Industrial Safety Engineering (Module 3):

WEAR :
Wear can be defined as the damage or removal of material that a solid surface has
undergone due to sliding, rolling, or impacting against another solid surface. It is not a
material property, but rather a system response.

Typically, wear is undesirable as it can lead to increased friction, and ultimately to

material failure or loss of functionality. Thus, in order to reduce wear (and
consequently friction) a thin film of lubricant is inserted between the rubbing surfaces.

Wear can be classified according to how the damaging of the surfaces occurs.
Commonly, there is:
1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Surface fatigue
4. Fretting wear
5. Erosive wear
6. Corrosive and oxidation wear

Each type of wear is caused by one or more mechanisms. These mechanisms can
synergically overlap, leading to an increased rate of wear.

TYPES OF WEAR :
The most common types are both adhesive and abrasive wear, but surface fatigue,
fretting, erosive, and corrosive wear can also appear in many industrial applications
under specific conditions.

1. Adhesive wear:
Adhesive wear is the type of wear originated by the contact and interaction of asperities
between two touching surfaces with strong adhesive force. In other words, opposing
asperities bond to each other and shear off as one surface slides over another. Its
intensity depends on several physical and chemical factors, but generally will increase
with higher values of surface energy density. Oxidation films, the presence of
lubricants, contaminants or lower loads, however, will supress its effect.
It takes place when a rough, hard surface glides across a surface that is relatively softer.
It is also the most frequent type of wear mechanism encountered in industry.

Abrasive wear can be produced following three kinds of mechanisms,

*Plowing (if there is no material removal from the surfaces, but rather grooves are
formed from material being displaced)
*Cutting (if there is material removal in the form of debris) or by
*Fragmentation (if there is material removal, and at the same time there is localized
fracture of the touching surfaces due to the removed debris).

2. Surface fatigue:
Surface fatigue is the type of wear in which the surface of a material is weakened by
cyclic loading. It is produced when the wear particles are separated from the solid
surfaces by the accumulation of micro damage in the material. The wear mechanism in
action combines the formation of cracks and voids in the solid surfaces, which are
amplified with the running of cycles.

3. Fretting wear:
Fretting wear occurs between two contacting surfaces in constant cyclical rubbing of
small amplitude. It initiates fatigue cracks, which often result in fretting fatigue failure
in shafts and other highly stressed components.
4. Erosive wear:
Erosive wear is the type of wear produced by short sliding motion over a very short
interval of time. It is produced when particles gradually remove material from the
surface by continuous impact, deforming and damaging it. The impact of erosive wear
can be affected by the nature of the impacting particles (their size, shape, and
hardness), as well as the velocity and angle with which they impact to the surface,
among other.

5. Corrosive and oxidation wear:

Corrosive and oxidation wear occur as a combined effect of chemical and mechanical
action. Chemical action increases porosity of the surface, while mechanical action leads
to wear out.
There are also a series of factors that affect wear in this case, such as an improper
design of the mechanism, or the inability to remove sufficient heat or moister from the
contact region.

WEAR REDUCTION METHODS :

1. Prevention of Overloading - Overloading is big parameter for generating a wear
in part; due to the overload lubricants oil film between the parts will be burst away and
creates an extra force on the wearing surface therefore overloading should be avoided.

2. Maintain a Proper Clearance - If the clearance between the surfaces is less,

lubrication oil film cannot be provided the wearing surface and so metal to metal
contact are developed. If more clearance is provided between the surfaces the motion is
loss. Due to lack of lubrication parts surface worn out very rapidly, produces noisy and
generate the vibration on the machine.

3. Better Lubrication - Lubrication is the most important factor in reducing wear.

The lubricant should have the correct viscosity as well as the appropriate anti-wear or
extreme-pressure additive chemistry.

4. Improving the Surface Finishing - When part are pass in machining process then
different type of straight or circular lays depth is generated, which is cannot be seen by
naked eyes. By Improper surface this lays are reducing and friction force not
generating more. Due to the good surface a line contact are obtained instead of point
contact, which is advantage in processes.

5. High Surface Hardness - Wear of hard surface is taking place in comparison to

soft surface. Shaft, bearing, guide way are heat treated to increase their surface
hardness than its wear is reduced.

