in the dynamic conditions is almost equal to that in static
conditions.
The dynamic shear strength (s,,) will become zero when
a' = li d
~ =I
Expressing U,/ in terms of the dynamic hydraulic head (h J ).

l~I'f = I

Thus liquefaction in a cohesic nless soil will occur when the dynamic pore water is equal to the effective
stress.
It may be noted thai because of the dynamic pore water pressure. the shear strength of soil is decreased.
II results in transfer of intergranular stress to pore water pre.ssure. If this transfer of stress is incomplete. there
is partial loss of strength and partial liquefaction occurs. Howe ver. if the transfer of stress is complete. the
shear strength become s zero and complete liquefactio n occurs. The sand-water mixture beha ves like a viscous
liquid after complete liquefaction.
Large settlements occur after liquefaction and the structures resting on such a soil deposit start sinking.
This sinking process continues till the sand remains in (he liquefied stale.
It may be summarised thai for liquefaction to occur. all the following five condilions must be satisfied
(Cod UIO. 199 9).
I. The soil is cohesionless.
2. The soil is loose.
3. The soil is saturat ed.
4. There is shaking of ground of the required intensity and durati on.
5. The undrained conditions develop in the soil due 10 its limited permeability.
It is worth noting thai liquefaction can occur in the soil deposit OIl any depth where these conditions are
satisfied. Once liquefaction occu rs at some depth. the flow of water occurs in the upward directio n. and it
may cause an indirect liquefaction in the soil layers above.
It is obse rved that liquefaction normally occurs in the soil class ified as SP according ( 0 Indian Sta ndard
Classification when the SPT number N is less than 15. However. sometimes liquefaction may also occur in
tbe soils classified as SW, SM and ML.
Pine-grained soils do not compress readily under dynamic loadings to ca use a high dynamic pore water
pressure. Moreo ver. they also possess the shear strength due to cohesion. Theref ore. liquefac tion docs not
occur in the fine-grained soils. Howe ver. in quick clays. there is a possibility of liquefaction because their
str6cture is destroyed by shaking.
 SOIL MEC H A NI CS A ND FOUr-.: D AT ION ENGINEE RING

When liquefaction occurs. sand boils (or mud spouts or sand fo untains) appear at the ground surface. A
large nu m ber of sand founta ins were observed during the Dhuhri Earthquake in Assam (19 .14). the Bhuj
Earthquake in Gujar at (20n l) . and many other earthquakes throughout the world. .
Lique faction of so il is respons ible foc many failures of eart h struc tures. slopes . foundations. It may also
lead 10 land slides. lateral spreads. sinking of struc tures and flotation of underground struct ures.
32.13. FACTORS AFFECT ING LIQ UEFACTION
The following factors mainly atfcct the liquefaction of soils in the field.
l. Soi l type, As already disc ussed. liquefaction usually OCCUf§ in co hesionless soi ls. espec ially soils of
type SP.
On the other hand. liquefaction does not occ ur in fine-grained. cohesive soils. However. highly sensitive.
quick clays may liquefy.
2 . Particle size and ~radation. Fine. uniform sands are more prone 10 liquefaction than coarse. well-
graded sands. Since the permeability of coa rse sands is greater than that of fine sands. the pore water pressure
is rapidl y dissipa ted in such sands and liquefaction normally docs not occ ur.
Liquefaction pote ntial of sands depends on perce ntage of fines (Sill.' < 0.075 mm ) present in it. For 1l sand
of a give n initial relative density, as the percentag e of fine increases. the liquefaction potent ial is decreased .
3. Initia l relati ve dens ity. Liquefaction of sands depend s to a large exte nt o n the initial relative density
(or den sity index). In dense sands. hoth pore water pressure and scttfements are co nsiderably less than those
in loose sands. Hence the pro neness of sand to liquefaction is red uced with an increa se in relative de nsity
indicated hy SPT number (or co ne penetration resistance).
4. Length of drainage pa th . If the length of d rainage path is large. a sand depo sit wou ld behave as
undrained when the pore water pressure is sudde nly inc reased d ue to earthquake and the liquefac tion may
occur.
The len gth of the drainage path is sometimes red uced by pro viding drain s of highly perv ious materials in
sand depos its.
5. Surcharge loads. The initial effective stress in the sand depos it ca n be increased by the applica tion of
a surcharge load on it. With an increase in the effective stress. the trans fer of stress from the soil particles to
tbe po re water is de layed . Thu s the sand deposit wou ld require higher inten sity vibrat ions for greater durat ion
when the surcharge loads are app lied to it.
6. Chara cteris tics of vihration. The main c haracteristics of vibration are its acceleration. frequency.
amplitude and velocit y. For liq uefactio n of soils. the first IWO characte ristics. namely. acceleration and
frequency. are more dom ina nt.
Acce leration dur ing vibration is the most important characteristics affecting Hque fectlo n of soils. In
genera l. the greater the acceleration. the greater are the cha nces of liq uefaction. Liquefaction usually occurs
only after 01 ce rtain number of vibration cycles arc repe ated.
Frequency of vibrat ion is important if it is close to the natural frequency of the soil-foundation system
and resonance occurs .
7. Age of soil de posit . If the soil t!epnsil is very o ld. its prone ness to liq uefaction is relati vely low as
co mpared to that of a recent so il deposit. In o ld dep osits. some form of cementation occ urs at the co ntact
po ints of sand pa rticles and the tran sfer of interpa rticle stresses to pore water is delaye d.
8. Trapped ain-lf air is trapped in a sand de posit. a pan uf the pore water pressure is dissipated 'due to
its compression. There fore. the possihil ity of liquefactio n is reduced to some extent.
9. MiM'ellaneous fact ors. Some miscellaneous factors such as soil structure. meth od uf ~oi l defo rmations.
etc. also affect the liq uefac tion charac teristics of soils but their effec t b. not sigm ficanr.
32.14. ASSESSMENT OF SUSCEPTIBILITY O F A SOI L TO LI Q UEFACTION
II is important 10 kno wn whether the soil OIt tbc site is susceptib le 10 lique faction or not. so that suitable
measures may be adop ted. if req uired. Recent research has been directed in this d irectio n. varices methods
GEOTECHNICA L EA RT HQU A K E ENGl N EER I~ G

have bee n prop osed by differ ent in vcstignror s. Th e cyclic stress approach is generall y u-cd in most of the
methods .
The cyclic stress rauo is de fined as the nui o of the cyc lic shear stress ( t ) (0 the initi al effect ive stress
(0 0' ) , the cycl ic stress rati o prod uced by the ea rthqu ake (t / o-o'),1 is compared w ith that required t il induc e
lique fac tion in the so il (t/oo' ),. The factor of safety (F ) aga inst liquefa ction is es timated as
• (l / o-oJ/
,. = (t /<1o')" . .(32.13)
Liquef action would occ ur if F is less tha n unity. However . il has been obse rved that ",ignifica nt r o re
water rrel>surcs occur even at the values of F sli!!htly greate r than 1.0. Generall y. a minim um fac tor of safely
of 1.25 (0 1.50 is spec ified.
The pro ne ness of a so il deposit to liquef action is asse ssed at various de pths in a so il dep os it. The factors
o f safe ty at all the poi nts sh ould he wit hin the required limi t.
(a ) Es tima tion of th e cy~l ic st ress ....ttio produced by the earthquake
The average cycli c shear stress im parted by the eart hq uake in the top 12 m of a so il deposit ca n be
estim ated as (Seed and Idri ss. 19R21

. . .(32.14)

where,
Clm.u = max im um horiz ont al accele ration (M HA ) at the ground surf:lce
2
g = accele rat ion due to gra vity (= 9 .8 1 m/s )
0"0 = tot al vertic al stress al the po int of interest
00' = effective vert ical stress at the sa me point
(t/O"O),I = cyc lic stress ratio prod uced by the design earthqu ake .
r" = stress reduction factor.
The mai n problem is in the
es timat ion of the ma ximu m 11Ori-
zontal eccclcrano n. (01nn~) . It
dep ends upon a numbe r o f factors
suc h as the magnitud e of the earth-
quake. the foca l depth . the di stan ce
.,

-- -.
to the fault trace. the respon se of
rhc sitcc ctc.
The ener gy released by an .,
earthquake auc nuarcs as the WOlves
tra vel away from (he zo ne o f ·5
fractu re . Conseque ntly, the ma xi- .,
mum horizo ntal accel eration dec-
reases as the epiccmrnt distance .a
-,
increa ses. Fig. 32. 12 shows a
., -,
typic al auentuauon curve for the
rock sites in the ce ntral U.S. .\
regi ons (N unl i and H crnnun n,
1989 ). 0, "'---
Th e values of the ma ximum '"
EPICENTRAL DISTAN CE (km)
100

horizont al acc eleration (M HAl at

(Redrawn after Nuttli and Herrmann . 1984 )
roc k sites get further modi fied due Fig. 32.12. MHA allcn ualion rclalionshil" for nls ",7-5
'>6 SOI L MECHANICS AND FOUN DATION ENGINEER ING

10 local soi l cond itions. Fig. 32.8 (sec Sect. 32. 10)
shows the variation of MHA at different soil sites with
respect 10 that ar rock sites. both the acceleratio ns are
expressed in terms ...r accelerati on due 10 gravity. It
may be noted thai 'me MHA at sites on deep clay depo- S tre-55 Re-d uct io n Fac tor . d
sits may be upte 3 limes greater than thai at rock sites.
The stress reduction factor (' "J) depends upon the g-"'-'r0-' --";--=r-':::;:----:;
0·1 0 ·8 0 ·9

depth of the point of interest below the ground surface. s

The average curve (Fig. 32.13) is generally used in 10
practice (Seed and Idriss. J 97 1). ts
The relationship can be approximate as 1()

r J = 1-0.008 x depth in metres ... (32 , [5)

Accordi ng 10 IS : 189 3-2002 . the barsic LOne fac tors
-"
.:: 30
(2:) are reasonable csn ma re of effect ive peck ground < 3
acceleration in di ffe rent seismic zones of India.
1"86010 induce liquefaction in a soil
(b ) Cycl ic stress
"~"
SO
The cyclic stress ratio ('r/o-o') , required to induce
liquefaction in a given saturate d sand deposit de pends (Redrawn after Seed . el at, 1971)
Fig. 32. 13. Variation of su ess red uction facIO!" wuh dl'Pth
upon a number of factors. In the simplified analysis
given below, only the following three fac-
tors arc considered (Seed, e r aI., 1985).
I. The correc ted standard penetration
test (SPT) number indicated as
(Nd6l1, obtained from the SPT
number (N)Ml measured in the field.

-~ i 0 6 r---.---<TT"-~--~-_,
(N.)60 = N60 'I ~ ...(32 . 16) j5
",
(N. >t.o = standard SPT Numbe r corrected
.:t-u o.'f..:..=.=t-.:::=+-+-=;-- + - --i
i~
for overburd e n pressu re
(N)6lJ = standard SPT Number measured
0,'
in the field (duly corrected for
field procedures)
0/ = vertical effective stress at the
test section (kPal .
2. The particle size distribu tion.
expressed as perce ntage of fines
i.e., percent passing the US No.
200 sieve ( = 0.075 Jl) . After-
~
.e ~~ ~~
l }J d
··
natively, the mea n grain size ([)~)
p," ~icandata 0
can be used . u d...
J~1~e-~ dala 0
Soils with less tha n 5 percent C
0.0
0 10 30
fines are most susceptib le to lique-
faction. As the percent of fines (N ,)l,o
20
'" SO

incr9 ses. the liquefaction potential (Redrawn after Seed et at. 1985)
decreases. Fig. 32.14, Cyclic stress rano 10 C Olli S C hquefaction OlS a funcl lon of
corrected SPT {N tl!>!"
GEOTEC HNICAL EARTlI QUAKE ENGINEERING

3. The durat ion of shaking or the magnit ude of the earthquake . As the dur ation of the earthq ua ke
increases. the suscep tibility of a soil to liq uefaction also increases. In other words. the possibility of
liquefaction is increased as the magnitud e of the earthq uake is increased because tbe duration
increa ses with the magnitude.
Fig. 32.14 . gives relationship between the cyclic stress ratio causing liquefact ion (t/ O"o') / and the SPT
Number (N 1)f,(J values for different values of fines for an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 .
If the magnitude of the earthq uake is not 7.5. the value of (t /O n' ), obtained is 10 be corrected using the
relation

( C'
r
o
JM
"" If (0-
t
0
1
s
.. .(32. 17)

where (t / o O')M is the cyclic stress ratio for the magnitude M and (t/ llo' h~~ is that fo r the magnitude 7.5
o btained from Fig. 32.14.
'i' is known as the magn itude scaling factor.
Fig. 32. 15 givcs the value of 'i' for d ifferent
magnitud es as g iven hy various investigators. For
the earthq uakes of magn itude greater than 7.5. -' -~ f' d and Id r i u (198 1)
generally the value given by Ambra scys is used . as · ····Ambra SE-ys ( 1983)
it gives the minimum va lue of 'i' in most cases. For
the eart hquakes o f magnitudes less tha n 7.5. the
value g ive n by Seed and Idriss may he used us it
gives conservative va lues.
It is more appropriate 10 usc the surface wave
magnitud e (M,) (or eart hquakes of mag nitudes
grea ter than 6.5.
Once the values o f (t /llo') " and (t/On' )! have
been ob tained. the factor of safety against
liquefaction ca n be estimated from Eq. 32. 13. Thus
the zone where the soil is like ly 10 liquefy ca n be
located . Suitable measures c an he adop ted to
prevent liquefactio n. if requ ired. Magnitude
32.15. PREVENTION OF LIQUEFACTION
It is e xtremely difficul t and impractical III Fig. 32.15. The vanal ion of scaling factor IjI wrth Iho:
prevent liquefaction of so il in the field when the magnllutlc of the canhqual e.
suscep tible zone ex tends 10 a large depth. It is gcnurall y best not 10 const ruct buildings and o ther struc tures
at site s prone to liquef action . Becau se the remediation of the liquefaction hazard is quite expensive . it wou ld
be cos t e ffective on ly ,It the sites where the land cos t is extremely high.
Remediation is sometim es necessary at sites that have been developed and the buildin gs already exist and
later it has bee n fou nd that the so il is pmn e to liquefaction. This ge nerally hap pens whe n adeq uate site
investigations were not made prior 10 the construction of buildings .
The followin g measures can he adopted til prevent liquefactio n or to lim it the dama ges caused by
liq uefactio n. '
1. Providing deep foundations. The structures sho uld he supported on dee p foundations. suc h as piles.
that ex tend through the liquefiable soil In deeper strong and stable strmu.
Since such piles will not he able to resist lateral loads in the liquefiable soil. othe r measur es should be
adopted to resist lateral loads.
2. Compa ct ion of so iLs. The lique faction of a soil can he prevented by compacti ng the soil and
increa sing its relative den sity. Compact ion is usua lly done hy mea ns of vibratory rolle rs. compact ion piles.
 SO IL MEC HAN ICS AND FOUNDA TION ENG INEERING

vibroflotation . blastin g. etc. (sec Chapter 14).

