COP4600 Final Combined

What pieces of hardware are in the CPU? - ANS Registers, ALU, and control unit

Hardware which serves as the CPUs memory. There are special and general purposed of these
- ANS Registers

Hardware which does arithmetic and logical computations - ANS ALU

Hardware which tracks state/status. Also controls other components - ANS Control unit

Instruction cycle responsible for loading the instruction - ANS Fetch

Instruction cycle responsible for finding the opcode/operands of the instruction and interpreting it
- ANS Decode

Instruction cycle responsible for carrying out the instruction - ANS Execute

Protected instructions can only be executed in a ____________ - ANS Protected state

Legacy boot process - ANS BIOS

What does BIOS stand for? - ANS Binary Input Output System

The ________ bootstraps the boot sector - ANS Bootloader

What does bootstrap mean? - ANS Loading up the computer

Why are the bootsector and bootloader separate? - ANS Bootsector is too small

Where is the BIOS init stored? - ANS The motherboard

What boot process is usable on x86-64 (i386) standalone PCs? - ANS BIOS

What boot process has standard for ARM chipset systems? - ANS Neither

Which boot process has standardized NVRAM locations for system variables? - ANS UEFI

Which boot process uses a dedicated bootloader partition? - ANS BIOS

Which boot process is usable on x86-64 (x64) standalone PCs? - ANS Both

Newer boot process - ANS UEFI

Which boot process simplifies diskless systems? - ANS UEFI

What are the functions of an OS? - ANS Loading programs onto machine, controlling I/O
devices, managing resources (memory, CPU), multi-tasking execution, data protection
(permissions), and task interaction (pipes, networking)

Mode for directly manipulating hardware - ANS Kernel mode

T/F: No device is directly accessed without the kernel - ANS True

T/F: Only system libraries can invoke system calls - ANS False

T/F: The system call invokes code written by system developers, while a procedure call invokes
code written by an application programmer - ANS False

A running program is in ______ - ANS Execution

When we run a program, we create a _________ for it - ANS Process

Features of a process - ANS Has some address space, associated with specific resources,
computational element/object, and has one or more threads of execution

When we make a _______, we add a stack frame to the call stack - ANS Procedure call

Which pointer points to the beginning of the stack frame? - ANS Frame pointer

Which pointer points to the beginning of the call stack? - ANS Stack pointer

A ___________ involves a switch into kernel mode for execution - ANS System call

Invocation of a system call causes a what? - ANS Kernel trap

What must be stored in a kernel trap? - ANS Current address, registers, etc

What gets the address from the interrupt vector during a kernel trap? - ANS OS dispatcher

Generation of pre-OS in which there was a control room in which a human operator ran
programs (plugboards) - ANS Generation 0: The operator

When was Generation 0 of OS? - ANS 1940s

When was Generation 1 of OS? - ANS 1950s

Generation of OS in which a resident monitor was used to execute common tasks (basic job
loading, config, etc) for the operator. Users would reserve time on the system. Precursor to
modern concept of OS - ANS Generation 1: resident monitor

Generation of OS in which job systems allowed many programs to be run in succession. A

programmer would submit a job on punch cards. The punch cards would be read by a card
reader onto magnetic tap. An operator would transfer prepared jobs to processing unit on input
tape. Results would be written to output tape, which would be read and printed - ANS
Generation 2: Batch systems

Batch system in which the OS sets up the next job and removes the current. Programs are run
sequentially - ANS Uniprogrammed batch systems

Fence in memory which defines end in user memory and beginning of OS memory - ANS
Fence register

Issues with uniprogrammed batch systems - ANS Mainly I/O so idle CPU

Batch system in which when one job was running, the OS would set up and began to run next.
They would take turns on the CPU. In this system, the CPU was on idle when all jobs were in
system - ANS Multiprogrammed batch systems

Formula for CPU utilization - ANS 1 - p^n (p = fraction of time process is in I/O wait; n = #
jobs)

When were batch systems prevalent? - ANS 1950s/1960s

Gen of OS which had multiple users on the same system - ANS Generation 3: Time sharing
systems

Gen of OS which was uniprogrammed (ex DOS) - ANS Generation 4: Early PC OS

Gen of OS which logins, multitasking, etc. First one was Unix - ANS Generation 5: Network
OS

OS which sends off execution to a remote system and gets the results back - ANS Distributed
OS

OS which had multiple independent systems with intertwined actions - ANS Cooperative
autonomous systems
Set of instructions with finite initial store and state, starting pointing, and unambiguous ordering
until the endpoint - ANS Algorithm

The sequence of instructions that embody an algorithm (source to assembly to machine code) -
ANS Program

A task to be completed. Often a program awaiting execution or a process during execution -

ANS Job

The conceptual process model requires: - ANS Unique PC, independent execution, and
maintenance of model by OS

______ imitates parallel execution on a processor. Each process uses the CPU in turn.
Registers hold state of process while running. System switched processes. State is stored
elsewhere when the process is swapped - ANS Pseudoparallelism

Processes are created by what things? - ANS System initialization (init), process request
(fork), user request (UI), and batch job

Processes are terminated by what things? - ANS Normal exit, abnormal exit, fatal error, and
signalling/kill via process

Voluntary ways processes are killed? Meaning they kill themselves - ANS Normal and
abnormal exits

