CHAPTER FOUR - it is the wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation to which the human eye is sensitive
4.1 A CHRONICLE OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
• December 21, 1879 - Thomas Alva Edison
announced the successful development of an
incandescent lamp with a baked carbonized cotton
thread filament.
• Foot-candle- a common measure of illuminance, is
the oldest physical unit still in common usage.
• 1882- the Edison Electric Light Company successfully
demonstrated the use of artificial lighting by
powering incandescent streetlights and lamps in
approximately 30 buildings in part of London
beginning on January 12 and later by illuminating
parts of New York City beginning on September 4.
Professional Organizations
• (IESNA)- Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America
• (LALD)- International Association of Lighting
Designers
• (NEMA)- National Electrical Manufacturers
Association
• (ALA)- American Lighting Association
• National Electrical Code (NEC)- model code that
specifies the minimum provisions necessary for
protecting people and property from the use of
electricity and electrical equipment.
4.2 ELEMENTS OF SEEING
• Visual system of a human is composed of:
-eye, optic nerve, and certain parts of the brain.
• EYE- the organ that allows a human to sense light
and produce electrical impulses
• OPTIC NERVE- where electrical impulses are sent
through.
• PART OF BRAIN- part of the visual system where
the impulses are processed
• Color blindness- the inability to distinguish
colors.
4.3 LIGHT Electromagnetic Radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation
- energy radiated in the form of a wave caused by
an electric field interacting with a magnetic field.
- categorized by wavelength and frequency.
• Wavelength (l)- is measured as the distance from
one peak of one wave to the next wave. It is
expressed in meters or nanometers
• Frequency- is the number of wave cycles per
second. It is expressed in units of hertz (Hz).
• Gamma radiation- is the shortest and most
powerful form of electromagnetic radiation,
result from changes within the nucleus of the
atom.
• Visible light-
- part of electromagnetic radiation spectrum
capable of exciting the retina and ultimately
producing a visual sensation
• When light strikes a surface, the surface is
illuminated.
• Illuminance is the amount of light incident on
(striking) a surface.
• Luminance is the amount of light leaving an
object. It is how bright an object appears.
• Reflectance (r)- is the ratio of reflected light
versus the light striking the surface (illuminance).
• Specular reflection -occurs when light is
reflected off a polished or mirror-like surface—
that is, the reflected image is maintained.
• Diffuse reflection - results when reflected light is
scattered after striking the surface.
• Transmittance (t)- is the ratio of light transmitted
through the body versus the light illuminating
the surface.
• Transparent body- transmits light through it
without distorting the image.
• A translucent body - transmits light but
obscures the image because the light is
scattered.
• Absorptance (a)- is the ratio of the light
absorbed versus the light striking the surface.
• When a translucent or transparent body is
illuminated, the illuminance striking the surface
will be reflected, absorbed, and transmitted.
• When light strikes an opaque surface, the
illuminance will be reflected and absorbed but
not transmitted.
• Diffuse light- is light that is widely spread or
scattered. It is the type of light available on a hazy
day.
• Direct light- is a strong, directional type of light.
It is the type available on a cloudless, sunny day
where shadows are well defined.
4.4 THE COLOR OF LIGHT
• Color perception- is the ability to distinguish and
interpret different wavelengths of visible light
• A chromatic light source emits a fairly even
distribution of all wavelengths of light.
• A monochromatic light source produces visible
light in a very small range of wavelengths: a red
light emits predominantly red wavelengths; a
green light gives off predominantly green
wavelengths; and so on.
• Two methods are used to rate the quality of color
emitted by a light source:
-the color temperature
-color rendering index.
• Visual acuity is the ability to distinguish fine
details. It is the “keenness” of vision.
5.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
• Lamp is a device that generates light. Although
frequently called a light bulb by the layperson,
the term lamp (rather than bulb) is used in the
lighting industry to avoid confusion when
describing a light source
 • Bulb is the glass portion of a lamp that encloses
and protects the working parts of the light
source, whereas a lamp is a source of light.
• Light fixture- is the luminaire less the lamp(s). It
includes the structural parts of a luminaire
including any lenses, mounting supports, wiring,
and ballasts, but does not include the lamps.
• Luminous flux is the measure of the perceived
power of light expressed in lumens (lm).
• Lumen- is defined as the quantity of light given
out through a steradian by a source of one
candela of intensity radiating equally in all
directions.
• Candela (cd)- is the SI unit of luminous
intensity—that is, the power emitted by a light
source in a particular direction.
• Luminous efficacy
- is the ratio of the light output of a light source
(a specific lamp) to the electrical energy
consumed (including the ballast if applicable) to
produce that light source.
-It is expressed in units of lumens per watt of
electric power (lm/W) and is thus typically
referred to as LPW.
LPW = light output (lm)/power input (W)
• Color rendering index (CRI)- is a method of
numerically comparing the color distribution of a
light source to a reference lamp.
• Spectral power distribution curve - is a graphic
presentation of the quantities of light emitted by
a lamp by wavelength component.
• Rated life of a lamp- is its median life expectancy,
expressed in hours.
4.6 TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES
• Incandescent lamp - has a wide variety of
forms, shapes and sizes.
4.7 FORMS OF ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING
• Tungsten-halogen lamps - frequently called
halogen lamps, are a smaller, brighter, and
more expensive version of the incandescent
lamp.
• gaseous discharge lamp - produces
continuous light by passing electricity through
a gas contained within the lamp.
• fluorescent lamp - was first introduced in
1937. It was considered the best, and most
widely used type of lamp.
• Rapid Start Lamp - was introduced in 1952. It
was typically the same in construction as the
preheat lamp.
• High Output (HO)- operates at 800 milli-
amperes
• Very High Output (VHO)- operates at 1500
milli-amperes (1.5 amp)
• Instant Start Fluorescent Lamp - called the
