A

TECHNICAL REPORT ON

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO, NIGERIA

UNDERTAKEN AT

DANGOTE COAL MINES OTUKPA BRANCH, BENUE STATE, NIGERIA

FROM: DECEMBER 2022

TO: JUNE 2023

BY

BALOGUN, PRECIOUS ENIOLA

(MATRICULATION NO: AGY/17/2551)

SUBMITTED TO:

THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY,

SCHOOL OF EARTH AND MINERAL SCIENCES,

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR

OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH) DEGREE IN APPLIED GEOLOGY.
 CERTIFICATION

I, BALOGUN PRECIOUS ENIOLA an undergraduate of Applied Geology, School of Earth

and Mineral Sciences (SEMS), Federal University of Technology Akure with matriculation

number AGY/17/2551, hereby certify that this report was written and compiled by me in

accordance with the requirements of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES),

as a summary of the work experience gained within the duration of my industrial training at

DANGOTE COAL MINES LIMITED, Otukpa Branch, Benue State from 5th December 2022 to

27th May 2023, in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the award of a degree in B.Tech

(Applied Geology).

1
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am grateful to God for good health and provision all through my internship program. I also

appreciate my parents, Prof. S.O. and Dr (Mrs) G.F Balogun who supported me every way they

could, I want to thank all my supervisors at Dangote coal mines, Engineer Seun Olajuyi,

Surveyor Sam Okonkwo, Mr Sundy Abu, Mr Henry Ifayichukwu and Mr Evans Oteiku for the

knowledge I gained from them, my friends for always being available when I needed help during

the program, my sibling for the encouragement and lastly, I say a big thank you to Federal

University Of Technology, Akure and the Department of Applied Geology for the opportunity

they gave me to gain field experience.

2
 DEDICATION

This industrial training report is dedicated to the almighty God, the sustainer of my life, whose

mercies and favour, I enjoyed all through my internship.

3
 ABSTRACT

This report contains a summary of the things I was trained on during my Industrial Training

which include Prospecting and Exploration which are the first stages in any mine and involves

searching for the ore, core drilling, core logging and asseying. Surveying which is classified

under prospecting in Dangote Coal Mines Ltd. is carried out by taking the pit update using a total

station. Development includes building the mine, access roads, and overburden removal to

access the ore and in this case, coal. Exploitation begins as soon as the coal is exposed, coal is

mined and taken to the coal yard. Coal quality is done at different levels which includes coal

washing, mixing and loading. Dispatch is the final stage where the coal is taken to the various

Dangote cement factories in Nigeria

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION....................................................................................................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................................................................
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................................................
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................................
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................................................
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................................................................
LIST OF PLATES....................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................................................
1.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................
1.1 Inception on Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme...............................................................................
1.2 Aim.....................................................................................................................................................................
1.3 Objectives.............................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO......................................................................................................................................................
2.0 Company profile...................................................................................................................................................
2.1 Brief history of the organization..........................................................................................................................
2.2 Objectives of the company...................................................................................................................................
2.3 Dangote Coal Mines Limited and its sections......................................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................................................
3.0 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF UGBOKOLO COMMUNITY..............................................................................
3.1 Location of the Area.............................................................................................................................................
3.1.1 Accessibility of the Area...................................................................................................................................
3.1.2 Topography of the Area.....................................................................................................................................
3.1.3 Climate of the Area............................................................................................................................................
3.1.4 Drainage of the Area..........................................................................................................................................
3.2 Geology of the Area - Anambra Basin.................................................................................................................
3.3 Introduction to Mining Operations.......................................................................................................................
3.3.1 Type of Ore Mined ( COAL).............................................................................................................................
3.3.2 Types of Mining................................................................................................................................................
3.3.3 Stages of Mining................................................................................................................................................
3.4.1 Prospecting and Exploration..............................................................................................................................
3.4.2 Development......................................................................................................................................................
3.4.3 Exploitation or Extraction.................................................................................................................................
3.4.4 Closure/ Reclamation........................................................................................................................................
5
3.4 Coal Quality and Dispatch....................................................................................................................................
3.5 Machines/ Instruments and their uses...................................................................................................................
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................................
4.1 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................
4.2 Recommendation..................................................................................................................................................
References..................................................................................................................................................................

6
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Data show of the Borehole Lithologic Log Sheet of Olamaboro/ Ugbokolo Coal

Project………………..44

7
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Company Organogram (Dangote Coal Mines Ltd.)......................................................17

Figure 2: Regional Stratigraphy of Southeastern Nigeria (Nwajide 1990)..................................25

8
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Diamond Drilling Machine and Drilling mud Tanks…………………………………41

Plate 2: On the site carrying out core logging………………………………………………....49

Plate 3: Heavy machines in the pit during development………………………………………52

Plate 4: Placing of explosives in a drilled blast hole………………………………………….55

Plate 5: Drilled blast hole………………………………………………………………………55

Plate 6: Water balling with the use of pumping machine………………………………………57

Plate 7: A piece of land undergoing reclamation………………………………………………..61

Plate 8: The coal yard……………………………………………………………………………65

Plate 9: Dispatch department; weighing bridge system………………………………………....65

Plate 10: Descending the surface miner…………………………………………………………67

Plate 11: Articulated dump truck at the coal yard (ADT).............................................................69

Plate 12: Rigid dump truck (RDT)................................................................................................69

Plate 13: Wheel loader at the coal yard…………………………………………………………71

Plate 14: Bulldozer in the pit……………………………………………………………………73

Plate 15: A crane at the site……………………………………………………………………..75

Plate 16: Excavator machine parking coal into a dumper………………………………………77

9
Plate 17: Studying the parts of a drilling machine……………………………………………..89

Plate 18: Global Positioning System (GPS)................................................................................82

Plate 19: Total Station…………………………………………………………………………..82

Plate 20: Diamond drilling machine, drillings rod and drilling bits……………………………85

Plate 21: A truck on a weighing bridge…………………………………………………………87

Plate 22: A truck at the Coal yard been loaded with coal………………………………………87

10
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Inception on Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme

The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established by the Industrial

Training Fund [ITF] in the year 1973 to provide an avenue through which students in various

institution of higher learning would acquire skills and experience, exposed to the real methods

and techniques in handling various equipment and machinery that may not be available in their

various institutions which will enhance allied skills needed for their respective courses of study.

Without any doubt, this experience is greatly needed by students to get a clearer picture of what

their profession expects from them before they move fully into the capital market. Also, it

provides students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real work

situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice for easy assimilation of their

course of study.

Over the years, SIWES has contributed immensely to building the common pool of technical and

allied skills available in the Nigeria economy which are needed for the nation’s industrial

development. Furthermore, the place and relevance of SIWES is underscored by the fact that the

scheme contributes to improving the quality of technical skills generally available in the pool

from which employers’ source technical manpower.

11
1.2 Aim

The aim of the Student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is to pre-expose students to

the labor market of their various courses of study by equipping them with practical knowledge

beyond what school can provide in order to vast and equipped graduates.

1.3 Objectives

1. In order to achieve the ultimate aim of SIWES, the following objectives must be carefully

observed. These objectives are:

2. To provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills

and experience during the course of their study.

3. To build a good interaction with the industrial environment while still in school;

4. Enable students to blend theoretical knowledge acquired in the classroom with practical

hands-on application of knowledge required to work and perform in industry.

5. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machineries

that may not be available in their institutions.

6. To make the transition from school to the world of professionals and enhance students

contacts for job placements later on.

7. To provide students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge to solving

real life challenges, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Company profile

2.1 Brief history of the organization

My industrial training was done at Dangote Coal Mines Mines Limited Ugbokolo, Benue State,

Nigeria. Dangote Coal Mines Limited is one of the arms of Dangote Group which is one of the

most diversified business conglomerates in Africa. Dangote Coal mines started its activity in

Benue in 2020 and coal was first dispatched on the 10th of April 2021. Dangote Group has a

hard-earned reputation for excellent business practices and product quality with its operational

headquarter in Lagos Nigeria. Dangote Group decided to embark on the exploration and mining

of Coal for two main purposes which are; (i) as a source of energy for cement production and (ii)

for the production of electricity.

2.2 Objectives of the company

Dangote Coal Mines Limited's objective is to provide Coal to serve as a source of energy for

cement production and also for the production of electricity. Dangote industries Limited intends

to build a coal-based power plant that will convert the heat energy of Coal to electrical energy.

2.3 Dangote Coal Mines Limited and its sections

1. The Administrative Department

The administration department of a mining section is responsible for managing various

administrative tasks and providing support to the overall operations of the mining section.