Involuntary ways processes are killed? Meaning the OS kills it - ANS Fatal error and
signalling/kill via process

Hardware exceptions are generally _______ termination - ANS Involuntary

Part of OS which handles CPU scheduling. Usually 2-3 unique systems - ANS Scheduler

Roles of the scheduler - ANS Handle interrupts (I/O, etc), decides which process gets to run
and when, and balances process needs to avoid problems (i.e. starvation)

Process state in which the instructions are executing in main working memory - ANS Running

Process state in which it is runnable in main working memory, but it is not currently executing
instructions - ANS Ready

Process state in which it is waiting in main memory waiting for an external event - ANS
Blocked
Process state when it is not in RAM, but it is waiting on an external event - ANS Swapped out
and blocked

Process state when it is not in RAM, but ready to execute upon load - ANS Swapped out and
ready

Process state in which process is not in RAM but is preparing to run - ANS Initializing

Process state in which the process is not in RAM and cleaning up following execution - ANS
Exiting

T/F: Shared memory space is required for the process model - ANS False

What information is stored in the process control block - ANS Process, memory, and file
management

Instruction part of process. Contains binary code instructions - ANS Text

Segment which has the data in an executable. Where static variables are stored - ANS Data

Segment for allocated memory (new/malloc) and shared memory across stack frames - ANS
Heap

Segment for stack frames and function variables - ANS Stack

The PCB treats devices as _______ - ANS Files

The heap grows ____ while the stack grows ____ - ANS Up, down

What info is available in an executable? - ANS Header, text, data, and symbols

Part of the executable which contains linkages (ex. library functions) - ANS Symbols

Part of the executable which contains basic info such as organization of the executable itself -
ANS Header

Which process segment contains pointers? - ANS Stack

What is stack/heap overflow? - ANS No space left between stack/heap

Why do context switches occur? - ANS Blocking operations, CPU yield operations, CPU
sharing, and asynchronous evemts

Examples of blocking operations which cause context switches - ANS IO and sleep
Examples of asynchronous events which cause context switches - ANS Hardware interrupts,
signals, and exceptions

What are signals? - ANS Software interrupts

What must the OS do during context switches - ANS Store register values, track memory
addresses, and update process state if necessary

When Device raises the signal line which is checked every instruction. The hardware jumps to
interrupt vector and a ______ has occured - ANS Hardware interrupt

T/F: Hardware interrupts can be ignored only in protected state - ANS True

What happens when a process receives a signal it is registered to catch - ANS 1) Kernel
receives signal via system call
2) IF PCB has registered handler for the target, the signal is stored and the handler queued
3) If there is no registered handler, the target is terminated
4) Normal function continues

What happens during a hardware interrupt? - ANS 1) Device raise line

2) Controller sends interrupt
3) CPU asks interrupt
4) Controller sends IRQ#

What hardware causes the trap to kernel mode? Responsible for the context switch, looking up
routine according to interrupt #, and changing the protection state - ANS Dispatcher (IRQ)

T/F: Signals are invoked by the kernel and process - ANS False

T/F: Signals involve a syscall - ANS True

T/F: On multicore systems, the interrupt controller can be programmed to send different
interrupts to different processor cores - ANS True

Why must hardware interrupts be super fast? - ANS They constantly happen and prevent all
processes from running

Location of the next instruction to execute after returning from a procedure call is found in the
_____ segment - ANS Stack

Constants are found in the what segment of a process? - ANS Data

Parameters passed to a procedure/method are located in the what segment of a process? -
ANS Stack

In what segment of a process can memory leaks occur? - ANS Heap

In what segment are global variables found? - ANS Data

Where are dynamically allocated variables located? - ANS Heap

Where are instructions to be executed located? - ANS Text

T/F: In batch systems, the user was the operator - ANS False

T/F: I/O-bound jobs underutilize the CPU in uniprogrammed systems - ANS True

T/F: A major motivation for multiprogramming batch systems was improving resource utilization
- ANS True

T/F: Memory protection was not needed in uniprogramming batch systems - ANS True

T/F: Batch systems had to implement multiprogramming - ANS False

T/F: Stack and heap allocation always happens when an OS handles an interrupt? - ANS
False

What happens whenever an OS must handle an interrupt? - ANS PC is stored, CPU registers
are stored, and ISR is invoked

In a ______, hardware and system tasks are in kernel space - ANS Microkernel

In a ______, hardware, file system, and device drivers are in kernel space - ANS Monolithic
kernel

Can an interrupt be interrupted? - ANS Yes

Hardware mechanism which prevents and sets the hierarchy of interrupts - ANS Interrupt
mask

Interrupt with 4 specific qualities:

1) PC saved in a known state
2) All instructions PC were fully executed
3) No instructions after the PC have been executed
4) Execution state of PC instruction is known - ANS Precise interrupt
In a _________ interrupt, the instruction will finish execution before the interrupt is serviced -
ANS Precise

Interrupt when instructions are left incomplete/partially executed - ANS Imprecise interrupts

T/F: We can always get a precise by rolling back incomplete instructions - ANS Not always

Three types of schedulers - ANS Admission, memory, and CPU

Scheduler which decides which and when a job runs. Deals with queued data/tasks. Long-term
scheduler - ANS Admission

