Motivation

27 October 2023 09:06

UNIT DETAILS
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation –Meaning, Approaches: instinct, drive reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive,
humanistic; Types of motivation - physiological Motivation (Hunger, Thirst, Sex)and
psychological motivation (Achievement, Affiliation and Power)

Motivation Page 1
Motivation
17 November 2023 13:48

Unit details
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation –Meaning, Approaches: instinct, drive reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive,
humanistic; Types of motivation - physiological Motivation (Hunger, Thirst, Sex)and
psychological motivation (Achievement, Affiliation and Power)

Motivation: The Activation and Persistence of Behavior

- Psychologists define motivation as internal processes that activate, guide, and maintain
behavior.
- Motivation helps answer questions like "Why do people behave as they do?" or "Why do
people persist in certain courses of action?"
- Relevant to various behaviors, from body weight regulation to sex and aggression.

Motivation Overview:
- Overview of contrasting theories about the basic nature of motivation.
- Exploration of important forms of motivation: hunger, sexual motivation, aggressive
motivation, and achievement motivation.

Examples:
1. Group of individuals engaging in skydiving and forming a circle mid-air.
2. Employees on strike for an extended period despite potential loss in wages and benefits.
3. Individual spending long hours solving complex word puzzles without immediate rewards.

Explanation of Actions:
- Actions explained by individuals being motivated to perform them.
- Motivation involves internal processes that activate, guide, and maintain behavior.

Theories of Motivation: Some Major Perspectives

Drive Theory: Motivation and Homeostasis:
- Hunger, thirst, cold, and heat are unpleasant states prompting actions to reduce or
eliminate them.
- Drive theory posits that biological needs create unpleasant states of arousal (hunger, thirst,
fatigue, etc.).
- Motivation is a process where biological needs drive us to actions to satisfy those needs.
- Behaviors that succeed in reducing a drive are strengthened and repeated; those that fail
are weakened.
- Originally focused on basic biological needs, extended to other behaviors (stimulation,
status, achievement, power, social relationships).
- Critics argue it doesn't comprehensively explain human motivation, as people sometimes
engage in actions that increase drives.
- Drive theory persists but is not universally accepted among psychologists today.

Arousal Theory: Seeking Optimum Activation:

- Developed as an alternative to drive theory.
- Focuses on arousal, the general level of activation in individuals.
- Arousal varies throughout the day, and optimal levels are sought for different activities.
- Studies indicate a link between arousal and performance, with an optimal level for each
task.
- Yerkes–Dodson law suggests that the relationship between arousal and performance
depends on task difficulty.

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depends on task difficulty.
- Individual differences exist in preferred arousal levels.

Expectancy Theory: Cognitive Approach:

- Focuses on cognitive factors rather than urges or drives.
- Behavior is pulled by expectations of attaining desired outcomes (incentives).
- Incentives can be diverse, such as money, status, or approval.
- Applied extensively to work motivation in industrial/organizational psychology.
- Three components: expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance), instrumentality
(belief that performance leads to rewards), and valence (value placed on the rewards).

Goal Setting Theory:

- Emphasizes cognitive factors over drives or arousal.
- People perform better when given specific goals compared to being told to "do your best."
- Conditions for effective goal setting: specificity, challenging nature, perceived attainability,
feedback on progress, and deep commitment.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

- Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs in human motivation.
- Physiological needs (food, water, sleep) at the base, followed by safety needs, social
needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs at the top.
- Physiological, safety, and social needs are deficiency needs, while esteem and self-
actualization needs are growth needs.
- Intuitively appealing but research results have been mixed regarding the strict hierarchy.
- Maslow's theory provides a framework but is not fully verified.

Indian Perspective: Purusharthas and Panch Koshas:

- Life goals called Purusharthas: dharma, artha, kama, and moksha.
- Emphasizes the organization of goal pursuit within the framework of Dharma.
- Panch Koshas or doctrine of five sheaths describes five types of identity, encompassing
physical to spiritual levels.

- Overview of various theories of motivation, each providing insights into different aspects of
human behavior.
- Theories offer different perspectives, from biological drives to cognitive factors and
hierarchical needs.
- Important to consider multiple theories to gain a comprehensive understanding of
motivation.

Hunger: Regulating Our Caloric Intake

- Hunger motivation is a powerful urge to obtain and consume food.

