Part 1: General Concepts - Function and type - Ref. P.

51

Note various tensile strengths based on diameter for A325.

Area of bolt is the only information missing from Table 3-3.

CSA S16-09 Clause 23.1 – Nuts on ASTM A307 bolts to be snug tightened only. If required nuts can be prevented
from working loose by the use of lock washers, lock nuts, jam nuts, thread burring, welding, or other methods
approved by the engineer.

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.52

Handy table for imperial high strength bolt geometry.

Geometry can be used to calculate thickness of outer ply required to exclude threads from shear plane if required
for design.

Nominal bolt size is the diameter of the shank area of the bolt (portion that is not threaded).

Tensile stress area is the effective net cross-sectional area within the threaded portion, not the shank.

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.54

Type 1 = Normal (black) bolt (Medium carbon steel, boron steel, or medium carbon alloy steel)

Type 3 = Atmospheric corrosion resistant (weathering steel)

Type 2 = Low carbon martensitic steel (withdrawn from the standard in 1991 and no longer in use)
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.55

Purpose for maximum edge distance is to ensure adequate clamping force to prevent moisture and debris from
entering the contact (faying) surface.

Maximum edge distance can be used as a guide for max. spacing as well (2 x max. edge distance).

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.56

1 or 2 bolts aligned with the

direction of the applied load

1.5 x bolt dia. min.

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.57

Increased bolt edge distance
Sheared Edge required due to potential for cracks
as shown due to shearing process.
Microscopic
cracks
shear plane
plate
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.57

32 mm end distance at beam framing angles allowed for 1" diameter bolts even if angle is sheared.

Practical application to avoid interference with web-flange radius (tests indicate acceptable). Note
this distance must still be considered for block shear and end tear capacity checks of clip angle.

Can be 32 mm for 1" bolts

K
T
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.58

Statically loaded structures can use punched bolt holes. However, fatigue critical structures can not use punched
holes since fine cracks can be present at the perimeter of the hole caused by the punching process that can act
as a crack initiator. In this case bolt holes must be drilled or sub-punched and then reamed to final size.

Holes can be sized to accommodate imperial or metric size bolts.

Punched Bolt Holes

Punch

plate

Microscopic cracks
Punched hole - design for 2 mm larger
in diameter than actual diameter of hole
due to potential for cracks as shown
from punching process.
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.58

Other situations where you may want to consider using bolt holes that are 3 mm larger than the bolt diameter:

1. At nodes where multiple members meet and connections have a large number of bolts. This may be complicated
further by complicated structural geometries, or members that must also connect to concrete surfaces where
tolerances are not as tight as typically required for structural steel (walls, columns, or slabs).

2. Connections that may be affected by rolling tolerances such as sweep, camber, over-roll, under-roll, web-off-center,
etc. (Ex: horizontal bracing to purlin connections – sag supports).

3. Structures that are hot-dip galvanized and use galvanized bolts (extra fit-up tolerance required due to thickness of
zinc coating).

Galvanized Steel Protection Mechanism

Hot-dip galvanizing of steel involves immersing the steel in hot molten zinc bath. The zinc reacts with the steel
forming an intermediate layer of zinc-iron alloy which is bonded metallurgically to the steel with a pure zinc top
layer which freezes as the steel member is withdrawn from the zinc bath. The method by which the zinc coating
provides atmospheric corrosion protection involves an electro-chemical process called cathodic protection. The
zinc is anodic to iron which means that when exposed to oxygen the zinc will loose electrons and oxidize before
the iron will. Essentially the zinc sacrifices itself to protect the steel and becomes a sacrificial anode. With this
process small areas of exposed base steel due to drill holes, cut edges, abrasion or impact damage will remain
rust free since the adjacent zinc coating will still act as the sacrificial anode. Over time the zinc layer will break
down due to oxidation and the cathodic protection mechanism will be less effective, but the corrosion rate for zinc
is much slower than steel so galvanized steel can provide for a long service life.