13
● Human Resources: The administration department handles employee-related matters such

as recruitment, hiring, onboarding, and managing personnel records. They may also be

responsible for implementing HR policies, conducting performance evaluations, handling

employee benefits and payroll administration, and facilitating training and development

programs.

● Documentation and Records Management: They maintain and manage various

documents and records related to the mining section. This includes maintaining employee

records, safety records, permits and licenses, financial records, and other important

documentation required for compliance and regulatory purposes.

● Financial Administration: The department may assist with financial administration tasks,

such as budgeting, expense management, invoice processing, and financial reporting.

They may work closely with the finance department to ensure accurate financial records

and adherence to budgetary guidelines.

● General Office Management: The administration department oversees general office

operations, including managing office supplies, equipment maintenance, coordinating

meetings and appointments, and organizing travel arrangements for staff.

● Overall, the administration department provides crucial support to the mining section by

managing administrative tasks, maintaining records, facilitating communication, and

ensuring compliance with various regulations. Their work helps to streamline operations

and contribute to the efficient functioning of the mining section.

● Procurement and Supply Chain( store department) Management: The administration

department may be involved in procurement activities, including sourcing and purchasing

14
 equipment, supplies, and services required for mining operations. They may also manage

inventory levels, maintain vendor relationships, and negotiate contracts.

2. Exploration Department

The exploration department plays a vital role in the mining sector by identifying and

assessing potential mineral deposits. Their primary focus is on discovering new sources

of valuable minerals or ore bodies. Here are the key responsibilities and activities of an

exploration department in the mining sector:

● Target Identification: The exploration department conducts extensive research and

analysis to identify potential areas with favorable geological conditions for mineral

deposits. They analyze geological maps, satellite imagery, historical data, and other

relevant information to determine areas worth exploring.

● Field Surveys: Once potential targets are identified, the exploration team carries out field

surveys and assessments. This involves conducting geological mapping, collecting rock

and soil samples, and analyzing them to determine the presence and quality of minerals.

● Geophysical and Geochemical Surveys: The exploration department utilizes various

geophysical and geochemical survey techniques to gather data about the subsurface. This

may include methods such as magnetic surveys, gravity surveys, seismic surveys, and

geochemical sampling. These surveys help in identifying anomalies that may indicate the

presence of mineral deposits.

● Drilling and Sampling: If the initial surveys and assessments show promising results, the

exploration team may conduct drilling activities to obtain more accurate data from deeper

15
 layers of the Earth. Core samples are collected during drilling, and they are analyzed to

determine the mineral composition, grade, and extent of the deposit.

● Data Analysis and Interpretation: The exploration department analyzes the collected data

and interprets the results to evaluate the economic viability and potential of a mineral

deposit. They use various geological and statistical techniques to estimate the size,

quality, and value of the deposit. This information is crucial for making decisions

regarding further development and potential mining operations.

3. Mines Department

● Mining Engineers: They are in charge of all the operations that go on in the pit. Mining

engineers assess the feasibility, safety and productivity of mine locations and plan,

manage and optimize the extraction of surface and underground deposits.

● Operators: Mining machine operators use hydraulic and motor-driven machinery to drill

holes and excavate rocks, metals, and other materials, such as coal. They also help in

installing explosives for blasting. These operators control continuous mining machines or

other heavy equipment.

4. Dispatch and Transport

5. Security: Scure the mines and all its machines and equipment.

2.4 Organogram chart of Dangote Coal Mines Limited

16
Figure 1: Company Organogram (Dangote)

17
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF UGBOKOLO COMMUNITY

3.1 Location of the Area

Ugbokolo is a community located in the Ogbadibo Local Government Area of Benue State,

Nigeria. It is situated in the southeastern part of the country, specifically in the Middle Belt

region of Nigeria. The geographical coordinates of Ugbokolo are approximately 7.8128° N

latitude and 7.6967° E longitude.

Ugbokolo is surrounded by other towns and communities within the Okpokwu Local

Government Area, such as Edumoga, Okpoga, and Otukpa. It is located in a rural area, with

agricultural land and natural landscapes characteristic of the region. The community is accessible

by road, and the closest major city is Makurdi, which is the capital of Benue State.

3.1.1 Accessibility of the Area

A road was created from the federal road for workers to easily access the site with cars, bikes

and buses. There are also footpaths created by farmers and inhabitants of neighboring

communities.

3.1.2 Topography of the Area

● Plains: Ugbokolo is situated on relatively flat plains, which extend across the surrounding

areas. These plains are suitable for agriculture and are used for cultivating crops such as

yam, cassava, rice, maize, and vegetables.

18
 ● Hills: While Ugbokolo is primarily characterized by flat plains, there are also hills in the

vicinity. These hills may vary in size and elevation, contributing to the overall scenic

landscape of the region. They can provide vantage points for panoramic views of the

surrounding areas.

● River Valleys: Ugbokolo is located in close proximity to the Benue River, one of the

major rivers in Nigeria. The river valley creates a gentle slope along the riverbanks,

contributing to the topography of the area. The river valley may offer fertile soils for

agriculture and serve as a water source for irrigation and other purposes.

● Drainage Patterns: The topography of Ugbokolo features a dendritic drainage pattern,

characterized by a network of interconnected streams and rivers. This pattern is formed

by the tributaries of the Benue River and its surrounding waterways.

● Vegetation: The topography and climate of Ugbokolo support diverse vegetation. The

plains and fertile soils facilitate the growth of various crops and vegetation types,

including grasslands, shrubs, and trees.

3.1.3 Climate of the Area

● Temperature: Ugbokolo has a warm to hot climate throughout the year. Average

temperatures range from around 24°C (75°F) to 35°C (95°F). The hottest months are

typically between February and April, while the coolest months are usually from

November to January.

19
 ● Rainfall: Ugbokolo experiences a distinct wet and dry season. The rainy season typically

begins around April and lasts until October, with the peak rainfall occurring between

June and September. During this period, Ugbokolo receives significant precipitation, with

average rainfall ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 millimeters (39 to 59 inches) annually.

● Humidity: Ugbokolo generally has a moderate to high level of humidity, especially

during the rainy season. Humidity levels can range from 70% to 90% or higher,

contributing to the overall tropical feel of the climate.

● Dry Season: The dry season in Ugbokolo usually occurs between November and March.

During this period, rainfall decreases significantly, and the weather is characterized by

lower humidity levels. Dry and dusty Harmattan winds, originating from the Sahara

Desert, may also occur during this time.

● Vegetation: The climate in Ugbokolo supports a mix of vegetation types. The region is

known for savanna woodland, characterized by grasses, scattered trees, and shrubs. The

wet season encourages lush vegetation growth, while the dry season can result in the

drying of vegetation.

● Agriculture: The climate in Ugbokolo is suitable for various agricultural activities. The

combination of warm temperatures and well-distributed rainfall supports the cultivation

of crops such as yam, cassava, rice, maize, and vegetables.

3.1.4 Drainage of the Area

● Benue River: Ugbokolo is situated in close proximity to the Benue River, one of the

major rivers in Nigeria. The Benue River flows through the area, serving as a significant

20
 watercourse. It is part of the larger Niger River system and plays a vital role in the

drainage of the region.

● Tributaries: The drainage of Ugbokolo is influenced by various tributaries that join the

Benue River in the vicinity. These tributaries are smaller rivers or streams that contribute

to the overall drainage network of the area. They receive water from the surrounding hills

and plains and help carry it to the main river.

● Dendritic Pattern: The drainage pattern in Ugbokolo follows a dendritic pattern. This

pattern is characterized by a network of interconnected streams and rivers that resemble

the branches of a tree. The tributaries and smaller streams join together, forming a larger

and more extensive drainage system.

● Floodplains: Given the proximity to the Benue River, Ugbokolo may have areas with

floodplains. During the rainy season, the river may overflow its banks and inundate

nearby low-lying areas. These floodplains can provide fertile soils for agriculture but also

pose challenges in terms of managing floodwaters.

● Water Management: The drainage system in Ugbokolo is essential for managing water

resources, especially during periods of heavy rainfall. Proper water management

practices, such as maintaining and clearing drainage channels, are important for flood

prevention and maintaining the overall balance of the ecosystem.

21
3.2 Geology of the Area - Anambra Basin

The Anambra Basin is a sedimentary basin located in southeastern Nigeria. It is part of the larger

Benue Trough, which extends across Nigeria and into neighboring countries. The basin is named

after the Anambra River, which runs through the area.

1. Geology: The Anambra Basin is primarily composed of sedimentary rocks, which were

deposited over millions of years. The basin is estimated to have formed during the Late

Cretaceous to Paleogene periods, approximately 70 to 45 million years ago. Sediments

deposited in the basin consist of sandstone, shale, clay, coal, and limestone.