- Feelings of hunger are intense and serve as a strong source of motivation.
- Psychologists explore the origins of hunger, its regulation, and factors contributing to
weight stability or gain.

Regulation of Eating: A Complex Process:

- Consuming just twenty extra calories per day can lead to significant weight gain over time.
- The hypothalamus plays a role in eating, satiety, and adaptation to environmental changes.
- Regulatory mechanisms extend beyond the hypothalamus and involve detectors in the liver
and other organs.
- Detectors respond to variations in glucose, protein, amino acids, and lipids in the blood.
- Feedback from taste, smell, chewing, swallowing, and visual cues also influences hunger
and eating.
- Cultural and cognitive factors, including memories and external cues, contribute to eating
behavior.

Factors in Weight Gain: Why Long-Term Regulation is Challenging:

- Learning influences eating habits, and people develop preferences for high-calorie meals.
- Genetic factors interact with changes in diet, determining the strength of the tendency to
gain weight.

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gain weight.
- Overweight individuals may respond more strongly to external food cues and find it harder
to resist eating.
- The body's reaction to weight gain includes a decrease in sensitivity to leptin, making it
harder to stop gaining weight.
- Internal mechanisms to regulate weight may become less effective after significant weight
gain.
- Many variables and conditions act together, making long-term weight regulation
challenging.

Sexual Motivation: The Most Intimate Motive

- Sexual motivation is a powerful drive to engage in sexual activity.

- Commonly portrayed in advertisements, emphasizing its significance in human behavior.

- Understanding the complexity of hunger regulation, weight gain factors, and sexual
motivation provides insights into fundamental aspects of human behavior.
- Despite challenges in long-term weight regulation, there are techniques that can help.
- Sexual motivation is recognized as a powerful and intimate aspect of human behavior,
explored by psychologists to understand its nature and implications.

Hormones and Sexual Behavior:

- Puberty involves increased activity of sex glands or gonads, producing sex hormones.
- In many species, sex hormones strongly influence sexual motivation through activation
effects.
- Human beings, particularly women, exhibit exceptions to the direct link between sex
hormones and sexual motivation.
- Sexual attraction in humans is associated with increased production of substances related
to amphetamines.
- While sex hormones play a role, other substances contribute to sexual motivation and
romantic love.

Human Sexual Behavior: Some Basic Facts:

Surveys:
- Prior to the 1960s, scientific information about human sexual motivation primarily came
from surveys.
- Survey results showed enormous individual differences in sexual behavior.
- Kinsey's studies (e.g., Kinsey et al., 1953, 1984) provided valuable insights into human
sexual behavior based on self-reports.

Direct Observation:
- In the 1960s, systematic observation of actual sexual activities became available.
- Masters and Johnson's (1966) famous project involved observing and recording the
reactions of volunteers during sexual intercourse or masturbation.
- Both males and females go through four distinct phases: excitement, plateau, orgasmic,
and resolution.
- Different cultures have varying standards regarding sexual behavior, age, frequency,
physical characteristics, positions, time, partners, and number of partners.

Human Sexual Behavior: An Evolutionary Perspective on Mating Strategies:

Contrasting Patterns:
- Quotations from Marlon Brando and Barbara Cartland suggest contrasting patterns in male
and female sexual behavior.
- Men are often perceived as seeking variety, while women are seen as more selective,
prioritizing quality over quantity.

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Research Findings:
- Men, on average, name shorter periods of time before consenting to sexual relations
compared to women.
- Men generally express a desire for more sexual partners in the future than women.
- Short-term sexual strategies show differences between males and females.

Questioning the Why:

- The evolutionary perspective is considered to explain the observed differences.
- Men may benefit reproductively from having multiple partners, increasing the likelihood of
passing on their genes.
- Women, being more selective, might prioritize partners with resources and commitment,
ensuring better support for offspring.
- These differences may be rooted in evolutionary strategies for reproductive success.

- Human sexual behavior is complex, influenced by biological, cultural, and evolutionary

factors.
- Understanding sexual behavior requires considering individual differences, cultural norms,
and evolutionary perspectives.
- Ongoing research aims to unravel the intricate interplay of factors shaping human sexual
motivation and behavior.

Gender Differences in Short-Term Mating Strategies:

Graph Analysis:
- Graph shows that males express a desire for more sexual partners compared to females
(Buss & Schmitt, 1993).
- Evolutionary psychology provides explanations for this difference in mating strategies.