Scheduler which decides which jobs to swap in/out of main memory. Deals with user interaction.
Medium term scheduler - ANS Memory

Scheduler which decides which ready process runs next. Usually only pulls from RAM.
Short-term scheduler - ANS CPU

Goals of the admission scheduler - ANS Get a good mix of jobs in RAM, predict job needs and
behavior

Goals of the memory scheduler - ANS Prevent thrashing

When excessive paging operations are taking place and the system appears to be very slow or
has come to a halt, the process is ________ - ANS Thrashing

Which scheduler is most concerned with speed? - ANS CPU

In which system is the CPU schedulers goals response time, proportionality, and the users.
They will sacrifice optimal solutions for UX. They have to prevent the impression of starvation -
ANS Interactive system

In which system is the CPU schedulers goals predictability and deadlines. If deadlines are
missed, BAD things happen - ANS Real time

In which system is the CPU schedulers goals throughput, turnaround time, and CPU utilization -
ANS Batch system

When is CPU scheduling ABSOLUTELY required - ANS When a process exits and when it
blocks on I/O or a semaphore

When is CPU scheduling usually done, but not required - ANS When a new process is
created, when an I/O interrupt occurs, and when a clock interrupt occurs
Type of scheduling algorithm when a process is executed for a certain amount of time, then it
loses the CPU and the OS regains control - ANS Preemptive

Type of scheduling algorithm which expects the process to give up the CPU - ANS
Nonpreemptive

What scheduling algorithms are nonpreemptive - ANS First come first server, shortest job first,
priority, and optimal

What scheduling algorithms are preemptive - ANS Round robin, shortest remaining time first,
preemptive priority, and compatible time sharing systems

Scheduling algorithm in which jobs are run in order of arrival - ANS First come first serve

Scheduling algorithm in which the ready job that will finish first is run first. Nonpreemtive - ANS
Shortest job first

Scheduling algorithm in which the ready job with highest priority is run first - ANS Priority

Scheduling algorithm which uses future knowledge of arrivals to optimize - ANS Optimal

Scheduling algorithm in which jobs run in order of arrival, with max quantum (end of queue if
preempted) - ANS Round robin

Scheduling algorithm in which the ready job that will finish first is run first. Preemptive - ANS
Shortest remaining time first

Scheduling algorithm in which the ready job with highest priority is run first. Preemptive - ANS
Preemptive priority

Scheduling algorithm which attempts to approximate SRTF. Uses growing quanta allocations.
The longer a process goes, the lower its priority goes. Processes get allocated entire quanta
spots regardless of how much time is left (i.e. giving 8 when only needs 5) - ANS Compatible
time sharing systems

T/F: If all jobs are ready, SJF is optimal - ANS True

Which is the fastest preemptive Scheduling algorithm if there's no context switch cost? - ANS
SRTF

T/F: All priority systems run the chance of starvation - ANS True

Scheduling algorithm which approximates SRTF via observed process history. - ANS Shortest
process next
Formula for CPU time of 1 process with shortest process next Scheduling algorithm - ANS
E(sub i) = aE(sub i - 1) + (1- a)T(sub i)

Proportionate Scheduling algorithms - ANS Guaranteed, lottery, and fair share

Scheduling algorithm in which each process gets tickets. A ticket is picked at random. The more
tickets a process has, the higher probability of it being selected - ANS Lottery scheduling

Scheduling algorithm in which CPU time is allocated to each user, not process. Can use lottery
approach and prioritize users - ANS Fair share scheduling

Tasks which happen repeatedly (check altitude, etc) - ANS Periodic tasks

Tasks which are a result of external events (temp in core too high) - ANS Aperiodic tasks

Real time systems in which a missed deadline results in a disaster - ANS Hard real time

Real time systems in which a missed deadline results in an annoyance - ANS Soft real time

When can we schedule dynamic real time systems? Use c as the tasks compute time and p as
the tasks period - ANS ∑(c/p) ≤ 1

__________ is when a low priority task blocks a high priority task - ANS Priority inversion

How can we solve priority inversion? - ANS Grant low priority task temp promotion to resolve

A _______ (lightweight process) is part of a process that has its own execution history, program
counter, and stack - ANS Thread

What elements are unique to a process but not a thread? - ANS Text, data, and heap

Benefits of threads over processes - ANS Lower mem cost, information sharing, reduced
creation/destruction time, and reduced context switch time (to a sibling thread)

_____ space threads are supported by the OS, _______ space threads are implemented in a
library - ANS Kernel, user

Threads which have separate thread table stored in the kernel. Threads can be run in multiple
CPUs - ANS Kernel space

Threads which have thread table stored in each process - ANS User space
In which space does a syscall in a thread block all other sibling threads? Why? - ANS User bc
kernel can't see threads and the entire process is run in 1 CPU

In which space can you switch from executing a thread in process A to a thread in process B at
any point (with a context switch)? - ANS Kernel

Dangers of threads - ANS Corrupt data state, race conditions, lost data, and duplicated data

Threading in which one kernel thread contains all user threads (including their thread table). The
kernel thread table on has kernel threads listed - ANS Hybrid

Why would processes need to communicate? - ANS Transmission of data, notification of

event, and updating status

Issues with IPC - ANS Synchronizing the processes and actually transferring the info