The extent to which the cornpscno n should he done is ascert ained by estimating the required SPT No. to
pr event liquefaction for that soil for the design eart hquake.
3. Repla cing th e liquefiable soil. If the de pth of the liquefiable soil is limited. it can be excavated and
replaced with a well co mpacted soil.
Howeve r. if the depth of the liquefiable soil is large, it becomes impracti cal 10 replace the soil because
it requires exte nsive dewa tering systems.
This method is however sometimes adopted at the sites of crit ical project.. such as eart h dams.
.a. GJ"Outi ng th e soil . In this method. the soil is stabilised by injecting che micals or cement gfC'utinto the
soil (see Chapter 15 ).
Thi s method is some times used at sites where building s a lready exist and other method s ca nnot he used
5. Ground wat er pumping. As already discussed. the effective stress at a poin t increases as the water
table is lowered. By restoring to extensive ground water pumping. the liquefac tion can be prevented 10 some
extent . However, this method is cost effective o nly when the water that is pumped can be used for municipal
and industrial purposes.
6. Drainage of soils . 111e liquefaction hazard can he reduced to some exter n hy providing coarse sand
blankets and drains in the soil deposit. 11 11~ dynamic pore water pressure is thus eas ily dissipated and the
effec tive stress is increased.
7. Providing stone columns. In this method, a number of holes are bored in the soil depos it and later
filled with gravel and stones. Thus stone col umns are fonn ed.
The stone columns ha ve high permeabilit y und are quite effec tive for rapid drainag e of pore water. Thus
the effect ive stress is increased. (TIle beha vior of stone co lumns is somewhat similar 10 that o f the sand drains
used for consohdanon of soils. d iscussed in Chapter 12)
8 , App lication of sur-charge. As already d iscussed, when a surcharge load is ap plied to a soil deposit .
the effective stress is increased. Th us the poss ihility of liquefaction is redu ced .
Monitorin g of the pore water pressure will he required to assess the mugnuudc of the surcharge load anti
its duration.
ILLUST RAT IVE EXA~fPLK';;

lIIuslnllh'e Example 32.1. The standard torsio n seismograph records {I trace amplitude of 12.5 mm ill
E-W direction and a Inle l' amplitude of 11..1 11/1/1 ill N-S direction (If WI cpicentral distance of I/O lan. If the
station correction is + 0./. estimate the magnirude of IIIl' earthquake,
Solut ion. From Eq. 32.2 (b).
M = loglOA + distance correctio n
The distance correc tion for cpicc nu al distance of I h) krn is + 3. 1 from Fig, 32.3.
In E-W direction , M = 1(>&1012.5 + :\.1 = 4.2
Applying the station correc tion. M = ".2 + fl. I = ".3
Similar ly. in N-S direction. M = log:o 11.4 + 3.1 + 0.1 = " ,2h
Average value of M = 43 ~ 4.26 ,;;"4.28, say .a.3

Illustrative Exa mple 32.2, Estima te 11Il' l'/lug\' released by (/II ' ('llr/hl/l/flJ.(, of 1II11,r:"itlldl' 8.0.
Compare the mrrgy released 10 tha t hy 111l' lI im shima 1I1o111 bomb.
So lution. From Eq. 32.4.
log lOE = 11.4 + U M = 11.4 + ' 1.5 x !UJ = 23.4
E = 2.51 x IO~ 1 l'I'g{.

Energy released hy the Hiroshima atom bomb =Kx IO~1 rrgs.

 GEDT-ECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENG INEERING 859

Therefore. equiv alent number of atom bombs =~,1! x 1~2.' 314 =

8 x 10·
Iucserattve Example 32.3. Estimate the ma ximum intensity 0/1 MMI sca le and the maximum W"OIlIId
acceleration due to an ea rthquake of mag niurde 7.0.
Solution. From Eq. 32.5. the maximum intensity 10 o n MMI sca le is given by
M= 1.3+0.6/0
7.0 == J.3 + 0.6 /0
/0 == 9.5
i.e. MMI intensity will be X,
From Eq. 32.6. the maximum gro und acce leration a is given by

loglo a == t 1 - 0.5 == ~ ( 10.0) - 0.50 == 2.lB3

a == 681.29 cm / s ==
2
~~.~9 g == O.69 g
Illustrative Example 32.4. Estimate the cyclic stress ratio prod uced by an earth quake at /I pla n ' where
the maximum ho rizonta l acceleration is 0.15 K at a d epth of 5 11/ ill II sWllly soil deposit . AU/lllle tile water
table is at a depth of I m below the gmund SlIt/ace . Take "( == "(..It = 18 kNI"f'.
Solution. Total stres s at 5 m dept h. 0'0 = 18 x 5 = 90 kN/m 2
= 50.76 kN/m 2
',' Effective stress at thai dep th
From Eq. (32. 15), ra =
0'0'
I - 0.008 x depth
= 0'0 - II == 90 - (4 x 9.8 1)
=I - 0,008 x 5 = 0.96

From Eq. 32.14. (t/<Jo')J = 0.65 (a~~ )(~ J rJ = 0.65 (7) (5(~6 ) (0 .96)

(*1= 0. 17

Jlfustrenv e Example 32.S. ({j) A de posi t of mil/rated fi ne sand has 5% fines. If the corrected SPT
numb e r f or the sand is 12. estimate the cyclic stress ratio required to cause liquefaction due to (Ill ear thquake
of magnitude 7.5.
(b) If the magnitude of the ea rthq uake wue 8.0. wha t would have heel/ the required cyclic stress ratio ?
Assume a seating fac tor (IV) of 0-,)$.
Solution. (a) From Fig. 32. 14. the cyclic stress ratio to cause liquefaction for (N1h.o = 12. percenta ge of
fines = 5% and for the mag nitude of 7.50 is 0.12.
(h ) For the earthqu ake of magnitude 8.0. B q. 32.17 gives
(* lr = IV (;};; 1.~ = 0.115(0.12) = 0.08
Ittuserauve Example 32.6. The maximum horizontal acceleration in bed rocl: is estinuer d to be 0.20 K.
What wou ld be the maxi mum ha rit anta l acc ele ration at a proje ct site located (}I'U
(a) a deposit of deep cohes ion less soil.
(b) a deposit of deep soft soil deposit.
Solution. (a ) From Fig . 32.8. for a bed rock acce leration of 0.20 g. the maximum horizonta l ground
acceleration for a deep co hes ionless soil deposi t is 0.18 g.
(b) For soft soil deposit. rbe maximum horizontal ground acceleration is 0.30 g.
Illustrative Exa mple 32.7. (tI) A five- storey building, 20 11/ hig h, has steel [mmes without brick il/fil
panels, tt is constructed Oil a de ep soii site (' o/ ' .I'; I"{;II 1: of loose ..saturated sand ill'er/yilll: a thict; ,wiff clay
860 SOIL MECHANICS AND FO UNDATIO N ENG INEERING

deposit. The building is In be desiglled 10 resist (I II n m hqllake of magnitude 7.5 with maxi mum bed rod
harimntai accelerution 0[ 0.20 g. Estimate ttic /"'(/10. grOlmd acceleration at 'lie site.
(b) Estimate the spectral re .lpOl/se of the Imildill/.: (IS l}f'r / 99/ Unc.
Solution. (CI) From Fig . 32.8. the bed rock hori zonta l acceleration o f 0.20 !! will he amplified 10 about
0.30 g.
(h) From Eq. 32. 10. the funda me ntal natura l period for steel frame.
T, = O . OH51Io.7 ~ == O.OM5(20tLH = O.KOs
From Fig . 32. 10, as per 199 1 UBC. fllr a period of O,ROx and deep still clay, the ratio

cllcclj~;~~~l~:~~uc~~r=~'~~~cralion = I.RO
Therefore. the spec tral acceleration = 1.80 x 0 .30 g = 0.54 g
Illusrra n ve Example 32.8. Estimate 'he design },tlri:.ollllli seismic weJjicie", (A..>for (J hlli/dillg from tile
follol\'illg data, as per IS: /893:2002.
I. Heigtu of building = 30 III
2. Base dimension of the IJllildinx II{OllK Ihe considered di l"ecl;rl/l of the lateral force = 10 III.
:\. The building has moment-re sisting R.C. [rame wilh Inick inji l l/(lIIels.
4. Importance farro r = / .5
5. Response factor = 3.0
6 . Th e buildinx is situate d ill seismic :;lJlleIV of India,
7. The snhstrata consists of medium soil (type II'.
Solulion. From Eq. 32. 11. the fundame ntal natu ral period ( T,) is given by

T, = T- = O.O~ I~ 30 = 0.85 .f
Zo ne factor (;::)for seismic l.one IV from Table .'1.5 = C•.24

From Eq. 32 .8. Ah=(~ ) ( ~ ) (~ )

From Fig. 32 .7, for T, = n .M 5.~ for med ium soil.

~ = 1.50
K

Therefore, Ah = ( 0.;4 ) ( If. ) ( 1.50) = 0.09 J:

Ill us t ra ti ve Example 32.9. The .m b.mil strata at a site (,(IIIsi.I".~ of -III/ of .Wflt to .wi/f day underlain hy
16 m deep f ine to m(!(/i ll lll sand with j ;/I('.I· {"{ml/'III IIf 15% , Tilt, SPT values 1/1 ,liffe ll ' Il1 deJllhs are Xivl'll ill
tire table . Determine I/Ie :,oll e 0/ tiqu e/a ctio" ,/1/(' to WI t'll l"/lIql/akf.' with M = 7.5 ca li si ll K a lIIu ximlllll
harimntal acceleration of O. 18 g lit tne
g m /(I/ll swface.
Assumt' Y..., = 18 1.: N/ nl. The waIn l" bI(' is (II the g m lllICI !il' /fat"t'. Take YM' = 10 t N/n/
So tutlon Ca lcula tions are give n in a tab ular form belo w:
Dq ./h S PT Go ,,,, '.' (t / a u'JoJ Itlao ' )1 Foetor of sa rely Remmf.
' m) ,N ) w~ . 3 2 . 15~ (Eq,32. 14) (Fi g. 32. 14) lEq.32. 13)
6 '0 ' 08 48 0.95 0.25 0. 15 0,60 Liquefiable
,4-' 0.94 0.25 fl. 17 0.'" Liqucliable
8
(Q "• ..0
6-l
80 0.92 t1.24 0. 14 0.58 Liquefiable
« 2(6 ')(\ 0.90 0.24 0.16 0.67 Liquefiable
" 252 112 0.l'1<) 0.23 0.23 1.0 JU~1 safe
'4
" tConnnucdt
 GEOTEC HNICA L EARTHQU AK E E NG INEERING
'"
De",h SPT 00 ao' (t/ao')J (t/00')/ Fac tor orsare ry Rf'mo'i
1m) IN) "
(Eq.32.15) (Eq.32.14) (Fig. 32. 14) (Eq.32.13)
rs 12. 0.81
16

"
20
24
25
'"'
324
360
144
160
0.1<6
0.1\4
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.25
0.38
0.40
1.09
1.65
1.K2
Norliquefiable
Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable

Co nclusion
The zone between de pth of 4 In 14 m is liquefiable. Below that depth , the so il is nOI liquefiable .
lIIustr.. tiw Exa mple 32.10. Tilt! t!.' I,forcl1ory borings at a project site show that mere is (I deposit 5 III
thirk of saturated sand wilh a SPT value of J5 (werl)"i,tg a 20 m thick depos it of ctay ott bed rock.
If the maximum hori:.otllal ucceterution i ll bed rock due 10 WI earthquake (M = 7.5) i.f estimated as 0.00
g. is the re WI.\' pouibilily of tiqaefo ction ill the' sand depos il?
A.HI/Ille the wa ter table is (/I lilt! ground surface, petretlla!:l' offines = I U% and y = 19 kN /m~ .
Solu tion. Since rho sand deposit overlies a thick day depos it. the maximum horizo ntal acce leration will
be am plified.
Fro m F ig. 32.8, for iI pcuk horizunrul uccc tcra uo n uf 0.06 K in bed rock, peak hori zont al accele ratio n at
ground surface will he 0.14 g.
Now for N = 15 and Fines = 1I1 fk , the cyclic stress ratio (t/On'), required to cause liquefaction from F ig.
. 32. 14 for earthquake o f mag nitude 7.5 is (U N.
The total stress 0"0 at the depth of 5 111 is

.1 1l\C effective stress

all = 5)( 19 = l)o5 kN / 1Il~
ill that dept h is
all'= 5<19-9.KI) = 45.95kN/m!
Stress reduction factor r J = I - U.lMl8 x 5 = 0.%
FrUIn Eq. ,:n . I-l-. 11'11: cyclic stress nnio due III tbc earthqua ke is gi~'en by

(
-;- ) (0"
cr;;t 1 = 0.65 x (a,~, OJ )'J = 0.65 x (0. 14) (45.95
95 ) (0.96) = 0. 18

From Eq. 32. 13. the fac tor IIfs;lfety aga i'nst liquefaction.
F = (tloo' )/ = ~ = I0
(t/O'n'),/ (J.IN •
The soil is JUSI liquefiabl e. Ho wever since the factor uf safety is less than 1.25, it not safe . To prevent
liquefaction. suitable meusurc s should be adopted .

