Putzmeister SPM4210 Wetkret - Electric Circuit Diagram

Putzmeister SPM4210 Wetkret -

Electric Circuit Diagram
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100 Bicarbonate of potassa
(crystallised).
31 Soda (anhydrous).
40 Hydrate of soda (pure
caustic soda).
53 Carbonate of soda
(anhydrous).
143 Carbonate of soda
(crystallised).
84 Bicarbonate of soda
(crystallised).
83 1⁄ 2 Sesquicarbonate of soda
(average commercial).
84 Bicarbonate of soda
(crystals, or cryst. powder, free
from moisture).
15 Lithia.
24 Hydrate of lithia.
37 Carbonate of lithia.
76 1⁄ 2 Baryta (pure, caustic).
85 1⁄ 2 Hydrate of baryta.
98 1⁄ 2 Carbonate of baryta.
28 Lime (pure, caustic; i. e.
quick-lime).
37 Hydrate of lime (slaked
lime).
50 Carbonate of lime (chalk;
marble).
20 Magnesia (pure, calcined).
42 Carbonate of magnesia
(dry, neutral).
48 1⁄ 2 Carbonate of magnesia
(ordinary commercial).
52 Stronia (pure, caustic).
61 Hydrate of strontia.
 74 Carbonate of strontia.

