T.S.

Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
OP-AMP is basically a multistage amplifier, which usages a number of amplifier
(transistors) stage interconnected to each other using resistor and capacitor.

OP-AMP called “Operational Amplifier” because it can do arithmetic operation

such as addition, subtraction, multiplication with signals.

The integrated circuit (IC) OP-AMP offer advantage of small size, high reliability,
low cost, less power consumption and etc.

OP-AMP amplify an input signal produces an output voltage, which equal to the
difference between two input terminals multiplied by the gain A. i.e: V0 = A(V1–V2)
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
OP-AMP Circuit:

–
+ Output

Fig: Basic circuit

Fig: OPAMP symbol

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
Characteristics of an OP-AMP:

 Very high differential gain

 High input impedance

 Low output impedance

 Provide voltage changes (amplitude and polarity)

 Used in oscillator, filter and many instrumentations

 Accumulate a very high gain by multiple stage (differential gain normally very
large, say 105 )
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
OPAMP: An operational amplifier is a high-gain amplifier with differential inputs and single-ended output

Parameters (IC 741C):

(used to null any small DC offset at output
1. Temperature: 0-75 0C for DC amplifier)

2. Input Impedance: 2MΩ

–
3. Output Impedance: 75 Ω

4. Open loop gain, A ≈ 105 +

5. Input capacitance = 30 pF

6. Input offset voltage = 0.8 mv -3 mv

7. Input offset current = 100 nA

IC 741C
8. Slew rate = 0.5 V/µs
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
Few important terms:
For ideal OP-AMP, when input V1 = V2 = 0, Then, output V0 = 0

But, for practical OP-AMP, when input V1 = V2 = 0, output V0 ≠ 0

• The magnitude of the output voltage (V0 ≠ 0) when input V1 = V2 = 0, is called output offset voltage (Fig 1) of the OP-
AMP. This is due to input transistor have different VBE values.
Non inv.

Inv.
(Vo ≠ 0)off

Fig:2
Fig:1
• The input offset voltage is the voltage to be applied between input terminal to balance the amplifier output (V0 = 0) (Fig:2)

𝑖 +𝑖
• The input bias current, iB is the half of the sum of ib1 and ib2 𝑖 = When output V0 = 0
2

• The input offset current, ii0 is the difference between ib1 and ib2 𝑖 =𝑖 −𝑖 When output V0 = 0
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
We consider amplifiers working in their linear range and we take A to be a constant

We need to select:

(a) High gain

(b) A direct-current connection
A
A
(c) A wide bandwidth
(d) A high input impedance Fig: Amplifier symbol
(e) A low output impedance
(f) A high degree of stability against temperature and
other environmental changes

𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑋
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = =
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑋

⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴𝑋
Fig: Linearity of gain
Wide bandwidth is a frequency range over which the voltage gain of OPAMP is above 70.7% T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
Terminology of integrated circuit
differential amplifiers:

Non-inverted signal with zero phase shift

between input & output

Fig: Nomenclature

Inverted signal with 1800 phase shift between input & output T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Operational Amplifier (OP -AMP)
𝒗𝟏
𝒗𝟐
Fig: Differential mode signal
When the input signals to a differential amplifier are 1800 out of phase
and exactly equal in amplitude, they are called differential mode
signals. Here two signals difference is, v1 = - v2
𝑂𝑃 − 𝐴𝑀𝑃 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
I𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 0 (For ideal case) [For common mode signal]
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = −𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = −2𝐴𝑣
𝒗𝟏
𝒗𝟐
Fig: common mode signal
When the input signals to a differential amplifier are in
phase and exactly equal in amplitude, they are called
common mode signals. Here two signals difference is
zero, thus v1 = v2
[For differential mode signal]
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 OP –AMP: CMMR
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain 𝐴 and very low common mode voltage gain 𝐴 . The
ratio of 𝐴 ⁄𝐴 is called common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴

E.g: If 𝐴 = 1500 and 𝐴 = 0.01 Then CMRR is

1500
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = = 150,000
0.01
Which means the output produced by difference between the inputs is 150,000 as great as an output produced by common
mode signal

