UFABC - Mecânica Clássica I - Resolução de Lista de Exercícios 4

NHT3068: Mecânica Clássica I UFABC Lista 04 (Marcos Donizeti Rodrigues Sampaio) v1
PATH EQUATION
1. Problem 7.5 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)
A particle 𝑃 moves under the attractive inverse square field 𝐅 = −(𝑚𝛾⁄𝑟 2 ) 𝐫̂ . Initially 𝑃 is at the point 𝐶 , a
distance 𝑐 from 𝑂, and is projected with speed √3𝛾 ⁄𝑐 perpendicular to 𝑂𝐶. Find the polar equation of the path and
make a sketch of it. Deduce the angle between 𝑂𝐶 and the final direction of departure of 𝑃.
Solution
Given the problem illustrated as below

v0
θ̂ F
P
O r̂ c C
where 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑟 (0) = √3𝛾 ⁄𝑐 , from the path and angular momentum equations (see Appendix A)
d2 𝑢 𝑓(1⁄𝑢 , 𝜃)
2 +𝑢=−
d𝜃 ℓ2 𝑢 2
𝑟𝑣 = ℓ,
knowing that the central force is given as
‖𝐅‖ 𝑚𝛾
𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) ≡ 𝑓(𝑟) ≜ =− 2,
𝑚 𝑟
or, in terms of the variable 𝑢,
𝑓(1⁄𝑢 ) = −𝛾𝑢2 ,
we have that
ℓ = √3𝛾𝑐 ,
d2 𝑢 1
2 +𝑢 = ,
d𝜃 3𝑐
with generic solution given by
1
𝑢(𝜃) = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 + 𝜑) + .
3𝑐
From the initial conditions
𝑢(0) = 1⁄𝑐
d𝑢 𝑣 (0)
(0) = − 𝑟 =0
d𝜃 ℓ
such that
1⁄𝑐 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑 + 1⁄3𝑐
0 = −𝐴 sin 𝜑
we obtain
𝐴 = ± 2⁄3𝑐
𝜑 = 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 1/35

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the trajectory of the particle 𝑷 in terms of the variable 𝑢 is

1 + 2 cos 𝜃
𝑢(𝜃) =
3𝑐
and in terms of the variable 𝑟 is given by
3𝑐
𝑟(𝜃) =
1 + 2 cos 𝜃
as illustrated below.
The angle 𝜶 between 𝑶𝑪 and the final direction of departure of 𝑷 can be derived from 𝜃 when 𝑟 → ∞.
That is because, when 𝑟 → ∞, there is no difference between 𝛼 and 𝜃 since they have origins within a finite
distance. Thus, consequently
𝑟→∞ ⇒ 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 → 0,
which implies that
1 2𝜋
𝛼 = 𝜃 → cos −1 (− ) = .
2 3

A comet moves under the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Initially the comet is at a great distance from the Sun
and is moving towards it with speed 𝑉 along a straight line whose perpendicular distance from the Sun is 𝑝. By
using the path equation, find the angle through which the comet is deflected and the distance of closest approach.
Solution
Given the problem illustrated as below
where 𝑉 = ‖𝐕‖ and 𝑓 = ‖𝐅‖⁄𝑚, from the path and angular momentum equations (see Appendix A)
d2 𝑢 𝑓(1⁄𝑢 , 𝜃)
2 +𝑢=−
d𝜃 ℓ2 𝑢 2
𝑝𝑉 = ℓ,
knowing that the central force is given by the gravitational force as
𝑚𝛾
𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) ≡ 𝑓(𝑟) = − 2 = −𝛾𝑢2 , where 𝛾 ≜ 𝐺𝑀
𝑟
such that 𝐺 is the gravitational constant and 𝑀 is the mass of the Sun, we have that
d2 𝑢 𝛾
+𝑢= 2
d𝜃 2 ℓ
𝛾
𝑢(𝜃) = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 + 𝜑) + .
ℓ2
𝑢(0) = 0, (𝑟(0) → ∞)
d𝑢 𝑣 (0) (−𝑉) 1
(0) = − 𝑟 =− =
d𝜃 ℓ 𝑝𝑉 𝑝
such that
𝛾
0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑 +
ℓ2
1
= −𝐴 sin 𝜑
𝑝
we obtain
1 𝛾 ℓ4
𝐴=− = ∓ 2 √1 + 2 2 ,
𝑝 sin 𝜑 ℓ 𝑝 𝛾
𝑝𝑉 2
𝜑= tan−1 + 𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
𝛾

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the trajectory of the comet 𝑪 in terms of the variable 𝑟 is
1 𝛾 ℓ4 ℓ2
= 2 (1 − √1 + 2 2 cos (𝜃 + tan−1 ))
𝑟(𝜃) ℓ 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝛾
which is an equation of the near-branch of a hyperbola

1 𝑎
= 2 (1 − 𝑒 cos(𝜃 + 𝜑))
𝑟(𝜃) 𝑏
as illustrated below, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are their semi major and minor axis, respectively, such that
𝛾𝑏2
ℓ2 = , (ℓ-formula)
𝑎
𝑒 is its eccentricity given by
𝑏2 ℓ4 the inequality denotes that
𝑒2 ≜ 1 + = 1 + >1, ( )
𝑎2 𝑝2 𝛾 2 the curve is an hyperbola
from where 𝑎 = 𝛾⁄𝑉 2 and 𝑏 = 𝑝, and 𝜑 is the angle of the asymptotes with respect to the line that passes through
the focus ☉ (Sun). Thus, the deflection angle of the comet is given by
𝑝𝑉 2
𝛼 = 𝜋 − 2𝜑 = 𝜋 − 2 tan−1
𝛾
𝛾
= 2 tan−1 .
𝑝𝑉 2
In turn, the comet’s perihelion (distance of closest approach to the Sun) is given by
−1 −1
𝛾 ℓ4 ℓ2 𝛾 ℓ4 𝛾2 𝛾
𝑟min = max [ 2 (1 − √1 + 2 2 cos (𝜃 + tan−1 ))] = [ 2 (1 + √1 + 2 2 )] = √ 4 + 𝑝2 − 2 .
ℓ 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝛾 ℓ 𝑝 𝛾 𝑉 𝑉
𝛾2 𝛾
𝑟min = √ 4 + 𝑝2 − 2
𝑉 𝑉

A particle 𝑃 of mass 𝑚 moves under the attractive inverse cube field 𝐅 = −(𝑚𝛾 2 ⁄𝑟 3 ) 𝐫̂, where 𝛾 is a positive
constant. Initially 𝑃 is at a great distance from 𝑂 and is projected towards 𝑂 with speed 𝑉 along a line whose
perpendicular distance from 𝑂 is 𝑝. Obtain the path equation for 𝑃.
For the case in which
15𝛾
𝑉= ,
√209𝑝
find the polar equation of the path of 𝑃 and make a sketch of it. Deduce the distance of closest approach to 𝑂 and
the final direction of departure.
Solution
Similarly to the exercise 2, defining