Evolutionary Psychology Explanation:

- Evolutionary psychology suggests that men's preference for sexual variety may be linked to
reproductive advantages.
- Men, by having multiple partners, can potentially father more children.
- Women, due to the constraints of pregnancy and child-rearing, may not benefit as much
from seeking sexual variety.
- Natural selection may favor a stronger preference for sexual variety among males.

Female Perspective:
- Some women may also seek sexual variety for reasons such as gaining resources from
multiple partners or improving lovemaking skills.
- Biological evidence, like variations in sperm types, suggests historical instances of women
having multiple partners.

Exaggeration and Universality:

- Differences between male and female mating strategies may not be as large or universal

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- Differences between male and female mating strategies may not be as large or universal
as often portrayed in literature, films, and folklore.
- While there are general trends, individual differences and cultural influences play a
significant role.

Human Sexual Behavior: What's Arousing and Why:

Stimuli for Sexual Arousal:

- Similar to other species, direct physical contact and foreplay stimulate sexual arousal in
humans.
- Human sexual arousal can also be triggered by real or imagined erotic stimuli and images.
- Cognitive capacities play a crucial role in human sexual motivation, making the mind a
significant erogenous zone.

Sexual Orientation:

Majority and Variations:

- Most humans are exclusively heterosexual, engaging in sexual relations with the opposite
sex.
- Some individuals are bisexual, seeking partners from both sexes, while others are
exclusively homosexual.

Complex Determinants:
- Determining factors for sexual orientation are complex and not fully understood.
- Early theories emphasized environmental factors, but research has failed to provide clear
support.

Genetic and Biological Factors:

- Growing evidence points to genetic and biological factors influencing sexual orientation.
- Studies on extremely "feminine" acting boys and brain differences between heterosexual
and homosexual individuals support biological predisposition.

Twin Studies:
- Twin studies indicate a higher concordance rate for homosexuality in identical twins
compared to fraternal twins, suggesting a genetic influence.

Cognitive Abilities and Temperament:

- Homosexual individuals may exhibit cognitive differences and variations in temperament.
- Bem (1996) suggests that genetic and biological factors contribute to differences in
temperament, influencing gender-typical or gender-atypical behavior.

- Sexual orientation is a multifaceted aspect influenced by genetic, biological, and

environmental factors.
- Ongoing research seeks to understand the intricate interplay of these factors in shaping
human sexual behavior and orientation.

Aggressive Motivation: The Most Dangerous Motive:

- Aggressive motivation, the desire to harm others, is prevalent in various forms in human
behavior.
- Aggression can manifest overtly or in fantasies, contributing to atrocities, mass murders,
and workplace violence.

The Roots of Aggression: Innate or Learned?

Freud's View and Ethologists:

- Freud and ethologists like Konrad Lorenz proposed that humans have an innate tendency
toward aggression.
- This view is not widely accepted among psychologists today, who lean towards external
factors influencing aggression.

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factors influencing aggression.

Cultural Variations in Aggression:

- Rates of violent crime vary significantly across cultures.
- Huge differences in murder rates among countries suggest that social and cultural factors
play a crucial role in aggression.

Factors Influencing Aggression:

Social Factors:
- Aggressive motivation often arises from external events and stimuli.
- Frustration, while once thought to be the major cause of aggression, is now considered one
of many social causes.
- Workplace violence is linked to feelings of injustice resulting from thwarted interests.
- Direct provocation from others, verbal insults, and aggressive actions can lead to a spiral of
aggression and counteraggression.
- Exposure to violence in the media, including television and movies, has been found to
increase aggression in viewers.

Media Violence and Aggression:

- Exposure to media violence teaches viewers new ways of aggression and suggests that
aggression is an appropriate response to provocation.
- Viewers may experience reduced restraints against aggressive behavior.
- Desensitization to violence occurs with prolonged exposure to media violence.
- Despite potential harmful effects, advertisers may continue to support violent programs,
believing that violence sells. However, there is evidence that violent programs may not be
effective in retaining viewers' attention to commercials.

- Aggressive motivation is a complex aspect of human behavior influenced by various

external factors.
- Understanding the roots of aggression requires considering social, cultural, and
environmental elements, as well as the impact of media on aggressive tendencies.

Environmental Factors in Aggression:

- Aggressive behavior can stem from physical environmental conditions causing discomfort.
- Conditions such as high temperatures, crowding, or irritating noise may lead to increased
aggressive motivation.