IPC in which process directly writes to a shared memory space. Requires programmer support -
ANS Shared memory

IPC which avoids memory specific problems and handle synchronization issues. Needs library
or OS support and some assembly - ANS Message passing

Examples of message passing systems - ANS Pipes and networks

Message passing system which can be named/unnamed. They are created on the fly for use by
localhost and are set and used - ANS Pipes

Message passing system which uses TCP/UDP to communicate host to host - ANS Networks

Which IPC system can result in race conditions - ANS Message passing

Regions of code that we must protect - ANS Critical region

What 4 rules must we maintain to avoid race conditions - ANS 1) No assumptions may be
made about speed or # of CPUs (concurrency)
2) No two processes may be simultaneously within their related CRs (safety)
3) No process running outside CR may block other processes inside it (liveness)
4) No process should have to wait forever to enter its critical region (liveness)

Failure of maintaining safety (consistent data and state) for process synchronization may result
in what - ANS Invalid state of application data or application functional state

Concept that all processes will eventually complete - ANS Liveness

When every process depends on one that is block and no progress is made - ANS Deadlock

When some processes wait indefinitely - ANS Starvation

Approaches to process synchronization - ANS Busy waiting, monitors, shadow copies,

messaging, barrier synchronization, and semaphores and mutexes

When there is a giant wait loop waiting on a condition. Can be software or hardware based. Also
called spin lock - ANS Busy waiting

Signaling type system which requires language support. Use condition variables (no variable
memory) and guarantee at most one process at a time - ANS Monitors

Software locks which require OS support. They use atomic operations to facilitate locks - ANS
Semaphores and mutexes

Process synchronization which uses copies to update data - ANS Shadow copies

Synchronization process which requires all processes to reach a specified point before they can
continue - ANS Barries

Mutual exclusion variables which lock and unlock only. Intended for single process at a time CR
- ANS Mutex

T/F: Once locked, only the locking thread can unlock a mutex - ANS True

Shared memory variables which up (increment) and down (decrement). Only down blocks. They
provide resource counting/tracking - ANS Semaphore

T/F: Any thread with access to the semaphore can increment/decrement - ANS True

What type of semaphores can be used to enforce a precedence graph? - ANS Binary
semaphores

T/F: Spin locks yield the CPU when waiting for a resource to become available - ANS False

______ trades turns between two lines of execution. It is extremely inefficient - ANS Strict
alternation

Why does busy waiting with flagging interest fail? - ANS Flagging and locking are not atomic
(could be interrupted right after interest is flagged causing infinite loop)

Solution which combines flagging and alternation approaches. After flag, switch turns. Loop
while other's turn and other's interested - ANS Peterson solution
Problem which occurs when one or more producers and consumers act on the same finite data
buffer. Also called the bounded buffer problem. - ANS Producer-consumer problem

T/F: Multiple producers/consumers should be able to write/read buffers at the same time - ANS
True

T/F: two producers/consumers can write/read to same entry at same time - ANS False

Problem which occurs when several processes need more than one lock to act. Causes circular
deadlock - ANS Dining philosophers problem

Problem in which one or more readers/writers work on a single database (data store) at the
same time. Deals with persistent data - ANS Readers writers problem

T/F: never can 2 or more writers write to db at same time - ANS True

T/F: a reader can reader from db while a writer is writing - ANS False

T/F: If write lock is held, all other read and write requests are blocked - ANS True

In a reader preference policy, what bad things could happen? - ANS Writers could starve

Tentative write lock which lets us signal intent to lock the db. Allows tentative reading while
waiting for a write lock. Prevents other writers from obtaining an alpha lock - ANS Alpha lock

T/F: Main benefit of overlay systems is that they allow a process to be larger than the available
memory - ANS True

T/F: External fragmentation is a problem with contiguous memory allocation - ANS True

Absolute memory address aka location on memory chip - ANS Physical address

Relative memory address. Will be translated by hardware and OS to actual location - ANS
Logical address

When can addresses be resolved? - ANS Development time, compile time, link time, load
time, and run time

T/F: If using physical addresses, addresses do not have to be resolved before run time for any -
ANS False

When an address hard coded it is resolved at _______ - ANS Development time

When an address is resolved by the compiler it is resolved at _____ - ANS Compile time

When an address is resolved by the linker it is resolved at _____ (e.g. static libraries) - ANS
Link time

When an address is resolved by the loader it is resolved at _____ (e.g. shared libraries) - ANS
Load time

When an address is a process address space it is resolved at _____ - ANS Run time

______ and _____ registers are used to protect processes by defining memory boundaries.
They are set at every context switch - ANS High, low

____ and _____ registers are used to define the start and max of a process's boundary. They
are checked on every run - ANS Base, limit

Memory allocation algorithm which uses the first hole big enough for the process - ANS First
fit

Memory allocation algorithm which uses the next hole big enough using circular array - ANS
Next fit

Memory allocation algorithm which finds the smallest hole big enough - ANS Best fit

Memory allocation algorithm which finds the largest hole available - ANS Worst fit

Memory allocation which uses separate lists of commonly requested sizes - ANS Quick fit

Memory partitioning scheme which uses partitions of fixed size - ANS Multiple fixed partitions

Memory partitioning scheme which uses partitions of variable size to accommodate process
load - ANS Multiple variable partitions