𝑓 ≜ ‖𝐅‖⁄𝑚 = −𝛾 2 𝑢3 ,
from the Appendix A, the path equation for 𝑷 is given by
d2 𝑢 𝛾2
+ (1 − )𝑢 = 0
d𝜃 2 ℓ2
where angular momentum is the constant
ℓ = 𝑝𝑉.
When 𝑉 = 15𝛾 ⁄√209𝑝 , we have
d2 𝑢 4 2
+ ( ) 𝑢=0
d𝜃 2 15
4
𝑢(𝜃) = 𝐴 cos ( 𝜃 + 𝜑) .
15
𝑢(0) = 0, (𝑟(0) → ∞)
d𝑢 𝑣𝑟 (0) (−𝑉) 1
(0) = − =− =
such that
0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
1 4𝐴
=− sin 𝜑
𝑝 15
we obtain
15
𝐴=∓ ,
4𝑝
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the equation of the path of 𝑷 in terms of the variable 𝑟 is

4𝑝
𝑟(𝜃) =
15 sin(4𝜃⁄15 )
The direction angle of 𝑷 is given by
𝜋
𝛽 = arg[sin(4𝜃⁄15 ) = 0] = −
4
where the deflection can be calculated as
3𝜋
𝛼 = 𝜋 − |𝛽| = .
4
In turn, the particle’s perihelion (distance of closest approach to the Sun) is given by
4𝑝 4𝑝
𝑟min = min [ ]= .
15 cos(4𝜃⁄15 ) 15
4𝑝
𝑟min =
15

4. Problem 7.8* GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)
A particle 𝑃 of mass 𝑚 moves under the central field 𝐅 = −(𝑚𝛾 2 ⁄𝑟 5 ) 𝐫̂, where 𝛾 is a positive constant. Initially 𝑃
is at a great distance from 𝑂 and is projected towards 𝑂 with speed √2𝛾⁄𝑝 2 along a line whose perpendicular
distance from 𝑂 is 𝑝. Show that the polar equation of the path of 𝑃 is given by
𝑝 𝜃
𝑟= coth ( ).
√2 √2
Make a sketch of the path.
Solution
Similarly to the exercise 2, defining

𝑓 ≜ ‖𝐅‖⁄𝑚 = −𝛾 2 𝑢5 ,
from the Appendix A, the path equation for 𝑷 is given by
d2 𝑢 𝛾2 3
+ 𝑢 = 𝑢
d𝜃 2 ℓ2
where angular momentum is the constant
ℓ = 𝑝𝑉.
When 𝑉 = √2𝛾 ⁄𝑝 2 , we have
d2 𝑢 1
2 + 𝑢 = 𝑝 2 𝑢3 .
d𝜃 2
Because 𝜃 is not explicitly defined in this equation, we can use the following change of variables
d𝑢
𝑣≜
d𝜃
such that
d2 𝑢 d𝑣 d𝑣 d𝑢 d𝑣
= = = 𝑣
d𝜃 2 d𝜃 d𝑢 d𝜃 d𝑢
which results in the equation
d𝑣 1
𝑣 + 𝑢 = 𝑝 2 𝑢3
d𝑢 2
Separating the variables
1
∫ 𝑣d𝑣 = ∫ ( 𝑝 2 𝑢3 − 𝑢) d𝑢
2
we obtain
1
𝑣 2 = ( 𝑝 2 𝑢2 − 1) 𝑢2 + 𝐴
4
Notice that the initial conditions for 𝑢 generates the initial condition for 𝑣
𝑢(0) = 0, (𝑟(0) → ∞)
d𝑢 𝑣𝑟 (0) (−𝑉) 1
𝑣= (0) = − =− =
making 𝐴 = 1⁄𝑝 2, such that

1 1
𝑣 2 = ( 𝑝 2 𝑢2 − 1) 𝑢2 + 2
4 𝑝
1
= (𝑝 4 𝑢4 − 4𝑝 2 𝑢2 + 4)
4𝑝 2
1
= (𝑝 2 𝑢2 − 2)2
4𝑝 2
This leads to the solution of 𝜃 given by
𝑢 𝑢
1 1
𝜃=∫ d𝓊 = ±2𝑝 ∫ 2 2 d𝓊 .
0 𝑣 0 𝑝 𝓊 −2
Substituting
√2 tanh 𝜙 ≜ 𝑝𝑢
where
√2
d𝑢 = sech2 𝜙 d𝜙
𝑝
and
𝑢=0 ⇒ 𝜙=0
and knowing that
tanh2 𝜙 + sech2 𝜙 ≡ 1
we get
𝜙
1 √2 𝑝𝑢
𝜃 = ±2𝑝 ∫ ( ) ( sech2 𝜑 d𝜑) = ∓√2𝜙 = ∓√2 tanh−1 ( ) .
0 2 tanh2 𝜑 − 2 𝑝 √2
or
𝑝𝑢 𝜃
= ± tanh ( )
√2 √2
Solving for 𝑟 we end up with the equation of the path of 𝑷 illustrated below
𝑝 𝜃
𝑟(𝜃) = ± coth ( ) █
√2 √2

NEARLY CIRCULAR ORBITS

A particle of mass 𝑚 moves under the central field
𝛾𝑒 −𝜖𝑟⁄𝑎
𝐅 = −𝑚 ( ) 𝐫̂ ,
𝑟2
where 𝛾, 𝑎 and 𝜖 are positive constants. Find the apsidal angle for a nearly circular orbit of radius 𝑎. When 𝜖 is
small, show that the perihelion of the orbit advances by approximately 𝜋𝜖 on each revolution.
Solution
Defining the attractive force per mass

‖𝐅‖ 𝛾𝑒 −𝜖𝑟⁄𝑎
𝑓(𝑟) ≜ =− ,
𝑚 𝑟2
from the Appendix B, the nearly circular orbit’s trajectory is
𝑎
𝑟(𝜃) =
1 + 𝜉(𝜃)
where 𝜉 is a small perturbation that follows the path equation
d2 𝜉
+ Ω2 𝜉 ≈ 0
d𝜃 2
with complex frequency given by Ω2 = 3 + 𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)⁄𝑓(𝑎). Notice that
𝛾𝑒 −𝜖
𝑓(𝑎) = −
𝑎2
2𝛾𝑒 −𝜖𝑟⁄𝑎 𝜖 𝛾𝑒 −𝜖𝑟⁄𝑎 (2 + 𝜖)𝛾𝑒 −𝜖
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)|𝑟=𝑎 = ( + ) =
𝑟3 𝑎 𝑟2 𝑎3
𝑟=𝑎
implies that
Ω2 = 1 − 𝜖 > 0.
This leads to the following solution of small perturbations that is periodic
𝜉(𝜃) = 𝐴 cos(Ω𝜃 + 𝜑).
Notice that if
𝑛2 − 1
𝜖= , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍+∗
𝑛2
then the period of oscillations is
2𝜋
𝑇= = 2𝜋𝑛,
Ω
which makes the particle turn 𝑛 times around radius 𝑎 in a periodic trajectory. Any non-integer 𝑛 leads to a non-
periodic perturbation.
Assuming the initial conditions
𝜉(0) = 0, (𝑢(0) = 1⁄𝑎 )
d𝜉
(0) = 𝑘
d𝜃

