Nineteenth century and after

1. INTRODUCTION

During the 19th century Britain was transformed by the industrial revolution. In 1801,
at the time of the first census, only about 20% of the population lived in cities. By
1851 the figure had risen to over 50%. By 1881 about two thirds of the population
lived in cities. Furthermore in 1801 most of the population still worked in agriculture
or related industries. Most goods were made by hand and many craftsmen worked
on their own with perhaps a labourer and an apprentice. By the late 19th century
factories were common.

2. Influences Affecting the Language

The events of the 19th century and of the early twenty affecting the English-speaking
countries were of great political and social importance. The great reform measures
reorganization of parliament, the revision of the panel code (punishment of offences)
and the poor laws. The restrictions placed on child labour, and the other industrial
reforms were important factors in establishing English society on a more democratic
level. They lessened the distance between the upper and the lower classes and
greatly increased the opportunities for the mass of the population to share in the
economic and culture advantages that become available in the course of the century.
The establishment of the first cheap newspaper 1816 and of cheap postage 1840.

3. The Growth of Science

The most striking thing about our present-day civilization is probably the part which
science has played in bringing it to pass. The difference that marks off our own day
from that of only a few generation ago in everything that has to do with the diagnosis
treatment prevention and cure of disease. In the field of medicine this is particularly
apparent, we speak familiarly of acidosis, anaemia, appendicitis difficult as the word
is of bronchitis, diphtheria (infection caused by bacteria), and numerous other
diseases.

We have learned the names of new drugs like: aspirin, insulin, morphine. In the field
of electricity words like: dynamo(electric generator), commutator(electrical switch),
alternating current (electric current), has been in the English since about 1870.

4. Automobile, Moving Picture, Radio

Scientific discoveries and inventions do not always influence the language in

proportion to their importance. They brought new words into general use. We have
learned new words and new meanings e.g., carburettor (a device that mixes air and
fuel for internal combustion), spark plug, clutch, etc. Also, other words like radio
frequency, transformer, input inductance etc all appeared in 19th century.

5. The world wars

As a further example of how great development or events leave their mark upon
language, we may observe some of the words that came into English between 1940
and 1918 as a direct consequence of the war then being imposed , and the words
like air, raid, battle plan, antiaircraft gun, tank, and blimp (a small aircraft). “Sector”
was used in the sense of specific portion of the fighting line. “Barrage” was originally
an artificial barrier like a dam in a river, designated a proactive screen of heavy
artillery or machinegun fire.

6. Sources of the New Words Borrowing

Most of the new words came into English language from the French like charmeuse,
chouffeur, chiffon, garage etc. From Italian come confetti and vendatta. From
Spanish by the way of the United States, bonanza.
American has added many other foreign words , particularly from Spanish and the
languages of American Indian. German has given us rucksack, zeppelin(airship),
and zither.

(i) Prefixes and Suffixes Another method of enlarging the vocabulary is by adding
familiar prefixes and suffixes to existing words on the pattern of similar words in the
language. Several of Latin prefixes seem to lend themselves readily to new
combinations. In the same way we use {pre} in such words as prenatal, preschool
age, prehistoric etc. Some suffixes are as: stardom, fandom, words from by
combining the initial a first few letters of two or more words are known as Acronyms,
example UNESCO {United Nations Educational Scientific And Cultural
Organization}. In deliberate coinages there is often an analogy with some other
words in the language.

(ii) Common Words from Proper Names Another source from which many English
words have been derived in the past is the names of persons and things. Everyone
is aware that, Morocco is derived from the corresponding proper name. The word
Tabasco sauce from the name of the Tabasco river in Mexico, and the Camembert
comes from the village in France from which cheese of this type was originally
exported. A “Limousine” is so called from the name of a province in France. In the
early nineteenth century we find the verb to “Lynch” and it is now a familiar word.
The Mackintosh is derived from the name of a Glasgow chemist.

(iii) Old Words with New Meaning The resources of the vocabulary are sometimes
extended from within by employing an old word in a new word. The “Skyline”
formerly meant the horizon, but it is now commoner in such an expression as the
New York and Skyline. Broadcast originally had reference to seed, but it is
application to radio seems entirely appropriate.

(iv) English Dialects In addition to the educated standard in each major division of
the English-speaking world there are local forms of the language known as regional
dialects. In the newer countries where English has spread in modern times these are
not numerous or so pronounced in their individuality as they are in the British Isles.
The English introduced into the colonies was a mixture of dialects in which the
features of each were fused in a common speech. Every country has its own
features and sometimes as many as three dialects regions may be distinguished
within the boundaries of a single shire. The characteristics of this dialect are known
to most people through the poetry of Robert Burns.

(v) Spelling Reform In the later part of the nineteenth century renewed interest was
visible in the problem of English spelling and the question of reform was vigorously
agitated. For nearly four hundred years the English have struggled with their
spellings. It was one of the chief problems which seemed to confront the language in
the time of Shakespeare and it continued to be an issue throughout the seventeenth.

The Bible and numerous classic works were printed in the new spelling, and the
movement aroused considerable public interest. The first practical step was to
publish a list of three hundred words for which different spellings were in use
judgement _ judgment, mediaveal_ medieval etc.

(vi) English as an International Language One of the most important benefits

which would result from simplified spelling is that it would facilitate the learning of the
language by foreigners. English is the native language of the British and American
people.  It has become an international language and very common in every
country. It is spoken regularly by several hundreds of millions in four continents, and
it is the official governing language of many more. English is now a world language
of communication.

(vii) The Oxford English Dictionary The oxford dictionary of English was published
in 1928. In the more enlightened attitude of the society for pure English. About in
1850 the inadequacy of the existing dictionaries of the English language began to be
acutely felt.

In 1857 at a meeting of the Philological Society in London a committee was

appointed to collect words not in the dictionaries, with a view to publishing a
supplement to them.

A formal “Proposal for the publication of a new English Dictionary by the philological
society” was issued in January 1858. It passed resolutions calling for a new
Dictionary. The two principal aims of the new project were to record every word
which could be found in English from about the year 1000 and to exhibit the history
of each its forms, its various spellings, and all its uses and meanings, past and
present.

In 1879 a formal agreement was entered into with the Oxford University press
whereby this important publishing house was to finance and publish the society
dictionary. The World war 1 made serious inroads in the dictionaries’ progress. But in
1928 the final section was issued.

(viii) Verb –Preposition Combinations An important characteristic of the modern

vocabulary is the large number of expressions like : set out, gather up ,put off, bring
in, made up, of a common verb, often of one syllable, combined with a preposition.
One of the most interesting features of such combinations in modern times, however,
is the large number of figurative and idiomatic senses in which they have come to be
used. Familiar examples are bringing about (cause are accomplish) catch on
(comprehend) give out (become exhausted) keep on (continue) put up with (tolerate)
lay off (suspend) and knock down ( reduced price).