Fragmentation which results from memory allocated to a process but not in use - ANS Internal
fragmentation

Fragmentation which results from memory not allocated to a process but too small to use - ANS
External fragmentation

Solutions to external fragmentation - ANS Fixed memory partitions, compaction, and paging
and segmentation

Cons of memory compaction - ANS SUPER slow (have to copy over all of memory)
Part of memory stored on disk which is swapped in and out as needed. Completely user space
approach. Could create thrashing - ANS Overlays

Using virtual address space that maps to physical memory. Eliminates external fragmentation by
only allocating page. Requires explicit OS support - ANS Virtual memory

Exists in user space to track program /data sections and loads them on an as-needed basis -
ANS Overlay manager

Cons of fixed partition memory approaches - ANS Susceptible to internal fragmentation

Used by the CPU to calculate physical addresses from virtual ones quickly. Exists on the CPU
die - ANS Memory management unit (MMU)

Solutions to a large page table - ANS Page the page table or inverted page table

T/F: Virtual memory space may be bigger than physical memory - ANS True

T/F: Physical memory space may be larger than virtual memory - ANS False

Type of cache which has frequently used memory lines of text segments (may also be data) -
ANS Instruction cache

Type of cache which has recently/frequently used lines of data/stack segments - ANS Data
cache

Type of cache which has popular page table entries - ANS Translation lookaside buffer (TLB)

T/F: all caches use associative (content-addressable) memory - ANS True

Loaded pages are referred to as ______________ - ANS Page frames

Formula for memory access time - ANS (cache hit)*(time to access cache) + (cache
miss)*(time for disk)

Paging algorithm in which the oldest page is evicted first - ANS FIFO

Weird thing in FIFO were even if the number of frames increases, there are always situations
were the fault rate increases - ANS Belady's anomaly

Paging algorithm which evicts the most stale page - ANS LRU

Paging algorithm which tracks the number of times a page is used, evicting the least used page.
Good locally - ANS NFU
Cons of NFU algorithm - ANS Requires lots of resources

Cons of LRU algorithm - ANS Very inefficient bc it requires in place list modifications

Describe aging paging algorithm - ANS R bit is set on read/write. M bit is set on write. R bit is
cleared on clock tick. M bit is cleared when copied to disk. Unreferenced and unmodified pages
are selected. Evict lowest page (RM bit combo)

Paging algorithm which uses aging in a round robin approach. However, just looks at R bit -
ANS Clock/second chance

Paging algorithm which uses a time window to define a working set of pages that are most
active - ANS Working set

Paging algorithm which combines clock and working set - ANS WSClock

What is invoked when a page fault occurs? - ANS Page fault handler

Concept which stores segments into their own partitions to allow more flexible process growth
policy - ANS Segmentation

Type of segmentation in which each text, data, heap, and stack are in their own segment - ANS
Fine grained

Type of segmentation in which text, data, and heap are in their own segment and so is stack -
ANS Coarse grained

Why does coarse grained segmentation work? - ANS Bc text and data are a fixed size

What functionality must a file system have? - ANS Locate free space, persistently store
information, and allow concurrent access by more than one process

Useful, but not required features of a file system - ANS Human accessible info, data
protection, and identifying types of data/what programs can read the data

Conceptually, a file is a storage that is _____________ and is _____________ - ANS

Logically named, persistent

3 ways a file can be represented - ANS Byte sequence, record sequence, and tree based

File representation that is mainly used - ANS Byte sequence

File representation that is mainly used by legacy and specialized systems - ANS Record
sequence

Difference between byte and record sequence for file representation - ANS A record is
multiple bytes long

4 ways to determine the file type - ANS Extension, magic number (file signature), file
attributes, and reading the contents

Issues with identifying the file type by its extension - ANS It's a security issue if the the
extension is wrong

Issues with identifying the file type by its magic number - ANS Magic numbers are not uniform
across machines (are uniform in the machine)

Where are the file attributes and location information stored? - ANS File control block

2 ways files can be accessed - ANS Sequentially and random access

File access in which bytes are access ed in linear order. Some media types can rewind.
Examples include tapes and pipes - ANS Sequential access

File access in which data be accessed in any random order. The cursor can be moved via a
seek. Examples include HDD, SSD, and floppy disks - ANS Random access

Term which refers to adding a file to a directory - ANS linking

Term which refers to removing a file from a directory - ANS unlinking

When is a link created? - ANS On file creation

When is a file considered deleted? - ANS When link count = 0 (file is not actually deleted, just
unlinked)

Can a file have multiple links? - ANS Yes

2 types of links - ANS Regular (hard) link, and symbolic (soft) link

Link which holds the reference (inode, etc) of the file. Can only occur within the same file
system. Can be used on directories (depending on OS) - ANS Hard link

Link which holds the path of the file. Can span file systems. Can be used on directories - ANS
Soft link
Dangers of hard links? Soft links? - ANS Circular link; Link rot

What is a circular link? - ANS A parent dir and child dir hold a hard link to each other

What is link rot? - ANS A file is deleted, but a soft link still exists

How is file deletion prevented when a file is open? - ANS It's link count is incremented

A _______ is a special file type that holds FCB of other files. It is marked as such by its own
FCB - ANS Directory