ALKALOID. Syn. Vegetable Alkali, Organic Base; Alkaloïdes (pl., -

IDES, or -IDÆ), L.; Alcaloïde, Alcali organique, Fr. In chemistry, a name
commonly given to any proximate principle of vegetable origin
possessing alkaline or basic properties, however feeble. In its most
extended sense the term embraces all organic bases, whether
obtained from the animal or vegetable kingdom, or produced
artificially. The alkaloids form a numerous and important class of
bodies. They exist in nature nearly always in the form of salts, the acid
being often, like themselves, peculiar to the plant, or class of plants, in
which they are found; whilst the medicinal activity of the latter, in
most cases, almost entirely depends on their presence.
Prep. The following general methods of procuring the alkaloids
will be found applicable to such as full directions are not given for
under their respective heads:—
1. (When the base is insoluble in water, non-volatile, and existing
in the plant in an insoluble form.) The bruised plant is boiled or
macerated in water acidulated with hydrochloric or acetic acid, and the
liquor, after filtration, is neutralised with an alkali (ammonia, potassa,
lime, or magnesia); the resulting precipitate is purified by re-solution
in dilute acid, digestion with a little animal charcoal, and subsequent
crystallisation, or re-precipitation with an alkali; or the first precipitate
is purified by dissolving it once, or, if necessary, several times, in
boiling alcohol, which yields the pure alkaloid either on cooling or by
evaporation.
2. (When the base is insoluble in water, and non-volatile, but
existing in the plant as a soluble salt.) The bruised or sliced plant is
boiled or macerated in water, and the filtered liquor precipitated and
otherwise treated as before.
3. (When the base is soluble in water, and non-volatile.) An
infusion made with very dilute acid, hydrochloric or acetic, is
concentrated by a gentle heat; and the residual liquor treated with
potassa (or concentrated solution of ammonia) and ether conjointly;
after repose, the ethereal solution is decanted and evaporated. For
those alkaloids which are insoluble in ether (as morphia and
cinchonia), the previous process may be adopted.
4. (When the base is both soluble in water and volatile.) The
vegetable, in a bruised or divided state, or its extract, is alkalised with
potassa and distilled; the distillate is neutralised with dilute oxalic or
sulphuric acid, and carefully evaporated to dryness; the residuum is
next digested in alcohol, and the resulting tincture agitated with
potassa and ether, the former being in quantity just sufficient to seize
on all the acid; lastly, the ethereal solution thus formed, on careful
evaporation, leaves the alkaloid nearly pure. It may be further purified
by cautious distillation.
As some of the alkaloids are soluble in excess of the alkaline
precipitant, over-saturation should be carefully avoided; or the
precipitant may be used under the form of carbonate or bicarbonate.
When lime and magnesia are employed, they are boiled for a few
minutes with the solution.
Props. Alcoholic or aqueous solutions of the alkaloids generally
exhibit an alkaline reaction with vegetable colours. Like the alkalies,
also, they combine with acids to form salts which, when dissolved in
water, are capable of producing the ordinary phenomena of saline
double decomposition. Their taste is usually intensely bitter.
The majority of the natural alkaloids contain carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen, and are, at ordinary temperatures, solid, and
not volatile without decomposition. Some natural alkaloids contain
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen only; these are, for the most part,
liquid at ordinary temperatures, and can be distilled without
decomposition. The greater number of the artificial alkalies are
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen; some, however, contain
oxygen in addition. Alkaloids have also been obtained artificially, in
which nitrogen is replaced by phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or
bismuth. Most of the alkaloids, as they are obtained in the free state,
correspond in function to ammonia, NH 3, rather than to the fixed
alkalies; that is to say, they form salts by direct union with acids,
without elimination of water or any other substance. In order to make
them strictly comparable to the fixed alkalies, they require, like
ammonia, the addition of water (H 2O) to their formulæ; they may
then be considered as hydrates of compound radicles analogous to
ammonium.
Physiological action. The alkaloids generally possess great
medicinal power; some of them act with terrific energy, and are the
most violent poisons with which we are acquainted. Perfectly pure
aconitia is about 200 times more poisonous than arsenic, and at least
50 times more poisonous than ordinary medicinal prussic acid. The
greater number act on animals in the same way as the plants which
produce them, provided they are given in proportionately small doses.
Many of them, when judiciously administered, are most valuable
medicines.
Pois., Ant., &c. Some of the alkaloids act as narcotic or stupefying
poisons; others are classed with the narcotico-acrid poisons, or those
which produce both narcotism and irritation of the parts they touch.
The general symptoms produced by opium and its preparations may
be taken as an example of the former; those from aconite and
strychnia, of the latter. In large doses of the greater number,
narcotism predominates; in smaller ones, irritation; they are rarely
coexistent.—Treatm. No common antidote to the effects of this class of
substances has yet been discovered. The only safe treatment, of at all
general application, is to immediately clear the stomach by means of a
strong and quick-acting emetic (as sulphate of zinc), or the stomach-
pump, and to administer copious and continued draughts of astringent
vegetable solutions (as of tannin, nut-galls, oak-bark, or what is
always at hand—very strong tea or coffee). These may be followed by
or combined with a smart purge of castor oil, as soon as the stomach
is thoroughly cleared of the poison. M. Bouchardat strongly
recommends a solution of iodine, 3 gr., and iodide of potassium, 6 gr.,
in pure water, 16 fl. oz., in cases of poisoning by OPIUM, ACONITE,