Negative Effects of Physical Discomfort:

- Uncomfortable conditions can directly trigger aggression.
- Unpleasant feelings may lead to negative thoughts and attributions of hostile intentions,
activating aggressive motives.
- Research supports the idea that uncomfortable environmental conditions can increase
aggressive tendencies.

Example: Impact of Unpleasant Conditions:

- Being stuck in traffic on a hot day can lead to fraying tempers, highlighting the influence of
environmental discomfort on aggression.

Hormonal Factors in Aggression:

- Recent findings suggest a role for sex hormones, especially testosterone, in aggression.
- Drugs reducing testosterone levels in violent males show a decrease in aggression.
- Higher testosterone levels are found in those who commit unprovoked violent crimes.

Relationship with Prosocial Behaviors:

- Testosterone levels are not only linked to aggression but also to prosocial (helpful)
behaviors.
- Studies indicate that higher testosterone levels correlate with higher aggression and lower
tendencies toward helpful, nurturant behaviors.

Achievement Motivation: The Desire to Excel:

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Achievement Motivation: The Desire to Excel:

- Achievement motivation is a unique human motive, involving the desire to accomplish

difficult tasks and excel.
- Individuals vary greatly in the intensity of this motive.

Measuring Achievement Motivation:

- The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is commonly used to measure achievement
motivation.
- Participants interpret ambiguous pictures, and their stories are scored for achievement-
related content.
- Winter developed a technique for scoring achievement motivation directly from verbal
material.

Effects of Achievement Motivation:

- Individuals high in achievement motivation tend to get higher grades, earn promotions, and
succeed in running businesses.
- Preferences for moderately difficult tasks, a desire for feedback, and excellence under
challenging conditions characterize those with high achievement motivation.

Impact on Societies: Achievement Motivation and Economic Growth:

- Average levels of achievement motivation vary across cultures.
- Research by McClelland suggests that cultures emphasizing achievement in childhood
stories show higher economic growth.
- Studies across various countries indicate a significant relationship between achievement-
related attitudes and economic growth.

- Environmental discomfort and hormonal factors can contribute to aggressive motivation.

- Achievement motivation is a unique human motive, influencing individual success and
economic growth in societies.

Intrinsic Motivation and External Rewards:

- Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in activities for the pleasure they bring, without the
need for external rewards.
- Research indicates that offering external rewards for intrinsically motivated activities may
lead to reduced intrinsic motivation.

Explanation for Reduction in Intrinsic Motivation:

- When people receive external rewards for enjoyable activities, they may perceive their
motivation as driven by the rewards, not genuine interest.
- This shift in perception can lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation.

Supporting Research:
- Studies have shown that participants who were given extrinsic rewards for tasks they
initially enjoyed demonstrated reduced motivation to perform those tasks later.

Implications for Motivation Strategies:

- Parents, teachers, and managers should be cautious about using external rewards for
activities that individuals already find intrinsically motivating.
- Offering rewards may unintentionally decrease the intrinsic motivation to engage in those
activities.

Conditions for Positive Effects of External Rewards:

- Evidence suggests that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not always incompatible.
- External rewards, when viewed as recognition rather than bribes, and when they are large
and satisfying, may enhance intrinsic motivation.

Self-Handicapping as a Protective Strategy:

- Individuals can use self-handicapping as a strategy to protect intrinsic motivation.

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- Individuals can use self-handicapping as a strategy to protect intrinsic motivation.
- Self-handicapping involves providing pre-task explanations for potential poor performance,
such as lack of sleep or not feeling well.
- This strategy aims to pre-emptively explain poor performance to maintain intrinsic
motivation.

Buffering Against Reductions in Intrinsic Motivation:

- Individuals can buffer themselves against reductions in intrinsic motivation by engaging in
self-handicapping strategies.
- Self-handicapping allows individuals to protect their motivation by offering explanations for
potential poor performance.

Cultural Perspective - Anasakti (Non-Attachment):

- The concept of Anasakti emphasizes undertaking work without attachment to outcomes.
- Human action is seen as stress-free when not distracted by expectations related to
outcomes.
- While external rewards may diminish intrinsic motivation, recognizing rewards as signs of
recognition and using strategies like self-handicapping can mitigate potential negative
effects.
- Cultural concepts like Anasakti highlight alternative perspectives on work and motivation.

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