PROBLEMS

A. NUMERICAL
.... J"" 3 2.1. If the vtandard tor sion scislllllgr,lph records an aver age trace urnpluude of 17 mm ill an cpicen rrnl distance of
JOOkm, whut is the probable maguuud e of the eart hquake'! [Ans.4.2J
32.2 . Wh;u ..w.u ld be the rnngnuudc of an earthqua ke 10 release 8 x 10° J of energ.y? lAm. 6.3 )
32.3. A si"'.!\{Oreyl"d bu ildIng has moment ·resisling R.C. frames withoui orick inlil panels and is 25 m high. What
would he ils natu ral period of vitol'oIl ion'! (AM. 0 .8:4 5)
31.4. Estimate the cydic stress rauo proc.JuCL-J toy an earthqua ke at a sile from Ihe following data :
Maximum horizonta l ground eccclcnnion = 0.1 ,J{
Stress redaction ra.:lor = 0.'~5
TOlal stre ss at rhe given dcpIh :: 120 kN/m!
Effective stress ill thaI depth = 66 k N/m ~ [Ans. 0.113] .
862 SO IL MEC II A NICS AN D FOUND ATI ON EN0I1'I:EERING

3 2.5. Deler~ine the factor o f safel! against Iiqud aclion at a &:pth o f 2 m in a sand de pos it d ue 10 an eart hquake o f
magnit ude 7.5 for the following sue conumo ns:
Maximum horizo nlal ecce terauon = O.IS f(
1
Satu rated unit weight of sand = IS kN/ m·
Perce ntage of fines = 5%
Corrected SPT num ber = 20
Assume the water table is at a depth o f 1.0 m below the ground surface. [AM. 1.39)
32.6 . Estimate tbe des ign horizo ntal seis mic coe fficien t as per IS: 189 3-2002 for a bUilding with the following site
conduioos:
Heig ht of buildin g = 28 m
The building has moment-resisting R.C. frames wnhour brit k inlil panels.
Importance factor = 1.0
Respon se factor = 3.0
T he building is suuared in seismic l.o nc V on a substrata consisting of SO! I soil (type 1I1l. IAns. 0.102 gJ
B. DESC RIPTIVE AND OBJE CTIVE TYPE
32 .7. Differenti ate betw een the magnitud e and inten sity of all ea rthquake, Ho w would you estimate the maximum
inten sity if the magnitude of the earthquake is known ?
32.8. Explain the foll owin g terms:
fa) Focus ( h ) Epicemr e
(c) Focal depth (c/) Bpiccmral distance
32.9. What is an isoseism al map? How would you prepa re an Isoseismal for a place after the occurrence o f the
eart hquake.
32.10. Whal do you underszand by the earthquake·resistan t structure ? What are the criteria for its des ign?
31.11. what is hquefacnon of soils? What are the necessary ccrdmons fo r its occurrence?
32.12. whet are the rectors that affect Iiquefaclion o f soil? Discu ss in brier.
31.13. Explain the procedure for the assessme nt o f the SU!lCCflIibililY of a sand depo sit to liquefaction
32.14. Suggest su itable methods for prevention (If liquefaction o f soils.
32.15. What are the vano us hazards due to an earthqua ke? Discuss in brief oo ly those haza rds related 10 geotech nical
engmeering .
32.16 . Explain the fo llow ing ter ms:
la) Pseud o-sta tic analysis
(b ) Attenua tion of gro und accelerat ion
(c ) Base shea r
(J) Vertica l seismic cocrnct ern
(1.') Funda menta l natural period of vibratio o.
32.17. What is meant by the term site-specific amplifi cation of horizontal acceleration'! What is its effect on the
spectral accele ratio n'!
32.18. State which of the following state ments arc false.
((.I) The inertia force s on a buildin g act in the same direction as the ground acceleration.
(b) As the height of the building increases, its natural period of vibranon increases .
(c) Liquefa ction nonnally oce urs in clayey soils.
(d) The earthquake o f a mag nitude ll.O would release 1000 times the e nergy that due to an cun hqonke of
magn itude 6.0 .
(e) According 10 IS: 189) ·2002. India i ~ divided into four seismic zones.
(/) The type of soi l acco rding 10 I.S. classiflcericn in which liqucfoct lc n is most likely !O occ ur is SW.
(Ans . F(.I!Je (al. (c J (/) )

C. MULTIPLE CHOI CE QUESTIONS

I. According to MSK (64) scale of inte nsity, the total numbe r of intens ity da....
ses (or gr.KIesl is
. ~1 4 (~ ll
(c) 10 (J) 12
 .GEOTEC UN ICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINElRJ!'OG

2. For an earthquake III magn itude S.O. the maximum inlensi ty on MMI sca le would be abl"olll
(a ) IX Ihl XI
(c) VIII (d) VI
3. In a sand deposi t. the e tfec uve str~s at a point is 100 kN/m1. The dynamic pore water pressure need required
10 cause liquefaction is abou t
((1)4 m (h ) 8 m
(e) 10 m (t f) 100 m
4. At a depth of 10 m below the gruuud surface, the stre ss reduc tion factor is about
{a} (J.lJO (hI 0.92
(e) 0 .t)4 It l) 0.96
S. Accord ing to IS: 18IJJ -20l)::!. the value of the bo nzo ma l seism ic coefficient for any s tru c ture with T SO .J s,
cannot he less than
(tll :J2 (b):13
(c )d4 (ei) z
6. According to IS: 189.1· 2000 . lhe rati,llllR) shall not be greate r Ihan
(t l) 0.50 (h) 1.0
(e) 1.50 (. 1) None of above
7. Tsunamis due to earthquakes occ ur in
la) Ocean s (h) Rivers
kl Lake s (If) Reservoir s
8. The type o f rocnd anon generally Mlitab lc for huildin gs on liquefiable soils deposit is
(/I) Spreall fool ing (11) Raft foundati on
(c) Well rnund:uion Cd l Pile fou ndation
IA~I . ( 4 2 . ~ t 3 . ~ ~ ( " 5 . ~ t ~ ~ ). 7 . ~ & ~

SELECTED REFERENCES
I. Chen. w.E, led. ) (1995 1. Th.. G .·jf & 18i" ...-ri1l8 HlII who04. CRC Press. Boc a Raton , New York .

I 2. Coduro, Donald P. ( IIJt)9I. G..otITl lllim l Engin..rrin g. Prillci/,Ie:f lind Pnmice, Pree nce-Hatl of Ind ia . Pvt. Ltd.•
New Delhi.
3. ldriss, I.M. ( 1990). " Respo nse of sonSoil Sites During E arthquakes ", Pmc reding s, If . Bolton SCI,d Mcmori(jf
Symposium. J.M . Duncan. Ed; Vnl 2, pp 273-289 . Bi Tech Vancouver , Be.

I 4. IS: IK9.1(Past I ): 2002 . Criteria for f.'t11"

Delh i
thlfllukl' Rl'Sisllllll Design of str nctnre, Bureau of India n Stand ards, New

5. Kri shna, J.• A_R. Chandrase karan and C handra. B (1994 ). Elemrnts of Enrthq/ll~kt' EnRineerillg . So uth Asia
Pubhshcrs. New Delhi.

1
fl . Nuuh, O.W . and Herrmann. R.B. (198 41. "Groond motion of Mi ssi s~ i p pi Valiey Earthquakes " , J. Tech. Top. Cill.
£'18-. ASC E 110: (54-fl'})
7. Rich ter. C.E (1935). "An i nsl l\l ~n t a l earthquake scale " . B. Scism. Soc . Am. 25 (I): 1-32.
K Sar an. Swami. ( I,»)) Sa il D.wllu/lio lU1i1 Machi ne Foundations. Galgoua Publicatio n pvt. Ltd.• New Delhi.
'J. Seed . II.R .. And Id riss, I.M. (1971) . "Simplifi ed Procedure for Evaluating Soil Liqu efaction Potential' . l ouma t
of 111(' Soil M.'c!rullio Wil l Fnrmdll lill/l Division. Vol. 107. No.. SM 9, pp 1249-1 274 ASCE.
10 . Seed . II. Bolton. Tokim atxu. K., Hard er. L.P.. and Chun /l:.Riley M ( 1985). "Infl uence o f SPT Procedu res in Soil
Liquefaction Resistance Eval uations," ASCE Ioumat of Gt'IJ/,.d Ulit·1/1 Engineering, Vol. III, No. 12. pp.
1425·1 44 5.
I I. Seed. II.B .• Ro mo, M.P., Sum . J" Jaime. A.. and Lysmer, J. (l9K7) "Rclanensjups between soil condurons and
eartbquake grou nd motions in Meltico city in tbe earthqua ke o f Sept. 19. 1985 ,'· Ea r/hqlwke FJl8inurill.~
R,..~eardl C..mil', Report No. VCBIEERC-871l5 Universuy of California. Berkele y.

12. V.B.C. (199 1). Uniform RuilJin g Code. U.S.A .

 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS

Adwrbal water . It is wate r bound 10 day pani d es beca use of lhe atmldioo between eledI1C11 charges existing on the
clay particle! and water moleo.J1es (di poles).
Air content. II is the ratio of the volume of air 10 the vdume of vaids in soi l.
Alluvial soils. These are soils deposited by water. Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposit s and those in sea
(or ocean) ca lled mari ne deposits.
Allowab le bearing press ure. II is the net allow able bea ring pressure which can be used for the de sign of fou ndation . II is
lhe smaller of the net safe bearing capacity and the net safe settlement pressure.
Actiw ~5ilre. It is the pressure developed when the soil mass stretches due to movement of a retaining wall away from
mesal.
Aqu ifer. An aquifer is a pervious sttlltum which ca'll ains water Ibat can be easi ly drained or pumped out. An aq uifer is
called an unconfined aquifer when there is an impervious stratum ooly below it and a confined aquifer when it is
sandwiched between two impervious strata.
Arching . It is a phenomenon is which the stresses are transferred from a yielding part of 8 soil mesa to an adjacent
non-yielding (or less yielding) pan o f the soil mass,
AI-n':A' pressure. It is the lateral pressure in a soil mass when there is 00 movement of the mass.
Artaberg Limits (Con.sist~ncy limits) . The liquid limit. plastic limit and shrinkage limits are known as AlterbtTg's limits.
The water couenr at which the soil behaviour changes from the liquid to the plastic Slate is called the liquid limit;
ftom the plastic to the semi-solid Slate is the plastic limit; and from the semi-solid to the solid state is Ihe shrinkage
limit.
Backfill . It is the soil material which Is placed Into lin area that has been excavated, such as against retaining walls and
in pipe trenches.
Beoring Copocity . (Ulrimale bearing Qlpacity). It is the ~ure a t the base of the foundation al which the soil below
fails in shear. II is called the graM ultimale bearing capacity when the gross pressure is consider ed and the net
ultimate bearing caIEcity when the net increase in JlfClL'IUre ova the existing overburden ~ure is ronsidered.
The safe bearing capacity is the maximum pressure which the soil in the foundation C8llcarry safely. The safe
bearing capacity can be expressed as gross safe bearing capacity or net safe bearing capacity.
Boring . It is the method of investigating subsurface conditions by drilling a hole into the eart h. Generally, soil samples
are also extracted from the boring for determination of the index and engineering properties.
Borrow. II is soil (or rock) material obtained from another off- site source for useas fill at construction projects.
Bmced cur. This is an excavation which is laterally supported. The vertical sides of excavation are supported by sheeting
and bracing system.
& Wu:ods. 1bese consist of sheet-pile walls constructed to retain eenh . These are retalively flexible retaining walls
cons tructed for water fron t st ructures, canal locks, coffer darns, elc.
BulJcing of sand. The phenomenon of increase in volume of sand (or a coheslonless soil) due 10 dampness is called the
bulking of sand. The effect is predominant when the water content is between 4 and 5%. 1he increase in volume may
be cp o 20 to 25%. If the water comem is increased, and the sand becomes saturated, the volume of sand mass is
decreased .
Cmsson. It is a type of foundation in which a large chamber (or box) is built above the ground level and then sunk to
the required de pth cL a foundation as a single unit. 1be caisson may be an open caisson , a pneumatic caisson or a
fle- ting caisson. Open caissons are also known as _ II (('a1ndatims.
G LOSSAR Y OF COMMON TERMS AAS