6. Proper Surface Treatment - Mechanical wear can be reduced by hard layer of

some metal, like Chromium, Galvanic etc. After producing hard layer of chromium on
the surface, if it can be machining to get desired dimensions and surface finish. Hence
it can be said that hard layer can be provided on the surface of the wear resistant
metal, the wear of the part can be reduced.

7. Protection of Surface Against the Ingress of Dirt, Dust and Metal Particles - If
dirt, dust and metal particle are ingresses in to the bearing that they are crushed
further. If such particles are harder than the part surface, so part surface will be
wearing and it’s damaged.

8. Proper Atmosphere - In the atmosphere dirt, dust moisture, poisonous chemical

vapour and dust of product itself are present and it is affected machining functions and
reduced of their service life.

LUBRICATION :
1. Lubrication systems distribute the lubricant to the moving machine parts in
contact.
2. Lubricants reduce the friction between sliding or rolling machine elements, such
as gears, spindles, bearings, chains, dies, screws, cylinders, valves, and cables, in order
to prevent wear, heat generation, and premature failure and prolong the service life of
the machine elements.
3. Lubricants may also function as a coolant that prevents thermal expansion,
which consequently degrades the accuracy of the machine element.
4. Lubrication systems control the volume and pressure of the lubricant to be
applied to the surfaces of the moving machine parts in contact. They promote the
smooth and healthy operation of the machinery.
5. Through lubrication systems, the lubricant is applied and distributed efficiently
and regularly. These systems are widely used in the automotive, industrial
manufacturing, oil and gas, power generation, and steel processing industries.
6. Lubrication systems are also present in automotive engines. The complexity of
lubrication systems ranges from manually operated grease guns to automated and
centralized lubricant dispensing systems.
Lubrication equipment are classified as follows:
1. Screw down grease cup:
An assembly comprised of a small metal cup with internal threads that could be
screwed down over a threaded base plate that was screwed into the housing of the
mechanism to be greased (usually a bearing). The cup was packed with grease. When
screwed down it forced the grease through a hole in the base plate and into the
mechanism to be greased. Grease cups have largely been replaced by Zerk fittings and
a grease gun that can force grease under pressure into the Zerk fitting and thence into
the bearing. The means to inject grease under pressure using a gun and Zerk or
comparable fitting was often called an Alemite system.

2. Pressure grease gun

Types Of Pressure Grease Guns
Grease guns have three ways in which they can be powered: by hand, air or electricity.
Aside from these variations, the hand-powered (or manual) grease guns can either be
manufactured with a lever or a pistol grip.
The benefits to each of these depend primarily on the intended application and the
lubrication technician’s personal preference. One other major variation to the grease
gun is how the grease is to be loaded: by suction fill, cartridge or bulk.
Manual (Lever) – This is the most common type of
grease gun and can supply around 1.28 grams of grease
per pump, which is forced through an aperture from hand
pumps.

Manual (Pistol Grip) – This variation of the lever -type

grease gun allows for the one -handed pumping method,
which is very common. It provides approximately 0.86
grams per pump.

Pneumatic (Pistol Grip) – This grease gun uses

compressed air directed into the gun by a hose
activating a positive displacement with each trigger.

Battery (Pistol Grip) – This is a low -voltage, battery

powered grease gun that works comparably to the
pneumatic grease gun. It offers the advantage of being
cordless.

3. Splash lubrication :

Splash lubrication is commonly used in early motorcycles engines. This technique

is used in lawn mower and motors or outboard boat engines that should have
sufficient amounts of oil in the trough to fully lubricate the machine.

Working of Splash Lubrication System :

*Firstly, oil is filled in the Crankcase. Oil strainer will remove any impurities present in
the oil and the oil pump will supply it to all the parts including oil troughs.
*In the splash lubrication system, oil is splashed up from the oil trough or oil trays in
the lower part of the crankcase with each revolution of the crankshaft to produce the
oil splash.
*The oil is thrown upward either as droplets or fine mist and provides adequate
lubrication to piston pins, piston rings, valve mechanisms, cylinder walls etc. Oil flows
through the holes drilled inside the crankshaft and main bearing to lubricate them.
*Make sure, the crankcase must be filled completely with the oil so that, oil level in the
troughs is maintained.
*Full of oil in the trough results in oil consumption and excess lubrication whereas
slightly low level of oil results in inadequate lubrication and failure of the engine.