2. Coal Deposits: (Coal Formation) One of the significant features of the Anambra Basin is

the extensive coal deposits found within its sedimentary rock layers. The accumulation of

organic matter, such as plant material, in swampy environments during the Early

Cretaceous period led to the formation of coal. The Anambra Basin is known for its

significant coal deposits, which have been mined since the early 20th century. The coal

seams in the basin are typically low- to medium-rank sub bituminous coal, suitable for

energy generation and industrial applications. Coal mining in the Anambra Basin has

contributed to the development of the local economy and energy sector.

3. Oil and Gas Potential: In addition to coal, the Anambra Basin also exhibits potential for

oil and gas resources. Exploration activities have identified oil and gas shows in the

basin, although commercial discoveries have been limited thus far. The basin's petroleum

potential continues to attract interest from oil and gas companies, and further exploration

and appraisal efforts are ongoing.

22
 4. Regional Importance: The Anambra Basin plays a significant role in the regional geology

and economic development of southeastern Nigeria. It is one of the major sedimentary

basins in Nigeria, contributing to the country's overall hydrocarbon resources and energy

production. The basin's coal resources have supported industries such as power

generation, cement production, and manufacturing in the region.

5. Environmental Concerns: Coal mining activities in the Anambra Basin have raised

environmental concerns, including land degradation, water pollution, and air pollution.

The proper management and regulation of coal mining operations are important to

mitigate these environmental impacts and protect the health and well-being of local

communities.

The tectonism in Southern Nigeria probably started in Early Cretaceous, with the separation of

Africa from South America and opening of the Atlantic. This resulted in the development of the

Benue Trough which stretched in a NE-SW direction and rested unconformably upon the

Precambrian basement complex. It extends from the Gulf of Guinea to the Chad Basinand is

thought to have been formed by the Y-shaped (RRR) triple junction ridge system that initiated

the breaking and dispersion of the Afro-Brazilian Plates in the Early Cretaceous (Kogbe, 1989).

After the evolution of the Benue Trough, sediments started depositing into the trough with Asu

River Group being the oldest sediment followed by Ezeaku Group, and Awgu Group

respectively (Nwajide, 1990).

Santonian age marked the stage when the basin experienced another phase of tectonic event that

involved deformation, folding, faulting and uplift of the Pre-Santoniansediments leading to the

formation of Anambra Basin which evolved as a depression to the west of the uplift (Benkhelil,

23
1987). Anambra Basin is a Cretaceous depo-center that received Campanian to Tertiary

sediments (Nwajide, 1990 and Obi, 2000). The stratigraphic setting of Southern Nigeria

comprises sediments of three major sedimentary cycles. The first two cycles belong to the Pre-

Santonian sediments while the third cycle belongs to Post-Santonian sediments which are found

in the Anambra Basin and Afikpo Syncline (Nwajide, 1990).

In Anambra Basin, the strongly folded Albian-Coniacian succession (Pre-Santonian sediments)

is overlain by nearly flat-lying Campanian-Eocene succession. The oldest sediment in the

Anambra Basin is Nkporo Group (Nwajide, 1990). It was deposited into the basin in Late

Campanian.

Nkporo Group is overlain by Mamu Formation. It was deposited in Early Maastrichtian (Kogbe,

1989 and Obi, 2000). It comprises a succession of siltstone, shale, coal seam and sandstone

(Kogbe, 1989). Ajali sandstone (Maastrichtian) overlies Mamu Formation (Reyment, 1965 and

Nwajide, 1990) which is mainly unconsolidated coarse-fine grained, poorly cemented; mudstone

and siltstone (Kogbe, 1989). Ajali Sandstone is overlain by diachronous Nsukka Formation

(Maastrichtian-Danian) which is also known as the Upper Coal Measure (Reyment, 1965 and

Obi, 2000). Imo Shale (Paleocene) overlies Nsukka Formation (Nwajide, 1990). It comprises

clayey shale with occasional ironstone and thin sandstone in which carbonized plant remains

may occur (Kogbe, 1989). The Eocene stage was characterized by a regressive phase that led to

deposition of Ameki Group (Obi, 2000).

24
Figure 2: (Put the name of the diagram, the source and the year.) Eg, Geologic map of Akure

(Balogun, 2023)

Figure 2: (Regional stratigraphy of southeastern Nigeria (Nwajide, 1990)

25
 Tectonic Activity: The formation of the Anambra Basin is closely linked to tectonic

activity in the region. During the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period, the breakup of

the supercontinent Pangaea resulted in the separation of landmasses and the opening of

the Atlantic Ocean. This rifting process created tensional forces that led to the subsidence

of the Benue Trough, including the Anambra Basin.

Sedimentary Deposition: As the Benue Trough subsided, it created a basin-like depression

that became a receptacle for sediments carried by rivers and streams from surrounding

areas. These sediments, consisting of sand, silt, clay, and organic material, were gradually

deposited in the basin over millions of years.

Formation of Sedimentary Layers: The sediments deposited in the Anambra Basin went

through various processes of compaction, cementation, and lithification, transforming

them into sedimentary rock layers. These layers include sandstone, shale, limestone, and

coal.

26
Geological Structures: The Anambra Basin is influenced by various geological structures,

including faults, folds, and fractures. These structures can affect the distribution of

sedimentary rock layers and the occurrence of mineral resources within the basin.

Anambra Basin Formation

1. The Nkporo Formation is a geological formation located in southeastern Nigeria. It is part

of the larger Benue Trough, which extends across several states in Nigeria. The Nkporo

Formation is known for its sedimentary rock layers that were deposited during the

Turonian to Coniacian stages of the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 93 to 89

million years ago. Here is an overview of the Nkporo Formation:

● Depositional Environment: The Nkporo Formation represents a shallow marine to coastal

plain environment that existed during the Late Cretaceous period. It was formed as

sediments were deposited in a nearshore and deltaic setting, influenced by both marine

and terrestrial processes. The area experienced periodic fluctuations in sea levels,

resulting in the deposition of various sediment types.

● Sedimentary Deposition: The sediments in the Nkporo Formation consist of sandstones,

siltstones, shales, and occasional limestone beds. These sediments were primarily derived

from the erosion of nearby land masses and transported by rivers and streams into the

depositional basin. The deposition of sediments was influenced by the flow dynamics of

rivers, the periodic filling and drying of lagoons, and the accumulation of organic matter.

27
● Geological Features: The Nkporo Formation exhibits a layered structure, with distinct

beds of sandstone, siltstone, and shale. The sandstone layers often show cross-bedding

and ripple marks, indicating their deposition in a dynamic coastal environment. The

presence of interbedded shales suggests the occurrence of quieter, low-energy

depositional environments such as lagoons and marshes. Fossilized remains of marine

organisms, including mollusks and foraminifera, have been found within the formation,

providing insights into the ancient marine ecosystems.

● Economic Importance: The Nkporo Formation is not known for significant economic

resources such as coal or oil. However, it contributes to our understanding of the

geological history and paleoenvironmental conditions of the Benue Trough region.

2. The Mamu Formation is a geological formation located in southeastern Nigeria, which is

known for its extensive sedimentary deposits. The Mamu Formation represents a

significant portion of the deltaic deposits in the basin.

● Depositional Environment: The Mamu Formation was primarily formed during the

Miocene epoch, approximately 23 to 5 million years ago. It represents the deposition of

sediments in a shallow marine to deltaic environment. The area experienced a

combination of marine, fluvial (river), and estuarine processes, which influenced the

characteristics of the sediments deposited.

● Sedimentary Deposition: The Mamu Formation consists of a sequence of alternating

sandstones, siltstones, shales, and claystones. These sediments were derived from the

erosion of surrounding landmasses and transported by rivers and streams into the deltaic

28
 environment. The deposition of sediments was influenced by factors such as sediment

supply, sea level fluctuations, and the interaction between marine and riverine processes.

● Geological Features: The Mamu Formation exhibits a complex and heterogeneous

lithology due to its deltaic origin. It comprises various facies, including channel sands,

floodplain deposits, and estuarine sediments. The sandstone layers are commonly

reservoirs for hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas, which are abundant in the Niger Delta

Basin.

● Hydrocarbon Reservoir: The Mamu Formation is an important hydrocarbon reservoir in

the Niger Delta Basin. The organic-rich sediments and the burial and compaction

processes over millions of years have led to the formation of significant oil and gas

deposits within the formation.

● Economic Importance: The Mamu Formation is of significant economic importance due

to its hydrocarbon reserves. It has been extensively explored and exploited for oil and gas

resources, contributing to Nigeria's oil industry.