Capillarity. It is the movement of water due to surface lension and oIher erred!; bur DOlthe gravity effect . 'MIter moves
in very small channels because of the affinity between soil and water.
CJu:mka l wt:athering. It is the process of weatherin g in whieh chemical reaaiOl"lS.such 8$ l..ydnllion, ox idnlion, sol ution,
occur. When cbcrnicnl weathering or chemica l decom posil ion occurs, original rock minerals are transformed into new
minerals by chemical reaction. Clay minerals are formed by chemical weathering.
Cloy s (cloy millerals). These are very small panicles (usually smalle r than 2~) which have a crystalline structure
devel oped as the result o f the chemical weathering of roc ks. The clay particles are flat or plate-like in shape. Th ese
are high ly surfacc-acrive particl es.
Coh esiOll. It is the anracnoe or bonding force between the panicles d tiDe-grained soi ls UUl creat es shear lareng!b
Compo~iOJ1 II is tbe process of increasing the density (or unit weigh t) of a soi l by rolling. tamping, vibrating. or csber
mechanical means.
Consistmcy. The consistency of a fine-grainedsoi l is the physiC31 state is wh ich il exiSlS. It is indialted by such terms
as soft, firm Of bard, <kpending upon the degree o f firmness.
Condui t. II is a pipe IhaI is usu:dly buried in a soil mass, or which ~ throug h a soi l embankment,and carries wsree,
e lectrica l cables, lelephone cables, etc.
COl/soli do/ion. The compression of a saturated soi l unde r a steady-state pressure is known lISconsolidation. It is due to
expulsion of water from the voids.
Initially, the stress imp arted into the soil is ca rried by water. The W31er is gradually forced ou t lind the stress is
transfe rred to the soil skeleton and the compression occurs.
Cri/icol l'Oid ratio. The void ratio of the soil at which 00 change in volu me occurs when the soil is subjected to shear
strain In a d ralned lest.
Density. The mess per unit volume or soil is called the density of soil. (Sometimes, the weight per unil \-oIume, which
is the unil weight, is called dt:nsity).
lJewalerUlg. The process of removing water from a construction area is known as dewatering. lbe terra dewatering is
also used for lowerin g the water table 10 oolBin a dry area In the vicinity of lbe excavation .
Deep f oundorion. II Is the type of foundalion which transfers lhe load to deep strata below Ihe ground surface:. The
common types are piles, caissons, d rilled piers, etc, Generally, the foundatio n is called deep foundation if the dept h
of founda tion is greeter than the width of footing.
Dispers ive clays. These are types of clays which dcfloccutsre In still water and erode when exposed to a low - velocity
flow of water. Dispcrslvlty is dee 10 a high conccr urnnon of sodi um ions in a clay-pore water system .
Ditch condu its. These are types of conduits which are installed in narrow trenches (o r d ilches) and sub sequ ently
bacldi lled wi th soil. .
Drawdown . As soon as lhe pumpi ng is done from a well, the wa ter table is lowered in its vici nily. 'Ibi s drop in wa ter
kvd in tbe well is ca lled drawdown.
Drilled pier. It is a type of deep foundatloo In which a large dlarreter bole is drilled in the groond and subsequently filled
with coecrere.
Dytlamic compaction: II is a melhod of compacti ng surface and near-surfac:e zones of soil or fill by dropping a heavy
weigh t from a relativel y great height. Multiple poundings are usually done at eac h locat ion .
Earth pressure. It is the lateral pressure exerted by a soil mass agai nst an eart h-retaining sreucrure (or on a fictitious
vertical plane loca ted within a soil mass ).
Depen ding upon the movement of the eerth-rcralnlng struc ture , the pressure may be active, passive or at-rest. When the
stru cture moves away from the soil mass, il is active pressure; and when rowercs the soil mass, it is pesslve pres.o;uTe.
At-rest pressure acts when there is no moveme nt o f srructcre 81 all .
Th e cocfficiem of eanh pressure is the ratio of lateral pressure to vertical pressure existi ng at • point in the soi l eass.
Effective siu. It is the size o f p<Jrtide in a soil specimen such that 10 percent of the panicles are finer men thi~ size. It
is also called the effeetil'l! diamete r.
Eff«tive stress. It is the nomi nal stress transmined Ihrough the plnide 10 panicl e rootad in 5Oi1. It is equal 10 the sa m
o f all the nonnalcomponents of load divided by the total area of coss-secnoe.
The errecnve sresscomrors the shear strength and compress ibility of tbe soil.
It is an abstract quantity w hich is obta ined by sublrocting the pore water pressure fran the IOtaI stress.
Electro-osm osis. It is a method of drainag e o f cohesive soils in which a direct conem (DC) is used. Pore water migrates
10 the ca thode, which is usually a we ll-point. Blcctrc-csmosis also he lps io increasing the shea r strength of the
cohesiv e soil.
Expon sive doys. These are types of d ays which show a large volume expansion in the presence of water and a large
 SOIL MECIIANIC'i AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

volume decrease upon drying. 1be days contai n the mineral montmo rillonite.
These are highly di fficul t soils to wo rk whh.
Fill. II is earth placed in an excavation or othe r area 10 raise Ihe elevatio n. It is also called eanh fill or soil fill. If fill i!
required 10 support sl.l'UClural loading, il is placed ill laye~ and oompaaed at a suitable wate r con lenl 10 achieve l
uniform and dense soil mass.
Fines or fine-grained soils. The silt-size and day-size particles in a soil mess are called fines or fine-grained soils .
Flow llel. A flow net consists of two sets of mutually orthogortaI lines called the flOloJl lines and equipotential lines. 11K
flewlines indicate the paths of uavel followed by the mov ing water and the equipote ntial lil1G indicate lhe poinl5 01
equal pcrenual (bead).
A flOloJl DCI is a pictorial representation used 10 study the flow of water through soil mass .
Footing. II is an enlargeme nt of the base of a oolumn Of a wall 10 spread the load on a large area of the Slratum below.
II is a Iype of foundatio n installed at a shallow depth .
Friction; i"urtlal. II is the friction developed in a soil d ue to soil-to-solid co otect. It is responsible for most of the shear
strengt h developed in a soi l, especia lly in a coteslcetess soil.
The lingle of internal frictio n (,) is used to represen t the interna l friction of the soil.
Frost boil. It is a phenome non w hich occurs w hen a froze n soil mass thaws <IrK! water is liberated . The strength of soil
is reduce d due to the so ftening caused by an Increase in wa ter content.
Frost heave. It is the rise in ground surface due 10 the formation of icc lenses when the temperatur e falls to the freezing
po int of water. It may ca use lifting o f light struct ure bu ilt on the grou nd.
Oeofob rics. These lire buill of syntherlc libers a nd are used as filters, dra ins, or reinforce ment in earthwor k.
Oeosumc stress. The stress <II a point d ue to self we ight o f the soil above whe n the g round surface is horizo ntal and Ihe
properties of the soil do nol change along a horiwnllll plane is allied the gccstauc stress.
Grip leI/gill. The de pth of the tenon of the well founda tion (o r cetssom be low ibe maximum scou r level is called the
grip length. fo r stabi lity, the well should have adequate grip length.
Graded filla. It consists of layers of sand and gravel which penni l flow of wa ler. 1be size of Ihe panicles in different
layers inoC350Cs along the direction of flow . Thus the Iiocs r layer is near the soil to be proeected againsl piping.
GTOOI/d water tab le. It is the lOp surface of the undergro und water reservoi r when: the pressure is atl1X'Ei'heric.lbe water
pressure below the ground water table is hydrostatic . lt is also called tbe phreatic surface.
Grouli"g. II is II process in which the holes arc drilled in soil (ex rock) and a grout (usually cement and wate r mixture)
is injected into the holes . It improves the bearin g c:afllCityand also reduces the permeabililY and S«pllgc.
Head: 11 is equa l 10 the difference of wate r levels on the upstream and downstream. 1be downstream water levels is
u.''iUally taken as datum.
Sometimes, the term head is also used for the pressure head indicaled by a piezomet er inserted al lhe poinl.
Il ,vlrml lic gradiem (i). II is equal 10 the diffe rence o f heads between the points divided by the distance between them .
/lCllI'f: pipi"g. II is the lifting of a large soi l mass downs tream of a hydraulic struct ure due to seepa ge pressure. The entire
soi l mass in tbe affected zone is blown out and heave piping failure occurs.
Ilygroscopic water: Tbe amou nt o f water retained in an ai r- dried soil is caucc hygroscopic wa ter. It depends upon the
type of soi l, humidit y and temperature. It is remo ved by ov en-drying .
It is the same as adsorb ed water .
Ill-situ. It refers to soil (or rock) in its natural locat ion in the ground when it is in its natural condition.
Isotropic, II pertains to a soil mass havin g the same properties in all directions.
Isobar. It is a curve join ing points of Ihe slime stress intensity.
Landslide. It is a relatively rapid lateral and down hill movement of a well-de fined ea rth mass (o r land form). It OCCW'S
d ue to gravitational and seepage forces.
limiting equilibrium. The soi l is in the limiting equ ilibrium when il is at Ihe verge o f failure.
The limiting equ ilibrium methods involve determini ng the mobi lised shear strength of the soil on an assumed failure
su rface as requ ired to ma intain equi librium (or stability) and compari ng Ihis value with the avai lable shear strength.
Iicp efaetiOlL It is a phenome non whic h may occu r in saturated cohesionlcss loose so il when it is subjected 10 shocks or
vibration .1be soil partides momentari ly lose contact and the soil behaves as a liquid.
MechanicalAllalysis. It is the process of detennining the sizes of various panicles ill soil specimen . II is done by the
sieve analysis for coarse particles and the sedimeruarioa analysis for fine particles.
MtXhal/ical weathering. II is the process by which physical forces, such as temperature changes and fr(l>l action,
breakdown or reduce the rock 10 smaller fragments and soils. There is no chemical change and the properties of the
soi I fonned are the same as these of the parent rock.
GLOSSARY OF COMMONTERMS 867

Min~raJ. II is a naturally formed chemical eleme nt (a compound) having 8 definile chemical rom pcJ5.ilion .
II usually has a charac1eriSl:ic ayslal rrorn.
N~gative sKin friction. II is a down drag on a pile which Dea ns when the soil in which lhe pile in dri ven settles mere
than lhe pile . The load-<:arrying capacily of lhe . pile is red uced because o f negative skin friction .
NaJural frequency. A system under free condi tions vibra tes al a frequency called lhe nalu ra! frequency. II 'is the
characteristic of the sySl:em . In genera l, the nalura! frequency deaeases as the iDll'iS Iecreeses and the sprin g ronstanl
of the sysrem cecreases.
Nor ma lly ronsolidared soil. A soil which had 001 been subjected 10 a press ure in the past greater than the presear
pressure . It is also called a virgin soi l. Th e settl ements arc Large in a normal ly ooosoIidal.aJ soil.
Nd allowabl~ bearing p~re. II is the net p-C5SUre wlUcb can be used roc- the desigD d a fou nda tion . II is the smaller
of the net safe sememem pcessure and the net sare bearing capacity . For cobeslceless soi ls, generall y lbe net safe
senlemenr pressure governs; whereas for cohesivesoils, generall y the nel safe bearing capacily governs.
Optimum moisture ConIet1J . II is tbe water content of soil at wbich the maxiJJ;1WD dry density is achieved during
compaCli on.
Over -conso lidated soil. These are the soils which had been subjeoed to a pressure in the pa->rgreat er man the present
pressure . Over-consol idated soils are a lso called preconsolidased soils. The settlements are small for such soils .
Pavemem. II is a hard crust constructed on the subgrade (soil) for rhe purpose of providing a sebtc and even surface for
the vehicles to move on.
The pavemen l may be a flexible pavemenr or a rigid pavement. The rigid pavernemsare made of cement concrete
and can take the tensile stresses.
Pil e. It is a relative ly long, slender column used as a deep foundlltion . The pile is end -bearing (point bearing) pile when
it ootalns support from the bottom.and ir is a friction pile if it develops resistance due to friction on the sides.. In
most of the cases, it has eeslsaoce from bottom as well as side frict ion.
Piping . It is a phenomenonwhich occurs due to erosioe by sub-surfacewate r moving through a soil mass. II rescns in
the fonnlltion of conti nuous lunDd s or pipe-like formations through which soil is carried by flowing water and piping
failure may occu r.
Pl_ sfraiJ~ It is a sta re of stra in in which all dispacemenrs occu r in one ptane and lhe displacements perpend icular to
that plane are zero. Ge nerally, plane strain condi tions occw under a long retaining wall , strip footin g, earth dam, etc.
Plasticiry-.11 is a property of fine-grained soils (pa nicularl y days) due to which a soil having adequa te wa ter cceem is
able 10 flow and can be remou lded wi thout b reaking a part.
Poisson~ ratio. It is the ratio o f the lateral strai n 10 the loeglrudinal strain due to uniaxial stress with in the elastic limit.
Pore ~ssure.. It is water pressure developed in the voids of a soil mass. The shear strength of a soil is reduced due to
pore ptC$ure as tbe effective SI:J'e.SS is decreased.
Excess pore pressu re refers to pressuregrea ter than the normal hy~tic pore water ~ure.
Pressure bulb_ It is the zone o f the soi l mass in which stresses are induced due to superimposed teed. Generally, it is
assumed that the pressure bulb is oonfined to the zone in which the stresses are more than 20% (or 10%) of the
surface load .
Pressuremeur II is an instrume nt used to dererm ine Ihe in-situ stre ngth of a soil (or rock ) zone . II is based on the
principle of the measuremen t o f ue pressure-related lateml expa nsion of a flexible cylinder Inserted in a bore hole.
Projecting comm it. II is a type of conduit ove r wh ich eart h fill or earth emba nkmenr is placed ,
Quick sand condit ion. When the head causing upward n ow in a co hesioo less soil is high , the effective stress is reduced
to zero and the shear strength of the soil becomes zero. The condition so deve loped is. know n as quick sand
condition. The critical gradien t at wbich a conesionless soil becomes quick is about unity.
Rejnfo~ed earth. II is an earth mass s trengthened by reinforcement. Earth SINCIUre> such as ernba nkmenrs, retaining
wa lls llnd earth dams ccesroced in layers and reinforced wi th geofabric, metal strip; or fibres to increase the
strength of the soil mass are examples o f reinforced earth .
Retaining wall An earth-retaining str uctu re ronst rucle d 10 resist the laleral pressure of soi l is called a retaining wall .
&wlm~fII. II is a facin g built o f stone, concre te blocks, or other durabl e material to prolect an emban kmen t from the
wave ercs ton . II is also cal led rip rap.
Rollers. These are types o f cooseucnoo equipmen t used for compacting the soil by rolling it. The rollers are of different
1)'"",.
Sand. It is a Iype of coarse-grai ned soi l whose particle sizes range between abou t 0.075 mm and 4.75 mm. sa nd is
cohcsionless and has hig h internal friction .
&qJOg~. Seepage is flow Ihrough an earth mass under ~u re. The term is also used 10 indicate the quantity of water
'M SOIL MECHANICSAND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

flowing through D soil deposit or soil structure or foundation.