Slim Lamp. It has only one pin at each end
acting as a switch to break the ballast circuit
when the tube is removed.
• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) -
miniaturized fluorescent lamps.
• luminaire efficacy rating (LER) is the ratio of
light (the luminous flux, in lumens) emitted by
a fluorescent luminaire to the electrical energy
consumed, including the ballast.
• High-intensity discharge (HID)- lamps produce
a very bright light by discharging an arc when
electrical current passes through a metal gas
contained under high pressure in a glass bulb.
• Mercury vapor (MV) lamps - first
commercially available HID lamps. These
lamps are constructed of an internal quartz
tube enclosed in an outer glass envelope.
• Metal halide (MH) lamps - constructed in a
manner similar to MV lamps except that in
addition to the mercury and argon, various
metal halides are included in the gas fill.
• High-pressure sodium (HPS) - Lamps contain
an internal arc tube made of a translucent
ceramic material rather than quartz glass
because of the high temperature
(2350°F/1300°C) at which it operates.
• Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps -
constructed of a large sodium-resistant glass
tube containing sodium and a neon–argon gas
mixture.
• Blended lamps combine the luminous
efficiency of an HID lamp (e.g., MV) with the
good color rendering capability of an
incandescent lamp.
• Solid-state lighting (SSL) - refers to a type of
lighting that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
organic light-emitting diode lights (OLEDs), or
polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs), instead
of traditional lighting sources that use an
electrical filament or gas inside a glass bulb.
• Ambient lighting, sometimes called general
lighting, Provides uniform illumination
throughout the space.
• Accent lighting Is directional lighting used to
emphasize a particular object or area.
• Decorative lighting Is the light source that
adds a quality of interest to the space.
• Emergency and safety lighting is a secondary
lighting system that provides backup
illumination when the power supply to the
normal lighting system is interrupted or fails,
such as in the case of a public utility power
outage.
• Emergency lighting is required in the critical
care and emergency spaces found in hospitals,
nursing homes, and police, fire protection, and
crisis management areas.
• Stand-by lighting is part of the emergency
lighting system. It enables normal activities to
continue substantially unchanged. This type of
lighting system is typically powered by an
emergency generator or battery backup
system.
• Safety lighting is the part of emergency
lighting system that ensures the safety of
people involved in a potentially hazardous
process.
• Escape lighting provides illumination to
ensure that an escape route can be effectively
identified and used in the case of failure of the
normal lighting system.
• Exit lighting is the part of the escape lighting
system that includes illuminated signage used
to provide clear directions for an emergency
exit of building occupants.
4.8 LIGHTING INSTALLATIONS
• pendent is a luminaire that is hung with a cord,
chain, or tube that enables it to be suspended
from a ceiling or other support.
• uplight is a luminaire where a shielded light
source directs its light to the ceiling, where it is
reflected back to the space.
• downlight is a luminaire that is usually
attached to or recessed in the ceiling and emits
a concentrated light downward.
• high hat is a type of downlight that is a
recessed, canister-shaped luminaire with a
shielded lamp that emits light downward.
• Recessed luminaires are mounted above the
ceiling or behind a wall or other surface so that
any visible projection of light is insignificant.
• Sconces are decorative, wall-mounted
luminaires that provide ambient illumination
• High bay luminaires are used in high-ceiling
areas, 20 ft (6 m) or higher, that require
uniform illumination.
• Directional lighting is illumination where light
received at the work plane or light illuminating
an object is incident predominantly from a
particular direction.
• A spotlight is a luminaire that is designed to
emit an intense, concentrated beam of light
with usually no more than a 20° divergence
(spread) from where it is directed.
• floodlight is a luminaire that emits an intense
light that is broader than a spotlight and that is
capable of being pointed in any direction.
• Track lighting is a directional lighting
installation where luminaires are attached to
and are moveable along a metal track.
• Diffused lighting is a lighting installation in
which the light on the working plane or on an
object is not incident predominantly from a
particular direction.
• Cornice lighting is a lighting installation where
the light source is shielded by a panel that is
parallel to the wall and attached to the ceiling;
it distributes light over the wall.
• Cove lighting is an uplighting installation
where the light source is shielded by a ledge or
recess with light dispersed over the ceiling and
upper wall.
• Valance lighting is a lighting installation where
the light source is shielded by a panel that is
parallel to the wall at the top of a window.
• A troffer is a linear luminaire constructed of an
inverted metal trough that serves as a fixture
for fluorescent lighting lamps. It is usually
installed with the opening flush with the
ceiling.
• Reflector Lamps Are incandescent, compact
fluorescent, or HID lamps with a built-in
reflecting surface.
• An elliptical reflector (ER) lamp is an
incandescent lamp with an elliptically shaped
reflector.
• A parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamp,
which may use an incandescent filament, a
halogen filament tube, or HID arc tube, is a
precision pressed-glass reflector lamp.
• Remote-source lighting (RSL) is an advanced
lighting technology that transports light from a
single source over a distance to one or more
light outlets or emits light evenly along the
way.
• Fiber optic RSL systems consist of a light
source; a set of reflectors, filters, and lenses to
feed the light to the fiber optic cables; and a
fixture to distribute the light at the point of
illumination.
• Light pipe RSL systems feature a hollow tube
with a reflective inner surface that directs light
through the tube.
4.9 LIGHT DISTRIBUTION AND GLARE
• A candlepower (candela) distribution curve Is
a graphical representation that illustrates the
luminous intensity around the cross-section of
a lamp or luminaire.
• Glare is excessive brightness in the field of
vision that causes discomfort or, in extreme
cases, produces a disability from a temporary
loss of vision.
• The visual comfort probability (VCP) is a rating
of a lighting installation expressed as a
percentage of individuals who, when viewing