3. The Ajali Formation is a geological formation located in southeastern Nigeria,

specifically in the Anambra Basin. It is part of the larger Benue Trough, which extends

across several states in Nigeria. The Ajali Formation is known for its sedimentary rock

layers that were deposited during the Early Cretaceous period, approximately 145 to 100

million years ago. Here is an overview of the Ajali Formation:

● Depositional Environment: The Ajali Formation represents a predominantly fluvial and

lacustrine (lake) depositional environment. It was formed as sediments were deposited in

a continental setting, influenced by the activities of rivers, streams, and lakes. The area
29
 experienced periods of alternating wet and dry climatic conditions, resulting in the

deposition of various sediment types.

● Sedimentary Deposition: The sediments in the Ajali Formation consist of sandstones,

siltstones, and shales, with occasional limestone beds. These sediments were primarily

derived from the erosion of nearby land masses and transported by rivers and streams into

the depositional basin. The deposition of sediments was influenced by the flow dynamics

of rivers, the periodic filling and drying of lakes, and the accumulation of organic matter.

● Geological Features: The Ajali Formation exhibits a layered structure, with distinct beds

of sandstone, siltstone, and shale. The sandstone layers often show cross-bedding,

indicating their deposition by ancient river channels and floodplain environments. The

presence of interbedded shales suggests the occurrence of quieter, low-energy

depositional environments such as lakes and ponds. Fossilized plant remains, including

tree stumps and leaves, have been found within the formation, indicating the presence of

ancient terrestrial ecosystems.

● Economic Importance: The Ajali Formation is not known for significant economic

resources such as coal or oil. However, it provides important insights into the

paleoenvironmental conditions and the geological history of the Anambra Basin.

4. The Nsukka Formation is a geological formation located in southeastern Nigeria. The

Nsukka area of Enugu State, which extends across several states in Nigeria. The Nsukka

Formation is characterized by sedimentary rocks that were deposited during the

Cretaceous period, approximately 100 to 66 million years ago. Here is an overview of the

Nsukka Formation:

30
● Depositional Environment: The Nsukka Formation represents a shallow marine to coastal

environment that existed during the Cretaceous period. It was formed as sediments were

deposited in a nearshore and deltaic setting, influenced by both marine and terrestrial

processes. The area experienced fluctuations in sea levels, resulting in the deposition of

various sediment types.

● Sedimentary Deposition: The sediments in the Nsukka Formation consist of a mixture of

sandstones, siltstones, shales, and coal seams. These sediments were primarily derived

from the erosion of nearby land masses and transported by rivers and streams into the

depositional basin.

● Geological Features: The Nsukka Formation exhibits a layered structure, with alternating

beds of sandstone, siltstone, and shale. The sandstone layers often contain cross-bedding

and ripple marks, indicating their deposition in a dynamic coastal environment. The

presence of coal seams within the formation suggests the occurrence of marshy and

swampy conditions during deposition.

● Fossil Record: The Nsukka Formation is known for its fossil content, providing valuable

insights into the ancient flora and fauna that existed during the Cretaceous period. Fossils

of plant remains, marine invertebrates, and trace fossils have been found within the

formation.

● Economic Importance: The Nsukka Formation has economic significance due to its coal

deposits. The coal seams found within the formation have been exploited for both

industrial and domestic purposes.

31
5. The Imo Formation is a geological formation located in southeastern Nigeria, which is

known for its extensive sedimentary deposits. The Imo Formation is composed of various

sedimentary rock layers that were deposited over millions of years.

● Depositional Environment: The Imo Formation was primarily formed during the Late

Cretaceous period, approximately 70 to 100 million years ago. At that time, the area was

a shallow marine environment with abundant marine life and high sedimentation rates.

The deposition of sediments occurred as rivers and streams carried eroded material from

the surrounding landmasses into the marine basin.

● Sedimentary Deposition: The sediments deposited in the Imo Formation consist of a

variety of materials, including sand, silt, clay, and organic matter. The organic matter,

derived from marine and terrestrial sources, played a crucial role in the formation of

hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas.

● Geological Features: The Imo Formation is characterized by alternating layers of

sandstone, siltstone, shale, and mudstone. These layers represent different depositional

environments, ranging from nearshore marine to fluvial and deltaic environments. The

presence of fossil remains and trace fossils within the formation provides valuable

information about the ancient marine and terrestrial ecosystems that existed during its

deposition.

● Hydrocarbon Reservoir: The Imo Formation is an important hydrocarbon reservoir in the

Niger Delta Basin. The organic-rich sediments and the burial and compaction processes

over millions of years have led to the formation of significant oil and gas deposits within

the formation.

32
 ● Subsequent Geological Processes: Over time, subsequent geological processes such as

compaction, cementation, and lithification have transformed the sediments of the Imo

Formation into solid sedimentary rocks.

3.3 Introduction to Mining Operations

Mining is the extraction of valuable geological materials from the Earth and other astronomical

objects. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agricultural

processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Ores recovered by mining

include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash,

gravel, and clay. The ore must be a rock or mineral that contains valuable constituents, can be

extracted or mined and sold for profit. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-

renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.

Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a

proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final reclamation or restoration of the

land after the mine is closed. Mining materials are often obtained from ore bodies, lodes, veins,

seams, reefs, or placer deposits. The exploitation of these deposits for raw materials is dependent

on investment, labor, energy, refining, and transportation cost.

Mining operations can create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity

and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the world's nations have passed regulations to

decrease the impact; however, the outsized role of mining in generating business for often rural,

remote or economically depressed communities means that governments often fail to fully

enforce such regulations. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and where enforced,

modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines. Unregulated or poorly regulated

33
mining, especially in developing economies, frequently contributes to local human rights

violations and environmental conflicts. Mining can also perpetuate political instability through

resource conflicts.

3.3.1 Type of Ore Mined ( COAL)

Coal is a fossil fuel that has been used for centuries as a source of energy. It is primarily

composed of carbon, along with various other elements such as hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and

nitrogen. Coal is formed from the remains of ancient plants that lived and died millions of years

ago in swampy, oxygen-deprived environments. Over time, the layers of plant matter were

subjected to heat and pressure, resulting in the formation of coal.

Coal is black or brownish-black, and has a composition that (including inherent moisture)

consists of more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume of carbonaceous

material. It is formed from plant remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically

altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over geologic time. It is a sedimentary deposit

(rock) that can be burned for fuel and used to generate electricity. It is composed predominantly

of carbon and hydrocarbon that is readily combustible. Coal is the largest source of energy for

generating electricity in the world. Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of ancient

organisms. Because coal takes millions of years to develop and there is a limited amount of it, it

is a nonrenewable resource.

The conditions that would eventually create coal began to develop about 300 million years ago,

during the Carboniferous period. During this time, Earth was covered in wide, shallow seas and

dense forests. The seas occasionally flooded the forested areas, trapping plants and algae at the

bottom of a swampy wetland. Over time, the plants (mostly mosses) and algae were buried and

34
compressed under the weight of overlying mud and vegetation. As the plant debris sifted deeper

under Earth’s surface, it encountered increased temperatures and higher pressure. Mud and acidic

water prevented the plant matter from coming into contact with oxygen. Due to this, the plant

matter decomposed at a very slow rate and retained most of its carbon (source of energy).

These areas of buried plant matter are called peat bogs. Peat bogs store massive amounts of

carbon many meters underground. Peat itself can be burned for fuel, and is a major source of

heat energy in some countries. Under the right conditions, peat transforms into coal through a

process called carbonization. Carbonization takes place under incredible heat and pressure.

About three meters (10 feet) of layered vegetation eventually compresses into a third of a meter

(one foot) of coal.

Coal exists in underground formations called “coal seams” or “coal beds.” A coal seam can be as

thick as 30 meters (90 feet) and stretch 1,500 kilometers (920 miles).

There are four major types (or “ranks”) of coal. Rank refers to steps in a slow, natural process

called “coalification,” during which buried plant matter changes into an ever denser, drier, more

carbon-rich, and harder material. The four ranks are:

1. Lignite

Lignite coal is the lowest rank of coal. It has carbonized past the point of being peat, but

contains low amounts of energy—its carbon content is about 25-35 percent. It comes

from relatively young coal deposits, about 250 million years old.

Lignite, a crumbly brown rock also called brown coal or rosebud coal, retains more

moisture than other types of coal. This makes it expensive and dangerous to mine, store,
35
and transport. It is susceptible to accidental combustion and has very high carbon

emissions when burned. Most lignite coal is used in power stations very close to where it

was mined.