Seismic exp loration. II is a method of subsurfacelnvestlgatlon in which a shock wave is created to determine the depth
of dilferem strata.
Secondary consolidation: This is consolidation of a cohesive soil which occurs after the primary consolidation is
completed. 1be secondary ronsolid::Jtionis predominant in oeganie soils.
Sell1cmelli. The downwa rd vertical movement expe rienced by a structure or a soil surface when the soil belOW"
compresses. The settlement 0CC\ItS mainly because of consol idation.
Shear strength . II is the abilily of a soi l 10 resist shearing stresses developed within a soil mass as a result of loading
imposed onto the soi l. II is the maxim um resistance w hich develops just before the failure unde r shear.
SMet piling. A type of COOSIruaiooin which piles wilh nat ecss-secuon are joined 10 foon a thin diaphrag m wa ll or
bu lkhead 10 ~sa the lalcral force of retained earth.
Si~. It Is a pan (at tray) having a screen or me:;b bottom. It is used 10separate panides of a soil sample into various
~=
Silt. It is a type of fine-gmined soil wilh the panicle size smaller than 0 .075 mm, but whose mitlCnillogical oomposilion
remalns the same as. that of the pacem rock. It does DOC contain clay minerals .
Soil Stabilisatioll . II is rnctllod of inaeasing the strength of a soil and improving its propenies. II Includes mixing of
additives and OIher means of improvement socll.as compaction and drainage.
SUJlIJard PDI~lmtiCNl T~SI. (SPT) II is a rype of lest in which a sampl er is driven into the ground by I hammer. The
numbet of blows required for a penetration of 300 nun is the standard penetration number (N) . The standan:I
penetration number is correlated with shear strength . The test is espocially usefu l for cobestonless soils.
Sump . It is OJsmall pil provided to serve as a collecting basin for surface water or near-surface under ground water. The
water is pumped out from the sump when full.
T~rra.probe. It is an equipment used for compacting the soil. It consists of 8 vcnically-vibrating tubular probewhicb is
vibrated to the desired depth in a soil mass and then slowly withdrawn while amtinuing to vibrate .
TIll. Soil transported by gllcins are called till. These cscany consisr of a heterog eneous mixt ure of the fine-grained and
ccerse-gratoed soils.
Tube well. It is I type of we ll in which I pipe (or lube) is d riven into the soil to inlercept various sqcrrees. The water
flows lmc the well throug h the strainer provided. The discharge of a tebe well is much grea ter than that from an
open well.
Uniformi ty coeffici~lIt. It is the ratio of /J6I) 10D IOsize of the soi l where D60 represents the size corresponding to 60%
finer lind DIO 10 10% finer material than that size. For a well-graded sand, its value is greeter tha n 6.
Ullit weight. It is the weigh t per unit volume. It is expressed in kNlm l •
Vibrofloalio ll. It is II method o f compacti ng thick deposi t of sand through the use of a hodzomally vibrating cyl inder
called a l~·brofloat.
liHd rano. II is Ihe rarlo of the volume of voi ds to the volume of solids in I soil. For a fine-grain ed soil, the vo id ratio
is generally grea ter Illan that for a coarse-grained soil .
Water coote ru. It is the rarlo of the mass (o r weight) of water to rbe mass (or weight) of so lids in a soil. It is expressed
as a perce ntage.
~ll poim . It is the perforated end section of a well pipe installed in the ground . It pencils the ground water to be drawn
into the pipe for pumpin g.
 APPENDIX B
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTIV E TYPE QUESTIONS

The follow ing arc a few typical questions which appeared in question papers of the Combined
Engine ering Services Examination of UPSC
1. Lists [ and II contain respectivel y terms and expressions related to soil classifica tion. Match the two
lists and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists.

List I L ist II

( 1) Liqu id limit - Wa ter eDnlcn!

(A) Acti vity number
Plasticit y inde x
(2) Plast i ~ity index
(B ) Liquidity inde x
Perccn r Imcr than u z
(3) Natura l water eo" !c"t - Plastic limit
(C) Sens itiv ity index
Plastici ty index
(4) Unconfined co mpressive strength of undisturbed sample
Unconfined compressive strength of remou lded soil sample

A C
(a) 1 4
(b) 1 3
(e) 3 I
(<I) 2 4 (C.E.S. 1993)

2. Match List I with List II and select the correct a nswer using the codes given below the lists.
List I List II
(A) Sheep- foot roller ( I) H earting of earthen da ms
(B ) Smooth heavy ro ller (2) Dry sand
(C) Pneumatic roller (3) Casing of eart hen dams
(D ) Vibrating roller (4) Grave l in W.B.M . road
Code s
A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1
(b) I 4 3 2
(e) I 3 4 2
(<I) 2 I 3 4 (C.E.S. 1993)
3. March List I (diffe rent types of soils) with List II (group symbols (If I.S. classificat ion) and select lhe
correct answer using the codes given below the lists.
870 SO IL MECH ANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

List I List II
(A) Well-grade d gravel sand mixture with I. ML
littl e or no fines
(B ) Po orly graded san ds or gravelly sands 2. CH
with lillie or no lines
(C ) Inorganic sills and very li ne sands or 3. G W
clayey silts with low plasticity
(D) Inorganic cla ys of high p lasticity 4. SP
Codes
A B C o
(n ) 3 I 4 2
(b) 3 4 I 2
(e) 2 4 1 3
(Q) 2 1 4 3 (C.E .S. 1994 )
4. Consid er the foll owing statements about the propert ies of the flow nets
l. Flow lines are perpen dic ular to equipotential lines.
2. No two flow lines or eq uipoten tial lines start from the same point.
3. No two flow lines cross each other

or these stat ements :

(a ) 1. 2 and 3 are co rrect (b) 2 and 3 are co rrec t
(e) I and 2 are correc t (d) I and 3 are correc t (C .E.S. 1994)
5. Matc h List t (structure ) with List II (deformation) and select the correct answe r using the codes
give n below the lists.
Li st I List II
(A) Retaining wa ll I . Th e wall moves about the dredge line as a rigid
structure
(B) Bridge abutme nt 2. The wall moves in the form of elastic line with a
po int o f contra flexure
(C) Cantileve r shee t pile 3. The bottom mo ves away from the soil
(D) Anchored bu lkhead 4. Th e top of the wal l moves away from the soi l
Cod",
A B C 0
(n) 3 4 I 2
(b) 3 4 2 I
(e ) 4 3 I 2
(Q) 4 3 2 1 (C.E .S. 1994)
6. Match List I with List 11 and select the correc t answe r using the codes g iven below the lists

List I List II
(Type of pile) (Situation)
A . Fric tion pile I. Stiff clay
B. Batter pile 2. Loose gran ular soil
C. Tension pile 3. Lateral load
D. Compact ion pile 4. Uplift load
MISCElLANEOUS OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUEST ION
'"
Cod"
A B C D
(a ) 3 1 2 4
(h ) I 3 4 2
(e ) 3 1 4 2
(d) 1 3 2 4 (C.E.S. 1994)

7. Match List I with List II and ~ ICI: I the co rrec t answer using the codes gi ven belo w the lists
List I List II ,
(Alillwa ble maf . settleme nt IS: 19(» ) (T)l't! at[oundcuion a nd sail typ e)
(A ) 65 10 100 mill I. Isolated foundat ion on sand
(B) 40 mm 2. Isolated foundation on day
(e) 65 mm 3. Rahs on sand
(0) 40 to 65 rom 4. Rafts on clay
Codes
A B C D
(a) I 4 2
(b) 4 I 3
( e) I 4 3
(d) 4 I 2 (CE.S. 1994)
8. Consider the following:statements regardi ng confined aquifer :
I. Th e aq uifer i:o> bound at lop and below hy impe rvious strata.
2. The pressur e of wate r is greater than atmospheric pressure.
3. A lube well sunk in such an aq uifer starts flowin g always by itsel f.
4. TIle aquifer is fully satura ted
Of the a bove stateme nts :
(a) I. 2 and 3 are correc t (b» ). 2 and 4 arc correct
( r ) 2. 3 and 4 arc co rrect (d) I, 3 and 4 are COm~(; 1 (C. E.S. 1994)
9 . Ma tch Li st I with List It and sele ct the correct answer using the codes given bel ow the lists
L~I LWII
(1)'Pe of soil ) (Mode of transporta tion and deposi riOl')
(A) Lacustrine soils I. Tran sportation by win d
(B) Alluvial soi ls 2. Transportation by run ning water
(C) Aeo lia n soi ls 3. Deposited at the haltom of lakes
(D) Marine soi ls 4 . Deposite d in sea water
Co de...
A C D
(a) I 4
(b) 3 4
(e ) 3 I
Cd ) I 4 (CES. 1995 )
10. Con sider the follo win g ass umptions for slope stability analy sis:
I . Friction is fully mobilised .
2. Effecti ve stress analysis is adopt ed
3. Total stress ana lysis is used
4. Resultant R pa..sses throu gh the centre of I~ circ le
5. Result ant ' R is tange ntia l to the fricti on circl e
 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Th e ass umptio ns necessary for frict io n circle method o f analysis ,:,",ou ld incl ude
(a) I. 3 and 4 (h) 2 and 4
(e) I. 3 and 5 (d) 2 and 5 (CE.S. 1995)
I J. Co nside r the fo llowi ng sta teme nts regarding negative skin friction in pile s :
I. It is de velo ped when the pile is dr iven through a rece ntly deposited clay laye r.
2. It is de velo ped when the pile is driven through a laye r of de nse san d.
3. It is de veloped due 10 il sudd en drawdow n of the wate r table
or th ese sta tements :
(0 ) I alone is cor rec t (b) 2 alone is correct
(e) 2 and 3 are correct (d) I and 3 are correct (C.E.S. 1995)
12. Consider the following properties for a soil sampler :
I. Area ratio should be low
2. Cutt ing edge should he thick
3. Inside clearance should be high
4. Outside clearance should be low
The properties necessary for a good q uality soil sampler would include
(a) I and 4 (b) I, 2. and 3
(e) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,3 and 4 (C.E.S. I99S)
13. Match List I with List II and select the correct ans wer using the codes given below the lists
List I List II
(Soil prope rty meusurrdt (In-situ test)
(A ) Modu lus of subg...ade react ion I. Cyclic pile load le st
(8 ) Relative dens ity a nd strength 2. Pressure meier test
(C) Skin friction and po int bearing 3. Plate load lest
(D ) Elast ic cons tants 4. Standard penetration test
Cod ",
A B C 0
(a ) I 3 2 4
(b) 2 4 3
(e ) 4 1 3
(d) 4 1 2 (C .E.S. 1995)
14. Asse rtio n (Al Qu ick sand is not a type of san d but it is co nd itio n ari sing in a sand mass.
Reason (R) When the: up ward pressu re becomes equa l 10 the pressure due to submerged weight of a
soil , the effective pressure becomes zer o.
Cod es
(a) Both A und R arc true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is no t u correct explanation of A.
(e) A is tru e but R is fulse
(d) A is false hut R is true (C.E. S. 199 6)
15 . Asse r lion (A) Th e safe height (2 7.0) to which an unsupported vertica l cut in clay ca n be made is
4dy.
Reas on (R ) Ac tive eart h press ure of cohes ive backfi ll 'shows that the negative pressure (te nsion) is
developed at depth Zn and total net pressure upto a de pth 2 Zo is zero.
Cod es
( a ) Both A and R are true and R is the co rrect explana tion o f A
(b) 8 01h A and R are true bUI R is nol a correct ex planatio n of A
MISCElLA NEOUS OBJECTIVE·TYPE QUEST ION

(C) A is true but R is false

(J) A is false but R is true (C.E .S. 1996 )
16. Assertion (A ) Negative skin friction will act on piles in filled up soils. which should be considered
in design of pile foundations.
Re aso n (R) TIle filled up soils start consolidi ng and develop a dra g force on the pile
Cud es
(a) Both A and R are true anti R is the co rrect explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correc t ex pla nation of A.
(c ) A is true but R is false
(J) A is false but R is true (C.E .S. 1996)
17. Matc h List I with List II and select the correc t answer using the codes give n below the lists
List I L ist II
(Flow typd (Flow characteris tics)
(A) Transie nt now I. Seepa ge now is a function of time
(B ) Turbulent flow 2. Hydraulic gradient varies with square of veloc ity
(C) Steady slate flow 3. Flow at low veloc ity
. .. . ~ ~h
(0 ) Lamina r now 4. Gove rning eq uation In 20 IS k. d T! + k., d l = 0
Cod es
A C D
(a ) I 3 4
(b ) 3 1 4
(e) I 4 3
(<1) 2 4 3 (C.E.S. 1996)
18. Co nsider the followi ng sta tements
In subso il ex plorat ion programme , the term significant de pth of exploration is upto
I. Th e width o f foundation
2. Twice the w idth o f foundation
3. TIle depth where the additic nul stress inte nsity is less than 20% o f ove rburden pressure
4. Th e dept h where the add itional stress intensity is less than 10% of the overb urden pressure .
S. Hard rock level
or these statements :
(a) I, 3 and S are correct (b) 2, 3 and 5 are correc t
(l') I and 4 are co rrec t (d) 2 and 4 are co rrect (C. E.S. 1996)
19 . Match List I with List II and select the correct a nswer using the codes given below the lists
Lis t [ L ist II '
(Effc(' t) (Reasoll)
(A ) Excess ive settle me nt I. Rise o f wa ter table
(B ) High expensivny 2. High compressibility
(e) Reduction in hea ring capacity 3. Montomc mllon.te
(0) Acceler ation o f consolidation 4. Sand drai ns
Cod e1i
A B C D
(a ) 4 I 2 3
(b ) 2 3 4 I
(e) 4 I 3 2
(<I) 2 3 I 4 (C.E.S. I997)
K74 SOIL MECHA NiCS AND FOUN DATION ENGI NEERING

