Wave Optics

ratio between tine intensities at maxima and

minima will be
1. Young's double slit experiment. In Young's I max (a +a )2 r+1 2
Imin
= (a1 −a2 )2 = (r−1)
double slit experiment, two identical narrow 1 2
a1 I
slits S1 and S2 are placed symmetrically with where r = a2
= √I1 , is the amplitude ratio of
2
respect to narrow slit S illuminated with
monochromatic light. The interference pattern two waves. If w1 and w2 are the wldths of the
is obtained on an observation screen placed at two slits, then
large distance D from S1 and S2. w1 I1 a21
= = .
The position of nth bright fringe from the w2 I2 a22
centre of screen is
𝐷λ 4. Displacement of interference fringes. When a
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 thin transparent sheet of thickness t and
𝑑
The position of nth dark fringe from the centre refractive index μ is inserted in the path of one
of the screen is of the interfering beams, the extra path
𝐷λ difference introduced is
𝑥𝑛′ = (2𝑛 − 1)
2𝑑
Fringe width is the separation between two ∆p = Length t in transparent sheet
successive bright or dark fringes and is given by
𝐷λ
β= - Length t in air
𝑑

2. Resultant amplitude and intensity of or ∆p = μt – t = (μ-1)t

interfering waves. If a1 and a2 are the
amplitudes and I1 and I2 are the intensities of ∴ Net path difference for any point on the
two coherent waves having phase difference ϕ, screen
then their resultant amplitude and intensity at
the point of superposition are given by 𝑥𝑑
= 𝐷
- (μ – 1) t
a = √a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ
and I = I1 + I2 + 2 .√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos ϕ For the central point of the screen,
If amplitude of each wave is and intensity I0,
then 𝑥𝑑 𝐷
- (μ - 1) t = 0 or x = 𝑑 (μ - 1) t
I =2 𝑘𝑎02 (1 + cos ϕ) = 2I0 (1 + cos ϕ) 𝐷
ϕ
= 4I0 cos2 2
Thus the shift in the central bright fringe and
The term 2√𝐼1 𝐼2cos ϕ is called interference hence shift of any other fringe is ∆x =
term. D β
𝑑
(μ-1)t = λ (μ-1)t
(i) When cos ϕ remains constant with time, the
two sources are coherent. The intensity will be
maximum at points for which cos ϕ = +1 and 5. Interference in thin films. A soap film or thin
film of oil spread over water shows beautiful
minimum at points for which cos ϕ = -1.
colours, when seen in the reflected light. This is
(ii) When cos ϕ varies continuously with time
due to interference between light waves
so that its average value is zero over the time
reflected by the upper and lower surfaces of
interval of measurement, the resultant
thin films, as shown in the figure below. The ray
intensity at all points will be I1 – I2 . No
reflected from the upper denser surface of thin
interference fringes are observed. The sources
film suffers a phase change of π or path
are incoherent.
difference of λ/2.
3. Ratio of intensity at maxima and minima of an
interference pattern. If a1 and a2 are the
amplitudes of two interfering waves, then the