COLCHICUM, DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, HEMLOCK, NUX VOMICA, &c., or by the
alkaloids obtained from them—ACONITINE, ATROPIA, COLCHICINA, CONIA,
MORPHIA, STRYCHNIA, &c., or their salts; but not where foxglove or
digitalin has been taken. The stomach having been well emptied by an
emetic, the solution is to be given by wine-glassfuls for some time; the
vomiting being still encouraged during the early part of the
administration of the antidote. In the case of narcotics (as opium,
morphia, &c.), this is to be followed by the free use of a strong
infusion of coffee. According to Dr Garrod, purified animal charcoal is
an ‘excellent antidote’ to many of the alkaloids, including those above
enumerated, when taken in poisonous doses; as it not merely absorbs
them, but, for the most part, renders them inert. To be serviceable it
should be recently prepared and fresh-burnt; and should be given in
doses of about an ounce at a time, diffused in warm or tepid water,
and frequently repeated. The vomiting which follows its use, owing to
the warm water, proves advantageous; but after a sufficient time may
be lessened by employing less water, or cooler or even cold water.
Drowsiness, if present, may be combated by the subsequent use of
strong coffee or tea, as before. We have seen this plan succeed in
several cases.—Lesions. These, like the symptoms, vary. In some
cases there are redness and inflammation of the stomach and
intestines, and turgescence of the vessels of the lungs and brain; in
others, these appearances are either slight or wholly wanting.
Wherever there has been much cerebral disturbance, traces of
congestion are usually discernible.
Detec., Tests, &c. The identification of the pure alkaloids is
extremely simple; but their detection, when combined with organic
and colouring matters, is a task of considerable difficulty. One or other
of the following plans may be adopted for this purpose:—
1. (Merck.) The matter under examination is digested, for several
hours, with concentrated acetic acid, added in sufficient quantity to
produce a strongly acid reaction; the fluid portion is then strained from
the insoluble matter, and the latter being washed with water
acidulated with acetic acid, the mixed liquors are gently evaporated to
dryness in a water bath; the residuum of the evaporation is boiled first
with rectified spirit, and next with rectified spirit acidulated with acetic
acid; the mixed liquors are again evaporated, the residuum redissolved
or diluted with distilled water, and carbonate of soda or potassa added
to feebly alkaline reaction, and the whole, after evaporation to the
consistence of a syrup, set aside to repose for 24 hours; it is now
again diluted with water, filtered, and the insoluble portion washed
with cold distilled water, and digested with concentrated acetic acid;
this last solution is diluted with distilled water, and decoloured with
pure blood-charcoal (if it be necessary); the fluid, either at once, or
after cautious evaporation, may then be tested for the alkaloids, in the
usual manner. The charcoal previously used should also be tested in
the way described below. This method answers admirably with all the
NON-VOLATILE ALKALOIDS, and may be applied to the stomach and viscera,
and their contents, and to food, &c., in cases of poisoning.
2. (Stas.) The suspected matter, in a finely divided state, is
digested, at 160° to 165° Fahr., with twice or thrice its weight of
strong alcohol acidulated (according to the quantity) with 1⁄ 2 dr. to 2
or 3 dr., or more, of pure oxalic or tartaric acid. After a sufficient time,
and when the whole has become quite cold, it is thrown on a filter,
and the undissolved portion, after being squeezed dry, is washed with
strong alcohol. The mixed and filtered alcoholic liquids are then
evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 95° Fahr., and, if no
insoluble matter separates, the evaporation is continued nearly to
dryness;[19] but if fatty or other insoluble matter separates during the
process of concentration, the concentrated fluid is passed through a
moistened filter, and the filtrate evaporated nearly to dryness, as
before. The residuum is next digested with absolute alcohol, in the
cold, the insoluble portion, after filtration, washed with alcohol, and
the mixed filtrates again evaporated in the air, or in vacuo. The acid
residue is now dissolved in a little distilled water, and bicarbonate of
soda added as long as effervescence ensues. To this mixture 4 or 5
times its volume of ether is added, and after lengthened agitation (the
bottle or tube being held in a cold wet cloth), the whole is allowed to
repose for a short time. A little of the supernatant ether is now
removed to a small glass capsule or watch-glass, and allowed to
evaporate spontaneously.[19] When this leaves oily streaks upon the
glass, which gradually collect into a small drop, which emits, when
gently heated, a disagreeable, pungent, and stifling odour, the
presence of a LIQUID VOLATILE BASE or ALKALOID is inferred; whilst a solid
residue or a turbid fluid with small solid particles floating in it,
indicates a NON-VOLATILE SOLID BASE.[20] In either case the blue colour of
reddened litmus is permanently restored by the residuum. If no
residuum is left on the capsule, some solution of pure soda or potassa
is added to the liquid, the whole well agitated for several minutes, and
the ether (after repose) decanted; an operation which is repeated with
fresh ether a second, third, and even a fourth time. The base, or
bases (if any are present), will now be found in the mixed ethereal
solution, which is, therefore, tested as before. The presence of an
alkaloid being detected, the mixed ethereal solutions are allowed to
evaporate spontaneously, care being taken, if a volatile alkaloid be
present, to neutralise the liquid with an acid before the final
evaporation. The last residuum is then tested for the particular alkaloid
present, as before.[21]
[19] The evaporation, according to Stas, should be conducted under a bell-
glass over sulphuric acid, with or without rarefaction of the air; or in a
tubular retort through which a current of air is made to pass.
[20] A merely disagreeable animal odour, without pungency, is here
disregarded.
[21] ‘Bulletin de l’Académie de Méd. Belgique,’ ix, 304; ‘Jahrb. f. prakt.
Pharm,’ xxiv, 313; &c.