from a specified location and in a specified
direction, will be expected to find it acceptable
in terms of discomfort glare.
• Disability glare occurs when visibility is
impaired from excessive brightness.
• Direct glare occurs when excessive light enters
the eye directly from a light source.
• Reflected glare is the result of light entering
the eye after reflecting off a glossy surface.
• The glare zone is defined as a zone above a 45°
angle from the fixture‘s vertical axis.
• Lenses are typically made from clear UV-
stabilized plastics.
• Louvers are slats in a light fixture that create
openings for emitting light.
• Baffles are opaque or translucent elements
that shield a light source from direct view.
 4.12 LIGHTING DESIGN PRACTICES AND
CONSIDERATIONS
4.10 ILLUMINANCE AND LUMINANCE
• Ambient lighting is the most essential form of
• illuminance is the amount of light incident on
lighting because it is the basic background of
(striking) a surface.
light for almost every room.
• Luminance is the amount of light leaving an
• Task or local lighting illuminates a specific
object, thus relating to how bright an object
visual function and can influence the
appears to the human eye.
effectiveness of the individual performing the
• The foot-candle (fc) is the unit of measure of
task.
illuminance (E), the intensity of light falling on
• Accent lighting is used to add drama and
a surface.
emphasize a particular object or area.
• The SI (metric) unit for illuminance is the lux
• Decorative lighting aesthetically adds interest
(lx)
to the space by blending with other types of
4.11 PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTING DESIGN lighting to give an overall ―feel‖ to a space.
• The entrance or foyer is the transitional space
• the inverse square law states that the
from public to private and exterior to interior.
illuminance (E) at a point on a plane
perpendicular to the line joining the point and 4.13 LIGHTING SYSTEM CONTROLS
a source is inversely proportional to the square
• Single-pole, single throw (SPST) switches are a
of the distance between the source and the
simple on/off switch that controls a lighting
plane (d), where the intensity of the source is
installation from one location.
expressed in luminous intensity (I)
• Three-way switches (S3) and four-way
• The cosine law of incidence states that
switches (S4) can be circuited to control a
illuminance (E) at a point on a plane is
lighting installation from two or more
proportional to the cosine of the angle of light
locations.
incidence,
• Automatic switches deactivate the lighting
• This target illumination is actually the average
circuit after a preset time period has lapsed.
illuminance at a reference work plane.
• Dimmer switches can be used to vary the
• The zonal cavity method is the currently
luminous flux (lumen output) from lamps in a
accepted method for calculating average
lighting installation.
illuminance levels for indoor areas unless the
• Keyed switches limit access to switches for
light distribution is extremely asymmetric.
lights and equipment to authorized personnel.
• Lumen output (LM) is generally based on the
They are available with SPST, and capabilities.
number of lumens initially output by each
• Door switches can activate a lighting circuit
lamp.
when a door is open or closed (e.g., similar to
• The light loss factor (LLF) is the product of all
a refrigerator light).
considered factors that contribute to a lighting
• Time clocks can be used to control the time
installation‘s reduced light output over a
period that a lighting installation operates.
period of time.
• Electronic timers automatically control
• The number of lamps in luminaire (n) is the
operation of a lighting installation with
quantity of lamps found in the specified or
electronic components that are wired into the
existing luminaire.
circuitry.
• The number of luminaires (#) is the minimum
• Photocell controls sense light and can be used
required or the given number of luminaires in
to control night lighting in lieu of a time clock
the space.
or timer.
• The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the ratio of
• Occupancy sensors control a lighting
the amount of light (lumens) illuminating the
installation by sensing occupants in a space.
work plane to the output of the lamp(s) in a
fixture. 4.14 DAYLIGHTING PRINCIPLES
• The cavity ratio (CR) is a number indicating
• Daylighting is the efficient and effective use of
cavity proportions from length, width, and
direct, diffuse, or reflected sunlight to provide
height.
full or supplemental illumination for building
• The spacing criterion (CS) ratio is an
interiors during hours of sunlight.
approximate maximum spacing-to-mounting
• Direct light travels in a straight-line path from
height ratio required to ensure uniform
the sun and tends to be more intense than
illumination on the work plane.
diffuse and reflected sunlight.
• Unit power density (UPD) of a lighting
• Reflected light strikes a surface, such as a
installation is the power consumed for
sidewalk or automobile, and reflects off the
illumination (W) divided by the area (ft2 or m2
surface in another direction.
) served by the lighting installation.
• Diffuse light is light that has been reflected or
refracted by clouds, glazing, or other objects.
• The overall coefficient of heat transfer (U) is a
measure of how easily heat travels through an
assembly of materials: the lower the U factor,
the lower the rate of heat transfer through the
glazing and the more efficient the glazing.
• The solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) is the
fraction of solar heat that is transmitted
through the glazing and ultimately becomes
heat.
• Visible transmittance (VT) is the percentage of
visible light (light in the 380 to 720 nm range)
that is transmitted through the glazing.
• The light-to-solar gain ratio (LSG) is the ratio
between SHGC and VT of a single glazing.
• glass was used as a glazing material.
• Fenestration is a design term that describes
window size, arrangement, and glazing type
(the glass and coatings used in the window).
• A clerestory window system is a fenestration
arrangement in an upper story wall that
extends above one roof surface; it introduces
daylight into the ceiling area of the space.
• An atrium is an interior courtyard covered with
glazing.
• A skylight is a transparent panel located in a
roof opening that allows direct and diffuse
sunlight into the building.
• A roof monitor is a type of skylight system that
is a raised, typically triangular shaped,
extension of a roof and that has at least one
glazed surface.
• A light shelf is a passive (nonmechanical)
architectural element or mechanism that
allows sunlight to enter deep into a building.
• Translucent fabric roof membranes can be
used to introduce daylight through the roof
itself.
EU1 REVIEWER_ael FORMULAS:

