Biology for engineers

Unit – I: Introduction and Classification (7 hours)

Syllabus
Fundamental differences between science and engineering by drawing a comparison between eye and
camera, Bird flying and aircraft.
Need to study biology?
Biological observations of 18th Century that lead to major discoveries.
Examples from Brownian motion and
the origin of thermodynamics by referring to the original observation of Robert Brown and Julius Mayor.
Hierarchy of life forms at phenomenological level.
Classification based on (a) cellularity- Unicellular or multicellular (b) ultrastructure- prokaryotes or
eucaryotes. (c) energy and Carbon utilization -Autotrophs, heterotrophs, lithotropes (d) Ammonia
excretion – aminotelic, uricoteliec, ureotelic (e) Habitat- aquatic or terrestrial (e) Molecular taxonomy-
three kingdoms classification (Ernst Haeckel proposed).
Model organisms: E. coli, S. cerevisiae, D. melanogaster, C. elegance, A. thaliana, M. musculus.

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Human Eye vs Camera

Figure: Differences between a physical camera

Following are some major differences between a physical camera and the human eye.

Human Eyes Camera

Focusing on an Image
The human eye contains small muscles that
contract and relax, enabling the eyes to
change shape and stay focused on a moving
object. These muscles are also capable of
changing the thickness of the lens to
A camera cannot do this. Hence, it relies
on a variety of lenses. This is the reason
why photographers often change the lens of
their camera according to the distance from
the object. Moreover, cameras use
accommodate the image that is being viewed mechanical parts to stay focused on a
moving object.
Processing Colour
Human eyes contain special types of cells Cameras use something called photosites to
called photoreceptors. There are two types – collect light. A typical camera has millions of
rods and cones. Rods are primarily used for these light collectors that hold the light and
low-light vision, while cones are used for then convert it into a signal that can be
colour vision. 3 types of cones respond to 3 interpreted by electronic devices. Moreover,
different wavelengths of light. For instance, cameras use filters that break up light into
blue cones respond to short wavelengths its primary colours – red, blue and green. It
while red cones respond to long reproduces the full spectrum image by
wavelengths, and green cones respond to combining these colours.
medium wavelengths. The colour we see is
the result of the brain activating the cones in
various combinations.
Blind Spots
The human eye has a blind spot – located at A camera does not have such a blind spot.
the point where the optic nerve joins the
retina. Under normal circumstances, we do
not notice this blindspot as the brain uses
information from the other eye to complete
the missing portion of the image.

Bird flying and aircraft

Birds and aircraft share some similarities in their structure and flight mechanisms. Both
birds and aircraft have streamlined body structures that are necessary for flight. The wings
of birds and aircraft are designed to produce lift, which is the force that keeps them in the
air. The wings of both birds and aircraft are also designed to reduce drag, which is the force
that opposes motion through a fluid such as air.

However, there are also some differences between bird flight and aircraft flight.

Birds have the ability to change the shape of their wings during flight, which allows them to
adjust their lift and drag forces as needed. In contrast, aircraft wings are fixed in shape and
rely on flaps and other control surfaces to adjust lift and drag forces. Additionally, birds use
their tails to help control their direction during flight, while aircraft use rudders and other
control surfaces for this purpose.
Biological observations of the 18th Century that lead to major
discoveries

Some of the biological observations of the 18th century that led to major discoveries are:

• Carolus Linnaeus proposed a system for naming and classifying plants and animals,
which is still used today. He described 6,000 plants and 4,000 animals with binomial
names.
• Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection, based on
his observations of various species and fossils during his voyage on the HMS Beagle.
• Robert Koch established the germ theory of disease, by identifying the specific
microorganisms that cause anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera.
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke improved the microscope and
observed various types of cells, such as bacteria, protozoa, blood cells, and cork cells.