20. Match List I (prope rty) with List II (slope of the curve ) and select the co rrect answer using the codes
given below the lists
List I List II
(A) Coefficient of comp ressibility I. Stress-de formation
(B) Com pression index 2. Stress-void ratio
(C) Coefficie nt of suhgmde reaction 3. Volume-pressure
4. Log stress-void ratio
Cod"
A B C
(a) 4 2 I
(b) 4 3 2
(e) 2 4 I
(d) 3 4 I (C.E.S. 199 7)
2 1. Co nsider the fo llowi ng statements regarding undcrreamcd piles
l. TIley are used in e xpansive soils.
2. The y are of precast reinforced concrete.
3. The ratio of bulb to shaft diameter is usually 2 to 3.
4. M i nimu~ spacing between the piles should not be less than 1.5 times the diameter
or thes e st atements :
(el) 1, 2 and 3 arc correct (b ) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
(c ) 2. 3 and 4 are co rrect (d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (C.E.S. 1997)
22. Match List I with List II and select the co rrect answer using the codes give n below the lists
List I List II
(Fieid test ) (Parameters measureds
(A) Plate load test I. TOIal and frictional resistance
(B) Standard pe netratio n test 2. Load intensity and settlement values
(C) Static Dutch cone penet ration test 3. Ned values
(D) Dynamic penetration lest 4. SPT values
Cod"
A B C 0
(a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 4 3 I
(e ) 2 I 3
(d ) 4 I I (C.E.s. 1997)
23. Conside r the follow ing statements:
I . Co nstant-head pertuc nrnctcr is best suited for determinati on of coe fficient of permeability of highly
impermeable so ils.
2. Coefficie nt of permeabilit y of a so il mass decrea ses with increase in viscos ity of the pore fluid.
3. Coefficie nt of permeabi lity of a soil mass increases with increase in temperature of the pore fluid.
Of th ese statemen ts :
(a) I a nd 2 are correct (b) I and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correc t (d) I, 2 and 3 are correc t (C. E.S., 1998)
24. Consider the followi ng statement s :
I. Relative compaction is nOi the same a.s relative de nsity.
2. Vihrofloatatio n is nOI effectiv e in the case of highly cohesive soils.
3. 'Ze ro air void line' and 100% saturation line arc not identical.
 MISCELLANEOUS O BJECT IVE-TYPE QUEST ION

or th ese sta te me n ts :
(a) 1 and 2 arc correct (b) I and 3 arc correc t
(c) 2 a nd 3 are correct (d) 3 alone is correct. (C.E .S .• 1998)
25. Consider the following stateme nts :
Phrea tic line in nn earth dam is
l. elliptic in shape
2. an eq uipotential line
3. the top most 11 0w line with zero water pressure
4. approximatel y a parabola
or these sta te ments :
(a) I, 2 and 3 are correc t (bl 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(c) 3 and 4 arc correct (d) I alone is correct (C.E .S., 1998)
26. Consider the following statements ;
Rankine 's theory and Coulomb's theory g ive same value!' of coeffic ients of active and passive earth
pressure when
I. the retain ing wall has a vertical bac k
2. the backfill is cch csionle ss
3. angle of slope of back fill is equal to the angle of internal friction
4. the angle of slope of backfi ll is 0"
5. the angle of wall frictio n cS is 00
6 . the angle of wa ll friction cS is equal to $
or the se statements :
(a) I. 2. 3 and 5 are correc t (b) I, 2. 4 and 5 are co rrect
(e) 2, 3 and 6 are correct (J) I, 4 and 6 are correct (C.E. S., 1998)
27. Conside r the fo llowing statements:
I . Coulomb's earth pressure theory docs not take the rou ghn ess of wall into co nsideration.
2. In case o f non-cohesive so ils, the coefficient of active ea rth pressure and earth pressure at rest are
equal.
3. Any move ment of retaining wall away from the fill corresponds to acti ve eart h pressure co nditions:
Of the se stat ements :
(a) I alone is correc t (b) I and 2 are co rrect
(e) 2 alone is correct (d) 3 alone is correct (C.E.S., 1998)
28 . Cons ider the fol lowin g statements;
I. The degree of saturation of a saturated soil mass subjected to pressure remains unch anged d uring the
process of co nsolidation.
2 . Seco ndary consolidation is due 10 the plastic def ormati on of the soil when the pore fluid is not
subjec ted 10 a ny excess pressure
~ 3. Primary consolid ation is independent of the coe fficient of permeability of the so il but depe nds on the
decrease in void volume due to air escape.
or th ese state me nts :
(ll)I and 2 are co nec r (/,) I and .3 arc correc t
(c) 2 and .3 arc co rrect ( J) I, 2 and J are correct (C .E.S .• 1998)
29. Consider the follow ing statements uxsociatcd with local shear failure of so ils :
I. Failure is s,lld den with well-defined ultimate load
2. 111i .~ failure occurs in highly compressive soils.
3. Failure is preceded by large settlements.
 SOIL MECHA NICS AND FOUNDATI ON ENGINEERING
'"
or thes e statements :
(a) 1. 2 and :3 arc correct (b) I and 2 arc correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct (C.E.S.• 1998)
30. Co nsider the following statements :
I. Dynam ic cone penetration test for site investigations is based on the principle thai elastic shock
waves travel in different materials at different velocities.
2. Electrica l resistivity method of sub-surface investigation is capable of detecting only the strata having
different electrical re sistivity.
3. In-situ vane shear test is useful for dctennining the shear strength of very soft soil and sensitive clays
a nd is unsuitable for sandy soils
or th ese statements :
(a ) I and 2 arc correct (b) 1 and 3 are correc t
(e) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 2 alone is correct (C.E.S.• 1998)
[Ans. I. (d) . 2. (e). J. (bl. 4. (a ). 5. (el. 6. (b). 7. (b). 8. (b ). 9. (b ). 10. (el. II. (d). 12. (a) . 13. (d). 14.
(a ). 15. (a ). 16. (a l. 17. (c), 18. (d) . 19. (d). 20. (el. 21. (bl. 22. (e). 23. (c), 24. (a) . 25. (el. 26. (b).
27. (d) , 28. (a). 29. (c). 30. (e)]
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73.

",,,
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Manak Beaven, 9, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg.
New Delhi. 1HXX)2.

1. 15 :456- 1918, "CO« of Pracri« for Plain and Reinforud cotKn"te:t.

2. 15:1080-1985, " Des ign and constructiotf of Shallow FQI.lndOliQtU ill Soils (mller than raft. nng and shell)
3 . 15 :875-1964 , " Indian SUl1Idmd Ccxk of practice for .UT1«:(ura / ~/<:ty of Buj'di,,~s. l.oadi ng SlO1UkIrds".
4. 15 :1498- 1970, "Classifictuiml and lJelllijicatiOlu of soil. for Genera l Cnrineering Purposes .
5. 15 :1888- 1982., " Method of Loa d Ten all soils" .
6. IS: 189 2·1979 , " Code of Practice for Suhsurface Investigations for Foundations ",
7. IS: 189.3-1975. "C riteria for Earthqua ke Resistant De si~/r (If Structures"
8. IS: 1004-1986, "De sign and Construc tion of Foundations i ll Soils; ete-erot Requiremews ",
9. IS: 213 1-1981, " Method for Sta nda rd Penetration Test for Soils".
10 . 15 :2132 ·1986 , 'Cod e of Practice for Thin-walled Tub" Samp li,,!: vf Soils" ,
11, IS; 2720 -Plln - l 19tH , " Prep aration of DiY Sa mples fo r vanoa s n ',' IS" ,
12, IS: 2720-Pan-2 1973, "De termination tlf Warer content",
13, IS: 2720-Pa n -3 Sea. 1· 1980, "Deierminanon of Spec ific grau'fy-Fl11e-graint!d svi/s ",
14. IS: 2720-Pan-3 Sea.·2·198I, " Determilll.ltion of Spec ific Grav ity-hne• •\ledium, and coarse-gra ined soils ".
15. IS: 2720-Pa n 4-1975, " Grain siu analy sis ".
16 , IS; 2720-Part 5-1970, " Daermination of Liquid and Plauic Limits ",
17, IS: 2720- Pan 6-1972, "Determination of Shrinkaxc Factors ",
18, IS: 2720- Part 7-1983, " Determination of Wau r content-Dry rknsit.v Re fmiQll usinf{ Ugh! compac tion",
: 9 . 15; 2720-Pan 8-19R\. ' Det ermi nation of Water Comau -Dry VaJ:::t}' R etmio n usin g H em')' Compaction..
20 , IS: 212O-Pan 9·1971 , " lJef ermi, /,ui;:;,,: ~f Dry ~1ISl1V· M~l>Iu~ (-untent Remtion by COI'fSlQlllweig lu of soil
method ",
2 1. IS: 2720 Pan 1Q..1973 , "Deurmmmion of Unconfined Com pre ssiJ'f! Strengt h"_
22 . IS: 2720- Palt 11·19 71, " De termillll/i(»1 of shear streng th par antete rs of soils f rom consolida ted-u ndrained
triaxi al compression test with measuremesu of Pore-water Pressure" ,
23 , IS : 2720-Part 12-198 1, "De termination of Shear S trength Parameters of Soils fro m COllso/itklt ed-Undrailled
Triaxia l Compression Test with measuremellt of Pore- Water Pressure ".
24 , IS : 272O-Pa rt 13·1972, "D irect Shear Test" .
25, IS: 272 O-Pnrt 14·1983, " De termination of Density Index (Relmil' e Densi ty) of conesiontess soils ".
26 , IS: 272O-Part 15· 1986, "D etermination af Consolidation Prope rties.
27 . IS: 272O-Part 17-1977, " Determinatio n of Linear Shrink age ",
28. IS: 2720-Part 28-1974, "Determination of D ry Density of Soi l in.place.by the sand-replacement method".
29 , IS: 2720- Pllrt 29·1975, "Determinatioll of D ry Density of Soils in place-by the core CUller method ",
30. IS: 272 O-Part 30 · 1980 , " La boratory Vane Shear Test",
31.. IS: 2720-P3 n 33· 197 1, "Determination of the density ill place, by ,he Ring and Water Replacem enJ Method ".
32. IS: 2720-P3n 34- 1972, " Determination 0{ the De nsity of Soil in place, by lhe /Wbber·Ba lloon Mem oli ".
33 , IS: 2720-P3rt 35-1974, "Measurtment of Negati l'e Pore 'futer Press ure ",
34 , IS: 2720- P3rt 36-1975 , "La boratory Determination of Perm eability of Granu lar Soils (Const01ll H ead )".
35 . IS: 2720- P:an 38-1976, " Compac tion control Test (Hi lf Method )".
36 , IS: 2~Part 39-Sect . 1. 1977, " Circe : Shear Test fo r Soils COIIlaining growl, La bor atory Test " ,
REfERENC~

37 . IS: 2720-Pan 40-19n. "Det ermination r! Free S-w lJ Inti=. of Soils" .

. 38 . IS: 2911-Pan I-Sect . 1-1979, "De sign and Construction of Pile Foundations- Driven Cast in-si,u concrete
Piles" .
39 . IS: 2911 -Pan t -Sect. 3-1979, - - Design and construction of Pile Founda tion-Driven Precast Piles",
40 . IS: 29U -Part 3-1980 , " Colle o f Practice for Design and Construc tion of Pile Foundation - Unde r-reamed Piles" .
4 1. IS : 29 11· Pan 4-1974, " Load Test 011 Piles ".
4 2. IS: 2950 A;I (1974), "C ode oJ Proctice for DesiRn and Construction of Raf , Focmdations".
43 . IS: 2968-Pan 1-1976, " Dynami c meth od using 50 mm Ccee without Bentonite S1W'I)''' .
44. IS: 2974-P'.trt 1·1982, " Foundation for Recip rocUling Type },{achillt:s" .
45. IS ; 2974-Pan 2-1980, "Foundation for Impact Type nwchines (lJarmmer Foundation r.
46 . IS; 2974-Pnn 3-1975, " foundation for Rotary 7}pe machines (Medium and Jfighway Frequency)" ,
47. IS; 297 4-Pan 4-1979 , "F ouncanon s for Rotary Type Mach ines for Low Frequency" .
48. IS; 2974 -Part 5-1970, "Fou ndations for Impact Type Machines other than I/armm ers (Forging and Stampi/Ig
Press, Pig-breaker, Elevator «lid Hoist Tower).
49 . IS; 3764 -1970. " Safety Codes for ElIcavOltion work " .
SO. IS: 3955 -1967 , " llldiw I Standard Cocle of Practice for Design and Canstnu:lion of well Foundations ".
51. IS; 4434 -1978. " Code of Practice for In-situ. 1'Qnt' Shear Te51for soils ".
52 . IS: 4453- 1980. " Cooe of Practice for Sub-surface Exploration by Pits, Tmu:hes, Drifts and S/wfts ."
53 . IS : 4968-Pan 2-1976, "Dynamic Metllod usillg COlle llJId Bentonite Slurry ".
54 . IS : 496S-PlIn 3-1976, "Stat ic COI le Penarauon 1ht" .
55. IS : 5121-1969 , " Safety code for Piling WId other Deep Fo undations".
56. IS ; 55 29-Pan 1-1985, "Code of Practice foe h i-situ Permeability Tests-Tests in Owrburden" .
57 . IS ; 6403- 1981 , " COOt! of Praaice for Determination of Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations ".
58 . IS; 695 5·1973, "Ccxle of Practice for Subsurface Exploration for Earth and Rock fill Dams".
59 . IS; 7317-1974, "Cote of Practice for Um'arial Jacking T~ for Jkformalioll Modulus of Rtxk".
60. IS; 8009-POln 1-1976, "Sha l/ow Foendalon Subjecled to Symmetrical Static Vertical Loads";
61. IS: 8009 -Part 2-1980. "Code uf Practice fur calculations of settlement af Foundanon-D eep Fou ndation
subjected To Symmetrical Static Vertical Loading
62 . IS: 8763 -1978 , " Guide for Undisturbed Sampling af Sands ",
63. IS: 8764- 1978, " Metllott for Determination of Point-Load Strength Index r! Rocks ".
64 . IS: YI43-I Y7'J, "Met}1O<1 for DelermillQ/ioll of Poillt Load Sm:llgth Indo. of Rocks ".
65 . IS: 9221 -1980 , " Metllod of Determination of btoautus r! Elasticil)' and Poissotl's ratio of Rock materials in
Utliarial CompressiQlI.
66 . IS: 9259-1979, " SpecificatiQlISfor Liquid limit Ap parQ/USfor Soils".
67 . IS: 9640- 1981, "Specifications for Split-Spoon Samp ler".
68. IS: 1008 2· 198 1, " Method of Test for Determination of Tensile Strength by Indirect Tests on Rock Specimens " .
69 . IS : 10379-1982 , "C ade af Pmaice for Field Comrot of Moisture and Compaction of Soils for Embankment and
Sub- grade ".
70. IS; 11385 ·1985 . " Code of Practice for SIlh-surface Exploration for CQIUJ/s and Cross-DraillQge Worb ".
71 . IS: 11594-1985 . " Specifications for mUd Steel Thin-Walled Sampli ng Tubes and Sampkr heads".