2. Sub-Bituminous Coal

The type of coal found in Nigeria is the sub bituminous coal. Sub-bituminous coal is

about 100 million years old. It contains more carbon than lignite, about 35-45 percent. In

many parts of the world, sub-bituminous coal is considered “dark brown to black coal,”

along with lignite. Like lignite, sub-bituminous coal is mainly used as fuel for generating

electricity. Sub-bituminous coals may be soft and crumbly at the lower end of the range,

to bright jet-black, hard and relatively strong at the upper end. They contain 15-30%

inherent moisture by weight and are non-cooking (undergo little swelling upon heating).

The heat content of sub-bituminous coals range from 8300 to 11,500 BTu/b or 19.3 to

26.7 MJ/kg. Their relatively low density and high water content renders some types of

sub-bituminous coals susceptible to spontaneous combustion if not packed densely during

storage in order to exclude free air flow.

3. Bituminous Coal

Bituminous coal is formed under more heat and pressure, and is 100 million to 300

million years old. It is named after the sticky, tar-like substance called bitumen that is

also found in petroleum. It contains about 45-86 percent carbon. Coal is a sedimentary

rock, and bituminous coal frequently contains “bands,” or strips, of different consistency

that mark the layers of plant material that were compressed.

Bituminous coal is divided into three major types: smithing coal, cannel coal, and coking

36
 coal. Smithing coal has very low ash content, and is ideal for forges, where metals are

heated and shaped. Cannel coal was extensively used as a source of coal oil in the 19th

century. Coal oil is made by heating cannel coal with a controlled amount of oxygen, a

process called pyrolysis. Coal oil was used primarily as fuel for streetlights and other

illumination. The widespread use of kerosene reduced the use of coal oil in the 20th

century. Coking coal is used in large-scale industrial processes. The coal is coked, a

process of heating the rock in the absence of oxygen. This reduces the moisture content

and makes it a more stable product. The steel industry relies on coking coal.

4. Anthracite

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It has the most amount of carbon, up to 97 percent,

and therefore contains the most energy. It is harder, more dense, and more lustrous than

other types of coal. Almost all the water and carbon dioxide have been expelled, and it

does not contain the soft or fibrous sections found in bituminous coal or lignite.

Because anthracite is a high-quality coal, it burns cleanly, with very little soot. It is more

expensive than other coals, and is rarely used in power plants. Instead, anthracite is

mainly used in stoves and furnaces.

Anthracite is also used in water-filtration systems. It has tinier pores than sand, so more

harmful particles are trapped. This makes water safer for drinking, sanitation, and

industry. Anthracite can typically be found in geographical areas that have undergone

particularly stressful geologic activity.

3.3.2 Types of Mining

There are several types of mining methods used to extract minerals and resources from the

Earth's crust. The choice of mining method depends on factors such as the type of deposit, its
37
depth, and the economics of extraction. Each mining method has its advantages and

disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on geological, economic, and environmental

factors.

1. Open-pit Mining: This method involves extracting minerals or other materials that are near

the surface. Large open pits are created using heavy machinery to remove overburden

(soil and rock covering the deposit). The extracted ore is then processed. Open-pit mining

is commonly used for minerals like coal, copper, gold, and iron ore. Similar to the open

pit mining is the open cast mining.The only difference is the overburden is cast back into

the pit as soon as the ore has been extracted. This is the type of mining adopted by

Dangote Coal Mines Ltd.

2. Underground Mining: This method is used when minerals are located deep beneath the

Earth's surface.

3. Placer Mining: This method involves the extraction of minerals from alluvial deposits,

such as rivers, streams, or beach sands. Miners use tools like pans, sluice boxes, and

dredges to separate valuable minerals, such as gold and gemstones, from the sediment.

4. Mountaintop Removal Mining: This method is specific to coal mining and involves the

removal of the summit or the upper portion of a mountain to access coal seams. The

overburden and waste rock are typically dumped into nearby valleys, resulting in

significant environmental impacts.

5. In-situ Mining: This method is used for extracting minerals that are too deep or impractical

to remove using traditional mining techniques. Instead of extracting the ore, chemicals or

38
 solvents are injected into the deposit to dissolve or leach the desired minerals, which are

then recovered at the surface.

3.3.3 Stages of Mining

There are four stages in mining. Prospecting and exploration, Development, Exploitation/

extraction and lastly, Closure and reclamation, although some schools of thought argue that there

are five by splitting prospecting and exploration. Each stage may overlap with the next and is

very lengthy and expensive.

3.4.1 Prospecting and Exploration

Prospecting and exploration are precursors to mining and often occur simultaneously.

Prospecting is the process of searching the region for mineral deposits. Historically, prospectors

would explore a region on foot with a pick and shovel. Modern prospecting uses a variety of

geological methods. Geology experts use a direct method to discover surface mineral deposits by

examining the area visually. Geophysics experts use an indirect method to identify underground

mineral deposits by detecting rock alterations under the surface. Geochemistry can also be used

to analyze samples of soil, rock, and water. These methods are supplemented by aerial or satellite

photography, and combined with historical maps and literature to develop detailed maps of

surface and underground rock formations. Drilling is used to search for mineral occurrences or

the clues in the rocks that may lead to them. Information gathered in this stage may or may not

lead to a discovery of valuable minerals.

Surveying

39
Surveyors in the mining industry fulfill an essential function since they provide indispensable

information to all the other mining disciplines. Mining surveyors are responsible for the accurate

measurement of areas and volumes mined, plus the precise representation of the surface and

underground situation on mining plans. They are also responsible for estimating the amount of

money given to the land owners. In Dangote Coal Mines, the cashew trees are counted and the

farmer is paid for both the tree and land. The two major instruments used by the surveyor are

Total station and Global Positioning System (GPS)

Exploration Diamond Drilling

This is used in the mining industry to probe the contents of known ore deposits and potential

sites. By withdrawing a small diameter core of rock from the orebody, geologists can analyze the

core by chemical assay and conduct petrologic, structural, and mineralogical studies of the rock.

Exploration diamond drilling differs from other geological drilling (such as Reverse Circulation

(RC) Drilling) in that a solid core is extracted from depth, for examination on the surface. The

key technology of the diamond drill is the actual diamond bit itself. It is composed of industrial

diamonds set into a soft metallic matrix. The diamonds are scattered throughout the matrix, and

the action relies on the matrix to slowly wear during the drilling process, so as to expose more

diamonds. The bit is mounted onto a core barrel which is attached to the drill string, which is

connected to a rotary drill rig. Drilling mud is injected into the drill pipe, so as to wash out the

rock cuttings produced by the bit and also to reduce the heat produced due to friction which

causes less wear and tear of the bits. An actual diamond bit is a complex affair, usually designed

for a specific rock type, with many channels for washing.

40
The drill uses a diamond encrusted drill bit to drill through the rock. The drill rod is 3m

therefore, each run is 3m. When a rod is run into the ground completely, a wireline System

enables the retrieval of the core sample without having to disassemble the drill string. A wireline

is a thin cable that runs through the drill string and is connected to the core barrel. After drilling,

the core barrel is detached from the drill string and brought to the surface while leaving the

wireline in place. This allows for faster drilling and more efficient core retrieval.

41
Plate 1: Diamond drilling machine and the drilling mud tanks

42
Core extraction

1. Detaching the Core Barrel: The core barrel, which contains the extracted core sample, is

disconnected from the drill string. This is usually done at the drill site or at the surface by

loosening the threaded connections between the core barrel and the drill rods.

2. Retrieving the Core Barrel: The core barrel is carefully lifted to the surface using a

wireline system, allowing the core barrel to be retrieved without disassembling the drill

string.

3. Removing the Core Sample: Once the core barrel is at the surface, the core sample is

extracted from the barrel. The core sample is a cylindrical section of the drilled material

that provides valuable information about the geological formations, such as rock type,

structure, and potential resources.

4. Core Sample Handling: The extracted core sample is typically examined and analyzed by

geologists and other specialists.

5. Reassembling the Drill String: After removing the core sample, the drill string is

reassembled, and drilling operations can continue if additional samples are required or

the drilling program is ongoing.

Core logging

Core logging is a crucial process in geology and mining that involves the detailed examination

and description of the core samples obtained through drilling, particularly diamond core drilling.

Core logging provides valuable information about the geological characteristics, rock types,

mineralogy, structure, and other features of the subsurface formations. This information is
43
essential for understanding the geology of the area, assessing resource potential, and making

informed decisions during exploration, mining, and engineering projects.

The core logging process typically involves the following steps:

1. Visual Examination: The core sample is visually inspected to identify and record

important features. This includes observing the color, texture, grain size, bedding planes,

fractures, and any visible minerals or mineralization within the core.

2. Measurement and Orientation: Various measurements are taken, such as core diameter,

length, and weight. The orientation of the core is also determined, noting the azimuth and

dip angles to understand the structural orientation of the rock formations.