CMMR can be expressed in decibels (dB). The decibels in CMRR is

𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20 log = 20 log 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅
𝐴
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Inverting OP-AMP
The inverting amplifier: Consider 𝑅 → ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 → 0 (ideal case)
Inverting
At terminal X, the equation of the current is terminal
𝑖 ≃ −𝑖

𝑣 𝑣
=− Non-inverting
𝑅 𝑅 terminal
𝑣 𝑅
The overall gain is 𝐺= =− (For ideal case)
𝑣 𝑅
Fig: The inverting amplifier
The gain is independent of internal gain A (For feedback loop)

(Non ideal case)

When Ri and A are finite and 𝑣 is the voltage at X, then
[Output resistance R0 = 0 consideration]

𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 ………………………..(1)
+ =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Fig: The inverting amplifier including input resistance,

𝑣 ………………………..(2)
But 𝑣 =− no output resistance
𝐴 𝑣 =𝐴 0−𝑣 T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Inverting OP-AMP
Solving equation (1) and (2), we have overall gain

𝑣 𝑅 1 If the gain A is very large, then terms 𝑣 𝑅

=− 𝐺= =−
𝑣 𝑅 1 𝑅 𝑅 in [ ] will be unity, thus
1+𝐴 1+𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑣 𝑅

When R0 is finite and 𝑣 is the voltage at X,

(Non ideal case)
At node X,
𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣
+ = ………………………..(1)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

At node Y, v0
𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣
+ = 0 ………………………..(2)
𝑅 𝑅
Fig: Inverting amplifier including input and output resistance.

Where 𝑣 = −𝐴𝑣 ………………………..(3)

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Inverting OP-AMP

Eliminating equation (1), (2) and (3) we have overall gain

𝑣 𝑅 𝑅 − 𝐴𝑅 𝑅
𝐺= =
𝑣 𝐴𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅

(𝑅 𝑅 − 𝐴𝑅 𝑅 )/𝐴
=
(𝐴𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 )/𝐴

When A is very large, then

𝑣 𝑅
≈−
𝑣 𝑅 Which is independent of the internal amplifier properties.

Typically, Ri = 2MΩ (A=45000) for IC 741 and Ri = 1012 Ω (A = 106) for IC 709

R0 = 75 Ω for IC 741 and R0 = 150 Ω for IC 709

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Non-inverting OP-AMP
The non-inverting operational amplifier:
Inverting
Gain: terminal

Consider 𝑅 → ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 → 0 (ideal case)

Output 𝑣 = 𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) --------------------(1)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣′ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, then

𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑅 Non-inverting
= 𝑣 = 𝑣 terminal
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅
Put 𝑣 in equation (1)

𝑣 𝐴
Thus =
𝑣 𝐴𝑅
1+𝑅 +𝑅

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 → ∞
𝑣 𝑅
≈1+
𝑣 𝑅

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 Non-inverting OP-AMP
Non ideal case:
Consider with finite output resistance R0 , input resistance Ri and gain A
Assume to supply signal v1 and feed a current i2 to a load

At node X, vʹ
𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣
= + -----------------------(1)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

At node Y
𝐴 𝑣 −𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣
= + 𝑖 -----------------------(2)
𝑅 𝑅
Fig: Non-inverting amplifier including input and output
resistance.
Eliminating 𝑣 from equation (1) and (2) and simplifying, then

𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐴(𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 ) 𝑅 (𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 )
𝑣 =𝑣 −𝑖
𝑅 (𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝐴𝑅 ) + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1+ (𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 ) + 𝐴𝑅 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 Non-inverting OP-AMP
𝑣 =𝑣 (𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛) − 𝑖 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠tan𝑐𝑒

When A is very large, then

𝐴𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐴𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 ≈ ≈1+
𝐴𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Eliminating the term that represents output resistance and again assuming A is very large, then all the terms are relatively small
except containing A.
Small and neglect

𝑅 (𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 ) 𝑅 𝑅
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠tan𝑐𝑒 ≈ ≈ 1+ , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑙arg𝑒
𝐴𝑅 𝑅 𝐴 𝑅

𝑅
Thus, output resistance is very low, since 1+ ≪𝐴 and –i2 (….) term can vanish
𝑅