where 𝑘 is an initial perturbation velocity, such that

0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
𝑘 = −𝐴Ω sin 𝜑
we obtain
𝑘
𝐴=∓ ,
Ω
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the trajectory in terms of the variable 𝑟 is
𝑎Ω
𝑟(𝜃) =
Ω + 𝑘 sin(Ω𝜃)
as illustrate bellow when 𝜖 = 1 − 1⁄𝑛2 for 𝑛 = 2 turns and an initial perturbation velocity of 𝑘 = 𝑎 ⁄10.
Notice that, for 𝑚 ∈ ℤ, the apses perihelion (minimum distance to the Sun, 𝑟min ) and aphelion (maximum
distance to the Sun, 𝑟max) occur when
𝑎Ω 3𝜋
𝑟min = , 𝜃min, 𝑚 = + 2𝑚𝜋,
Ω−𝑘 2Ω
𝑎Ω 𝜋
𝑟max = , 𝜃max, 𝑚 = + 2𝑚𝜋.
Ω+𝑘 2Ω
Thus, knowing 𝜖 is small, that the apsidal angle (angle between successive apses) is given by
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1
𝛼 = 𝜃max, 𝑚 − 𝜃min, 𝑚 = − = = ≈ 𝜋 (1 + 𝜖) ,
2Ω 2Ω Ω √1 − 𝜖 2
showing that the perihelion advances by approximately 𝜋𝜖 on each revolution. █

SOLAR OBLATENESS
A planet of mass 𝑚 moves in the equatorial plane of a star that is a uniform oblate spheroid. The planet experiences
a force field of the form
𝑚𝛾 𝜖𝑎 2
𝐅=− (1 + ) 𝐫̂ ,
𝑟2 𝑟2
approximately, where 𝛾, 𝑎 and 𝜖 are positive constants and 𝜖 is small. If the planet moves in a nearly circular orbit
of radius 𝑎, find an approximation to the ‘annual’ advance of the perihelion. [It has been suggested that oblateness
of the Sun might contribute significantly to the precession of the planets, thus undermining the success of general
relativity. This point has yet to be resolved conclusively.]
Solution
Similarly to the exercise 5, defining the attractive force per mass

‖𝐅‖ 𝛾 𝜖𝑎 2
𝑓(𝑟) ≜ = − 2 (1 + 2 ),
𝑚 𝑟 𝑟
𝑎
𝑟(𝜃) =
1 + 𝜉(𝜃)
d2 𝜉
+ Ω2 𝜉 ≈ 0
d𝜃 2
𝛾
𝑓(𝑎) = − 2 (1 + 𝜖)
𝑎
2𝛾 2𝜖𝑎 2 2𝛾
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)|𝑟=𝑎 = [ 3 (1 + 2 )] = 3 (1 + 2𝜖)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑎
𝑟=𝑎
implies that
1−𝜖
Ω2 = > 0.
1+𝜖
Notice that if
𝑛2 − 1
𝜖= , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍+∗
𝑛2 + 1
then the period of oscillations is 𝑇 = 2𝜋⁄Ω = 2𝜋𝑛, which makes the particle turn 𝑛 times around radius 𝑎 in a
periodic trajectory. Now assuming the initial conditions
𝜉(0) = 0, (𝑢(0) = 1⁄𝑎 )
d𝜉
(0) = 𝑘
d𝜃


0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
we obtain
𝑘
𝐴=∓ ,
Ω
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
𝑎Ω
𝑟(𝜃) =
as illustrate bellow when 𝜖 = (𝑛2 − 1)⁄(𝑛2 + 1) for 𝑛 = 3 turns and an initial perturbation velocity of 𝑘 = 𝑎 ⁄10.
𝑎Ω 3𝜋
Ω−𝑘 2Ω
𝑎Ω 𝜋
Ω+𝑘 2Ω
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1+𝜖
𝛼 = 𝜃max, 𝑚 − 𝜃min, 𝑚 = − = = 𝜋√ ≈ 𝜋(1 + 𝜖) ,
2Ω 2Ω Ω 1−𝜖
showing that the ‘annual’ advance of the perihelion advances by approximately 2𝜋𝜖 .

Suppose the solar system is embedded in a dust cloud of uniform density 𝜌. Find an approximation to the ‘annual’
advance of the perihelion of a planet moving in a nearly circular orbit of radius 𝑎 . (For convenience, let
𝜌 = 𝜖𝑀 ⁄𝑎 3 , where 𝑀 is the solar mass and 𝜖 is small.)
Solution
Similarly to the exercise 5, defining the attractive force per mass

𝑓(𝑟) ≜ ‖𝐅☉ + 𝐅C ‖⁄𝑚 ,
where 𝐅☉ is the attractive force of the sun modelled as
𝑚𝛾
𝐅☉ = − 𝐫̂
𝑟2
for 𝛾 = 𝐺𝑀, and 𝐅C is the attractive force of the dust cloud, assuming to have a perfect sphere shape, modelled as
𝑚𝐺 2𝜋 𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑚𝐺 4 4𝜋𝜖
𝐅𝐶 = − 2 ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝜌𝑟 sin 𝜃 d𝑟 d𝜃 d𝜙 𝐫̂ = − 2 ( 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌) 𝐫̂ = − ( 3 ) 𝑚𝛾𝑟 𝐫̂
𝑟 0 0 0 𝑟 3 3𝑎
for a constant density 𝜌 = 𝜖𝑀 ⁄𝑎 3 , such that
1 4𝜋𝜖
𝑓(𝑟) = −𝛾 ( + 𝑟),
𝑟 2 3𝑎 3
𝑎
𝑟(𝜃) =
1 + 𝜉(𝜃)
d2 𝜉
+ Ω2 𝜉 ≈ 0
d𝜃 2
𝛾 4𝜋
𝑓(𝑎) = − 2 (1 + 𝜖)
𝑎 3
2 4𝜋𝜖 𝛾 4𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)|𝑟=𝑎 = 𝛾 ( − ) = (2 − 𝜖)
𝑟 3 3𝑎 3 𝑟=𝑎 𝑎 3 3
implies that
3 + 16𝜋𝜖
Ω2 = > 0.
3 + 4𝜋𝜖
𝜉 (𝜃 ) = 𝐴 cos(Ω𝜃 + 𝜑).
Notice that if
3(𝑛2 − 1)
𝜖= , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍+∗
4𝜋(1 − 4𝑛2 )
𝜉(0) = 0, (𝑢(0) = 1⁄𝑎 )
d𝜉
(0) = 𝑘
d𝜃


0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
we obtain
𝑘
𝐴=∓ ,
Ω
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
𝑎Ω
𝑟(𝜃) =
𝑎Ω 3𝜋
Ω−𝑘 2Ω
𝑎Ω 𝜋
Ω+𝑘 2Ω
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 + 4𝜋𝜖
𝛼 = 𝜃max, 𝑚 − 𝜃min, 𝑚 = − = = 𝜋√ ≈ 𝜋(1 − 2𝜋𝜖) ,
2Ω 2Ω Ω 3 + 16𝜋𝜖
showing that the ‘annual’ advance of the perihelion advances by approximately −4𝜋 2 𝜖 .