3. Description and Classification: The core is described in detail, including lithology (rock

type), texture, mineral composition, presence of fossils or sedimentary structures, and any

significant variations within the core. Standard classification systems such as the Rock

Color Chart, Rock Identification Key, or geological codes may be used for consistent and

accurate descriptions.

4. Data Entry: Core logging data is typically recorded in a spreadsheet. This allows for

efficient data entry and standardized logging formats. Information regarding core depths,

descriptions, photographs, and additional measurements can be recorded digitally.

5. Sample Collection: During core logging, representative samples are collected at specific

intervals in 1m for further laboratory analysis. These samples are carefully extracted,

marked, and labeled to maintain their correlation with the core and ensure accurate

analysis.

44
Table 1: Data showing the Borehole Lithologic Log Sheet of Olamaboro/Ugbokolo Coal Project

OLAMABORO/ UGBOKOLO COAL PROJECT

BOREHOLE LITHOLOGIC LOG SHEET

Date Of

BOREHOLE NO: MU- Commencement: 29- Weathered Total Depth:

OLM-219 01Rig 03-2023 Mantle: 24.50m

Mr. Coordinates: E

KOL Date Of Closure: 31 - Depth of 358635,N

RL(m): 246 A 03-2023 water Table: 793700

Seam

Depth
Extrap
(m) Remarks
Recov olated

Total ered Thickn Floor Structur

From Run Recov Strata ess Depth Lithologic SECTI Roof / al

(m) To (m) (m) ered (m) (m) (m) Descriptions ON Floor Features

45
 Brown F.G

0.00 3.00 3.00 Sludge Sludge 3.00 3.00 sandy sludge

3.00 6.00 3.00 Sludge Sludge 3.00 Ditto

Light brown

F.G sandy

6.00 9.00 3.00 Sludge Sludge 3.00 sludge

Pink partly

compacted

9.00 12.00 3.00 0.35 0.35 3.00 claystone

Pink

compacted

12.00 15.00 3.00 2.73 0.40 0.40 claystone

Gray

compacted

1.00 1.10 shale

1.33 1.50 Gray

compacted

46
 sandstone

Light gray

compacted

15.00 18.00 3.00 1.50 0.40 0.80 sandstone

Dark grey

compacted

0.50 1.00 sandstone

White partly

compacted

0.50 0.90 claystone

Pink partly

compacted

0.10 0.30 claystone

Light brown

compacted

18.00 21.00 3.00 2.60 0.80 1.00 sandstone

0.50 0.70 Pink

compacted

47
 claystone

Gray

compacted

1.30 1.30 shale

Gray

compacted

21.00 24.00 3.00 3.00 0.05 0.05 carb shale

21.05 -

2.75 2.75 COAL 23.80 2.75m

Gray

compacted

sandstone

with coal

0.20 0.20 streak

24.00 27.00 3.00 0.50 0.10 0.10 ditto

0.40 0.40 Gray

compacted

48
 sandstone

HOLE

CLOSED AT

24.50m

49
Plate 2: On the site carrying out core logging

50
3.4.2 Development

Development involves extensive pre-development planning and paperwork. Budget and financial

reports are prepared and permits are requested. Reports regarding potential impacts on the

environment and nearby communities are generated. Plans are assessed regarding the mining

process/technology that will be used, building of access roads for transportation, identification of

resources such as power and water sources, and construction of ore processing facilities and

disposal areas for waste. At this stage, just enough development of the mine site is performed to

ensure that it will be able to be productive for the life of the mine, without later interruption.

Plans are made for the appropriate type of mining that will be performed in this case, surface

mining (open-cast mining). Temporary offices are also constructed within the mines vicinity.

Overburden Removal (ORB)

This is another critical stage in the mine development. In mining, overburden (also called waste

or spoil) is the material that lies above an area that lends itself to economical exploitation, such

as the rock, soil, and ecosystem that lies above a coal seam or ore body. In many mineral

industries, like the coal industry, in open cast mines, coal can be extracted only after removing

layers of soil, stone etc. This soil and stone etc is known as overburden. The removal of this

overburden is known as “Overburden Removal” (OBR) and involves heavy cost.

OBR is an important performance parameter as it exposes the coal seam.

Stripping activity – It is the activity of overburden removal that benefits the identified

component of an ore to be mined by the entity.

51
Standard stripping ratio - the ratio of “overburden (OB) to be removed” to “the mineral to be

produced” during the whole project life. Suppose in an opencast mine, 20 lakh CuM OB will be

removed during the lifetime (suppose 15 years) against the production of 10 lakh Te of coal, the

standard stripping ratio will be 2.1

The overburden material was of two types, soft material (soft rock), and shale (hard rock). The

cover soil excavation was done on liberty in the parts that were soft rock. However, the shale

material is a strong one, therefore, blasting had to be done. The blasting done was designed to

correspond to coal production.

52
Plate 3: Heavy machines in the pit during development

53
Drilling and Blasting

Drilling and blasting are integral processes in coal mining operations.

1. Drilling: Drilling is the process of creating holes in the rock or coal to facilitate the

placement of explosives. In coal mining, two common drilling methods are used:

a. Rotary Drilling: This method involves using a rotary bit attached to a rotating drill

string to penetrate the rock or coal. The drill bit cuts and breaks the material as it

rotates, creating a hole. Rotary drilling is commonly used for drilling boreholes

for coal exploration, coal sample collection, and in preparation for blasting. This

is the method that was used in Dangote Coal Mines.

2. Blasting: Blasting is the controlled use of explosives to break or fragment the rock or coal.

In coal mining, blasting is primarily used for the removal of overburden (the layers of

soil, rock, and vegetation covering the coal seam) and for the extraction of coal itself. The

process involves the following steps:

a. Blasthole Charging: Explosives are loaded into the pre-drilled blastholes. The

type and amount of explosives used depend on the specific requirements of the

coal seam and the desired fragmentation.

54
 b. Stemming: Stemming refers to the placement of an inert material, such as crushed

rock or sand, on top of the explosives in the blasthole. Stemming helps contain the

explosive energy and improves the efficiency of the blast by directing the energy

towards the desired fracture planes.

c. Detonation: The explosives are detonated, typically through the use of an electric

detonator or blasting cap. The detonation releases a high-energy shock wave that

breaks the coal or rock, creating a blast pattern and fragmentation suitable for

excavation.

d. Flyrock and Vibration Control: Measures are taken to control potential hazards

associated with blasting, such as flyrock (rock fragments thrown from the blast

area) and ground vibrations. Techniques like proper blast design, blast timing, and

appropriate blasthole loading help minimize these risks.

Safety protocols and regulations are followed during drilling and blasting operations in coal

mines. These include conducting risk assessments, implementing safety procedures, ensuring

proper training of personnel, and adhering to local mining regulations and guidelines.

Drilling and blasting play a crucial role in coal mining as they enable efficient extraction of coal

and the removal of overburden. They require expertise and careful planning to optimize results

while maintaining safety standards within the mining operation.

55
Plate 4: Placing of explosives in drilled blast holes

Plate 5: Drilled blast hole

56
Water Bailing or Water Clearance

In mining operations, water clearance or water management is an important aspect to ensure the

safety and efficiency of the mining process. During ORB, ground water occupies places that are

undergoing development and slows down operation therefore, different dewatering techniques

are employed to clear water from mining areas, depending on the specific circumstances and the

volume of water involved i.e the use of pumping machine to draw the water out and also

challenging the water in the direction that have been mined so as to create space.

57
Plate 6: Water bailing with the use of a pumping machine

58
3.4.3 Exploitation or Extraction

In the extraction stage the coal is removed from the earth in large and small quantities depending

on the method used. This stage is typically what we envision when we think of mining. Some

exploration and development may continue at this stage, as well. The extraction stage can take

from 7-12 years to complete.

Coal Extraction or Coal Mining

Coal extraction activity is the core activity in coal mining. Coal extraction activity is the

continuation of the overburden removal. After the topsoil and subsoil layers are successfully

removed, the areas to be mined are disclosed accordingly. Thus, the coal is extracted (exploited)

with the use of a surface miner. The surface miner is positioned and moved along the coal seam

using its own tracks or wheels. The cutting drum or cutting head, which contains rotating cutter

tools, is lowered onto the coal seam. The cutter tools on the drum or head engage with the coal,

cutting and dislodging it from the surrounding rock. As the cutter tools rotate, they extract the

coal from the seam and deliver it onto a conveyor system or directly into trucks. Periods when

the surface miner had mechanical problems the excavator was used to cut the coal in large

boulders which had to be crushed into smaller sizes by a bulldozer.