ASTM A490 & F2280 bolts, Hot-dip Galvanizing, and Hydrogen Embrittlement

A490 and F2280 bolts (or any high-strength steel with Fu > 1000 MPa) should not be galvanized since it can lead
to increased brittleness and possible fracture or cracking in service. An acid bath (pickling) process is used to
remove mill scale, grease and debris and prepare the steel for galvanizing. During the pickling process hydrogen
atoms can migrate into the crystalline structure of the steel and cause a phenomenon known as “Hydrogen
Embrittlement”.
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.55

USUAL GAUGES

USUAL GAUGES for W, M, S and C Shapes, Millimetres

Flange Width g Flange Width g Flange Width g

} }
60 to 70 40 35 to 40 22 100 60
75 to 90 45 45 25 130 to 145 80
92 to 100 50 47 to 50 30 150 to 180 100
102 to 120 60 55 32 190 and up 130
130 to 145 80 57 to 60 35

}
150 to 185 100 64 to 70 38
190 to 200 130 73 to 80 45
50 60
85 to 92 60
70 80 Extra gauges for
95 to 110 65 W columns
85 90

S SHAPES STANDARD W AND M

130
100
60
g
CHANNELS SHAPES

250 to 350
200
150
or M column
Depth of W
Holes usually drilled due to size of punch die block.
Dependent on edge distance.

USUAL GAUGES for Angles, Millimetres

Gauge
Leg g g1 g2
Notes:
g 200 M36 115 M30 80 80
Those values shown above
the dashed line allow for 150 M36 90 M24 55 65
full socket wrench clear- 125 M30 80 M20 45 54
ance requirements. 100 M27 65
g1 The bolt sizes shown in 90 M24 60
italics to the left of g and g1 80 M24 50
are the maximum bolt sizes 75 M24 45
g2 permissible for the dimen-
65 M24 35
sions shown.
60 M24 30
g2  2 bolt diameters.
55 M22 27
50 M16 28
45 M16 23
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.62
as per min. bolt spacing requirements

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.63

For imperial dimensions slot width ( and holes) are usually 1/16” wider than bolt (Therefore, imperial size
drill bits used). Punches for short slots (and similar sizes) are available and generally stocked in imperial
sizes. Long slots can be formed by multiple sequential punching using a punch for a short slot, or drilling
2 holes, flame cutting out the section between the holes, and grinding smooth with a pencil grinder.

Short slot – typically 1.33 x bolt diameter (general guide).

Long slot – typically 2.5 x bolt diameter (general guide).

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.64

Turned element can be nut or head of bolt (Nut is deeper & easier to grip with impact wrench socket).

ASTM F436 – standard hardened steel washer

Twist-off Type Tension Control (TC) Bolts

ASTM F1852 = ASTM A325 for strength (Fu = 825/725 Mpa)
ASTM F2280 = ASTM A490 for strength (Fu = 1035 Mpa)

Proprietary systems for pretensioned bolting - various: Ex. DTI washers where hard plastic is squished
out when bolt tension is reached, and bolts with indicators that change colour when pretensioned.

Pre-installation verification procedure (bolt tension calibration) must be performed at the start of work,
and whenever the lot of fastener assembly is changed for ASTM F1852 and F2280 TC bolts, and F959
DTI washer systems.
Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.65

Bolt

Bevelled square washer

(ASTM F436) Sloping inside flange
surface requires
Nut bevelled washer
Note additional standard
hardened washer is not
required since bevelled S-shape
washer is made from
hardened steel

Standard channel
(C-shape)

Use of ASTM F436 Bevelled Square Washers

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.66

General rule of thumb for imperial or metric washers – O.D. = approx. 2 x bolt dia.

Part 1: General Concepts - Details and requirements - Ref. P.69, 70

Pa = Pascal - stress (pressure) unit of measurement

Pa = N/m2 Newton per square meter (small value - note

that a newton is the approximately the weight of an apple)
MPa = 1,000,000 Pa = 1,000,000 N/m2 = N/mm2

Force = area x stress = mm2 x MPa = mm2 x N/mm2 = N

Note the resulting force from mm2 x MPa is in units of Newtons.

Divide this value by 1000 to convert to kN which is the conventional
unit of measurement for force used in structural design.

Calculate the factored shear capacity of single A325, 3/4" diameter bolt:

π = 3.142

Ab = πd2/4 = π(19.05)2/4 = 285 mm2

For threads excluded from the shear plane:

Vr = 0.60φbnmAbFu
= 0.60(0.8)(1)(1)(285)(825) = 112,860 N = 112.86 kN = 113 kN

For threads included in the shear plane:

Vr = (0.60φbnmAbFu) x 0.70 = 112.86 x 0.70 = 79.0 kN

 Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.70

Vr = (0.60φbnmAbFu) x (1.075-0.005L/d) L = Length of the connection between extreme end

bolts in the direction of the applied force.