I. LUMINOUS EFFICACY (LPW)

ABBREVATIONS
LIGHT OUTPUT (lm) lm
(PROFESSIONAL ORGS) LPW = POWER INPUT (W)
= ans. W
 IESNA - Illuminating Engineering NOTE: WITH BALLAST JUST ADD.
Society of Northern America
 LALD - International Association of II. LUMINAIRE EFFICACY RATING
Lighting Designers (LER)
 NEMA - National Electrical
Manufacturers Association LER =
(EFF∙TLL∙BF) lm
= ans. W
 ALA - American Lighting Association W
NOTE: EFF ~ Luminaire Efficacy
 NEC - National Electrical Code TTL ~ Total Rated Lamp Lumens
BF ~ Ballast Factor
W ~ Luminaire Watts Input

 CCT - Correlated Color Temperature

III. ILLUMINANCE [E]
 CRI - Color Rendering Index
 CFL - Compact Fluorescent Lamps
 LER - Luminaire Efficacy Rating E = lm A = ans. fc or lx
 HID Lamps - High-Intensity Discharge
Lamps IV. INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 MV Lamps - Mercury Vapor Lamps
 MH Lamps - Metal Halide Lamps E=I
 HPS - High-Pressure Sodium d2
NOTE: E ~ Illuminance
 LPS Lamps - Low-Pressure Sodium d ~ Plane
Lamps I ~ Luminuos Intensity

 BL - Blended Lamps V. COSINE LAW OF INCIDENCE

 SSL - Solid-State Lighting
 LEDs - Light-Emitting Diodes I
 OLEDs - Organic Light-Emitting E = ( d2 ) ∙ (cosθ)
Diode Lights
 PLEDs - Polymer Light-Emitting VI. CAVITY RATION (CR)
Diodes
[5MH (L+W)] 2.5MHp
CR = LW
OR CR = A
(REFLECTOR LAMPS)
 ER - Elliptical Reflector Lamp
NOTE: MH ~ distance between the plane of the
 PAR - Parabolic Aluminized Reflector luminaires and reference work plane, in inches,
Lamp feet, or meters.
L ~ length of the space, in feet or meters
W~ width of the space, in feet or meters
 RSL - Remote-Source Lighting p ~ perimeter of space, in feet or meters
 VCP - Visual Comfort Probability A ~ area of the space to be illuminated, in square
feet or square meters