To mine the coal (coal extraction) itself, it is necessary to have coal cleaning activity. The

purpose of the activity of cleaning coal is to remove impurities in the form of minor waste

material soil from the surface of coal (coal face), as well as other impurities that were the result

of precipitation agents (surface water, rainwater, avalanches). Majority of this work is done at

the coal quality department.

59
 Coal Hauling

Coal hauling refers to the transportation of coal from the mining site to its intended destination,

such as a processing plant, power plant, or storage facility. After coal is extracted from the mine,

it needs to be transported efficiently and safely to its final destination for further processing or

utilization. Haul trucks or dumpers are commonly used for coal transportation in open-pit or

surface mining operations. These are large, heavy-duty trucks specifically designed for hauling

heavy loads over long distances. Haul trucks have a high load capacity and can transport large

volumes of coal in a single trip. They are typically operated by skilled drivers and are equipped

with safety features to ensure secure coal transport. In Dangote Coal Mines, the haul trucks

don’t transport coal to the power plant but take it to the coal yard for the coal quality department

to work on.

3.4.4 Closure/ Reclamation

Dangote coal mines ltd. began planning for mine closure and reclamation early. Even before a mine is

allowed to open, a reclamation plan must be set in place for its closure. In these reclamation plans the

mining operator describes the processes it will use to attempt to restore or redevelop the land that has

been mined to a more natural or economically usable state. This can include removing buildings and

roads as well as covering up and re-vegetating rock piles. Federal and state regulations require mining

companies to post funding for closure before the mining project begins. This is to ensure that

reclamation is completed at the end of the mining closure. Once the mine has been depleted or is no

longer economically feasible to continue mining, the mining operators must contact local and state

agencies to close the mine, and must comply with their respective regulations.

60
The closure plan must be approved by a variety of mining stakeholders, including government and

community members. Considerations when planning for closure include: protecting public health and

safety, addressing environmental damage, returning the land to its original state or an acceptable new

use, and sustaining social and economic benefits brought by the mine. The succeeding custodian, the

party responsible for the land after the mine closes, should establish an agreement with the mining

company early in the life cycle of the mine, to develop a closure plan that minimizes risks and

liabilities.

The cost of closing a mine depends on the age, location, type, and size of mine, amount of waste,

geological characteristics, and type of mineral being extracted. It is often less expensive for a mining

company operating the mine to close a mine themselves than for the succeeding custodian to close it.

Dangote Coal Mines is situated on a very large cashew farm owned by different individuals. The life

span of the mine is 7-10 years and according to the agreement, it has to be returned back to its

original owners. Reclamation has starred in the parts of the mines where the coal has been completely

exploited as shown in figure below.

61
Plate 7: A piece of mined land undergoing reclamation

62
Reclamation equipment

Equipment used in reclaiming mined lands includes bulldozers, scrapers, graders, and other

equipment used extensively in agriculture. Reclamation operations, which include backfilling the

last cut after coal removal, regrading the final surface, and revegetating and restoring the land for

future use, are integrated with the mining operation in a timely manner in order to reduce erosion

and sediment discharge, slope instability, and water-quality problems.

A primary goal of reclamation is to restore or enhance the land-use capability of disturbed land.

Various reclamation programs aim at restoring the ground for farming and livestock raising,

reforestation, recreation, and housing and industrial sites. Even spoil banks that can be reverted

present only minor problems and have great potential for development.

3.4 Coal Quality and Dispatch

Coal Quality

Coal quality in Dangote coal mines ltd. wasn't extensive, no laboratory work was done. All

activities in this department took place at the coal yard. Basically, we had to differentiate

between coal, carbonated coal, shalely coal and shalely coal.

All these different products mined can be burned but at different levels so they all have to be

mixed to get the best out of them.

When there is a large production of carbonated shale, and less coal, they would be mixed

together because the carbonated shale will not burn as well as coal would.

Coal washing
63
This activity also goes on in the coal yard.

Coal washing or coal beneficiation, is a process of removing impurities from raw coal to improve

its quality and suitability for specific applications. The goal of coal washing is to reduce the ash

content, sulfur content, and moisture content of coal, as well as improve its calorific value and

overall combustion efficiency. The process involves several steps and techniques to separate the

impurities from the coal, resulting in a cleaner and more valuable product.

● Sizing and Crushing: The coal is initially crushed and screened into different sizes to

separate it into various coal fractions. This step helps in optimizing the coal-washing

process by ensuring the coal particles are of the desired size.

● Dense Medium Separation (DMS): DMS is a gravity-based separation technique that

utilizes a dense medium, usually a suspension of finely ground magnetite or ferrosilicon,

to separate coal from the impurities. The different densities of coal and impurities allow

for the separation of coal particles based on their specific gravity.

● Dewatering: Dewatering involves removing excess moisture from the coal to improve its

handling, storage, and combustion properties. Techniques such as centrifuges, filters, or

thermal drying are employed to reduce the moisture content of the washed coal.

Dispatch

This department is responsible for measuring and recording the amount of tons of coal carried

out of the site. I was incharge of the weighbridge system where I measured how many tons a

truck is when empty and how many tons it is when it is loaded with coal. The difference between

64
both is the amount of tons the truck carried. This process is repeated for over 30 trucks and the

sum total of the tons of coal is recorded.

65
Plate 8: The coal yard

66
Plate 9 : Dispatch department; weighbridge system software

3.5 Machines/ Instruments and their uses

Machines used in the Mining Department includes;

1. Surface Miner

A surface miner, also known as a surface mining machine or surface mining equipment,

is a specialized machine used in surface mining operations to extract minerals, including

coal, and others. It is designed to efficiently and selectively remove the desired minerals

or ores from the earth's surface, while minimizing the need for drilling, blasting, and

other traditional excavation methods.

67
Plate 10 : Descending the surface miner

68
2. Dumpers

A dumper, also known as a dump truck or tipper truck, is a specialized vehicle designed

for the transportation of bulk materials, such as sand, or coal. It is widely used in various

industries, including construction, mining, and transportation, to efficiently move large

quantities of loose materials from one location to another.

There are different types of dump trucks but only two were used by the company.

a. Articulated Dump Trucks (ADT): Articulated dump trucks are a type of dumper with a

pivot joint between the cab and the dump body. This joint allows the truck to maneuver

easily on uneven terrain by articulating or bending in the middle. ADTs are commonly

used in construction and mining applications. It is also called a 40 tons dumper. It was

mostly used to transport coal from the pit to the coal yard.

b. Rigid Dump Trucks (RDT): Rigid dump trucks have a solid frame without a pivot joint.

They are generally larger (100 tons) and have higher load capacities compared to ADTs.

Rigid dump trucks are commonly used in large-scale mining operations and heavy

construction projects.

69
Plate 11 : Articulated dump truck at the coal yard (ADT)

70
Plate 12: Rigid dump truck (RDT)

3. Wheel loader

A wheel loader, also known as a front-end loader or bucket loader, is a heavy equipment

machine used in construction, mining, and other industries. It is designed to scoop and

load materials, such as soil, gravel, sand, rocks, and other loose materials, into a dump

truck, conveyor belt, or similar transportation vehicle.

It has a bucket shaped like two hands joined together facing upward. It is used in

development of the site to out overburden in dumpers. It is also to crush coal extracted by

an excavator.

71
72
Plate 13: Wheel loader at the coal yard

73
4. Bulldozer

A bulldozer is a powerful heavy equipment machine primarily used in construction and

earthmoving projects. It is designed to push large quantities of soil, rubble, or other

materials during grading, excavating, or clearing operations. Bulldozers typically have a

large metal blade mounted on the front of the vehicle that can be angled and lowered to

push materials in front of the machine.

74
75
Plate 14 : Bulldozer in the pit

76
5. Crane

A crane is a type of machine that is used for lifting and moving heavy objects. It is

equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, which allow it to perform

various lifting and lowering operations. Cranes are of different types but the mobile

Crane is what was used by Dangote coal mines. These are versatile cranes mounted on

wheeled or tracked vehicles, allowing them to be easily transported to different locations.

Mobile cranes can have telescopic or lattice booms and are commonly used in

construction projects.

77
Plate 15: A crane at the site

78
6. Excavator

An excavator is a heavy construction machine that is commonly used in excavation,

demolition, mining, and other earth-moving operations. It is a type of heavy equipment

that consists of a boom, stick (also known as an arm or dipper), bucket, and a rotating

platform called the "house" or "upper structure." Excavators are also known as diggers or

hydraulic excavators due to their hydraulic systems that power their movements. It was

79
used for bailing water, it was also used during development to put overburden in

dumpers. The excavator was used to cut coal whenever the surface miner wasn't

available.