Biology and engineering and applications of biology

Biology and engineering are two fields that can be combined to create biological
engineering or bioengineering. This is the application of engineering principles to the
design and transformation of technology for solving biological problems12. Some examples
of bioengineering are:
 • Biomedical engineering: designing and developing devices, systems, and software
for healthcare, such as artificial organs, prosthetics, implants, and imaging
techniques.
• Synthetic biology: designing and constructing new biological parts, devices, and
systems, or re-engineering existing ones, such as genetic circuits, biosensors,
biofuels, and bioremediation.
• Bioinformatics: applying computational methods to analyze and interpret
biological data, such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phylogenetics

Another related field is biotechnology, which is the use of living organisms or their
products for industrial or commercial purposes, such as agriculture, food, medicine, and
environment. Some examples of biotechnology are:

• Genetic engineering: modifying the DNA of organisms to introduce new traits or

functions, such as pest resistance, disease resistance, or enhanced nutrition.
• Stem cell therapy: using undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into
specialized cells to treat various diseases or injuries, such as diabetes, Parkinson’s
disease, or spinal cord damage.
• Fermentation: using microorganisms to convert organic substances into useful
products, such as ethanol, cheese, yogurt, or antibiotics.

Brownian motion
Origin of thermodynamics by referring to the original observation of
Robert Brown and Julius Mayor.
Hierarchy
• Hierarchy is the sequence of arrangement of taxanomic categories in descending
order from higher to lower during classification of organisms.
• Hierarchy was first given by Linnaeus.
• There are seven categories.
• This includes kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Eg :- Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Chordata
Class - Mammalia
Order - Primata
Family - Hominidae
Genus - Homo
Scientific name :- Homo sapiens

Classification based on
(a) Cellularity- Unicellular or multicellular
Based on the number of cells present in an organism, biologists classify organisms as
unicellular or multicellular . Unicellular organisms are made up of a single cell, while
multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.
The form (morphology) of an organism can be unicellular (one-celled) or multicellular
(many-celled). Some unicellular organisms form filaments (strings of cells), others form
sheets of cells held together by pectins, and still others form colonies that give a
superficial resemblance to multicellularity. Unicellular organisms do not form tissues
(similar cells organized into a functional unit) nor organs (groups of tissues organized
for a particular function). Some organisms alternate a unicellular stage with a
multicellular stage in their life cycles.
Here are some examples of unicellular and multicellular organisms:
• Unicellular organisms: Bacteria, yeasts, protozoa such as paramecium and
dinoflagellates, microalgae, diatoms, cyanidiophytina, archaea such as methanogenic
archaea.
• Multicellular organisms: Animals such as mammals like the lion, amphibians like
the frog, birds like the sparrow, insects like the mosquito; plants such as trees like
oak, herbaceous like onion; fungi such as mushrooms and algae

(b) Ultrastructure- prokaryotes or eucaryotes.

Based on the ultrastructure of cells, biologists classify cells as either prokaryotic or
eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are simpler in structure and lack membrane-bound
 organelles such as a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells are more complex and have
membrane-bound organelles such as a nucleus.

Prokaryotic Cells, Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm
Cell size
in diameter in diameter
Usually present; chemically complex When present, chemically simple
Cell wall
in nature in nature
Absent. Instead, they have
Nucleus Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in
Ribosomes
spherical in shape. 70S type size and linear in shape. 80S type
DNA
Circular Linear
arrangement
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic
Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
Lysosome
absent present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

(c) Energy and Carbon utilization -Autotrophs, heterotrophs, lithotropes

• Autotrophs: Green plants, algae, and some bacteria are examples of autotrophs.
They can produce their own food using simple substances like carbon dioxide and
water .
 • Heterotrophs: Humans, animals, and fungi are examples of heterotrophs. They
cannot produce their own food and depend on other organisms for their nutrition .
• Lithotrophs: Lithotrophs are organisms that can use inorganic substances like
ammonia or hydrogen sulfide as a source of energy instead of sunlight or organic
matter. They are further classified into lithoautotrophs and lithoheterotrophs based
on whether they can use carbon dioxide from the air as a carbon source or not .

(d) Ammonia excretion – aminotelic, uricoteliec, ureotelic

Ammonia excretion is a process of nitrogenous waste elimination in animals. The three

types of ammonia excretion are aminotelic, uricotelic, and ureotelic.
• Aminotelic: An aminotelic organism excretes nitrogenous waste as soluble
ammonia. Most aquatic animals, including protozoans, crustaceans, Platyhelminthes,
cnidarians, poriferans, echinoderms, fishes, larvae/tadpoles of amphibians are
aminotelic.
• Ureotelic: A ureotelic organism generally excretes excess nitrogen as urea. Urea is
less toxic and needs less water for excretion. Cartilaginous fish, a few bony fishes,
adult amphibians, and mammals including humans are ureotelic.
• Uricotelic: A uricotelic organism excretes either uric acid or its salts. Uric acid is the
least toxic and requires less water in comparison to urea and ammonia. Terrestrial
arthropods (including insects), lizards, snakes, birds are examples of uricotelic
organisms.