ORBITS IN GENERAL RELATIVITY
In the theory of general relativity, the path equation for a planet moving in the gravitational field of the Sun is, in
the standard notation,
d2 𝑢 𝑀𝐺 3𝑀𝐺
2 + 𝑢 = 2 + ( 2 ) 𝑢2 ,
d𝜃 ℓ 𝑐
where 𝑐 is the speed of light. Find an approximation to the ‘annual’ advance of the perihelion of a planet moving
in a nearly circular orbit of radius 𝑎.
Solution
Defining the attractive force per mass such that, by comparison with the path equation from the Appendix B,
𝑓(1⁄𝑢 ) 𝛾 3𝛾 2
= 2+ 2𝑢
ℓ2 𝑢 2 ℓ 𝑐
for 𝛾 = 𝑀𝐺, we have that
3ℓ2 2
𝑓(1⁄𝑢 ) = 𝛾𝑢2 (1 + 𝑢 )
𝑐2
Also, if the planet is moving in a circular trajectory, its angular momentum must follows the equation
ℓ2 = −𝑎 3 𝑓(𝑎)
that, using the Newtonian gravitational attractive force
𝛾
𝑓(𝑟) = − ,
𝑟2
lets us rewrite the classical constant momentum as
ℓ2 = 𝑎𝛾.
Therefore, the force becomes
3𝑎𝛾 2
𝑓(1⁄𝑢 ) = 𝛾𝑢2 (1 + 𝑢 ).
𝑐2
Notice that the positive dimensionless term
3𝛾
𝜖=
𝑎𝑐 2
is very small, i.e., 0 < 𝜖 ≪ 1. Rewriting the force in terms of 𝜖 and 𝑟
𝛾 𝜖𝑎 2
𝑓(𝑟) = (1 + )
𝑟2 𝑟2
let us state that the path equation as
d2 𝑢 1
2 + 𝑢 = + 𝑎𝜖𝑢2 ,
d𝜃 𝑎
which is similar to that seen in exercise 5 where the planet follows a nearly circular orbit’s trajectory (see
Appendix B) given by
𝑎
𝑟(𝜃) =
1 + 𝜉(𝜃)


d2 𝜉
+ Ω2 𝜉 ≈ 0
d𝜃 2
𝛾
𝑓(𝑎) = 2 (1 + 𝜖)
𝑎
2𝛾 𝜖𝑎 2 2𝛾
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)|𝑟=𝑎 = − 3 (1 + 2 2 ) = − 3 (1 + 2𝜖)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟=𝑎 𝑎
implies that
1−𝜖
Ω2 = > 0.
1+𝜖
Notice that if
𝑛2 − 1
𝜖= , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍+∗
𝑛2 + 1
𝜉(0) = 0, (𝑢(0) = 1⁄𝑎 )
d𝜉
(0) = 𝑘
d𝜃
0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
we obtain
𝑘
𝐴=∓ ,
Ω
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
𝑎Ω
𝑟(𝜃) =
𝑎Ω 3𝜋
Ω−𝑘 2Ω
𝑎Ω 𝜋
Ω+𝑘 2Ω
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1+𝜖
𝛼 = 𝜃max, 𝑚 − 𝜃min, 𝑚 = − = = 𝜋√ ≈ 𝜋(1 + 𝜖) ,
2Ω 2Ω Ω 1−𝜖

showing that the ‘annual’ advance of the perihelion advances by approximately 2𝜋𝜖 = 6𝜋𝛾 ⁄𝑎𝑐 2 .

SCATTERING
A uniform flux of particles is incident upon a fixed hard sphere of radius 𝑎. The particles that strike the sphere are
reflected elastically. Find the differential scattering cross section.
Solution
From the definition of differential scattering cross section (see Appendix C)

𝑝 d𝑝
𝜎(𝜃) = − ( )
sin 𝜃 d𝜃
it must the found a function 𝑝 = 𝑝(𝜃) to solve the problem. Then, knowing that the sphere is fixed hard and the
collision is elastic, the scattering problem can be illustration as bellow
p a
θ
from where it is found that

𝑝 = 𝑎 sin 𝛽
such that
𝜃 = 𝜋 − 2𝛽
leading to
𝑝 = −𝑎 sin(𝜃⁄2 − 𝜋⁄2)
= 𝑎 cos(𝜃⁄2).
Therefore, we can determine that
𝑎 cos(𝜃⁄2) d
𝜎(𝜃) = − ( ) (𝑎 cos(𝜃⁄2))
sin 𝜃 d𝜃
𝑎 cos(𝜃⁄2) 𝑎
= −( ) (− sin(𝜃⁄2))
2 sin(𝜃⁄2) cos(𝜃⁄2) 2
𝑎4
=
4
showing that the particles are scattered evenly over all 𝜃.

A uniform flux of particles, each of mass 𝑚 and speed 𝑉, is incident upon a fixed scatterer that exerts the repulsive
radial force 𝐅 = (𝑚𝛾 2 ⁄𝑟 3 ) 𝐫̂. Find the impact parameter 𝑝 as a function of the scattering angle 𝜃 and deduce the
differential scattering cross section. Find the total back-scattering cross-section.
Solution
Similarly to the exercise 3, defining the repulsive force

𝑓 ≜ ‖𝐅‖⁄𝑚 = 𝛾 2 𝑢3 ,
from the Appendix A, the path equation for a particle in this flux is given by
d2 𝑢
+ Ω2 𝑢 = 0
d𝜗 2
where the complex frequency is given by
Ω2 = 1 + 𝛾 2 ⁄ℓ2
and the angular momentum is the constant
ℓ = 𝑝𝑉.
Because Ω2 > 0, this equation has a generic periodic solution given by
𝑢(𝜃) = 𝐴 cos(Ω𝜗 + 𝜑) .
𝑢(0) = 0, (𝑟(0) → ∞)
d𝑢 𝑣 (0) (−𝑉) 1
(0) = − 𝑟 =− =
d𝜗 ℓ 𝑝𝑉 𝑝
such that
0 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑
1
= −Ω𝐴 sin 𝜑
𝑝
we obtain
1
𝐴=∓ ,
Ω𝑝
𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋⁄2 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the equation of the path in terms of the variable 𝑟 is
Ω𝑝
𝑟(𝜃) =
sin(Ω𝜗)
The direction angle of 𝑷 is given by
𝜋
𝛽 = arg[sin(Ω𝜗) = 0] =
Ω
where the scattering angle (also known as deflection angle) can be calculated as
1 1
𝜃 = 𝜋 − |𝛽| = 𝜋 (1 − ) = 𝜋 (1 − ).
Ω √1 + 𝛾 2 ⁄𝑝 2 𝑉 2

β/2
p F
θ ϑ
From this, we can determine the parameter or impact as follows
𝛾 2 (𝜋 − 𝜃)2
𝑝2 =
𝑉 2 𝜃(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
Then, from Appendix C, we can determine the differential scattering cross section as
𝑝 d𝑝
𝜎(𝜃) = − ( )
sin 𝜃 d𝜃
1 d𝑝 2
= −( )
2 sin 𝜃 d𝜃
𝛾2 d (𝜋 − 𝜃)2
= −( 2 ) [ ]
2𝑉 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 𝜃(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
𝜋 2 𝛾 2 (𝜋 − 𝜃)
=
𝑉 2 𝜃 2 (2𝜋 − 𝜃)2 sin 𝜃
The total back-scattering cross-section is in turn given by
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑆=∫ ∫ 𝜎(𝜃) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
0 𝜋⁄2
2𝜋 3 𝛾 2 𝜋 (𝜋 − 𝜃)
= ∫ 2 d𝜃
𝜋⁄2 𝜃 (2𝜋 − 𝜃)
𝑉 2 2
Letting
𝑤 = 𝜃(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
such that
d𝑤 ⁄2 = (𝜋 − 𝜃)d𝜃
we end up with
2
𝜋 3 𝛾 2 𝜋 d𝑤
𝑆= 2 ∫ 2
𝑉 3𝜋2⁄4 𝑤
𝜋 3 𝛾2 1 4
=− 2
( 2 − 2)
𝑉 𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋𝛾 2
= .
3𝑉 2