Reduction factor for long joints

L
Bolts

Shear
(Worm analogy) stress
in bolt

L L

Typically requires at least 5 rows of bolts using conventional bolt spacing (3" or 80 mm)
for connection length to equal or exceed 15 x bolt diameter for 3/4" dia. bolts.
Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.71

Br = 3φbrtdnFu Example: For 3/8" (9.53 mm) thick plate (300W or 350W):
Br = 3(0.8)(9.53mm)(19.05mm)(1)(450MPa)/1000 = 196 kN

Note: For bolts bearing against the side of long slotted holes (loaded perpendicular to the
direction of the slot) the bearing resistance is reduced by 20%:

Br = 2.4φbrtdnFu

Long slotted hole

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.72 & 73

1. Can calculate minimum required thickness of outer ply for threads excluded shear values from bolt geometry table (slide
52, p. 6-158).

2. Note that bolt grip tables will consider standard bolt projection (Hdbk p.6-160). Based on RCSC guidelines (Research
Council on Structural Connections).
Standard tabulated minimum bolt lengths are:
For ¾” bolts – grip including washers + 1”
For 1” bolts – grip including washers + 1¼”

3. Note for high strength bolt assemblies (A325 and A490) the height of the nut (ASTM A563) is approximately equal to the
diameter of the bolt.

4. Note standard industry practice is for bolts less than 6” to be supplied in increments of ¼” and bolts longer than 6” to be
supplied in increments of ½”.

5. Code (CSA S16-09) allows tip of bolt to be flush with surface of nut – therefore, outer ply has to be much thicker to use
threads excluded shear values compared to outer ply thickness using standard projection.

6. Many project specifications will require connection design to assume threads are included in the shear plane
(conservative approach).
Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.72 & 73

Bolt head

Grip inclusive of washer

Bolt length

Outer ply is the connected

ply next to the nut
Bolt projection
(beyond face of nut) Washer

Nut
Tip of bolt

Guide to Outer Ply Thickness for Threads Excluded/Included in Shear Plane

1. For 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1 1/4", and 1 1/2" bolts, threads excluded shear values can be used if the outer ply is at least 3/8"
thick if bolt length is based on standard bolt projection (beyond face of nut) and intended bolt length and orientation
can be assured during installation.

2. For 1", 1 1/8", and 1 3/8" bolts, threads excluded shear values can be used if the outer ply is at least 1/2" thick if bolt
length is based on standard bolt projection (beyond face of nut) and intended bolt length and orientation can be
assured during installation.

3. For 5/8", 3/4", and 7/8" bolts, threads excluded shear values can always be used if the outer ply is at least 5/8" thick
since this is based on the tip of the bolt being flush with the face of the nut as per minimum code requirements.

4. For 1", 1 1/4", and 1 1/2" bolts, threads excluded shear values can always be used if the outer ply is at least 3/4" thick
since this is based on the tip of the bolt being flush with the face of the nut as per minimum code requirements.

5. For 1 1/8", and 1 3/8" bolts, threads excluded shear values can always be used if the outer ply is at least 7/8" thick
since this is based on the tip of the bolt being flush with the face of the nutas per minimum code requirements.
Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.79

S16-09, Clause 5.1.3, (P. 1-16 of HSC) specifies that struct. steel shall meet the requirements of
CSA G40.20/21, ASTM A572 or ASTM A992/A992M.

ASTM A572 Gr.50 is comparable to CSA G40.21 350W.

ASTM A588 is a weathering steel with atmospheric corrosion resistance properties.

A992 is more restrictive version of A572, Gr.50 – developed specifically for seismic systems but
has become popular in North America for general applications.

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.82

260W and 260WT is the weakest grade of CSA G40.21 (not that common).
Available for group 3 shape size, larger angles (t over 19 mm).

If unknown steel, then by S16-09, Clause 5.2.2 – assume Fy = 210 MPa, Fu = 380 MPa (S39 – circa 1935)

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.83

Bolts are required to be pretensioned when used for the following applications:
a) Slip-critical connections where slippage could be detrimental to the structure (fatigue, load reversal,
limiting deflection or stiffness requirements).
b) Shear connections designed for seismic requirements.
c) Connections for all elements that transfer crane loads.
d) Connections subject to impact or cyclic loading.
e) Connections where bolts are loaded in tension (ex: hangers, moment connections, end plates
transferring axial tensile loads).
f) Connections using oversize or long slotted holes, unless designed to allow for movement in service.