Thus 𝑣 𝑅
≈1+
𝑣 𝑅

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 Differential OP-AMP
The differential operational amplifier:
At node X and node Y (ideal case)
𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣3 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣
= and =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣

and output 𝐴 𝑣 −𝑣 =𝑣
𝑣

Eliminating 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 and assume A is large gives

𝑅
𝑅 1+ 𝑅 𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 Fig: The differential amplifier
1+ 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
If, the resistance ratio 𝑎𝑛𝑑 can be made equal and then output
𝑅 𝑅

𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑅
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 The Adding/Scaling OP –AMP
The adding/scaling amplifier: For ideal case
For non ideal case (Ri consideration)
The amplifier ideal criteria, 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴 → ∞, 𝑅 → ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 → 0
At node X, 𝑣
−
𝐴
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
+ + + =0
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
or 𝑣 = −𝑅 + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Thus, voltage v1, v2 and etc. are scaled individually and summed up
Again, if 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 , then Fig: The adding/scaling amplifier:
𝑣 =− 𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 For ideal case
Non ideal case:
𝑣
When gain A and Ri are finite, then at node X, voltage is −𝑣 ⁄𝐴 and currents are =𝐴
0 − 𝑣,

𝑣 − −𝑣 ⁄𝐴 𝑣 − −𝑣 ⁄𝐴 𝑣 − −𝑣 ⁄𝐴 𝑣 − −𝑣 ⁄𝐴 − 𝑣 ⁄𝐴
+ + + =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 The Adding/Scaling OP –AMP
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
⇒𝑣 + + + + + =− + +
𝑅 𝐴 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Compare with the ideal case, the extra term arises

When 𝑅 =𝑅 =𝑅 =𝑅 =R

1 𝑅
𝑣 1+ 4+ = −(𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 )
𝐴 𝑅

1 𝑅
Compare with ideal amplifier the additional terms arises 𝐴 4 + , which introduce an error in scaling and adding operation
𝑅

For example

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 Problem
1. Determine the output voltage from the circuit for each of the following input combinations.
V1 (v) V2 (v) V3 (v)
R1 = 1 K
10 0 10 R2 = 2 K

0 10 10 R3 = 4 K
Vout
10 10 10 R4 = 1 K

Soln: 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑉 = −𝑅 + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣 1 1 1
=− + + =− 𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 = − 𝑣 + 0.5𝑣 + 0.25𝑣
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 1 2 4

Thus, the output voltage for first set of inputs

For second set,

For third set, T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 OP –AMP
Integrating amplifier:
At node X,
𝑣 −𝑣
=𝑖 =𝑖
𝑅
Since i2 flow through the capacitor C1 and we can write
1
Q=CV ⇒𝑉= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶

1 1
𝑣 , −𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑑𝑡 [Put value of i2]
𝐶 𝐶𝑅

𝑣 𝑣
But 𝑣 = − =𝐴 Fig: Integrating amplifier
𝐴 0 − 𝑣,

When A is very large, 𝑣 → 0 and 𝑣 = − 1 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑅 𝐶

Thus, the output is the integral of the input voltage v1

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 OP –AMP
Differentiating amplifier:

The output of this ckt. is given by

𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = −𝑅 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

However, the ckt is rarely used, because it suffers from the disadvantage that,
it amplifies noise and spurious voltage spikes at the input.

Fig: Differentiating amplifier

A capacitor across R1 in Figure can be used to minimize this effect at the expense of
exact differentiation.

T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras

 OP –AMP: Few Important Terms
Slew rate:
Def: The maximum rate of change of output voltage w.r.to time of the OP-AMP, when the voltage gain is unity is called its
slew rate
𝑑𝑉
𝑆= for unity voltage gain
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑉
We know, 𝑖 = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑖
⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑉 𝑖
𝑆= =
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Slew rate can be used to determine the maximum operating frequency of the OP-AMP as

𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Thus, maximum operation frequency, 𝑓 = Where Vpk = peak output voltage
2𝜋𝑉
T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras
 OP –AMP: Few Important Terms
Frequency Response of OP-AMP:
𝐴
𝑑𝐵 = 20log
𝑓
1+ 𝑓

A = gain of internal amplifier at DC and

low frequencies
f0 = turnover frequency.

OP-AMP:741 IC T.S.Santra, Bio-µ-Nano Lab, ED, IIT Madras