ASSORTED INVERSE SQUARE PROBLEMS

A spacecraft travelling with speed 𝑉 approaches a planet of mass 𝑀 along a straight line whose perpendicular
distance from the center of the planet is 𝑝. When the spacecraft is at a distance 𝑐 from the planet, it fires its engines
so as to multiply its current speed by a factor 𝑘 (0 < 𝑘 < 1), its direction of motion being unaffected. [You may
neglect the time taken for this operation.] Find the condition that the spacecraft should go into orbit around the
planet.
Solution
As in Appendix D, the total energy ℰ of the spacecraft is positive (unbounded, ℰ > 0) when it is approaching the
planet and have to become negative (bounded, ℰ < 0) to go into orbit after firing its engines. Then, in the
unbounded state, its total energy is given from the infinity only by its kinetic energy as follows
1 2
ℰ1 = 𝑉 .
2
On the other hand, when the spacecraft is at the distance 𝑐 to the planet, its total energy is given by the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy as follows
1 2 𝛾
ℰ2 = 𝑣 − ,
2 𝑈 𝑐
where 𝑣𝑈 is the spacecraft speed in that moment and 𝛾 = 𝐺𝑀 for a gravitational constant 𝐺.
Because there were no other process of energy transferring in the unbounded trajectory, the energy is
conserved in all the path, i.e.,
ℰ1 = ℰ2 .
This implies that the spacecraft speed 𝑣 in orbit has to be
𝑣𝑈 = √𝑉 2 + 2𝛾 ⁄𝑐 .
Right after reaching the distance 𝑐, the spacecraft then changes its speed to
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑘𝑣𝑈 = 𝑘√𝑉 2 + 2𝛾 ⁄𝑐
Thus, in the bounded state, its total energy is reduced, becoming
1 2 2 2𝛾 𝛾
ℰ3 = 𝑘 (𝑉 + ) − .
2 𝑐 𝑐
This energy has though to cross the zero-line from positive, becoming a negative (bounded) energy in order to the
spacecraft to go into orbit around the planet. In other words, that will only happen when
1 2 2 2𝛾 𝛾
ℰ3 = 𝑘 (𝑉 + ) − < 0
2 𝑐 𝑐
implying that the factor of net speed reduction has to be
2
𝑘<√ .
2 + 𝑐𝑉 2 ⁄𝐺𝑀

A body moving in an inverse square attractive field traverses an elliptical orbit with eccentricity 𝑒 and major axis
2𝑎. Show that the time average of the distance 𝑟 of the body from the centre of force is 𝑎(1 + 𝑒 2 ⁄2). [Transform
the time integral to an integral with respect to the eccentric angle 𝜓.]
Solution
By definition, the time average of the distance 𝒓 of the body 𝑃 from the centre of force 𝐶 is
1 𝑇
𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑟(𝑡) d𝑡.
𝑇 0
Transforming into an integral of 𝜃 making
d𝑡 d𝜃
d𝑡 = d𝜃 =
d𝜃 𝜃̇
we have
1 2𝜋 𝑟
𝑟̅ = ∫ d𝜃.
𝑇 0 𝜃̇
Knowing that the angular momentum per mass in terms of angular velocity 𝜃̇ is given by
ℓ = 𝑟 2 𝜃̇
and it is constant when the body is under a central force (due to its elliptical orbit), the time average distance
becomes
1 2𝜋 3
𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑟 d𝜃.
ℓ𝑇 0
Still using the angular momentum per mass, the period can be determined as follows
𝑇
1 2𝜋 2
𝑇 = ∫ d𝑡 = ∫ 𝑟 d𝜃
0 ℓ 0
Also, the distance 𝑟 in terms of the angle 𝜃 in an elliptical trajectory (Appendix D) is given by the equation
1 𝑎
= (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)
𝑟 𝑏2
where 𝑏 is the ellipse minor axis, such that
2𝜋
𝑏6 1
𝑟̅ = ∫ d𝜃 ,
𝑎 ℓ𝑇 0 (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)3
3
𝑏4 2𝜋 1
𝑇= ∫ d𝜃.
𝑎 ℓ 0 (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)2
2
As suggested, the eccentric angle 𝝍 (illustrated below) is going to be used to derive the results of the integrals.
ya
b P
yr a
r
ψ θ
C F N a

Notice that the lengths

𝐶𝐹 = 𝑎𝑒
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝐶𝑁 = 𝑎 cos 𝜓
can be used to define the relationship between 𝜽 and 𝝍 from the sum
𝐶𝐹 + 𝐹𝑁 = 𝐶𝑁
as follows
𝑎𝑒 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎 cos 𝜓.
From the equation of the ellipse, the relationship found for 𝜃 and 𝜓 can be rewritten as
𝑏2 cos 𝜃
𝑒+ = cos 𝜓.
𝑎 (𝑒 cos 𝜃 + 1)
2
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 𝑒 and knowing that

𝑏2
𝑒2 = 1 − ,
𝑎2
the equation becomes
𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑒 cos 𝜃
(1 − ) + = 𝑒 cos 𝜓,
𝑎2 𝑎 2 (𝑒 cos 𝜃 + 1)
which in turn can be reduced to
𝑏2
(1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)(1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃) = .
𝑎2
From here, the term (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃) appears both in this equation and in the integrals. The last step to solve
the integrals is then to find the infinitesimal relationship d𝜃⁄d𝜓 . This can be done by applying an implicit
differentiation in the equation above with respect to 𝜓 as follows
d
[(1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)(1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)] = 0,
d𝜓
d(1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓) d(1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)
⇒ (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃) + (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓) = 0,
d𝜓 d𝜓
d𝜃
⇒ (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃)𝑒 sin 𝜓 − (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 0,
d𝜓
d𝜃 (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃) sin 𝜓
⇒ = .
d𝜓 (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓) sin 𝜃
Using then the ellipse equation to substitute
1 𝑏2
1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃 = ,
𝑟 𝑎
such that
d𝜃 𝑏2 1 𝑎 sin 𝜓
= 2
d𝜓 𝑎 (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓) 𝑟 sin 𝜃
and also using the relationship between the sines (see illustration above)
𝑎 sin 𝜓 𝑦𝜓 𝑎
= = ,
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝜃 𝑏