This method, according to Stas, answers well for all the ALKALOIDS
which are soluble in ether; including—ACONITIA, ANILINE, ATROPIA, BRUCIA,
CODEIA, COLCHICINA, CONIA, DELPHIA, EMETINA, HYOSCYAMINE, MORPHIA (?),
NICOTIA, PETININE, PICOLINE, SOLANINE, STRYCHNIA, VERATRIA, &c. By means of
it Stas found nicotia in the heart-blood of a poisoned dog. With such
alkaloids as are, however, only very sparingly soluble in ether (as
morphia for instance), the result must, necessarily, be doubtful. To
detect these, as well as all the alkaloids which are insoluble in ether, it
is, therefore, necessary, as directed by Otto, to add to the alkaline
fluid left by the decantation of the ether, sufficient solution of soda to
dissolve the morphia, &c. (if any has separated), and after the
expulsion of the last traces of the ether by a gentle heat, to add a
concentrated solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and to allow the
mixture to repose for some time in the open air. When MORPHIA is
present, it separates under the form of small crystals.[22] Or the
alkaline liquor may be diluted with distilled water, and treated with
charcoal, and this with alcohol, in the manner noticed under method 4
(below).
[22] Otto’s ‘How to Detect Poisons.’

4. (Graham and Hoffmann—slightly modified.) 2 or 3 oz. of

purified animal charcoal are digested in about 1⁄ 2 gal. of the (neutral
or only slightly acid) aqueous fluid under examination, with frequent
agitation, for 10 to 12 hours, or longer. The liquid is then filtered, and
the charcoal left on the filter is washed twice with cold distilled water.
The charcoal is then boiled for 1⁄ 2 an hour with about 1⁄ 2 a pint of
rectified spirit of 80 or 90%; the ebullition being conducted in a flask
having a very long tube, open at both ends, fitted air-tight through the
cork, to prevent loss of the alcohol by evaporation. The spirit, which
now contains the alkaloid (if any was present in the original liquor), is
next filtered whilst hot, and the filtrate is submitted to distillation until
the whole of the alcohol is removed. A small quantity (commonly a
few drops) of solutions of potassa is then added to the residual
aqueous liquor, followed by 1 to 2 fl. oz. of pure ether, after which the
whole is well agitated for several minutes, and allowed to repose for a
short time. Lastly, the supernatant ether is decanted, and allowed to
evaporate spontaneously, when the residuum (if any) left in the
capsule may be tested by reagents, as before.
This method was devised for the detection of STRYCHNIA and NUX
VOMICA in malt-liquors; but it is equally applicable to the detection of
ANY ALKALOID which is soluble in ether. The CHARCOAL TEST may also be
employed to detect alkaloids which are insoluble in ether; but then the
base must be sought in the aqueous residuum obtained by the
evaporation of the alcohol.[23]
[23] ‘Journ. of the Chem. Soc.,’ v, 173.

The presence of the alkaloids and their salts, in clear solutions,

may be thus determined:—
I. (Fresenius).—1. The solution is rendered very slightly alkaline
with dilute solution of potassa or soda, added drop by drop:—
 a. No precipitate is formed; total absence of the alkaloids. (See
4, below.)
b. A precipitate is formed:—solution of potassa or soda is
added, drop by drop, until the liquid exhibits a strong alkaline
reaction:—
α. The precipitate redissolves; absence of Brucia, Cinchonia,
Narcotina, Quina, Strychnia, and Veratria; probable presence of
Morphia.
β. Precipitate does not redissolve, or not completely;
probable presence of one or more of the first six of the above-
named alkaloids:—the fluid is filtered from the precipitate, mixed
with either bicarbonate of soda or of potassa, gently boiled nearly
to dryness, and treated with water. If it dissolves completely;
absence of morphia; an insoluble residue indicates Morphia.
2. The precipitate 1. b. β. is washed with cold distilled water,
dissolved in a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with a
saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, and allowed to repose a few
hours:[24]—
[24] Before setting the glass aside the liquor should be well mixed, and the
glass stirrer vigorously rubbed against the sides of the vessel.

a. No precipitate; absence of Cinchonia, Narcotina, and Quina:

—the solution is gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and treated
with cold water:—if it dissolves completely, pass on to 4; if there is
an insoluble residue, it may contain Brucia, Strychnia, or Veratria.
(See 3.)
b. A precipitate:—the filtered fluid is treated as directed at 2 a.;
the precipitate is washed with cold distilled water, dissolved in a little
hydrochloric acid, ammonia is added in excess, and subsequently a
sufficient quantity of ether, agitation being had recourse to:—
α. The precipitate formed by the ammonia redissolves
completely in the ether, and the clear fluid separates into two
 layers; absence of Cinchonia; probable presence of Quina or
Narcotina.
β. The precipitate produced by the ammonia does not
redissolve in the ether, or not completely; probable presence of
Cinchonia, and perhaps also of Quina or Narcotina. The filtered
liquid may be tested for these alkaloids as at a.
3. The insoluble residuum after the evaporation of the solution 2.
a., or of the filtrate 2. b., is now dried in a water bath, and digested
with absolute alcohol:—
a. It dissolves completely; absence of strychnia; probable
presence of Brucia, Quina (?), or Veratria:—the alcoholic solution is
evaporated to dryness, and, if quina has been already detected, the
residue is divided into two portions, one of which is tested for
Brucia, the other for Veratria.
b. It does not dissolve, or not completely; probable presence of
Strychnia, and perhaps also of Brucia and Veratria:—the filtered fluid
is divided into two portions, and tested separately as at a.
4. The original liquid 1. a. may contain Salicine, a proximate
vegetable principle closely allied to the alkaloids:—a portion is boiled
with hydrochloric acid for some time; the formation of a precipitate
shows the presence of Salicin. (See 2, below.)[25]
[25] For further information on this subject, see the admirable ‘System of
Qual. Chem. Anal.,’ by Dr C. R. Fresenius. Churchill.