80
Plate 16: Excavator machine parking coal into a dumper

81
7. Drilling machine

A drilling machine for blasting, also known as a blast hole drill or rock drill, is a

specialized piece of equipment used in mining, quarrying, and construction activities to

create holes in the ground for the placement of explosives. These explosives are then

detonated to break up rock or earth materials for various purposes. The drilling machine

operator follows specific drilling patterns and depths based on the blasting plan to ensure

optimal fragmentation and controlled blasting. Once the holes are drilled and explosives

are properly placed, the blasting process is carried out by qualified personnel, following

strict safety protocols.

82
Plate 17 : Studying the parts of a drilling machine

83
Machines and instruments in Exploration and surveying departments

1. GPS: stands for Global Positioning System. It is a satellite-based navigation system that

provides location and time information anywhere on or near the Earth's surface. GPS

consists of a network of satellites orbiting the Earth, ground control stations, and GPS

receivers.

The system operates by utilizing signals transmitted from multiple satellites to determine the

precise position, velocity, and time synchronization of GPS receivers. GPS receivers receive

signals from two to four satellites simultaneously and use the time delay between the

84
transmission and reception of these signals to calculate the receiver's position through a process

called trilateration.

GPS technology enables a wide range of applications, including navigation, surveying, mapping,

emergency response, tracking, calculating area, outdoor recreational activities, and more.

a. Navigation and Mapping: GPS enables precise navigation and mapping

capabilities in remote and unfamiliar terrains. Explorers can use handheld GPS

devices to determine their exact location, track their routes, waypoint, calculate

area and create accurate maps of the areas they explore. This helps in creating

detailed records of exploration activities and facilitates future exploration or

research in the same area.

b. Surveying and Geophysical Exploration: GPS technology is used in surveying

and geophysical exploration to determine the precise coordinates and elevations

of specific points on the Earth's surface. By combining GPS with other surveying

techniques, explorers can accurately measure distances, angles, and elevations,

aiding in the creation of topographic maps, identification of geological

formations, and assessment of natural resources.

2. Total Station

85
A total station is a surveying instrument that combines the functions of an electronic

theodolite (used for measuring angles) and an electronic distance measuring device

(EDM) to determine distances. It is widely used in land surveying, They provide accurate

and precise measurements of angles, distances, and elevations, allowing surveyors and

engineers to gather data for mapping, design, and construction purposes. They have

become essential tools for professionals in the field, helping to improve efficiency and

accuracy in various applications.

86
 Plate 18: Global Positioning System (GPS)

Plate 19 : Total Station

87
 3. Diamond Drilling Machine

A diamond drilling machine, also known as a diamond core drilling machine, is a specialized

tool used in construction, mining, and exploration industries for drilling precise holes in hard

materials such as concrete, rock, asphalt, and other solid surfaces. It utilizes diamond drill bits,

which are tipped with industrial-grade diamonds for efficient cutting and drilling.

Diamond drilling machines employ diamond-tipped drill bits. These drill bits consist of a steel

body with a layer of industrial diamonds attached to the cutting end. The diamonds provide

exceptional hardness and durability, enabling them to cut through hard materials effectively.

Diamond drilling machines are primarily used for core drilling, which involves drilling

cylindrical holes to extract core samples or create openings for various applications. The

resulting core sample provides valuable information about the composition, structure, and quality

of the drilled material. These machines typically consist of a drilling rig and a motor. The rig

provides stability and support during the drilling process, while the motor supplies the power to

rotate the drill bit. The motor may be electrically powered or run by hydraulic or pneumatic

systems, depending on the machine's design and application.

Diamond drilling generates a significant amount of heat due to the friction between the drill bit

and the material being drilled. To prevent overheating and maintain the integrity of the

diamonds, diamond drilling machines incorporate water cooling and lubrication systems. Water

is continuously supplied to the drill bit to cool it down and remove debris from the drilling area.

Diamond drilling machines offer versatility in terms of hole diameter and depth. They can create

holes ranging from a few millimeters to several meters in diameter, depending on the machine's
88
capabilities and the required application. The depth of the holes can also vary significantly, from

shallow depths to several hundred meters or more. In Dangote coal mines Ltd. The Diamond

drilling machine’s caving pipe is 1.5m, 86mm x diameter, the inner tube is 3m, 50mm x

diameter, the drilling rod is 3m, 70mm x diameter. The first drilling pipe put in the core barrel is

4m.

89
 Plate 20 : Diamond Drilling Machine, Drilling Rods and Drilling Bits

Machines and instruments in the Coal quality and Dispatch

90
 1. Weighing Bridge

A weighing bridge is a specialized platform or structure used for weighing vehicles and

determining their weight. It is typically installed on roads, highways, or industrial sites where

accurate weight measurements of vehicles are necessary for various purposes, such as

determining the tons of coal dispatched in a day.

2. Truck

A truck is a type of motor vehicle designed for transporting goods or cargo. It is typically

larger and more robust than a car and has a spacious cargo area for carrying various types

of loads. Trucks are widely used in industries such as logistics, construction, agriculture,

and commerce due to their ability to handle heavy loads and navigate different terrains.

Because of the nature of this machine, they are used to transport coal to various Dangote

cement plants in Nigeria.

91
Plate 21 : A Truck on a weighing bridge

Plate 22 : A truck at the coal yard being loaded with coal

92
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Conclusion

My six-month industrial attachment with Dangite Coal Mines Limited was one of the most

fascinating, fruitful, productive, and educational experiences of my life. This training provided

me with new insights and a more comprehensive understanding of real-world industry working

conditions and practices; it also improved my technical and functional skills. All of these

valuable experiences and knowledge that I have gained have come not only from direct

participation in tasks, but also from other aspects of training such as work observation,

interactions with my superiors, and other professionals.

My participation in various projects and the challenges they posed greatly expanded my

knowledge and experience. This also enhanced my interpersonal relationships and confidence

with a number of other professionals.

4.2 Recommendation

The opportunity the SIWES program provides goes beyond acquiring practical knowledge as a

means of commiserating theoretical knowledge acquired in school, rather it also helps students in

aspects of career building and how to manage real life situations. As such, I recommend the

program should be extended to other non-science courses, as this would enable them to have a

better understanding of their various courses of study.

The SIWES program should replace the SWEP program, although both are aimed at improving

student’s practical prowess but in my opinion the SIWES program provides a better platform to

93
do so. This would also mean, students having more experience and of course more familiar with

the industry upon graduation.

The institution concerned should form partnerships with various industries, so the stress of

getting a place of attachment would be minimal and also reduce exploitation.

94
 References

Adeigbe, O.C and Salufu A.E 2009. Geology and Depositional Environment of Canpano-

Maastrichtian Sediments in the Anambra Basin in Southeastern Nigeria.

Adeyinka O.Omotehinse and Bankole D. Ako 2018. The Environmental implications of

Exploitation of Solid Minerals in Nigeria with a special focus on Tin in Jos and Coal in

Enugu.

Awwad H. Altti, Rami O. Alawashdeh and Hani M. Ainwafleh 2019. Open pit

Mining

Adeyinka O, Spezzaferri, and Silvia 2006. A paleoenvironmental assessment of the

Anambra Basin pp 221-236
A.S. Ekine 2008. Burial history analysis and subsidence in the Anambra Basin, Nigeria

Fajemila, Olugbenga T, and Aturamu 2004. Benthic foraminifera from the

Campanian–Maastrichtian shales of the Mamu Formation at the Benin flank of the
Anambra Basin, southern Nigeria
J. Benkhelil and J. Afr.1989. The origin and evolution of the Cretaceous Benue Trough
(Nigeria)
K.O. Ladipo and J. Afr. 1988. Paleogeography, sedimentation and tectonics of the
upper Cretaceous Anambra basin, south-eastern Nigeria
Smith, J., Johnson, A., & Brown, R. Y 2018. Geological Survey of Mineral Deposits in

the Anambra Basin pp: 112-128

S.M Gandhi and B.C. Sarkar 2016. Essentials of Mineral Exploration and Evaluation.
Ryan Driskell Tate 2021. Places of Overburden: Strip Mining and Reclamation.
M. Albert Evans and Raja Vankat Ramani . Britannica

Burns, Daniel 1907. The modern practice of coal mining.

Chirons, Nicholas P. 1978. Coal Age Handbook of Coal Surface Mining.

Hayes, Geoffrey 2004. Coal MiningNational Energy Information Center.

95
Charles V. Nielsen and George F. Richardson. 1982. Keystone Coal Industry Manual.

Saleem H. Ali 2006. Minding our Minerals.

World Coal Institute. The Coal Resource 2005.

Olayiwola and Moshood A.

Dangote Coal Mine Magazine

Wikipedia

96