we find that
d𝜃 𝑏 1
= .
d𝜓 𝑎 (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)
Substituting then (1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃) and d𝜃, the integrals can be rewritten in terms of the eccentric angle 𝜓 as
𝑎 2 𝑏 2𝜋
𝑟̅ = ∫ (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)2 d𝜓 ,
ℓ𝑇 0
𝑎𝑏 2𝜋
𝑇= ∫ (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)d𝜓.
ℓ 0
Expanding the integrand of 𝑟̅ , we have that
𝑎 2 𝑏 2𝜋
𝑟̅ = ∫ (1 − 2𝑒 cos 𝜓 + 𝑒 2 cos2 𝜓) d𝜓.
ℓ𝑇 0
Using, then, the identity
1
cos2 𝜓 ≡ (1 + cos(2𝜓)),
2
we have integrals of simple cosines
𝑎 2 𝑏 2𝜋 𝑒2
𝑟̅ = ∫ [1 − 2𝑒 cos 𝜓 + (1 + cos(2𝜓))] d𝜓 ,
ℓ𝑇 0 2
𝑎𝑏 2𝜋
𝑇= ∫ (1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜓)d𝜓.
ℓ 0
Because we are integrating in a full cycle (𝜓 varies from 0 to 2𝜋), the integral of simple cosines is null, i.e.,
2𝜋 2𝜋
∫ cos 𝜓 d𝜓 = ∫ cos(2𝜓) d𝜓 = 0,
0 0

which simplifies the integrals to

2𝜋
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑒2
𝑟̅ = (1 + ) ∫ d𝜓 ,
ℓ𝑇 2 0
𝑎𝑏 2𝜋
𝑇= ∫ d𝜓,
ℓ 0
with solutions given by
2𝜋𝑎 2 𝑏 𝑒2
𝑟̅ = (1 + ) ,
ℓ𝑇 2
2𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝑇= (period formula).
ℓ
Finally, substituting the period formula 𝑇 in the average of distance 𝒓̅, we end up with
𝑒2
𝑟̅ = 𝑎 (1 + ) .
2
Notice that 𝑟̅ ≥ 𝑎 for any eccentricity, as illustrated above.

COMPUTER ASSISTED PROBLEM: SEE THE ADVANCE OF THE PERIHELION OF MERCURY

It is possible to ‘see’ the advance of the perihelion of Mercury predicted by general relativity by direct numerical
solution. Take Einstein’s path equation (see Problem 7.13) in the dimensionless form
d2 𝑢 1
2 +𝑢= + 𝜂𝜈 2 ,
d𝜃 1 − 𝑒2
where 𝜈 = 𝑎𝑢. Here 𝑎 and 𝑒 are the semi-major axis and eccentricity of the non-relativistic elliptic orbit and
𝜂 = 3𝑀𝐺 ⁄𝑎𝑐 2 is a small dimensionless parameter. For the orbit of Mercury, 𝜂 = 2.3 × 10−7 approximately.
Solve this equation numerically with the initial conditions 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑒) and 𝑟̇ = 0 when 𝜃 = 0; this makes
𝜃 = 0 an aphelion of the orbit. To make the precession easy to see, use a fairly eccentric ellipse and take 𝜂 to be
about 0.005, which speeds up the precession by a factor of more than 104 !
Solution
The following code produces the bellow image that is the numerical solution of the problem.
ClearAll["Global`*"]
(* Mass of Mercury *)
M = 3.285 10^23; (* kg *)
(* Gravitational constant *)
G = 6.67408 10^-11; (* m^3 kg^-1 s^-2 *)
(* Eccentricity *)
e = 0.9;
(* Distance from center to focus *)

c := a (1 - e)
(* Einstein path equation dimentionless parameters *)

\[Eta] = 2.3 10^-7;
\[Nu] := a w[\[Theta]]
(* Elipsis axes *)
a = Evaluate[a /. Solve[{\[Eta] == (3 M G)/(a c^2), a > 0}, a]][[1]]; (* major axis *)
b = Evaluate[b /. Solve[{e^2 == 1 - b^2/a^2, b > 0}, b]][[1]]; (* minor axis *)
(* Einstein path equation and initial conditions *)

EPE = {(w^\[Prime]\[Prime])[\[Theta]] + w[\[Theta]] == 1/(1 - e^2) + \[Eta] \[Nu]^2,

w[0] == 1/(a (1 + e)), Derivative[1][w][0] == 0};
(* Trajectory solution *)
r[\[Theta]_] = 1/Evaluate[w[\[Theta]] /. NDSolve[EPE, w[\[Theta]], \[Theta]]][[1]];
(* Plot *)
P1 = PolarPlot[r[\[Theta]], {\[Theta], 0, 10 2 \[Pi]},
PlotStyle -> Black, Axes -> False, PlotRange -> Full];
P2 = PolarPlot[r[\[Theta]], {\[Theta], 0, 50 2 \[Pi]},
PlotStyle -> Black, Axes -> False, Frame -> True,
FrameTicks -> False, PlotRange -> 0.0015 {{-1, 1}, {-1, 1}}];
Show[P1,
PerformanceGoal -> "Quality",
ImageSize -> 550,
Epilog -> {
Thin,
Line[{{0, 0}, {-0.8225, 0.1800}}],
Line[{{0, 0}, {-0.1775, 0.8250}}],
Inset[P2, {-0.5, 0.5}]
}]

APPENDIX A: THE PATH EQUATION FOR CENTRAL FORCES

When a particle 𝑃 is under a central force 𝐅 that attracts (or repels) it to a central point 𝑂, as illustrated below in
polar coordinates
P
v F
r̂ O
θ̂
from the Newton’s Second Law, it is known that
𝐅 = 𝑚𝐫̈ .
To determine the acceleration 𝐫̈ , it must first be determined the transformations
𝐫̂ = 𝐫̂(𝑟, 𝜃),
̂=𝛉
𝛉 ̂(𝑟, 𝜃).
From a known rectangular to polar transformation
𝐱 ≡ 𝐱(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝐢̂,
𝐲 ≡ 𝐲(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐣̂ ,
it can be determined that
𝐫̂ ≡ 𝐫̂(𝐱(𝑟, 𝜃), 𝐲(𝑟, 𝜃))
1
= (𝐱(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝐲(𝑟, 𝜃))
𝑟
= cos 𝜃 𝐢̂ + sin 𝜃 𝐣̂ .
̂ is constructed to be orthogonal to 𝐫̂, it can be determined that
Then, because 𝛉
̂ ≡ rot(𝜋⁄2) 𝐫̂
𝛉
0 −1 cos 𝜃 𝐢̂
=[ ][ ]
1 0 sin 𝜃
= − sin 𝜃 𝐢̂ + cos 𝜃 𝐣̂ .
Notice that
̂⁄d𝜃 ,
𝐫̂ = − d𝛉
̂ = d𝐫̂⁄d𝜃 .
𝛉
Therefore, the velocity of the radial vector can be derived as follows
d
𝐫̇ = (𝑟𝐫̂)
d𝑡
d𝐫̂ d𝐫̂ d𝐫̂ d𝜃
= 𝑟̇ 𝐫̂ + 𝑟 , where = = 𝜃̇𝛉
̂
d𝑡 d𝑡 d𝜃 d𝑡
= 𝑟̇ 𝐫̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇𝛉̂
̂
= 𝑣𝑟 𝐫̂ + 𝑣𝜃 𝛉
where it can be seen that it depends on a radial and a circular velocity respectively defined as
𝑣𝑟 ≜ 𝑟̇ ,
𝑣𝜃 ≜ 𝑟𝜃̇.