 LM - Lumen Output VII. NO. # OF LUMINAIRES REQ. IN

 LLF - Light Loss Factor SPACE
 (n) - No. Of Lamps in Luminaire
 (#) - No. Of Luminaires (light fixtures) (E ∙ A)
 (S) - Luminaire Spacing in ft or m #= (n ∙ LM ∙ CU ∙ LLF)
 CU - Coefficient Utilization
 CR - Cavity Ratio VIII. AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE IN A
 CS - Spacing Criterion SPACE [fc in service]
 UPD - Unit Power Density
(# ∙ n ∙ LM ∙ CU ∙ LLF)
E=
(4.13 LIGHTING SYSTEM CONTROLS) A
 SPST - Single-Pole, Single Throw
 S3 - Three-Way Switches IX. MINIMUM REQ AREA PER
 S4 - Four-Way Switches LUMINAIRE TO MAINTAIN THE
DESIRED LUMINANCE
(GLAZINGS) (� ∙ �� ∙ �� ∙ ���)
 U - Overall Coefficient of Heat A= �
Transfer
 SHGC - Solar Heat Gain Coefficient X. SPACING CRITERION (CS)
 VT - Visible Transmittance
 LSG - Light-to-Solar Gain Ratio S = CS ∙ MH
XI. NO. OF LUMINAIRES IN SIMPLE
RECTANGULAR SPACE

= (#) ∙ ( A )
S2

XII. POWER DENSITY

W
Power Density = A (ft2 or m2 )

CONVERSIONS:
1��
 ��2
= 452 ���� ��������

 1 lambert = 929 foot lamberts =

cd
2.054 in2

 1fc = 1 lm E = lm A
ft2

 1fc = 10.764 lx or lux

 1lux = 0.0929 fc
CHAPTER 5:
BUILDING TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

FUNDAMENTALS OF TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

● Telecommunication system: The transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals,
writing, images, sounds, or information using wire, radio, optical, or electromagnetic
systems.

● Transmitter: Converts sound waves or data into signals for transmission.

● Receiver: Intercepts signals and converts them back into useful data or sound waves.

● Transceiver: A telecommunications device that functions as both a transmitter and

receiver.

● Analog transmission: Conversion of sound or data into electrical impulses.

● Digital transmission: Transmission of signals that vary in voltage to represent separate

states (e.g., on and off or 0 and 1).

● Bandwidth: The range between the highest and lowest frequencies of transmission,
measured in hertz (Hz). It is a measure of information capacity.

TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

● Telecommunications network: A collection of communication equipment and devices that

are interconnected to share data, hardware, and software or perform electronic
functions.

● Nodes: Connecting points in a network (e.g., telecommunication terminals such as

telephones or computers).

● Topology: The configuration of a network, including nodes, connecting cables, and

equipment. Three basic network topologies are bus, star, and ring.

● Bus topology: Each workstation is connected to a single cable trunk, and signals are
broadcast to all workstations.

● Star topology: All workstations are connected to a central unit called a hub, allowing
direct links between different equipment.
 ● Ring topology: Workstation equipment and devices are connected in a circular
configuration in a point-to-point serial manner.

● LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects computers and hardware located
relatively close together, sharing resources, equipment, and files.

● WAN (Wide Area Network): Networks that cover a larger spatial distance, such as
metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN).

● Ethernet, ARCnet, Token Ring: Different types of LANs, each with its own method of
transmitting data.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
● Cable: Common medium for voice and data transmission in telecommunication systems.
● Types of cables: Copper wire, coaxial cable, and optical fibers.
● Wireless transmission: Used in buildings as an alternative to hard-wired connections.
● Connectors: Devices used to connect cables to network devices.

COPPER WIRING

● Copper wiring: Traditional transmission medium consisting of one or more pairs of solid
copper wires.
● Twisted pair cable: Pairs of copper wires twisted to eliminate interference, with
unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP) variants.
● RJ45 connectors: Standard female connectors used for UTP cables in
telecommunication systems.

COAXIAL CABLE

● Coaxial cable: Two conductors (inner solid wire and outer braided metal sheath) with
insulation and protective casing.
● Types of coaxial cabling: Thin coaxial (thinnet) and thick coaxial (thicknet).
● Triax cable: Coaxial cable with an additional outer copper braid.
● Twin axial cable (Twinax): Transmission cable with two center conductors surrounded by
insulating spacer and outer conductor.
● BNC connector: Bayonet NeilConcelman connector, commonly used with coaxial cables.

Optical Fibers:

● Long, thin strands of pure silicon glass or plastic.

● Consist of a core, cladding, and buffer coating.
● Fiber optic cables have at least two strands for sending and receiving signals.
● Common connectors: ST and SC connectors.
● Fiber optics transmit communication signals through modulated light beams.
Wireless:
● Telecommunications using electromagnetic waves.
● Various forms: microwave, satellites, cellular, etc.
● Fixed wireless for homes and offices without wires.
● Two types of wireless networks: peer-to-peer and access point.
● Transmission modes: infrared (IR) and radio frequency (RF).
● Wi-Fi: high-frequency WLAN technology for public access.

Electromagnetic Interference:
● Electrical current and equipment generate electromagnetic fields.
● Interference affects telecommunication signals.
● Telecommunication cables should be kept separate from power cables.
● Minimum distance requirements from power lines and lighting fixtures.
● Telecommunications cabling must be routed away from electrical equipment.

6.2 STRUCTURED BUILDING

Telecommunication Systems:
● -Refers to the systems used for transmitting and receiving telecommunication signals.
● - Involves wiring and cabling standards to ensure efficient and cost-effective
communication.