A Capillary tension, 122
AASIITO da5lioirlC3liOll, 92
AbsoIu~ specific gravity, 20
Abe.oIulc permeability, 14j
Abbot compaction IC&t, 36 2
Activity,81
Amorption. 69, 114
Adsorbed water, 116
Aeo lian depos its, 6
Air conlcnl,15
Aircnlryvalue,321
A-line , 95, 99
Aif voids,15
Allen Hazen's formula , lSI
Allowabl e soil pn"MUfe. 588, 618
Alluvial soil depo&it, 6
Appacenl JRSfiure dillgram, 551
~ w..:el pile. 526 . 532
Angle of internal friction , 313
A ngle oCshearing re~ i slllnee , 313
Angle of wall friction, 495
An: hing in soi ls, 573
Aromic bcods , 108
Aqu icl ude, 146, 402, 40 1
Aquife r, confined , 146,.402
Aquife r, unconfined, 146, 402
Auga boring, 420
B EfTa:livc stress principle, 189
u.,oo. n's method, 764
BAAC exchange ClIpacity, 114
Base parabola, 173
Bellm bending test, 829
Bearing capacity theoric::s,:587
Bis.lIop'$ simplified metho:t . 463
B ilum il'lOU55tabilisalion,31U
Blact oottoo. soil, 7
8l.anketdrain, 397
Rlockdiagram, J3
Iloiling condition, 201
Bonds, lOB
Bored piles, 675, 685
Boring, 420
Boring log , 437
Bous&Jnesq'll solution, 221
Dialled all, 550
Bulkhc:llds,526
Bulkiogolsand, 131
Bulk Density, 16
C Field dellSit)' measurement. 33, 368
Ca issons , 706
California bearing ratlo, 775
D1pillllcity-penneability ~ 152
Capillary potential , 125
Qr,pi llary rise, 121
Ca pillary aiphoning, 131
INDEX
Degree of saturation, 15
Capl ll:ll)' wa fer, 120 Dcnsi ly bou le, 30
C-.agn'nde 'l>Apptratufi, 70 Density index, 60
CMagrande'l> phreatic line. 174 Dc:niMm"'llmpler,426
C&ap:rn>de'. pez.ocnete r, 432 Depth ofUploratiOll, 41 7
Cuat:ran tk '. pllllitic:ity chart, 97 Depth of C".lIing, 637
Cemenl ·labi lis.ation,3n Dcpthfaclor, 4.B
Cc:ntriCUt;e method, 127 Diffuse dou ble Illyer, 114
Chemlca t ~lilbili ~r,thn, 382 Dillltancy com.:et illll,427
Classi fication. k'\ 8M Dlspe rscd structurcv I'lb
Coe fficient, car-t. pressure. 4HO lJispc p.;in gagcn l,49
eoc ffici( '1l, at-rest pressure, 220 , 480 Directsbcllrlcsl ,314
Cocfftcic m, absolute pclmeability. 145 Ditch c.ooduil, 575
eoefrlCi " nl, COInrn'-....i bilhy , 26,.'i Draina ge , ]<)1
Cod Tkicll l, oon.~idll tion, 270 Drn\\1XM'o, 146, 403
Coc:trlL;ent, curvature, 59 Drilling metbods , 420
eoefrlCient. etesnc uniform compression. Drilled pier, 706
7M Dupuit's IIMumplioo, 146
CodTkil.'rll, permeability, 136 Durabilit y of rock, 822
Coe fficient, pcrcolalion,1 40 DUlch cone test, 429, 688
Coe fficicnt,sc.con dllry consolidati on, 285 Dy namic furmula, 685
Coefficient, subgrade reaction, 659 , 781
CoelTlCient, uniformity , 59
CoetrlCient, volume change , 26S
Coffer dallllt, SS6
"
Earth dam, 173, 460
Earth pressure Ihcories, 478
Eccentric rool ings, 611, 644
Colloi<b ,l08
ElTa:li ve s.iu,~
ColILNi.alsoils,7
Effecti ve stress, 189, 313
Comb ined Cooling, 645
Compaction, 357
Efficiency of pile group, 690
Compression, index, US
Electrica l i1nlllogy, 170
Com pression 11lli000, 279
Electrica l charg e, 113
Cone or depression, 146
Electro-csmosis, 394
Cone penetrometer method, 73 Electrica l ~bilisation, 184
Cone pcl\CtJ'lItion lest, 429 Elastic line melhod, 6SS
ConfinedaquiCer, 148, 402
Elastic plate method, 657
Consistency index, 78 Engineerin g Ne....s Record form ula, 68S
Consistency limits, 69
Excess hydrosta tic press ure, 269
Consolidation, 2.~ Expansion index, 266
Contact pressure, 247
Conl:K1stress, 191 F
Contact water, 12A Fadu m's chart , 2366
Core dril1illg, 422 Failure, rocks, 831
Core cu tter, 34 Fail ure plane, 344, 483
Coull lenoct wall, 523 FaillllU'>,fOllOOlllioo.'i, 596
Coulomb's throry , 494 Failures. s lopo:l>,442
Cov alelll bond, 109 Fel1cnius liee , 457
Cri tia ] damping, 760 Fenske 's cMrt, 244
Clitia] gadient, 202 t lCld COIIIplldi Oll OOfItrol, 368
CritiCllI height, 492 t M:IdClOITIpildion metno.J.<.366
Critica l vOO:I nll ia, 317 Field OOIlSOIidlltion curv e, 284
Cu lmann's coretrccuo n, 50 1
Culm ann's meth od , 448, 696 FIeld ldentiflca t ion methods, 101
Filler, 173, 207
o Finite diff erence method, 172, 6~6
Dam ping factor, 760 Filling methods , 277
Dan~h Cormu l.. 6fI6 Fixed ClInh supoort, 53 5
Dan::y·.bw,l3S Float ing C/liS$()R, 7 16
INDEX
Floo:: ulalcd 5olructure., 166
Flow indo:~ 78
flow net, 167
Forma tion uC soils, !i
Forced vibrnlioo 76 1
Foundaliom., 587, 636, 671, 722, 70505
f ree canti lever pile, 5'1:1
free earth support, 0532
Free vibration, 7 59
Friction circle me thod, 450, ~
Frictional stresses, 784
Frost boil , 129
Frost depth , 638
Fros t heave, 128
Fros t line, 128
G Lime stabi lisalion, 380
Geosta tic slrefis, 219
General shear fa ilure, 596
Geophysica l IlKlhoJS, .$33
Grotcxtil e, 38..'i
G lad cr dc~ ted §(ljIs,6
GCM"S method, 708
GJ:1Ued filter , '1lJ7
G rnding ot' soilr., 57
Grnin ~i7£ CWVC, 057
Ground waltr, 39 1
Gravity rclailling wa ll, 520
G rip Icnglh, n .l
Gross safe beating c apacity, 587
O roe;s footing p res su re, 587
Group acti(~lS, pika, (00
Grou ling, J&l
II
lI agen -Pui...o;.euilJe eq., 142
1I 11n,J-ca~ s.am ple , 426
lIanscn 'l>th«>I)',6(L.I
HafYll".1 C()(l"mclion lcl;l. 362
Heave piping. lOS
Hiley's fosmula, 6f:6
11M's mcthoJ, 463
IIisltXYuCsoil ensg ,ll
Honey -comb l'UUCtUlC, 167
Housel's method , 625
Hvorstcv's theory, 342
Hyd raulic head , 134
Hydraul ic gradient, 135
Hydrogen bond, 109
Hydro mete r, 52
lI ygroscopic water , 120
J Nel allowable pn:Nioure, 587
Illite, 113
Immcdialt M':IUemcnl, 613
Index properties, 45, 819
Indian StanJard dassilicaliOll , 96
lnmeoce diagram , 226
Initial coosolidltion , 2.'1 7
In-situ strees, 219, 834
Ionic bonds, 108
lsobar diagram, 225
Isochrones,273
Isomorphous subt<lilulion, lI 2
J Oven::onsolidak.'dsoils, 267
Jodhpur mini rompllClor , 362
Joint 5C1, 818
Joint spacing. 825
K Particle size anaJ)'!'is, 45
Kaolinite, 112
KOi'-C'llY basi<: parabola, 173
Kce eey Carman eq. 151
L Percentage finer , 55
Lambe's stress path, 339
La minar now, 141
Laplace's eq uatio n, 164
I..Ilternlly loa ded piles, 696
l.Mri ticsoils, 7
Limits, Allert>crg. 69
Linellrsb.rinkag e, 76
Liquefaction uC s.and, J43
Liquid limit, 70
Liqu id ily iOOCl, 78
~tcst, pla le, 621
Load lesl , pile, 690
Loc a l sbl.'ar failure, 596
Logarithm uC lime method, 278
LouOOo"s focmu la, IS2
M Plastic models, 172
Machin e foundall on , 7S5
Mass specifi c gravity, 20
Marine tkpcN ls, 6
Mattson 's theory, S83
Mal fouoda lioo , 649
Mechanica l lII1al)'!'is, 46
Mechanical stabilisation, 376
Mercwy (Ullrol ~)'5Il:m, 32D
Mey.::rflo{'s ana lys is, 602, 679
MoJilied failure enve1ope ,138
MooJified Proctor leSt , J60
Modulus ot' da-tidty, 218
Moduh.s uC$Ubgooe ru c tion, 651, 781
Molv-Cou llXllb aikrion, 337, 832
Mohr-Cou lornb theory, 312
Moisture conlenl, IS
Morumori llonile ,1 12
M ulti -stage well poinll>,393
N Pumping-in rest , 148
Natural frequency, 765
Negative projecting con duit, 580
Negati ve skill friction, 684
Nel foot ing pn::l'SU1C, 588
Newmllr!l:'s chart, 239
Normally oonsoIidated soi l, 267
o R-yaiue,n8
Octahedralunil,l1l
Opcn caissons, 7 10
Open-end Ie~ 149
Opc n wells, 401
OpCimum water coent, 359
Origin ofsuil:s,4
Originolplal1C$,3M
NilS
Ovcn:on.<;o/idatioo reno, 267
P
, Packr r Icst, 150
Partially saturated soils, 209, 341
P.-ive sta le, 478
Pavement design, 73
Penetration lest , 42 7, 610
Pcr~nlageairvoids,1 5
Percussio n dri lling , 422
Permeability, 134,820
pFvalue, 125
Phreatic line, 173
Pile foundalion , 671
Pile load lest , 688
Plpcne me thod, 51
Pipin g , 204
- Pis ton sample r, 426
Place men t water eootem, 367
Plane of equal se ttlement, S79
fta...lic equilibrium, 338, 482
Plaslicity chart , 97, 99
Plasticity inde x, 78
Plasti c limit, 73
Plale lo.....tlesl , 62 1
Poi lit-load strength, 821
Poisson's ralio, 218
Pore pressu re parameter, 333
Pon: pressure measurement, 32 1
!\Jf;itiye projoctin g COU<I uit, 5 77
l"otenlial function , 1M
f>orosity, 14, 820
P1<lnJt1's analysi s, 592
Pn:rompression, 37 1
Preccosoltdated soil, 267 , 283
Primary consol idation, 257
Primary vale nce bonds, 108
Pmctof test, 358
Procsoeneed le. 368
Pn:s5ure bulb, 225
Pressutemene, 431
Presumptive bearing eapecity, 62 1
Prindpal planes, J08
Pumping-out lc.sL~, 146
Punc hing shear failure, :'i96
Pycnomelcr,28, 32
Q
Quick sand coodilioo , 2D3
R
Raft fOOndatiOll,653
Radius ot relativ e 5olifTne.o;s, 783
Radi ation method, 36
Rankine's aoudysis , 590
Rankine "searth pressure, 481
RC(XllJIJrl:SSiOll indc:x , 1h7
Reo:xmaissanoe,417