II. (Larocque and Thibierge.) Terchloride of gold is recommended,

by these writers, as a more decisive test for the alkaloids than the
‘double chloride of gold and sodium’ commonly employed for this
purpose. The following are the colours of the precipitates which it
produces with the aqueous solution of their salts:—Brucia, milk-brown,
passing into coffee-brown, and lastly chocolate-brown:—CINCHONIA,
sulphur yellow:—MORPHIA, yellow, then bluish, and lastly violet; in this
last state the gold is reduced, and the precipitate is insoluble in water,
alcohol, the caustic alkalies, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric
acid; it forms with aqua regia a solution which is precipitated by
protosulphate of iron:—QUINA, buff-coloured:—STRYCHNIA, canary-yellow:
—VERATRIA, pale greenish-yellow. All these precipitates, with the
exception mentioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether,
and only slightly soluble in water. Those with morphia and brucia are
sufficiently marked to prevent these alkalies from being mistaken for
each other; and those with brucia and strychnia are, in like manner,
easily distinguishable.
III.—Mr Wanklyn discriminates the different alkaloids from the
estimation of the ammonia they evolve. His process is as follows:—A
small flask with a lateral tube, and connected with a Liebig’s
condenser, is charged with about 25 c. c. of an alkaline solution of
permanganate potash made by dissolving 200 grammes of caustic
potash and 8 grammes of crystallised permanganate of potash in 1
litre of water. A minute quantity of the alkaloid carefully and accurately
weighed is now introduced, and the mixture slowly distilled. The most
satisfactory results are obtained by treating from 1 to 5 milligrammes
of the alkaloid in this way, but quantities so small as 1⁄ 10th of a
milligram will in skilled hands give accurate results. The ammonia is
formed in the distillate by Nesslerising it, as described under Water
analysis. For all practical purposes the poisonous alkaloids may be
divided into four classes:
(a) Those which yield from 5 to 2 per cent. of ammonia.
(b) Those which yield from 2 to 3 per cent. of ammonia.
(c) Those which yield from 3 to 5 per cent. of ammonia.
(d) Those which yield a larger quantity than 5 per cent., e.g.

I.
NH 3 per cent.
Solanine yields half its nitrogen as Ammonia 0·98
II.
Morphia yields half its nitrogen as Ammonia 2·98
 Codeine, ditto, ditto 2·87
Papaverine, ditto, ditto 2·50
Veratria, ditto, ditto 2·87
III.
Atropia yields all its nitrogen as Ammonia 5·73
Narcotine, ditto, ditto 4·11
Strychnia yields half its nitrogen as Ammonia 5·09
Brucine, ditto, ditto 4·32
Aconite, ditto, ditto 3·50
Coneine, ditto, ditto 4·60
IV.
Nicotine yields half its nitrogen as Ammonia 10·49

IV. Dr Guy, as well as others, have made researches, having for

their object the determination of the exact temperature at which the
poisonous alkaloids melt and sublime. A very minute speck of the
substance is placed on a porcelain plate or copper disc, and a square
or oval of microscope-covering glass is placed over it, supported by a
thin ring of glass or any other convenient substance.
Heat is then applied to the plate or copper, and the temperature,
as indicated by a thermometer at which the substance fuses or
volatilises, is carefully noted.

Fahr. Cent.
Cantharidine sublimes as a white vapour without change of
212° 100°
form or colour.
Sublime. Melt.
Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent.
Morphine Sublime, melt and yield carbonaceous 330° 165° 340° 171°
Strychnine residue. 345° 174° 430° 224°
Melt. Sublime.
Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent.
Aconitine 140° 60° 400° 204°
Atropine 150° 66° 280° 138°
Veratrine 200° 93° 360° 182°
Melt, change colour, sublime, and
Brucine 240° 116° 400° 204°
deposit carbon.
Digitalin 310° 154° 310° 154°
Picrotoxin 320° 160° 320° 160°
Solanine 420° 215° 420° 216°

Selmi’s method of extracting poisonous alkaloids in forensic

investigations. The alcoholic extract of the viscera, acidified and
filtered, is evaporated at 65° C., the residue taken up with water,
filtered to separate fatty matters, and decoloured by means of basic
acetate of lead, leaving the solution in contact with the air for 24
hours. It is then filtered, the lead precipitated by means of
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the solution after concentration repeatedly
extracted with ether. The ethereal solution is then saturated with dry
carbonic anhydride, which generally causes a precipitate of minute
drops adhering to the sides of the vessel, and containing some of the
alkaloids. The ethereal solution is then poured into a clean vessel,
mixed with about half its volume of water, and a current of carbonic
anhydride passed for about twenty minutes, which may cause the
precipitation of other alkaloids not precipitated by dry carbonic
anhydride. Usually the whole of the alkaloids present in the ether are
thrown down by these means, but if not, the solution is dehydrated by
agitation with Barium oxide, and then a solution of tartaric acid in
ether added to the clear liquid, taking great care not to employ excess
of acid. This throws down any alkaloid that may remain. In order to
extract any alkaloids that may still remain in the viscera, they are
mixed with Barium hydrate and a little water, and then agitated with
purified amylic alcohol; the alkaloids may subsequently be extracted
from the alcohol by agitation with very dilute sulphuric acid.
A knowledge of the different solubilities of the alkaloids will be
found an important auxiliary in their analysis. The following is a
summary of the relative solubility of the most important of them. The
figures denote the number of parts of the liquid required for their
solution:—
Absolute alcohol.—Strychnine insoluble; brucine soluble.
Amylic alcohol.—Solanine (1061); digitalin sparingly soluble;
morphine (133); strychnine (122); veratrine, brucine, atropine,
aconitine, and picrotoxin, freely soluble.
Benzol.—All the poisonous alkaloids, except solanine, are soluble
in benzol.
Chloroform.—Solanine (50,000); morphine (6550); strychnine (8);
the rest freely soluble.
Ether.—Solanine (9000); morphine (7725); strychnine (1400);
aconitine (777); brucine (440); veratrine (108); atropine, picrotoxin,
[26]
and digitalin, very soluble.
[26] Digitalin and picrotoxin, although not alkaloids, are inserted in the
above list, because they have a general similarity in chemical properties to
them; and for the convenience of the toxicologist.