Wiring and Cabling Standards:

● - Standards created to define a structured cabling system that supports various
applications and equipment.
● - Initially controlled by electronics equipment manufacturers, leading to confusion and
high costs for end-users.
● - The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/TIA/EIA-568-1991 and subsequent
revisions provide guidelines for commercial building telecommunications wiring.
● - The goal is to support voice, imaging, and data applications chosen by end-users.

Telecommunication Cabling and Pathways:

● - The medium through which voice and data signals are transmitted between
telecommunication devices.
● - Common cabling media include UTP and STP copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fibers,
and wireless technology.
● - Pathways refer to passageways designed to hold and route cables between devices
and components.
● - Pathways can be raceways, channels, or troughs made of metallic or nonmetallic
materials.

Backbone:
 ● - Refers to the main pathway or cabling media that interconnects multiple
telecommunication devices.
● - Used to connect networks within a building or across separate buildings.
● - Typically utilizes fiber optic cables for high-speed and long-distance communication.
● - Drop cables are used to connect individual workstations to the backbone.

Structured Cabling Systems:

● - Includes cabling, devices, and equipment that integrate voice, data, video, and
electronic management systems in a building.
● - Adheres to national and international standards for design and installation.

Interbuilding Backbone:
● - The cabling and pathways outside the building that carry telecommunication services.
● - Includes cables for local exchange carrier (LEC) services, internet service provider
services, and private branch exchange (PBX) telecommunication cable.
● - Connects telecommunication services to the building.

Building Entrance Facilities:

● - Entrance point for public and private network service cables into the building.
● - Consists of cables, connecting hardware, protection devices, and equipment to connect
interbuilding backbone cabling to the building's backbone cabling.

Telecommunications Equipment Room:

● - A centralized space within a building to house main telecommunications equipment.
● - Provides a controlled environment for equipment, connecting hardware, splice
closures, grounding and bonding facilities, and protection apparatus.
● - Ideally located adjacent to or within the building entrance facilities for shared resources
and security.

Telecommunications Closet:
● - Dedicated rooms on each floor of a building housing intermediate voice and data
telecommunications equipment.
● - Located centrally to serve the work areas on the floor.
● - Junctions between backbone and horizontal pathways are made in the
telecommunications closet using patch panels and ports.

Backbone Pathway:
● - Connects the entrance facilities/equipment room to the telecommunications closets
within a building.
● - Allows interconnection of equipment and devices in different spaces.
● - Consists of backbone cables, mechanical terminations, and patch cords.
● - Utilizes various transmission media, such as UTP, STP, and optical fiber cables.

Horizontal Pathways:
 ● - Connects the backbone cabling in the telecommunications closet to terminal equipment
in work areas.
● - Examples include underfloor ducts, modular/cellular floors, underground trench ducts,
and raceways.
● - Often utilizes cable bundles suspended from J-hooks or cable trays in plenum ceilings.
● - Cabling extends from the telecommunications closet to the work area, typically using
UTP, STP, or optical cables.

Work Area:
● - Space containing workstation equipment and components.
● - Includes devices like telephones, computers, fax machines, and modems.
● - Work area wiring designed for easy interconnection and flexibility.
● - Telecommunications outlets and patch cables connect work area equipment to the
network.

6.3 ADVANCED WIRING SYSTEMS

Wireless Systems:
● - Utilizes wireless technology to transmit voice and data signals without physical cables.
● - Common wireless technologies include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks, and satellite
communications.
● - Wireless systems require appropriate antennas, transceivers, and network
infrastructure.

Power over Ethernet (PoE):

● - Technology that enables power and data transmission over the same Ethernet cable.
● - Simplifies installation and reduces cabling requirements.
● - Commonly used for devices like IP phones, wireless access points, and security
cameras.

Distributed Antenna Systems (DAS):

● - Network of antennas distributed throughout a building or area to provide improved
wireless coverage.
● - Utilized in large buildings, stadiums, airports, and other venues with high wireless
demand.
● - Enhances cellular and public safety communication by overcoming signal attenuation.

Audio-Visual Systems:
● - Systems designed for audio and video communication within a building or space.
● - Includes equipment like speakers, microphones, displays, projectors, and control
systems.
● - Utilizes structured cabling to transmit audio and video signals.

Security and Surveillance Systems:

 ● - Systems designed to monitor and protect a building or space.
● - Include cameras, access control systems, alarms, and sensors.
● - Utilize structured cabling and network infrastructure for data transmission and control.