Pretensioned to 70% of ultimate tensile strength of bolt.

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.84

ks = mean slip coefficient

Some paint (primer) systems can provide class A and B slip coefficient. Check with manufacturer – can then avoid
masking if steel is required to be painted (extra expense).

Note for galvanized surfaces the wire brushing must be done by hand, not by power tool. Power tool tends to buff and
polish which is not desirable to develop friction.

c1 = coefficient relating initial tension & mean slip to a 5% probability of slip for pretension method used.
Note that c1 for A325 bolts is higher than for A490 bolts using turn-of-nut method.
Also note that for twist-off TC bolts (F1852 & F2280) and DTI washers (F959) c1 is lower than for turn-of-nut method.

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.85

For Limit States Design joint slip is a Serviceability Limit State. Therefore, the slip capacity is
required to be greater than or equal to the specified load level, not factored load level (Vs V).
Note that the Ultimate Limit State factored resistance strength check must still be made and
must be greater than or equal than the factored load (Vr Vf).

Example:

Vs = 0.53c1ksmnAbFu

For 3/4" dia., A325 bolt, Class A slip surface, Turn-of-nut method:

VS= 0.53(0.82)(0.33)(1)(1)(285 mm2)(825 MPa)/1000 = 33.7 kN

For 3/4" dia., A325 bolt, Class B slip surface, Turn-of-nut method:

VS= 0.53(0.90)(0.50)(1)(1)(285 mm2)(825 MPa)/1000 = 56.1 kN

 Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Load transfer mechanism - Ref. P.85

Point at which the

plies separate

Initial pretension
Total Tension in Bolt
Clamping
force

Applied External Tension

Effective Tension in Pretensioned Bolt as Tension is Applied Externally to the Bolt

Note that the factored shear capacity of the bolt (Vr) is the same whether it is snug tight or pretensioned.

However, when a tension force is externally applied to the bolt it has the effect of reducing the factored shear capacity.
This is accounted for in an interaction equation that will be covered in the Connections ll for Steel Detailers course.

Similarly, the slip capacity (VS) is also reduced by the presence of an externally applied tension force.
Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Installation and inspection of bolted joints - Ref. P.88

Bolt hole Plate

Burrs = Jagged shards of steel at perimeter of hole due

to punching or drilling process. Removed with
hand grinder.

Calamine = Mixture of zinc oxide (ZnO) and iron oxide (Fe2O3)

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Installation and inspection of bolted joints - Ref. P.90

Turn-of-Nut Method

Only direct method of pretensioning recognized by CSA S16 without using specialized components or
equipment (i.e., TC bolts and DTI washers).

Note that bolts are not permitted to be pretensioned in place directly with a torque wrench (calibrated or not).

Fool-proof method – no calibration required, only proper marking of bolts prior to pretensioning and inspection
thereafter.

Recall calibration is required for twist-off TC bolts and DTI washers at the start of each work period and with
each new lot of fastener components. Environmental control of fastener component storage facilities is also
more critical for consistent pretensioning results.

Impact wrench – electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic for larger bolts (1½” A325, 1¼” A490).
Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Installation and inspection of bolted joints - Ref. P.91

Alternatively the nut and bolt tip can be marked to indicate relative rotation between nut
and bolt after pretensioning.

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Installation and inspection of bolted joints - Ref. P.92

F2280 bolts can be included with A490M and A490 bolts in last column of table.

Pretensioned to minimum tension of 70% of ultimate tensile capacity of bolt.

Recall from high strength bolt load-deformation curve that it is linear (elastic) up to approximately
80% of ultimate tensile capacity of bolt (see additional notes for slide 33).

Part 1: General Concepts, Chapter 2: Bolts, Installation and inspection of bolted joints - Ref. P.93

Turn is defined for nut with respect to bolt (either bolt or nut can be turned).
Recall hardened washer is required under the turned element.

Longer bolts require more nut rotation to develop the required minimum strain
(recall strain = elongation/original length).

Note plus or minus 30 degree tolerance – quite forgiving.