Water (cold).—Strychnine (8333); veratrine (7860); morphine

(4166); aconitine (1783); solanine (1750); brucine (900); atropine
(414); picrotoxin (150); digitalin very soluble.
The principal Alkaloids and their Salts, in the state of powder, or
with ‘conia’ and ‘nicotia,’ in the state of an oily looking liquid, may be
thus distinguished:—
1. a. The powder is treated with nitric acid:—It is coloured red;
probable presence of Brucia, Delphia, Morphia, or commercial
Strychnia. If the reddened acid becomes violet on the addition of
‘protochloride of tin,’ it is Brucia; if it becomes black and carbonaceous,
it is Delphia. If the powder is fusible without decomposition, and
strongly decomposes iodic acid, it is Morphia; if it is not fusible without
decomposition, and does not decompose iodic acid, it is Strychnia.
b. If instead of a red, the powder strikes a green colour with nitric
acid, it is Solania; if it is insoluble in ‘ether,’ and not reddened by ‘nitric
acid,’ it is Emetia; if soluble in ether, not reddened by ‘nitric acid,’ but
melts and volatilises when heated, it is Atropia; if it is thus affected by
ether or nitric acid, but does not volatilise, it is Veratria. (See 2,
below.)
2. a. The powder, or (with ‘conia and nicotia’) concentrated liquor,
is treated with a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid:—A red
colour is produced; probable presence of Brucia, Nicotina, Salicine, or
Veratria. If the reddened mixture has at first a roseate hue, turning
deep red on the addition of nitric acid, it is Brucia; if the original
substance moistened with solution of potassa evolves the odour of
tobacco, it contains Nicotine; if the red colour produced by the acid is
permanent and of an intense blood-hue, and the powder agglutinates
into lumps like resin, it is Salicine; if the colour is at first yellowish,
changing to blood-red, and ultimately to crimson and violet, it is
Veratria.
b. If instead of the substance being ‘reddened’ by strong sulphuric
acid, no particular action ensues in the cold, it contains either Conia or
Strychnia; if a small fragment of bichromate of potassa being now
dropped in, produces a rich violet colour, it is Strychnia; if the original
matter on being heated, or treated with solution of potassa, evolves a
penetrating, disagreeable odour, somewhat analogous to that from
‘hemlock,’ or to a mixture of those from tobacco and mice, it is Conia.
“Reactions with ceroso-ceric oxide. This oxide exhibits
characteristic colours with several alkaloids, especially with STRYCHNINE.
When strong sulphuric acid is poured upon strychnine, and then a
small quantity of ceroso-ceric oxide added, a fine blue colour is
produced, similar to that which strychnine exhibits with potassium
bichromate, but much more permanent. The blue colour gradually
changes to cherry-red, and then remains unaltered for several days.
This reaction is capable of detecting one part of strychnine in a million
parts of liquid. Brucine similarly treated acquires an orange-colour,
gradually changing to yellow; MORPHINE, olive-brown, finally brown;
NARCOTINE, brown cherry red, finally wine-red; CODEINE, olive-green,
finally brown; QUININE, pale-yellow; CINCHONINE and THEINE remain
colourless; VERATRINE becomes reddish-brown; ATROPINE, dingy
yellowish-brown; SOLANINE, yellow at first, finally brownish; EMETINE,
brown; COLCHICINE, first green, then dirty brown; ANILINE, after a long
time, acquires a blue colour extending from the edges inwards; CONINE
becomes light-yellow. Piperine colours the sulphuric acid blood-red, and
is turned dark-brown, almost black by the cerium oxide”
(Sonnenschein).
“Reactions with picric acid. This acid is a very good precipitant for
alkaloids, affording a very delicate test for many of them, and may
perhaps also serve for separating them one from another. The
precipitation takes place even in solutions containing a large excess of
sulphuric acid, and is sometimes complete. Precipitated are, BRUCINE,
STRYCHNINE, VERATRINE, QUINIDINE, CINCHONINE, and most of the opium
alkaloids; not precipitated, MORPHINE, ATROPINE (English), PSEUDO-
MORPHINE, CAFFEINE, and all glucosides” (Hager).