2 types of directory implementations - ANS Inline and reference

Directory implementation in which each file has a block for its attributes which is directly
followed by its data (F1, F2, F3, etc.) - ANS Inline approach

Directory implementation in which each file has a block for its attributes and a pointer to its data
(F1*, F2*, F3*, etc.). There can be a fixed length for a directory - ANS Reference approach

How are file paths resolved? - ANS Recursive lookup (think ab a tree)

What tells us the file system type, format, and organization? - ANS Super block

Where are the boot block and super block located? - ANS On disk partition

_______ a file system makes it accessible to programs through the OS - ANS Mounting

Can you mount different file systems on top of one another? - ANS Yes

File allocation scheme in which a file's contents are stored purely in order on the drive. Good for
embedded hardware and read-only FS (CD/DVDs) - ANS Contiguous allocation

What type of fragmentation does contiguous allocation for file systems suffer from? - ANS
External

File allocation scheme in which each block holds a pointer to the next. Random access requires
iterating through blocks until the file is found. However, you can allocate/deallocate at will - ANS
Linked list allocation

File allocation scheme in which the linked lists are stored as a table in memory to minimize disk
access. It's super fast because you only need to go to disk to read data blocks. Examples are
USB and SSD cards - ANS Chained table allocation (FAT)
File allocation scheme in which locations of each block are stored in an index node (inode). A
pure index system limits file size - ANS Indexed allocation

Formula for max file size - ANS (# blocks) * (block size) = (block size / pointer bytes) * (block
size)

File allocation scheme which indexes the index block, using direct/indirect blocks. It increases
max file size, but each level added increases access time - ANS Multi-level indexed allocation

File allocation scheme which uses direct blocks with an additional single indirect pointer. The
number of blocks is reduced by one to make room for the next pointer. Has a potentially
unlimited file size - ANS Chained indexed allocation

What file allocation schemes require visiting every block in the file up to block n in order to find
that block? - ANS Linked list and FAT

Larger block size ______ data rate on a spinning disk - ANS Increases

Larger block size ______ external fragmentation - ANS has no effect (it's internal
fragmentation)

Larger block size _______ max file size - ANS increases

Larger block size _____ storage utilization rate - ANS Decreases (bc of internal
fragmentation)

Larger block size _______ on FS consistency rate - ANS has no effect

3 ways to keep track of free blocks for FS - ANS Linked list, bitmap, and storing pointers to
free blocks on disk (can cause thrashing, so have more than one partially full list)

How does the block cache work? - ANS Linked list of blocks in memory and hashtable
pointing to blocks

Where does most data loss stem from> - ANS Human error

When a FS stores the same info on 2 disks. Every write is duplicated and reads go to whichever
system is least loaded. Failures can be automatically switched over - ANS Mirroring

Backup which only backs up part of the system - ANS Selective dump

Backup which doesn't back up a file if it isn't changed - ANS Incremental backup
System which provides FS performance gains through parallel hardware access. Uses striping
and redundant storage to allow fast recovery. Hot swap is possible - ANS RAID (Redundant
arrays of independent disks)

Term for when data is spread across multiple disks - ANS Striping

Term for when while the system is running, a bad disk can be removed and replaced with a
good one - ANS Hot swap

RAID which is purely striping (no redundancy) - ANS RAID 0

RAID which is purely mirroring (no striping) - ANS RAID 1

RAID which uses striping at bit level and can detect, but not fix errors. Mostly theoretical - ANS
RAID 2

RAID which uses mirroring and strips - ANS RAID 10

Which of these actions has a recovery option with no potential loss of information?

1) Block marked as both free and in use

2) Block marked in free list twice
3) Block marked in use twice - ANS 1) Yes. Mark as in use
2) Yes. Make it one listing
3) No. Most likely corrupt

2 types of I/O devices - ANS Block and character

I/O device which sends and receives the entire block of data. Is addressable. Random access.
Like memory - ANS Block

I/O device which sends and receives individual bytes. Not addressable. Can be one or two way.
Like a stream - ANS Character

CPU IO which uses memory addressed communication. The device memory is considered part
of main memory. There is no automatic interrupt and some assembly instructions are required -
ANS Memory mapped (MMIO)

CPU IO which uses isolated addressing communication. There is unique assembly instruction
and distinct address space - ANS Port-mapped (PMIO)

Two types of CPU IO (also called programmed IO) - ANS MMIO and PMIO

Two types of coprocessor IO - ANS DMA and dedicated channels

Coprocessor IO which uses memory addressing communication. It allows devices to directly
write to system memory. The controller acts as the coprocessor - ANS Direct memory access
(DMA)

Coprocessor IO which uses isolated addressing communication. It was used in mainframe days
- ANS Dedicated channels

IO which requires action on part of the CPU to store and fetch from devices - ANS
Programmed IO

When a device must be surveyed to determine when they are ready to read/write. Everything is
done in the CPU. Common is user devices (most CPU intensive) - ANS Polling

When a device can interrupt to alert the CPU it is ready. Needs semiglobal memory and code is
in driver and kernel. - ANS Interrupts

IO where you don't need to directly handle IO, the controller does that. It unblocks the user after
the controller acks. It is the least CPU intensive - ANS DMA

Order following IO from highest to lowest CPU load: Interrupts, polling, and DMA - ANS
Polling, interrupts, and DMA