Advantages of Splash Lubrication System:

In some of the automobiles also, the splash lubrication system is used where the
machine can do little effort compared to the IC engines.
Disadvantages of Splash Lubrication System:
*Due to the presence of scoop at the end of piston, it does not serves the proper
lubrication throughout the engine cylinder. It will just spill the lubricant on to the
piston parts.
*Due to this, wear and tear of the components takes place.

4.Gravity lubrication:

Gravity lubricators, also referred to as drip feed oilers/lubricators, consist of a

transparent reservoir and a needle valve. Lubricating oil is delivered by gravity
through the valve. The reservoir is vented to aid in liquid movement by gravity.

5. Wick feed lubrication:

Wick feed lubrication is a well known means for

feeding small amounts of oil lubricant from a reservoir to the
ball pathways, which can then be continually recirculated to
the reservoir
CORROSION:
INTRODUCTION:
Corrosion is one of the most common phenomena. It has been noticed that some objects
made of iron are covered with an orange or reddish-brown coloured layer at some point
in time. The formation of this layer is the result of a chemical process known as rusting,
which is a form of corrosion.

Corrosion, in general, is a process through which refined metals are converted into
more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal hydroxides.
Likewise, the rusting of iron involves the formation of iron oxides via the action of
atmospheric moisture and oxygen. It is a spontaneous/ irreversible process wherein the
metals turn into a much stable chemical compound like oxides, sulphides, hydroxides,
etc.

CORROSION DEFINITION
What is Corrosion?
*It is basically defined as a natural process that causes the transformation of pure
metals into undesirable substances when they react with substances like water or air.
*This reaction causes damage and disintegration of the metal starting from the
portion of the metal exposed to the environment and spreading to the entire bulk of
the metal.
*Corrosion is usually an undesirable phenomenon since it negatively affects the
desirable properties of the metal. For example, iron is known to have good tensile
strength and rigidity (especially alloyed with a few other elements).
However, when subjected to rusting, iron objects become brittle, flaky, and
structurally unsound. On the other hand, corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process
and that it mostly occurs on exposed surfaces. Therefore, in some cases, attempts are
made to reduce the activity of the exposed surface and increase a material’s corrosion
resistance.

Processes such as passivation and chromate conversion are used. However, some
corrosion mechanisms are not always visible and they are even less predictable.

Alternatively, corrosion can be classified as an electrochemical process since it usually

involves redox reactions between the metal and certain atmospheric agents such as
water, oxygen, Sulphur dioxide, etc.

Factors Affecting Corrosion

1. Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
2. Exposure of metals to moisture especially salt water (which increases the rate of
corrosion).
3. Presence of impurities like salt (eg. NaCl).
4. Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.
5. Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: some oxides like Al2O3 forms an insoluble
protecting layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others like rust easily crumble
and expose the rest of the metal.
6. Presence of acid in the atmosphere: acids can easily accelerate the process of
corrosion.
TYPES OF CORROSION
Some of the corrosion types include;
(i) Crevice Corrosion
Whenever there is a difference in ionic concentration between any two local areas of a
metal, a localized form of corrosion known as crevice corrosion can occur. In a simple
instance, this form of corrosion mostly occurs in confined spaces (crevices). Examples
of areas where crevice corrosion can occur are gaskets, the undersurface of washers,
and bolt heads.
All grades of aluminium alloys and stainless steels also undergo crevice corrosion.
This is mainly because of the formation of a differential aeration cell that leads to the
formation of corrosion inside the crevices.

(ii) Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress Corrosion Cracking can be abbreviated to ‘SCC’ and refers to the cracking of
the metal as a result of the corrosive environment and the tensile tress placed on the
metal. It often occurs at high temperatures.
Example: Stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel in chloride solution.