The presence of one or more of the alkaloids being shown by any

of the preceding methods, a portion of the original clear solution or
powder, or of the precipitates or filtrates above referred to, must be
treated with their characteristic tests, as given under the individual
notices of these articles, so as to set at rest all doubt as to their
identity. No single test must ever be relied on as a positive proof. The
presence of Brucia, Morphia and Strychnia may be determined in
substances which after being mixed with the salts of these alkaloids
have undergone the acetous, vinous, or putrefactive fermentation, as
shown by Orfila, MM. Larocque and Thibierge, and many other
eminent chemists and toxicologists, and confirmed, in numerous
cases, by our own experiments. Opium and morphia may thus be
readily detected in beer, wine, soup, and milk. A paper by Professor
Dragendorf in the ‘American Chemist’ for April, 1876, may be consulted
with advantage.
Concluding Remarks. It is a singular fact that none of the organic
bases found in plants have yet been formed artificially, although
several analogous substances have been thus produced. Closely allied
to the alkaloids there also exists an extensive series of neutral
proximate principles, which differ from those substances chiefly in the
absence of basic properties, and in most of them being destitute of
nitrogen. They are usually bitter, and, like the alkaloids, generally
represent the active properties of the plants in which they are found;
whilst some of them possess considerable medicinal energy. Of this
kind are asparagin, elaterin, gentianin, picrotoxin, salicin, &c. These
two classes of bodies, though actually distinct, are frequently
confounded. See Alkali, Organic Bases, Poisons, Proximate Principles,
Vegetables, Nomenclature, &c.; also the individual alkaloids under their
respective heads.
ALKALOIDS OF ACONITE. The nature of the active principle of
aconite root does not appear to have been satisfactorily determined.
Messrs Groves, Wright, and Williams contend that the Aconitum
napellus yields an active crystalline alkaloid, which they distinguish as
Aconitine, and to which they assign the formula C 33H 43NO 12; they add
that additionally the root contains more or less of another active
alkaloid, which they term Pseudaconitine, and which is represented by
the formula C 36H 49NO 11; they also assert that the extract of the roots
contains varying quantities of certain decomposition products resulting
from the saponification of the above bases by the acids, which are
produced by the breaking up of part of the aconitine. The name of
these decomposition products is Aconine and Pseudaconine. Of
Aconitum ferox they report that it yields a comparatively large quantity
of Pseudaconitine and a small quantity of Aconitine. They further
affirm that the so-called aconitine of commerce is a mixture of true
aconitine and pseudaconitine with variable quantities of their alteration
products, aconine and pseudaconine, and of certain amorphous
unnamed alkaloids.
Messrs Paul and Kingzett contest the accuracy of these
deductions, and dispute the correctness of the formula given to
aconitine. Dr Paul doubts whether the alkaloid to which the active
properties of the root are ascribed has ever yet been obtained in an
isolated condition. He thinks it probable that the substance obtained
from aconite root was to a great extent a salt of an acid, like aconitic
acid. For further information the reader is referred to the
‘Pharmaceutical Year Book’ for 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and 1877.
 AL′KANET. Syn. Anchu′sa, L.; Orcanette, Fr.; Orkanet, Ger.;
Or′chanet*, Dyer’s al′kanet, D. bu′gloss*. The anchu′sa tincto′′ria (Willd.;
lithosper′mum tincto′′rium—Linn.), a deciduous herbaceous plant, with
a perennial, dark blood-red root. Hab. Asia Minor, Greece, Hungary,
&c. It is also largely cultivated in the neighbourhood of Montpellier.
The dried root (ALKANET ROOT; RADIX ANCHUSÆ, R. A. TINCTORIÆ) is chiefly
imported from the Levant. It contains a beautiful blood-red colour,
which it freely gives out to oils, fats, wax, spirits, essences, and similar
substances, by simply infusing it in them, and is consequently much
employed to colour these articles. Wax tinged with it, and applied on
warm marble, stains it of a rich flesh-colour, which sinks deep into the
stone, and possesses considerable durability. Its spirituous tincture
also imparts a deep red to marble.
Prop., &c. The colouring matter of alkanet was regarded by
Pelletier as a fatty acid (ANCHUSIC ACID); but it has since been shown to
be a species of resin (ANCHUSINE, PSEUDO-ALKANNINE, P.-ALKANIUM).
According to Dr John, good alkanet root contains 5 1⁄ 2 per cent. of this
substance. Anchusine melts at 140° Fahr.; is scarcely soluble in water,
to which it only imparts a dirty red colour, but is very soluble in