Timers when check to see if timers have expired when other kernel traps occur (syscalls, TLB
misses, page faults, interrupts, or idle CPU) - ANS Soft timers

Terminals which communicate over a standard serial cable connection - ANS Direct
connection terminals

Terminals which communicate via video memory (char based) - ANS Memory mapped
terminals

Unique code which represents keyboard data for key press/release. Is unique per keyboard -
ANS Scan codes

These are used by the OS to connect keys/combos to chars/input - ANS Keymaps

Mouse movement is measure in what? - ANS Mickeys

What 3 bytes are sent in an input packet for mouse movement? - ANS Overflow and buttons,
x movement, and y movement

2 types of touchscreens - ANS Resistive and capacitive

Touchscreen which measures resistance via a plastic (bendable) surface. It only reliably
captures one set of coordinates. It is super cheap to make and can work with nonconductive
materials - ANS Resistive

Touchscreen which measures capacitance across glass (rigid) surface. It gets the current from
our fingers. It can reliably capture multitouch and is more expensive to produce. It doesn't work
with nonconductive material - ANS Capacitive

2 display types - ANS character or bitmap

Display which writes chars into video RAM (ex SSH) - ANS Char display

Display which writes pixel values (24 bits) (ex RDC). It can act like a char display - ANS
bitmap display

Scrolling displays support scrolling via a ______ adjustment. This means video memory can
change and locations aren't fixed - ANS pointer

2 internet protocols - ANS Open systems interconnection (OSI) and internet protocol (IP)

Internet protocol which was the original ISO standard. Emphasizes model before
implementation and is based on strictly controlled layers - ANS Open systems interconnection
(OSI)

Internet protocol which was created for ARPAnet. Emphasizes incremental implementation and
model, and is based on a loosely layered model - ANS Internet protocol (IP)

4 IP layers - ANS Access, network, transport, and application

IP layer which uses protocols such as FTP, TFTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP, and game protocols -
ANS Application

IP layer which uses protocols such as TCP and UDP - ANS Transport

IP layer which uses protocols such as IPv4 and IPv6 - ANS Network

IP layer which uses ethernet and electrical connections to transmission medium - ANS Access

Benefits of IP over OSI - ANS More flexibility, less complicated, easier to implement, and
worked from the start

What is included in the network system for a modern OS? - ANS Protocol stack (TCP/IP),
network driver, and network interface
Is IP a packet switching network protocol? How so? - ANS Yes. It breaks info into packets

Is the size of the data sent over the network the same size of just your data? - ANS No,
padding is added at each layer

What is network byte order? - ANS Big endian

What byte order do Intel processors use? - ANS Little endian

Byte order where most significant bytes are first? - ANS Big endian

Byte order where least significant bytes are first? - ANS Little endian

Put 0x000A in little endian - ANS 0x0A, 0x00

Put 0x000A in big endian - ANS 0x00, 0x0A

The IP address identifies what? - ANS The machine

What type of addressing does IPv4 use? IPv6? - ANS Quad addressing; octect addressing

How many bits is a IPv4 address? an IPv6? - ANS 32; 128

What base is an IP4 address in? IPv6? - ANS Decimal; hex

What does : mean in a IPv6 address? - ANS Replace with 0s

When an IP address is listed as 127.0.0.0 / n, what does the n represent? - ANS How many
bits are fixed/reserved

How many addresses are there for localhost in IPv4? IPv6? - ANS 255; 1

3 types of delivery mechanisms for IP - ANS Unicast, multicase, and broadcast

IP delivery mechanism where one machine sends to a single destination - ANS Unicast

IP delivery mechanism where one machine sends to a group destination - ANS Multicast

IP delivery mechanism where on machine sends to all network hosts (everyone). It needlessly
eats up traffic - ANS Broadcast

Is multicast allowed on IPv4? IPv6? - ANS Yes; no

The port identifies the what? - ANS Process

2 types of transport protocols - ANS transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram
protocol (UDP)

Transport protocol which is connection oriented. It needs constant connection but will retransmit
lost data, data is delivered in order, and data is delivered as a stream. It is also bidirectional -
ANS TCP

Transport protocol which is connectionless. It uses a best effort delivery system in which
packets may arrive out of order and data is delivered as datagrams - ANS UDP

Which of these is true of TCP or UDP?

1) Built on top of IP
2) Use port #'s
3) Process to process - ANS All for both

Which is cheaper, UDP or TCP? - ANS UDP

Abstraction through which an application may send and receive data - ANS Socket

Is a pipe a type of socket? - ANS Yes

Which of these is true about sockets?