(iii) Inter granular Corrosion

Inter-granular corrosion occurs due to the presence of impurities in the grain
boundaries that separate the grain formed during the solidification of the metal alloy. It
can also occur via the depletion or enrichment of the alloy at these grain boundaries.
Example: Aluminum-base alloys are affected by IGC.

(iv) Galvanic Corrosion

When there exists an electric contact between two metals that are electrochemically
dissimilar and are in an electrolytic environment, galvanic corrosion can arise. It refers
to the degradation of one of these metals at a joint or at a junction. A good example of
this type of corrosion would be the degradation that occurs when copper, in a salt-
water environment, comes in contact with steel.
Example: When aluminium and carbon steel are connected and immersed in seawater,
aluminium corrodes fasterand steel is protected.

(iv) Pitting Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion is very unpredictable and therefore is difficult to detect. It is
considered one of the most dangerous types of corrosion. It occurs at a local point and
proceeds with the formation of a corrosion cell surrounded by the normal metallic
surface. Once this ‘Pit’ is formed, it continues to grow and can take various shapes. The
pit slowly penetrates metal from the surface in a vertical direction, eventually leading
to structural failure it left unchecked.
Example: Consider a droplet of water on a steel surface, pitting will initiate at the
centre of the water droplet (anodic site).

(v) Uniform Corrosion:

This is considered the most common form of corrosion wherein an attack on the surface
of the metal is executed by the atmosphere. The extent of the corrosion is easily
discernible. This type of corrosion has a relatively low impact on the performance of
the material.
Example: A piece of zinc and steel immersed in diluted sulphuric acid would usually
dissolve over its entire surface at a constant rate.
(vi) Hydrogen Grooving
This is a corrosion of the piping by grooves that are formed due to the interaction of a
corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. The bubbles
usually remove the protective coating once it comes in contact with the material.

(vii) Metal Dusting

Metal dusting is a damaging form of corrosion that occurs when vulnerable materials
are exposed to certain environments with high carbon activities including synthesis gas.
The corrosion results in the break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. Corrosion occurs
as a graphite layer is deposited on the surface of the metals from carbon monoxide
(CO) in the vapour phase. This graphite layer then goes on to form meta-stable M3C
species (where
M is the metal) that usually moves away from the metal surface. In some cases, no M3C
species may be observed.
This means that the metal atoms have been directly transferred into the graphite layer.

(viii) Microbial Corrosion

Microbial corrosion which is also known as microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC), is a type of corrosion that is caused by microorganisms. The most common one
is chemoautotrophs. Both metallic and non-metallic materials either in the presence or
absence of oxygen can be affected by this corrosion.

(viii) High-temperature Corrosion

High-temperature corrosion as the name suggests is a type of corrosion of materials
(mostly metals) due to heating. Chemical deterioration of metal can occur due to a hot
atmosphere that contains gases such as oxygen, sulfur, or other compounds. These
compounds are capable of oxidizing the materials (metals in this case) easily.
For example, materials used in car engines have to resist sustained periods at high
temperatures during which they can be affected by an atmosphere containing corrosive
products of combustion.

EFFECTS:

Corrosion can have a varying degree of effect on a lot of things. As such, it mainly
causes waste of natural resources. Additionally, it can further cause hazardous
situations such as building structures becoming weak and unstable, accidents caused by
corroded parts as well as other unwanted failures such as cracked pipelines, bridge
collapsing, transport vehicle crashes or other catastrophes. It is therefore important to
check and prevent corrosion at all costs.

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Preventing corrosion is of utmost importance in order to avoid huge losses. The
majority of the structures that we see and use are made out of metals. This includes
bridges, automobiles, machinery, household goods like window grills, doors, railway
lines, etc. While this is a concerning issue, several treatments are used to slow or
prevent corrosion damage to metallic objects. This is especially done to those materials
that are frequently exposed to the weather, saltwater, acids, or other hostile
environments. Some of the popular methods to prevent corrosion include:
1. Electroplating
2. Galvanization
3. Anodization
4. Passivation
5. Biofilm Coatings
6. Anti-Corrosion Protective Coatings
Painting and Greasing
7. Use of Corrosion Inhibitor or drying agents
8. Periodic cleaning of metal surface