(e) Habitat- aquatic or terrestrial

Habitat refers to the natural environment in which an organism lives. There are two
main types of habitats: aquatic and terrestrial.

• Aquatic habitat: This type of habitat refers to the water-based environment in

which organisms live. Examples of aquatic habitats include oceans, rivers, lakes,
ponds, and wetlands.
• Terrestrial habitat: This type of habitat refers to the land-based environment in
which organisms live. Examples of terrestrial habitats include forests, grasslands,
deserts, mountain ranges, coastal regions, and ice caps.

(f) Molecular taxonomy

Molecular taxonomy is a branch of science that deals with the classification of organisms
based on the distribution and composition of chemical substances in them. It is a method of
 identifying and distinguishing the specimens in a fast and exact manner which is based
on the interspecific variations. The molecular techniques used in this field of biology
have helped to establish genetic relationships between the members of different
taxonomic categories.
Molecular taxonomy has a wide range of applications in research on evolution,
conservation, and management of natural populations.
One example of molecular taxonomy is the use of DNA sequencing to identify and classify
different species of organisms. By comparing the DNA sequences of different organisms,
scientists can determine how closely related they are to one another and how they
should be classified. Another example is the use of molecular markers to study genetic
variation within and between populations. These markers can be used to identify unique
genetic characteristics that are specific to certain populations or species.

Three-kingdom system of classification

Ernst Haeckel proposed a three-kingdom system of classification in the 1860s to

overcome the objections and limitations of the two-kingdom system of classification.
According to this system, the three kingdoms were

1.Animalia,

2. Plantae, and

3. Protista.

The arrangement of kingdoms was done on the basis of morphological complexities and
tissue system, the division of labor, and mode of nutrition. Unicellular animals, algae, and
fungi were separated from other organisms on the basis of lack of tissue differentiation.
The new group was called the kingdom Protista. Organisms lacking morphological
complexities, tissue system, the division of labor, and enjoying the diversified type of modes
of nutrition were segregated and put under the kingdom Protista. Members of the kingdom
Protista included protozoa, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. Later fungi and
multicellular algae were taken out from the group. Organisms having diverse tissue-system
with well-defined division of labor and maximum morphological complexities in their body
remained segregated from protists and were bifurcated into two categories: those enjoying
autotrophic mode of nutrition were considered to be plants and put under kingdom
Plantae, and those that have entirely holophagic (phagotrophic) mode of nutrition were
considered to be animals and put under kingdom Animalia.
Model organisms:

Here are some of the most commonly used model organisms in biological research:
1. Escherichia coli (E. coli): E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-
shaped, coliform bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-
blooded organisms. It is widely studied and has been very useful for the study of
gene structure and gene regulation. E. coli is the most widely studied prokaryotic
model organism and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. It has
served as the host organism for the majority of work with recombinant DNA. It is
used as a model organism in many areas of research, including genetics,
microbiology, biotechnology, and biochemistry.
2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae): S. cerevisiae is a species of yeast that is
commonly used in baking and brewing. It is also a model organism for studying
eukaryotic cells and has been used extensively in genetic research.
3. Drosophila melanogaster (D. melanogaster): D. melanogaster is a species of fruit
fly that has been extensively studied in genetics and developmental biology. It has
been used to study many aspects of development, including embryogenesis, cell
differentiation, and pattern formation.
4. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans): C. elegans is a species of nematode that has
been used extensively in genetic research. It has a simple nervous system and
transparent body, which makes it an ideal model organism for studying neural
development and function.
5. Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana): A. thaliana is a small flowering plant that is widely
used as a model organism in plant biology. It has a relatively small genome and short life
cycle, which makes it an ideal organism for studying plant genetics and development.
6. Mus musculus (M. musculus): M. musculus, also known as the house mouse, is a
mammal that has been extensively studied in genetics and developmental biology. It
shares many genetic similarities with humans and has been used as a model organism for
studying human diseases and development.

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