Rec tang ular oomb incd foo ting, 645
Rectangu lar plo( method , 459
Receperadoe est, 408
Rehbann', ~on.
Relative dcmity, 60
Resistivity method, 435
Reson ance lest . 765
Retain ing wa lls, 517
Reynold's nu mber. 136
Richar1', chart, 758
Righi:triangle chart, 92
Ring shear tes t, 829
Rigid pavements, 773. 782
Rock Mechanics, 8t7 "
Roc k quality designation, 818
Rock mKSS rating. 824
Roi leB. types, 366
ROW}' drilling, 422
Rowe's correction, 534
Rubber balloon method, 35
S Unifoonity coefficient, 58
SamplCf5,424. 425
Sample prrparation, cohesioejess
soil,322
Sand bath method, 29
Sand drains, 291
s-disland, 713
Sand ~p1aocment method, 34
Sat urated m3.o;s density. 16
Sa lurated units weigh t, 18
Scra p buc ket samp ler. 425
Secondary coosoIidation, 285
SClCaKiluy valence bonds, 110
Sedimentation .naIysir.. 47
See page analyr.ir.. 163
SeeJlllgc line, 173
Seepagepressure, 197
Seepage velocily. 140
Seismk: method. 433
Senlemenl 311l11yr-is., 612
Sett lement ratio. 578
Shape of particl es, 59
Shear box lest, 314
Shear strength, 306. 833
Shrinkage, 129
Shrinkage iDdcx. 76
Shrinkage lim it, 74
Shrinkage ratio, 76
Shallow we ll, 394
Shaft, 570
Shccc pile wa ll, 526
Stw.lby tube. 425
Shift, 744
Sieve ana lysis, 46
SignifiCllnt depth, 417
Sinkingof .....-.:l ls.742
Silc invo:stigalions, 4 15
Skemplon.Bjcnum method, 294
Ske mpson bearin g ca paci ty fac tors, 607
Skemptore p.xe pressure
paramcleB, 333, 462
Slaking, 130, 822
~IL
Slipdrcle method, 455
Slopes,stab ility analysis, 440
S10ls, 396
497 SoiI.4:litumcn,381
SoiI.a:menl,3n
Soil das.slfication. 89
Soi l de posits . 7
Soil form ation, 5
Soi l model,111
Soil r.amplcr, 424
Soil 5-lrudLlll:. 116
Soil suction, 125
Soi l water, 120
Soldier beams,553
Sonic vetccny, 823
SpecifIC gravity, 19
SpecifIC rtlcntion, 402
Specific surface, 107
Speci fic y ield. 402
Spl itting test, 828
Stabilisation of soi ls, 376
Stability cbans, 453
Sttbility number. 453
Stabiliry of slopes, 440
Standard pene tration test, 427, 610, 688
St\lldard Procroe test. 358
Stlllic oooc lest, 429, 616
Sbtlic:f(flJlulafocpiles,6n
Slcining.741
SlOkc,. law, 47
SIrcNi-slrllin curve . 218, 829
Stress path, 339
SIructura! units, 111
SUual1l'3! water, 120
Subgrade, n4
Subgrnde reaction, 659. 781
Sub-surface profile, 437
Submergt:d density, 16
Sud.l.:n drawdown. 461
Suctioo,l25
Suction pla te. 127
S urfACetension , 120
Swedi sh-circle method, 4 55
S-lling of :soils, 129
T Wcdgethrory.494
TaylOf's Iitllbility charts. 453
Tenslcn crack. 491
Tensionpiles, 694
Tensicmcter. 127
Termil'l3l velocity, 47
Tennioology of soils, 9. &38
Terra-probe, 370
Terzaghi's llMIY'lis, bearing
capacity. 593
--consolidation, 267
-rigid b\llt:heads, 725
Tulu131 dllll6iflClltion, 91
Tbermal stabilisation, 383
Thix olropy , 81
Three-dime nslonal consoli da tion, 287
Tie backs, 554
Tilt, 744
MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONENGINEERING
Ti me factor, 2 73
Time-settlement curve, 283
Toughne:s5inJex. 79
Torsion balance method. 1:1
Tl3l¥oformcd section, 100
T ransm issibility, 762
T rill l wed ge method . 503
Triaxial test, 3 18, 828
True angle of friction, 342
True cohesion., 342
Tuonc:1s, 571
Tunnc:1 cord ons, 582
U
U1tima le bearing c;apaeity, 587
Uililllllle soil ruiSlance, 737
Unconfined oom~ l on Ic$t. 330. 828
Uncon fined aqu ifer, 146. 401
Underground co nd uit.s, 575
Uoois turbcdsamples,425
Unified d <t56ifiCillion. 92
Unil weighl of !>Oil soI ilh, 8
Unit weight, 17,819
V
Vacuum we ll points, 393
Vandc:IWaaI·sforoes.110
Vane shea r est, 3J2, 431
Vcsic's theory, 605
Vibralio n.759
Vibration Isolation. 767
VtbrofJOlalion, 369
Virgin curve, 267
\bi dralio,l4
Volumechange measurement, 321
Volum etric shrinkage, 76
W
Wales, 554
WarpingSlresscs, 784
Wash boring. 42 1
Water cont en t, 15
Waterdispl accmentmelhod, 33
Wave equation. 687
Wcdge failure, 447
Wdl fou ndation , 722
Well hyd.raulioo.40 1
Well points. 392
Weslcgaa rd', sol ution, 243
Wes&ergaard method for rigid
pavements, 782
Winkler 's bed, 653
Y
Yield of wel ls. 402
YOWlS's modulus. 218
Z
Zero-air voids line, 360
 Roller Compacted Con cr ete Dam s
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5 6 Ficld .xljustrncntof mn Jlf"f'Onioo ~ 12.4 Th c:rma l t>ch.l,·ior
5"7 u.unplc problcm (If mIX dc';~ n 12.3 W"-lcntghlhC'"
6. PROPEKn t:S o r ROLl .t:R CO M PACTE U 12.6EvaluJ li,,,,t>y drillcd co......
CO NC R ETE 13. RO LL E R CO ~I "A CTU) eO:O;CR ET E-rA S1:
6.2 Work~t>ili ly r JtJo:SEST ANI> rvrees
6.3 Dcnsily and yid d 13.2 1t"lc uf ccmclll,ndu lry inrc cdcv elopme nl
6.4 Permeability 13.3 Roknf l1ynsh indu slry in rcc devcloprncm
6.5 Cnmp rc", ivc slre ng lh IJ J Lnbumlory rcscnrch and full scalc lrinls
6.6 Te nsi le stre nglh and sl r~ 1l\ cn p~cily 13.5 Neooed researr h
6.7 Shenr strength I l 6 Ecnn "m i cs " f fulurc rcc dam ~
6.8 Th crmJ I t>chavior 14. P R08 U:MS IN nee
6 ,9 ThcrmJ lpropertics 14 2 Wal<:rlig hlnes' and seepa ge
6 .IODrying shnnkage 14 , 3andin ~
6.11 AUlo genou s volum e ch a ngc. 14 .4 A lk~h ~ggrcgal': reaclion
6 ,12Crccp 14 ,5 RcsisliUlCelu e lO' ion
6 . IJModulusofclasticily PART 1I- IN\ 't:..-'IT IG AllO N. PLA N~ INc; .l)t:SI G N II.:
6,!JPoi,,,,,,, 's"llio COS~" RUl."IOS DETAI I£ o r 102 NOS·TYP ICAL
6.1SCaviu lion. lIbrOlSion,,-nd impact R(.'C DAMS
6. 16 Dur.l bi lily PART III- Q l'ESTl o,,,,,,, AND A."S WF:RS

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 INDETERMINATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
~ ;.V ew.; Dr . C.B . Kukreja
~... Forme rly, Hea d of Civil Engg .• Dean R and 0
Tho par Institute of Engg . a nd Technology, Patiola
Fir st Edition ISBN: 8 1- 8 63 0 8 -5 9 -8
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~il ~~~i:n~s;~t~~o~~~nOg~~:~:i~~xt : ~:f~~;r;i~:~~~OS~:;~~~~j~Os~~:~o:~:t~:I;n~~
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'- .I

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( C:ONTENTO
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Met ho d of Cons istont Deformati on *
Three Mom ent Equati on *
Slope -Defle ction Method
* Mome nt Distribution Met hod *
Met hod of Co lumn Ana log y *
Kini' , Met ho d *
Strain Ene rgy Met hods *
Two Hinged e nd Fixe d Arches . Influenc e l ine s *
Suspensi on Bridge s *
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Page s : 684 + XII Price Rs. 175 .00

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural
Analysis A Unified Classical and Matrix Appraach
A. GHALI & A.M . NEVILLE
Fourth Edition ISBN 419-21200~0
The fourth edition of thil com prehensive te xt boo k co m bine l and develops concurrently
A.&MlI both danical & matrix-based methodl of lIructural ana lys il . The book openl with a new
UL IleorIII chapter on the onolysil of statically determi na te strucwres, intended to pro vide a bett er

~Th•• ':"bo.o':"k·,,~nl~o;·",.Iov:~ej~~I::r~:~ s;~~;~~ta~a~:r:et~ a~~~~rp~:b~:~I;i~~r':I:~il:i:. ha s been added

* *
Staticallydete rminate structures Introduction to the anal ysis of statically,ndeterm inate strud ures Fa rce method of analy sis
* * * *
Displocement method of analysis Use afforc. and displac.ment methods Slrain energy and virt.....l work Determina!;on
* * *
of d isplacement by virtual work . Furtheropplicolions of method 01virtual wo,"" lmporlonl . nergy theorems Displacement
of elastic structures by specia l m.thods *
"P plicatiom of force & displacem.nt methods : column analogy & moment
d~tr;butian * *
lnflu. nc.lin.... fa' beams a nd from.s . Influenc. lines for grids, arches and tnlUftli Effectsof a~al fore. on
fle"ufCIl sliffnen *
Analysis of shea'.wall ltruclur.s *
Method of finite differ.r>c.s *
Finit. -. leme nt m.thod *
Furth. r.
*
developmenT of finile..lement method Plgsticgnal)'1ois 01 continuous bea ms & frames . Yield. line & strip method s for slgbs
* Structura l dynamics. Comp"".r ono lysis of fra med strvcl\l,.s • Impl.....ntgtion of cgmpute r gnalysis *Nonlinear
*
gnalysis Append icDl A-l *Index

Pages: 832 + XV I Indian Pr ice Rs. 425.00

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY MANUAL
Dr. C.B. Kukre ja & Ravi Chawla
Ne Thopo r Institute of Eng g. &. Tech ., I'Utia la

2nd Edit ion ( CONTENTS)

Port· l Ce me nt * Pa rt- 2 Ce me nt Agg re ga tes * Part·J Ce m en t Conc re te * Po rt -4
Re info rced Con crete * Port ·5 Bricks . Part -6 Timb e r * Port-7 Ste el * Part-S Build ing
Lim e * Appe nd ix

Pages : 23 6 + VI
 Dr. K.R. Arora did h is B.E. (C ivil Engi neering) ill 1959 in Firs t C lass from Raj asthan Unive rsity
Laterhe got his M .E. dcgree witqh onours from Jodhpur Univers ity and Ph.D. Degree fro m 1.1.T.. DE Ll Il.
Dr. Aro ra worked wi th Irrigati on Department o f Rajasthan for four yea rs from 1959 to 1963 a
Ass istant Eng ineer. li e was posted at Rami Prutap Sagar Dam . Rawat Bhata. He was associa rer
w ith design. construction and ins pecti on of various civ il engineer ing s tructures. such as grav ity dam, earrl
dam , buildings. roads an d brid ges.
Dr. Arora joi ned M .R. M. Eng ineering Col lege, Faculty of Eng ineering. Un ive rsi ty of Jod hpur in 1% 3 as a Lec turer in Civi
Engi neeri ng. Later he was prom oted as Associate Professor of C ivi l Engineering. Ill.' taug ht various Civ il Engi nccrim
subjec ts to undergraduate an d postgraduate studen ts .
Dr. Arora shifted to Engi neer ing Co llege, KOla, as Professor and Head , Departme nt of Civil Engineering. in 1983. I-I
was resp on sible forthe establishment of the various Inboraloriesandotherinfrastrucluref'a ci lities . He retired in 1997 .
Dr. Arora wo rked in Iraq on a Foreign Teaching Ass ignme nt for one year 198 1-82. lie-also worked as a Professor ofC ivi
Eng ineer ing at AWT l (Et hiopia) under a U.N.D. P. Programm e fro m 1997 to 1999. Dr. Arora has 36 ye ars experience 0
teac hing undergraduat e and postgraduate s tudents .
Dr. Arora has pub lished a number of researc h papers in Indian and Foreign journals and conferences . He has written i
numbe r o f text boo ks on va rio us Civ il Engineering subjects. TIle books are liked by stu den ts. reach ers and field engineer
not on ly inl rulia bUI also in foreign countries.
'Soil Mechan ics and Foundation Engineering' was first publ ished in 1987 and has been revis ed and updated a numb cr oftimcs
SAU£NT FEA TURES
· S I unit s used
• Fundamen tals explained in a sim ple, lucid language.
* Subject matterpresented in a log ical manner.
• Objec tive type que stions in each chapter.
• Question from various com petitive exam inations.
• Latest B IS co des fo llowe d
• Use ful for unde rgra duate and postgraduate students and field engineers .

IRRIGATION WATER POWER AND

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
Or. K.R. Arcre, Ph.D. (liTO), F.I.E.

The book covers the syllabus of the subject usually taught at the degree level in various Indian
Universities and technical institutions. The students appearing for AMIE, ICS, IES and various
other competiti ve examinations will find the book useful. The book is written entirely in SI units .
However, useful conversion factors are given for the readers interested in M.K.S. and F.P.S.
system of units.
CONTENTS
Part-l : Hydrology, Water Resources, Dam and Water Power Engineering
Introduction * Descriptive Hydrology * Stream Gauging and Hydrograph Analysis * Estimation of Runoff , yield, and
Flood Discharge *Ground Water Hydrology * River Behaviour and Training * Reservoir Planning *
Flood Control *
Planning for Water Resources Development * Introduction to Dam Engineering * Gravity Dams *
Embankment
Dams * Arch Dams and Buttress Dams * Spillways * Dam Outlets and Sluice ways * Water Power Engineering
Part-II : Diversion Headworks, Distributio n works, Irrigation Practice and Irrigation Management
Planning and Layout of Diversion Headworks * Basic Principles of Design of Hydraulic Structures * Design of Diversion
Headworks * Water Requirements of Crops * Planning and Layout of Distribution System * Design of Channels *
Canal Regulation Works *Cross-Drainage Works * Canal Outlets, Escapes, Bridges and Meter Flumes * Lining and
Maintenance of canals * Well and Lift Irrigation * Tank, Bandhara and Inundation Irrigati on System *
Fundamental
of Irrigation Practice * Methods of Application of Water * Water loggi ng, Drainage and reclamation and irrigation
* *

..
Management Appendix A - Salient Features of Some Typical River VaHey Projects Appendi X B - Glossary of
Common Terms *Appendi x C - Selected References * Appendix D - Publication of Bureau of Standards.
Pages : 1092 + XII Price : Rs. 250.00

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