Furthermore, the acceleration of the radial vector is given by

d𝐫̇
𝐫̈ =
d𝑡
d
= (𝑟̇ 𝐫̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇𝛉
̂)
d𝑡
d𝐫̂ ̂
d𝛉
= 𝑟̈ 𝐫̂ + 𝑟̇ + 𝑟̇ 𝜃̇𝛉
̂ + 𝑟𝜃̈𝛉
̂ + 𝑟𝜃̇
d𝑡 d𝑡
= (𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 )𝐫̂ + (𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇)𝛉
̂
̂
= 𝑎𝑟 𝐫̂ + 𝑎𝜃 𝛉
where it depends on a radial and a circular acceleration as well, respectively defined as
𝑎𝑟 ≜ 𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 ,
𝑎𝜃 ≜ 𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇.
The fact that the radial vector (as well as the circular vector) is not pointing always to the same direction is
what make the polar basis a turning basis.
Now, from the definition of a central force
𝐅 = 𝐹(𝑟, 𝜃)𝐫̂
the Newton’s Second Law equation can be written as
𝐹(𝑟, 𝜃)
(𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 )𝐫̂ + (𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇)𝛉
̂= 𝐫̂
𝑚
from which we derive the following system
𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 = 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃)
𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ = 0
where
𝐹(𝑟, 𝜃)
𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) ≜
𝑚
Notice that, from the second equation of the system,
1d
𝑚𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ = (𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇) = 0
𝑟 d𝑡
the quantity 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇ is constant. Knowing that the angular momentum vector is defined as
𝐋≜𝐫×𝐩
where 𝑝 ≜ ‖𝐩‖ = 𝑚𝑣, in the case where 𝐫 ⊥ 𝐩, such that 𝑣 = 𝑣𝜃 ≡ 𝑟𝜃̇, the angular momentum
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = 𝑚𝑟𝑣
Thus, because
d𝐿
=0
d𝑡
the angular momentum is conserved. In other words, for any
𝑚1 ≜ 𝑚(𝑡1 ), 𝑟1 ≜ 𝑟(𝑡1 ), 𝑣1 ≜ 𝑣(𝑡1 ),
𝑚2 ≜ 𝑚(𝑡2 ), 𝑟2 ≜ 𝑟(𝑡2 ), 𝑣2 ≜ 𝑣(𝑡2 ),
where 𝑡1 ≠ 𝑡2 , the angular momentum is the same such that
𝑚1 𝑟1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑟2 𝑣2 .

Therefore, another way to express the dynamics of a particle with constant mass 𝑚 under a central force is
by
𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 = 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃)
𝑟𝑣 = ℓ
where ℓ is the constant
ℓ ≜ 𝐿⁄𝑚 .
Furthermore, applying the variable transformation
𝑢 = 1⁄𝑟
where is first derivative is
d 1
𝑟̇ =
d𝑡 𝑢
1 d𝑢 d𝜃
=− 2
𝑢 d𝜃 d𝑡
d𝑢
= −𝑟 2 𝜃̇
d𝜃
d𝑢
= −ℓ
d𝜃
and its second derivative is
d d𝑢
𝑟̈ = (−ℓ )
d𝑡 d𝜃
d2 𝑢 d𝜃
= −ℓ
d𝜃 2 d𝑡
d2 𝑢 ℓ
= − 𝜃̇ , where 𝜃̇ = = ℓ𝑢2
d𝜃 2 𝑟2
d2 𝑢
= −ℓ2 𝑢2 ,
d𝜃 2
we have
d2 𝑢
−ℓ2 𝑢2 − (𝐿𝑢2 )2 = 𝑓(1⁄𝑢 , 𝜃)
d𝜃 2
such that we end up with the following simplified system for central forces acting against a particle 𝑃
d2 𝑢 𝑓(1⁄𝑢 , 𝜃)
2 +𝑢 =− (path equation)
d𝜃 ℓ2 𝑢 2
𝑟𝑣 = ℓ (angular momentum conservation)

APPENDIX B: NEARLY CIRCULAR ORBITS

From the Appendix A, the path equation for 𝑷 is given by
d2 𝑢 𝑓(1⁄𝑢 )
2
+𝑢=− 2 2
d𝜃 ℓ 𝑢
where angular momentum is the constant.
For a circular orbit, 𝑢(𝜃) must be constant, i.e., the solution of the path equation for an orbit with radius 𝑎
must be
𝑢 = 1⁄𝑎 .
Plugging it into the path equation, we found that 𝑉 must satisfies
𝑉 2 = −𝑎𝑓(𝑎).
Also, it implies that 𝑓(𝑟) must be an attractive force, i.e., 𝑓(𝑟) < 0. The angular momentum per mass, in turn, must
satisfies
ℓ2 = 𝑎 2 𝑉 2 = −𝑎 3 𝑓(𝑎).
On the other hand, for a nearly circular orbit, the solution 𝑢(𝜃) can be linearized around the orbit of radius
𝑎 as
1
𝑢(𝜃) = (1 + 𝜉(𝜃))
𝑎
where 𝜉 is a small perturbation. Thus, the path equation for a non-constant 𝑢(𝜃) becomes
d2 𝜉 (1 + 𝜉)−2 𝑎
2 + 1 + 𝜉 = 𝑓( ).
d𝜃 𝑓(𝑎) 1+𝜉
Notice that around 𝑎, the force per mass
𝑎 𝜉
𝑓( ) = 𝑓 (𝑎 (1 − ))
1+𝜉 1+𝜉
can be linearized as
𝑎 𝑎𝜉 𝜉 2
𝑓( ) = 𝑓(𝑎) − ( ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝒪 (( ) ).
1+𝜉 1+𝜉 1+𝜉
Because 𝜉 ≪ 1, we have that
𝜉
1+𝜉 ≈ 1 ⇒ ≈ 𝜉,
1+𝜉
simplifying the force per mass equation to
𝑎
𝑓( ) ≈ 𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)𝜉 + 𝒪(𝜉 2 ).
1+𝜉
Similarly, the term
𝑢−2
= (1 + 𝜉)−2
𝑎2
can be linearized as
(1 + 𝜉 )−2 = 1 − 2𝜉 + 𝒪 (𝜉 2 ).
Then, the linearized path equation up to the first order of a small perturbation 𝜉 becomes

d2 𝜉 𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
+ 1 + 𝜉 ≈ (1 − 2𝜉) (1 − 𝜉)
d𝜃 2 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
≈ 1 − (2 + )𝜉
𝑓(𝑎)
such that
d2 𝜉 𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
+ (3 + ) 𝜉 ≈ 0.
d𝜃 2 𝑓(𝑎)
Therefore, when an attractive force is acting in a particle following a near circular orbit, the problem is
reduced into finding a solution for small variations of inverse radius 𝜉(𝜃) using its linearized path equation
d2 𝜉
+ Ω2 𝜉 ≈ 0 ,
d𝜃 2
where Ω is called complex frequency of small perturbations given by
𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
Ω2 = 3 +
𝑓(𝑎)
so then the radius trajectory can be determined by
𝑎
𝑟(𝜃) = .
1 + 𝜉(𝜃)

APPENDIX C: AXISYMMETRIC SCATTERING

If a beam of particles is being projected against a spherical surface as illustrated bellow, the flux of particles can
be defined as
𝑄 = 𝑁|𝐴| = 𝑁 ∫𝜎(𝜃)d𝑆
𝑆
A
θ1
O O
S
radius p1
where 𝜎(𝜃) is a scattering density named as differential scattering cross section.