alcohol, oils, and acetic acid. Alkalies turn it blue. It is found wholly in
the root-bark. In selecting this article, the smaller roots should
therefore be chosen, as they possess more bark than the larger ones,
in proportion to their weight. Exposure to ammoniacal fumes, or even
handling it much with the fingers, changes its red to a crimson or
purplish hue.
Uses, &c. It is much employed by druggists and perfumers to
colour oils, lip-salves, plasters, pomatums, &c.; by varnish-makers, to
tinge their varnishes and lacquers; by statuaries to stain marble; by
dairy-farmers, to colour cheese; by wine-merchants and bottlers (in
the form of tincture), to stain beforehand the corks of their port-wine
bottles, in order to imitate the effects of age, and as colouring and
flavouring for factitious port wine; and by dyers, and others. A species
of crimson rouge was formerly prepared from it (hence its name).
ALLANTO′IC ACID. See Allantoin.
 ALLAN′TOIN. C 8H 6O 6N 4. Syn. Allanto′ic acid*, Amniot′ic a. †
Am′nic a. † ; Allantoï′na, L. A substance discovered by Vauquelin and
Buniva in what they imagined to be the liquor amnii of the cow, and
hence named by them amniotic acid. It was afterwards shown by
Dzondi and Lassaigne to exist in the fluid of the allantoïs, and not of
the amnios. It has since been produced artificially by Wöhler and
Liebig.
Prep. 1. The allantoïc fluid of the fœtal calf is evaporated to 1-4th
or 1-5th of its volume, and then set aside for some time. The crystals
thus obtained are purified by re-solution, digestion with animal
charcoal, and re-crystallisation.
2. (Wöhler and Liebig.) Uric acid, 1 part; is dissolved in water, 20
parts; and freshly precipitated and well-washed binoxide of lead is
added to the solution until the colour ceases to change; the liquid is
next filtered while hot, evaporated until a pellicle forms on the surface,
and then set aside to crystallise; the crystals being purified as before.
Prop., &c. Small, but very brilliant prismatic, transparent,
colourless crystals; tasteless; neutral; soluble in 160 parts of cold
water, and in much less at 212°; nitric acid converts it into ALLANTURIC
ACID; oil of vitriol resolves it into ammonia, carbonic acid, and carbonic
oxide; hot concentrated solutions of the caustic alkalies change it into
ammonia and oxalic acid.
ALLANTOX′ICUM. [L.] Syn. Allantox′icum, L. (prim., Gr.). The
poison developed, during putrefaction, in sausages made of blood,
liver, &c. “It often proves speedily fatal.” (Kraus.)
ALLGEMEINE FLUSSTINCTUR (Sulzberger, Salzungen). For the
relief of a number of diseases, among which are cholera and sea-
sickness. Aloes, 1 part; spirit of wine, 2 parts. (Spau.)
ALLIA′CEOUS (-sh′us). Syn. Allia′ceus, L.; Alliacé, Ailiacé, Fr.;
Knoblauchartig, &c., Ger. Garlick-like; an epithet applied to substances
having the odour or properties of garlic or onions.
 Alliaceous Plants. Chives, garlic, leeks, onions, rocambole,
shallots, &c.
ALLIGA′TION. Syn. Alliga′tio, L. In commercial arithmetic, a rule
for ascertaining the price or value of mixtures, and for determining the
proportions of the ingredients that must be taken to produce mixtures
of any given price, value, or strength. The first is called ALLIGATION
ME′DIAL; the second, ALLIGATION ALTERN′ATE. Its principles and applications
are explained under Mixtures (Arithmetic of).
ALLOP′ATHY. Syn. Allopa′thia, L. (from ἁλλος, other, different,
and παθος, affection or disease, Gr.); Allopathie, Fr. In medicine, the
method of curing disease by the use of remedies which tend to
produce a condition of the system, either differing from, opposed to,
or incompatible with the condition believed to be essential to the
disease it is sought to cure. It is commonly employed to distinguish
the ordinary system of medical practice from homœopathy (which
see). Hence (an) ALLOP′ATHIST, and the corresponding adjective
ALLOPATH′IC (allopath′icus, L.).

ALLOT′ROPY. Syn. Allot′ropism; Allotro′pia, Allotropis′mus, L.

Literally, a difference in character; another form of the same
substance. In chemistry, a term invented, by Berzelius, to express the
state or condition, or the change of character, assumed by certain
substances at different temperatures, or under different treatment,
whilst their nature and composition continue the same. It more
particularly relates to colour, hardness, solubility, texture, &c. Boron,
carbon, silicon, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus, afford striking examples
of the changes here referred to.
ALLOX′ANTIN. C 8H 4N 4O 7.3H 2O. A crystallisable substance, first
obtained by Dr Prout from uric acid.
Prep. 1. Uric acid, 1 part; is boiled in water, 32 parts; dilute nitric
acid being added until solution is complete; the resulting liquid is
evaporated to 2⁄ 3rds its volume, and then set aside for 10 or 12
hours; the crystals, which are deposited, are purified by re-solution
and crystallisation.