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 Width of central maximum,
2Dλ
β0 = 2β =
a
Angular spread of central maximum on either
side of the centre of the screen is
λ
θ=±
a
Total angular spread of the central maximum is
2λ
2θ=
𝑎
For diffraction to be more pronounced, the size
of the slit should be comparable to the
Reflected system. The path difference wavelength of light used.
between the two consecutive rays reflected
from the upper and the lower surfaces of a thin 7. Diffraction at a circular aperture. For
film of refractive index μ and thickness t is diffraction of light at a circular aperture of
given by diameter a, the angular spread of central
λ
P = 2μt cos r – 2 maximum is
λ 1.22 λ
For maximum intensity. 2 μt cos r = (2 n + 1) θ= 𝑎
2
For minimum intensity. 2 μt cos r = nλ. If D is the distance at which the effect is
Transmitted system. observed, then
For maximum intensity. 2μt cos r = nλ Linear spread, x = Dθ
For minimum intensity. Areal spread, x2 = (Dθ)2.
λ
2 μt cos r = (2n + 1) , where n = 0,1,2,3....
2 8. Fresnel's distance. It is the distance at which
the diffraction spread of a beam becomes
6. Diffraction at a single slit. A plane wave of equal to the size of the aperture. If a is the
wavelength λ on passing through a narrow slit width of the aperture, then
of width a suffers diffraction producing a 𝑎2
central bright fringe (θ=0°), flanked on both DF = λ
sides by minima and maxima. The intensity of The ray optics is valid for a distance D< DF.
secondary maxima decreases with the increase
in distance from the centre. 9. Diffraction grating. It is an arrangement of a
For nth minimum : very large number of very narrow, equidistant
Asinθn=nλ, n =1,2,3, .... and parallel slits. The diffraction pattern has
For nth secondary maximum : the central principal maximum of maximum
λ intensity and a number of higher order
a sin θn =(2n + 1) =1,2,3,....
2 intensity maxima whose intensity decreases
Angular position of nth minimum, with the increase of n, the order of the
𝑛λ
θn = spectrum. The direction of nth principal
𝑎
Distance of nth minimum from the centre of maximum is given by
the screen,DX (a + b) sin θn = nλ
𝐷λ where n =0,1,2,3....
xn = n 𝑎
This equation is known as grating law. Here (a
Angular position of nth secondary maximum,
+ b) is called grating dement, where a is width
λ
θ′ n = (2n + 1) of each slit and b is the width of opaque space
2a between two consecutive slits.
Distance of nth secondary maximum from the
centre of the screen,
Dλ
X n′ = (2n + 1) 2a
10. Resolving power of a microscope. The
Width of a secondary maximum, resolving power of a microscope is defined as
Dλ the reciprocal of the smallest distance d
β=
a

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 θ
between two point objects at which they can [𝑠]𝑇𝐷 =
𝑙×𝑐
be just resolved when seen in the microscope.
1 2𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
R.P. of a microscope = 𝑑 = λ 15. Doppler effect It is the phenomenon of the
where θ is half the angle of cone of light from apparent change in the frequency of light due
each point object and μ is the refractive index to the relative motion between the source and
of the medium between the object and the observer. The apparent frequency v’ is given by
objective. 𝑣
𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 (1 ± 𝑐 )
The factor μ sin θ is called numerical aperture
When source moves towards the observer,
(N.A.).
velocity v is taken +ve and when it moves away
from the observer, v is taken -ve.
11. Resolving power of a telescope. The resolving
power of a telescope is defined as the
16. Doppler shift. The apparent change in the
reciprocal of the smallest angular separation
frequency of light due to Doppler effect is
'dθ' between two distant objects whose images
called Doppler shift.
can be just resolved by it. 𝑣
1 𝐷 (i) Δ v = ± 𝑐 v
R.P. of a telescope = dθ = 1.22 λ 𝑣
(ii) ∆ λ = ∓ 𝑐 . λ.
where D is the diameter of the telescope
objective and λ is the wavelength of light used.

12. Law of Malus. This law states that when a

beam of completely plane polarised light is
passed through an analyser, the intensity T of
the transmitted light varies directly as the
square of the angle '& between the
transmission directions of polariser and
analyser.
I = I0 cos2 θ
where I0 is the maximum intensity of
transmitted light.

13. Brewster law. This law states that the tangent

of the polarising angle of incidence of a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive
index.
μ = tan ip

14. Specific rotation. It is the angle through which

the plane of polarisation rotates when plane
polarised light is passed through one decimetre
length of solution containing one gram of the
substance per cm3. The measurement is done
at a given temperature T, using sodium light
(the D-line).
Specific rotation

Observed angle of rotation in degrees

Length of the tube in decimetre × Grams of substance in 1 cm3 of solution

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