To make this example valid to any surface, not only spherical, one can compare the local scattering by using
a circular plane and unit sphere (as illustrated above) in the analysis of the total back-scattering cross-section as
𝑺 follows
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑆 ≜ |𝐴| = 𝜋𝑝12 = ∫ ∫ 𝜎(𝜃) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
0 𝜃1
𝑝1 𝜋
⇒ 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑝 d𝑝 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝜎(𝜃) sin 𝜃 d𝜃
0 𝜃1
𝜋 𝜋
d𝑝
⇒ − ∫ 𝑝 d𝜃 = ∫ 𝜎(𝜃) sin 𝜃 d𝜃
𝜃1 d𝜃 𝜃1
d𝑝
⇒ −𝑝 = 𝜎(𝜃) sin 𝜃
d𝜃
𝑝 d𝑝
⇒ 𝜎(𝜃) = − ( )
sin 𝜃 d𝜃

APPENDIX D: TOTAL ENERGY FOR CONIC TRAJECTORIES

The total mechanical energy of a particle is defined as
ℰ(𝑟) = 𝑈(𝑟) + 𝐾(𝑟),
where 𝑈(𝑟) is its potential energy from a central force and 𝐾(𝑟) is its kinetic energy.
The potential energy of the particle from the planet is in turn related with the attractive force 𝒇(𝒓) the
between these corpses as follows
d𝑉(𝑟) 𝛾
𝑓(𝑟) = − = 2.
d𝑟 𝑟
Solving for 𝑉(𝑟), we obtain
𝛾 𝛾
𝑉(𝑟) = − ∫ d𝑟 = − .
𝑟2 𝑟
On the other hand, the kinetic energy is given by
1 2
𝐾(𝑟) = 𝑣 ,
2
where, in terms of the angular momentum when the particle is under a conic trajectory
ℓ(𝑟) = 𝑟𝑣,
becomes
ℓ2
𝐾(𝑟) = .
2𝑟 2
Furthermore, using the 𝓵-formula (see exercise 2) for a conic (illustration below) trajectory
𝛾𝑏2
ℓ2 = ,
𝑎
the kinetic energy can be written in terms of the major and minor axis, 𝑎 and 𝑏, respectively, as follows
𝛾𝑏 2
𝐾(𝑟) = .
2𝑎𝑟 2
Therefore, the total energy of the particle is given by
𝛾 𝑏2
ℰ(𝑟) = − (1 − ).
𝑟 2𝑎𝑟
When the particle is closest to the planet, 𝑟 = 𝑐 such that
𝛾 𝑏2
ℰ = − (1 − ).
𝑐 2𝑎𝑐
In terms of conics, the distance 𝑐 is given by
𝑎(1 − 𝑒), ellipse
𝑐 = { 0, parabola
−𝑎(1 − 𝑒), hyperbola
where 𝑒 is the conic eccentricity, as illustrated below. Also, using the conic equations
𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ = 1, ellipse
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦 2
− = 1, hyperbola
{ 𝑎2 𝑏2

y
y
(0, b)
near branch far branch
r r
θ θ α x
x α
F F (ae, 0) (a, 0) F (−ae, 0) (a, 0) F
c = a (1 – e)
c = a (e – 1)
ellipse hyperbola
or, in polar coordinates
𝑎
(𝑒 cos 𝜃 + 1), ellipse and hyperbola near branch
1 𝑏2
=
𝑟 𝑎
(𝑒
{ 𝑏2 cos 𝜃 − 1), hyperbola far branch
it can be shown that the eccentricity itself 𝑒 depends on the conic by the following
1 − 𝑏2 ⁄𝑎 2 , ellipse
𝑒2 ={
1 + 𝑏2 ⁄𝑎 2 , hyperbola
Therefore, the total energy of the particle depends on the type of trajectory as follows (upper signal for an ellipse
and lower signal for a hyperbola)
𝛾 𝑏2
ℰ=∓ [1 ∓ 2 ]
𝑎(1 − 𝑒) 2𝑎 (1 − 𝑒)
𝛾 1 ∓ 𝑒2
=∓ [1 ∓ ]
𝑎(1 − 𝑒) 2(1 − 𝑒)
𝛾 𝑒 2 − 2𝑒 + 2 − 1
=∓ [ ]
2𝑎 (1 − 𝑒)2
which implies in the equation known as the 𝓔-formula
− 𝛾⁄2𝑎 , ellipse
ℰ={ 0, parabola
𝛾⁄2𝑎 , hyperbola
Thus, the total energy is negative when the state is bounded and positive when the state is unbounded.

UFABC - Mecânica Clássica I - Resolução de Lista de Exercícios 4

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NHT3068: Mecânica Clássica I UFABC Lista 04 (Marcos Donizeti Rodrigues Sampaio) v1

Given the problem illustrated as below

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 1/35

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the trajectory of the particle 𝑷 in terms of the variable 𝑢 is

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 2/35

2. Problem 7.6 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Given the problem illustrated as below

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 3/35

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the trajectory of the comet 𝑪 in terms of the variable 𝑟 is

which is an equation of the near-branch of a hyperbola

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 4/35

3. Problem 7.7 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

For the case in which

Similarly to the exercise 2, defining

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 5/35

Therefore, for 𝑛 = 0, the equation of the path of 𝑷 in terms of the variable 𝑟 is

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 6/35

4. Problem 7.8* GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Make a sketch of the path.

Similarly to the exercise 2, defining

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 7/35

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 8/35

NEARLY CIRCULAR ORBITS

A particle of mass 𝑚 moves under the central ﬁeld

Defining the attractive force per mass

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 9/35

where 𝑘 is an initial perturbation velocity, such that

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 10/35

6. Problem 7.11 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Similarly to the exercise 5, defining the attractive force per mass

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 11/35

where 𝑘 is an initial perturbation velocity, such that

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 12/35

7. Problem 7.12 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Similarly to the exercise 5, defining the attractive force per mass

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 13/35

where 𝑘 is an initial perturbation velocity, such that

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 14/35

8. Problem 7.13 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

ORBITS IN GENERAL RELATIVITY

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 15/35

where 𝜉 is a small perturbation that follows the path equation

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 16/35

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 17/35

From the definition of differential scattering cross section (see Appendix C)

from where it is found that

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 18/35

10. Problem 7.15 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Similarly to the exercise 3, defining the repulsive force

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 19/35

From this, we can determine the parameter or impact as follows

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 20/35

ASSORTED INVERSE SQUARE PROBLEMS

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 21/35

12. Problem 7.21 GREGORY, R. Classical Mechanics (Cambridge, 2006)

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 22/35

Notice that the lengths

Multiplying both sides of the equation by 𝑒 and knowing that

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 23/35

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 24/35

which simplifies the integrals to

Notice that 𝑟̅ ≥ 𝑎 for any eccentricity, as illustrated above.

Fernando Freitas Alves fernando.freitas@aluno.ufabc.edu.br 30/04/18 – pág. 25/35