Building Automation Systems:

● - Systems that integrate various functions within a building for efficient operation and
management.
● - Includes HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning), lighting, security, and
energy management systems.
● - Utilizes structured cabling and network infrastructure for communication and control.
Chapter 6
Sustainable Buildings
Sustainability – it is our ability to meet
current needs without harming the
environment, economic, and societal
systems on which future generations will
rely for meeting their needs.
Sustainable building, also known as a
green building – is a healthier and more
resource-efficient structure that is
designed, built, operated, renovated,
reused, and eventually dismantled/
demolished in a sustainable manner. It is
designed to meet specific goals such as
protecting occupant health;
improving employee productivity; using
energy, water, and other resources
efficiently; and reducing the overall impact
to the environment.
Cogeneration, also known as combined
heat and power (CHP) – is the use of a
heat engine (or other means) to
simultaneously generate both electricity
and heat. Its principal purpose is to
produce electricity but, as a by-product,
the heat produced is used for heating
water, space heating, or industrial process
heating.
Conventional Cogeneration
The basic elements of conventional
cogeneration system are:
1. Prime mover (engine)
2. Generator
3. Heat recovery system,
4. Exhaust system
5. Controls
6. Acoustic enclosure
Stirling engine — it is a closed-cycle,
piston-driven, external heat engine with a
gaseous working fluid that under cooling,
compression, heating, and expansion
drives a piston. The working fluid is
permanently sealed within the engine’s
system so that no gas enters or leaves the
engine.
Fuel cell —it is an electrochemical
conversion device that directly converts a
fuel into electrical energy. A
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell consumes
hydrogen and oxygen and produces water
as the principal by-product
Building cogeneration
or CHP systems — produce electrical
power for local buildings, and use the heat
from that production to also provide heat
to the buildings (often through
underground steam or hot water piping
systems).
Geothermal energy — it is thermal
energy generated and stored in the Earth.
Earth's geothermal energy originates
from the original formation of the planet,
from radioactive decay of minerals, from
volcanic activity, and from solar energy
absorbed at the surface.
—Geothermal power is cost effective,
reliable, sustainable, and environmentally
friendly, but has historically been limited to
areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Not
only a very small fraction may be profitably
exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep
resources is very expensive.
Direct Use of Geothermal Energy —
One method used to extract thermal
energy from the earth is referred to as
hydrothermal. Hydrothermal energy is
manifested in hot springs and geysers or
through dry steam.
Geothermal Heat Pump Systems— A
geothermal heat pump (GHP), also
known as a ground source heat pump
(GSHP), earth-coupled heat pump, or
geoexchange system, is an electrically
powered heat pump system that consists
of pipes buried in the shallow ground near
the building, a heat pump, and ductwork in
the building.
Geothermal Energy Systems
The fundamental components of a
geothermal heat pump system include
the following:
● Ground loop – it is a system of
fluid-filled plastic pipes buried in
the ground, or submersed in a
body of water, near the building.
● Heat pump – it is a device that
removes heat from the fluid in the
pipes, concentrates it, and
transfers it to the building as heat.
For cooling, this process is
reversed: heat is transferred from
the building; it is carried in the fluid
to the pipes, where it is transferred
into the earth.
● Air delivery system – it is
conventional ductwork attached to
the heat pump and used to
distribute heated or cooled air
throughout the building.
Biomass
Biomass – is the term used for all organic
material originating from plants (including
algae), trees and crops and is essentially
the collection and storage of the sun’s
energy through photosynthesis.
Biomass energy – is the conversion of
biomass into useful forms of energy such
as heat, electricity and liquid fuels.
Sources of Biomass
• Harvested timber from local forests
• Wood wastes from timber thinning (i.e.,
wood collected in forest fire mitigation
efforts)
• Residue from paper mills, woodworking
shops, and forest operations (e.g.,
sawdust, shavings, wood chips, and
recycled untreated wood)
• Agricultural and animal wastes (e.g.,
manure and litter)
• Food processing (e.g., nutshells, olive
pits)
• Garbage from paper, plant, or animal
products (e.g., food scraps, lawn
clippings, leaves, wood-based
construction debris), but not made out of
glass, plastic, and metals
• Intentionally grown energy crops (e.g.,
fast-growing native trees and grasses)
and agricultural crops
Types of Biomass Fuels
• Solid Fuels – include timber (logs) and
manufactured logs, wood pellets,
briquettes, and corn.
• Liquid Fuels – ethanol (alcohol that is
made from any biomass high in
carbohydrates typically corn, through a
fermenting process similar to brewing
beer), biodiesel (combination of methanol
with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled
cooking greases).
• Gaseous Fuels – methane gas
(combustible gas produced by the
anaerobic, or oxygen-free, digestion of
vegetable and/or animal wastes.)
Types of Biomass Technologies
• Direct combustion process – makes
use of a furnace or boiler to convert
biomass fuel into hot air, hot water, steam,
and electricity for commercial or industrial
uses.
• Anaerobic digestion – is a biochemical
process in which groups of bacteria,
working symbiotically, break down
complex organic wastes in animal manure
and food�processing residue to produce
biogas, mainly a methane and carbon
dioxide mix.
• Biomass gasification – is a
thermochemical process that converts
biomass into a combustible gas called
producer gas that contains carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, tar vapor, and ash
particles.
Types of Biomass Technologies
• Pyrolysis process – very small, low-