1) They provide interface to TCP/IP and UDP/IP
2) They are a generic interface for many protocols
3) They represent a connection endpoint - ANS All true

Are there reserved ports in TCP/IP? - ANS Yes

T/F: One send call corresponds to one receive call and vice versa in TCP? - ANS False

How do you know how much data was received from a send call in TCP? - ANS The return
value

What 3 things is flow control responsible for? - ANS Prevents network congestion, buffering,
and windowing

Which transport protocol will not

1) establish connections before sending data
2) Provide acks of data receipt
3) Guarantee that messages will arrive
4) Detect lost messages and retransmit them
5) Ensure data is received in order it was sent
6) Provide mechanism for congestion/flow management - ANS UDP
Benefits of UDP - ANS 1) Cheap
2) Server only needs 1 socket
3) Can send/receive multiple addresses at same time
4) There are no partial messages

How is a TCP connection established? - ANS 3 way handshake

Term for the amount of bytes of data each peer is willing to accept in TCP - ANS Advertised
window

Is the window size constant in TCP? - ANS No. Increase on data read and decrease on data
receive

Is the send window the same size as the receive window of the sender's counterpart? - ANS
Yes

2 sections of the send window - ANS 1) bytes that have been sent but not acked
2) bytes that can be sent (ready or empty)

Steps in a resource session - ANS acquisition, utilization, and release

Step in a resource session which is responsible for locking the resource - ANS Acquisition

Step in a resource session which is responsible for using the resource - ANS Utilization

Step in a resource session which is responsible for unlocking the resource - ANS Release

What occurs as a result of this: For a some set of processes (S), each process in S is waiting for
an event and only processes in S can trigger the events that the other processes in S are
waiting on - ANS Deadlock

4 required conditions for deadlock to occur - ANS Mutual exclusion in resource use,
processes can hold and wait, there is no resource preemption, and there is a circular wait
condition

A process holding and waiting on a resource can cause what? - ANS livelock

4 deadlock handling strategies - ANS Ostrich, detect and recover, dynamic avoidance, and
structural prevention

Deadlock handling strategy which involves doing nothing - ANS Ostrich approach
Deadlock handling strategy which involves analysis on a resource request to avoid deadlock. It
works by avoiding to enter unsafe states - ANS Dynamic avoidance

Deadlock handling strategy which involves writing code in a way such that deadlock is
impossible. It is the least costly strategy - ANS Structural prevention

Graph which is used to model processes and spot deadlock - ANS Holt graph

In a Holt graph, what does this mean? P->R - ANS Request

In a Holt graph, what does this mean? P<-R - ANS Required

How to detect deadlock in a Holt graph? - ANS Cycle

What algorithm can detect cycles? - ANS Depth first traversal

Issues with Holt graph - ANS Only works for unique resources and is not efficient

What 4 matrices are needed to detect deadlock? - ANS Existing (E), available (A), current (C),
and requests (R)

What is recorded in the existing matrix for deadlock? - ANS The total amount of each resource

What is recorded in the available matrix for deadlock? - ANS The amount of each resource
available (E - colsum(C))

What is recorded in the current matrix for deadlock? - ANS How many of each resource each
process holds

What is recorded in the requests matrix for deadlock? - ANS How many of each resource
each process requests (does not include what it already has)

3 ways to handle deadlock - ANS Preemption, rollback, and killing processes

2 states of resource allocation for dynamic avoidance - ANS safe and unsafe

State where resources can be allocated to guarantee deadlock avoidance - ANS Safe state

State where some possible future could result in deadlock - ANS Unsafe state

What two things does each process have for dynamic avoidance? - ANS Current count and
max count for each resource

What 3 assumptions are made in dynamic avoidance? - ANS 1) No resources fail

2) No process needs more than available resources
3) Any process that gets its resources will complete

Algorithm for identifying state safety which treats the max matrix as the requested - ANS
Banker's algorithm

How to prevent deadlock with structural prevention? - ANS Avoid at least one condition
altogether (mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, or circular wait)

An intermediate store which is ideally non-exclusive (memory, disk) to avoid deadlock. Basically
a queue of jobs. Can introduce problems if you run out of space - ANS Spool

What does spooling solve? - ANS Mutual exclusion

How solve hold and wait problems? - ANS Deny processes holding a lock to get another,
require all lock requests to be simultaneous, and use multi resource locks

What is used to send multi-locks in one requiest - ANS Lock server

What can be used in the absence of preemption support for some resources? - ANS
Checkpoints and rollbacks

What are issues with checkpoints and rollback? - ANS Resource intensive and can lead to
livelock

Way to address lack of preemption support by facilitating rollback by preventing work until all
locks have been acquired - ANS Two phase locking

First phase of two phase locking where you get all required locks. Locks will be released on
failure to acquire - ANS Growth

Second phase of two phase locking where you do work and release locks as you no longer
need them, or all at the end - ANS Shrinking

Two phases of two phase locking - ANS Growth and shrinking

How to prevent circular wait? - ANS Resource organization or conflict graph

How does a conflict graph work? - ANS Edges between resources needed together, nodes
are colored (adjacent nodes different colors), nodes must run in color order

Deadlocks that occur when processes depend on data from one another - ANS
Communication deadlock
Can communication deadlock be solved by ordering? - ANS No

How to solve communication deadlock? - ANS Measure timeouts and retransmit

Can communication deadlock occur in TCP? - ANS No

When no process is making progress, just all failing together (still getting chance to run) - ANS
Livelock

Is livelock considered deadlock? - ANS No

Required conditions for livelock - ANS Synchronization and bad timing

How to solve livelock? - ANS Flip order or desynchronize (random sleeps)

When one process never makes progress but others do - ANS Starvation

Required conditions for starvation - ANS Bullies (usually smallest first approaches) and bad
timing

Examples of starvation - ANS Dining philosophers and readers/writers

If a process gets a limited time to run, is this starvation? - ANS No