moisture particles of biomass fuel are
rapidly heated to temperatures in the
range of 450° to 550°C in the absence of
oxygen, resulting in liquid pyrolysis oil,
which can be used as a synthetic fuel
oil.
• Fermentation – is the biochemical
process that converts sugars
(predominantly from corn) into ethanol.
• Biodiesel production – is a chemical
conversion process that converts oilseed
crops into biodiesel fuel.
•Pyrolysis Process–very small, low
moisture particles of biomass fuel are
rapidly heated to temperatures in the
range of 450° to 550° C in the absence of
oxygen,resulting in liquid pyrolysis
oil,which can be used as a synthetic fuel
oil.
•Fermentation–is the biochemical
process that converts sugars
(predominantly from corn) into ethanol.
•Biodiesel production– is a chemical
conversion process that converts oilseed
crops into biodiesel fuel.
Photovoltaic
(Solar Electricity) Power
• Solar cell (also called a photovoltaic
cell) — is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a
form of photoelectric cell, defined as a
device whose electrical characteristics,
e.g. current, voltage, or resistance – vary
when exposed to light.
Photovoltaic Systems
• Photovoltaic (PV) system — collects
solar energy and converts it to electricity.
• Components of a basic PV System:
1. An array of solar cells that converts
sunlight into DC electricity
2. An inverter that changes DC electricity
into AC electricity
3. A connection to the utility grid for
additional power or a bank of batteries to
store collected electricity
Photovoltaic Systems
• Types of PV Systems:
1. Off-Grid PV Systems or autonomous
PV systems — they produce power
independently of the utility grid.
2. Grid-Connected PV System — they
interface with the utility grid.
Conducting A Power Load
Analysis
The first step in the process of
investigating a PV system for a home or
small business is to calculate the power
load. A thorough examination of electricity
needs of the building helps determine:
• The size of the system needed
• How energy needs fluctuate throughout
the day and over the year
• Measures that can be taken to reduce
electricity use and increase the efficiency
Wind Energy Systems
• Winds – are caused by the uneven
heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the
irregularities of the earth's surface, and
rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns
are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies
of water, and vegetative cover. This wind
flow, or motion energy, when "harvested"
by modern wind turbines, can be used to
generate electricity.
• Wind power – it is the conversion of
wind energy into a useful form of energy,
such as using wind turbines to make
electricity, windmills for mechanical power,
wind pumps for pumping water or
drainage, or sails to propel ships.
Wind Turbines
Two Types of Wind Turbines:
1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
– have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and must
be pointed into the wind.
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) –
have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. Vertical-axis wind machines
make up just five percent of the wind
machines used today. The typical vertical
wind machine stands 100 feet tall and 50
feet wide.
Wind Turbine Components
Conventional horizontal axis turbines
can be divided into three components:
• The rotor component, which is
approximately 20% of the wind turbine
cost, includes the blades for converting
wind energy to low speed rotational
energy.
• The generator component, which is
approximately 34% of the wind turbine
cost, includes the electrical generator, the
control electronics, and most likely a
gearbox, for converting the low speed
incoming rotation to high speed rotation
suitable for generating electricity.
• The structural support component,
which is approximately 15% of the wind
turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor
yaw mechanism.
The total power of the windstream is
given by:
Where:
PT = total power of the windstream, W
m = mass flow rate, kg/s
v = incoming velocity, m/s
ρ = density of air, kg/m^3
Coefficient of Performance – is defined
as the ratio of the power delivered by the
rotor P to the maximum power available
PT.
Betz’s Law
According to Betz's law, no turbine can
capture more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the
kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27
(0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient. This
was published by Albert Betz.
Tip Speed Ratio – is the ratio of the
speed of the tip of the rotor to the wind
speed v.
Hydropower Systems
• Hydroelectricity – is the term referring
to electricity generated by hydropower; the
production of electrical power through the
use of the gravitational force of falling or
flowing water.
• Hydro-power or water power – is K- or ogee-shaped configuration (a front
power derived from the energy of falling that looks like the letter K).
water and running water, which may be
harnessed for useful purposes.
• Small-scale hydropower systems –
generate up to 30 MW
• Micro hydropower systems – generate
up to 100 kW
• Pico hydropower systems – generate
up to 5 kW

• Rainwater can provide clean, safe, and

reliable water so long as the collection
system is properly constructed and
maintained, and the water is treated
appropriately for its intended use.
• Rainwater collection/harvesting
systems – intercept and collect
stormwater runoff and detain or retain it for
later use. Harvested water can be used for
toilet flushing, car washing, indoor plant
watering, pet and livestock watering
or washing, and lawn/garden irrigation.

Design of a Rainwater Harvesting

System
• Factors to be considered:
1. Water Consumption Rate – how much
water is needed and when
2. Amount of Rainfall
3. Rainwater Collected
4. Required Catchment Area
5. Cistern Size Cistern – it is a
waterproof receptacle for holding liquids,
usually water. Cisterns are often built to
catch and store
rainwater
6. Gutter/Downspout Size

Gutter/Downspout Size
• Rainwater captured in the catchment
area can be conveyed to the cistern
through gutters and downspouts. Most
gutters come in several sizes and shapes
called profiles. These include a U-shaped
trough (a half-round channel shape) and a