104 Chapter 3 Matter and Minerals

3.9 Common Silicate Minerals

The major groups of silicate minerals and common examples are given in Figure 3.34. The feldspars
are, by far, the most plentiful silicate group, comprising more than 50 percent of Earth’s crust.
Quartz, the second-most-abundant mineral in the continental crust, is the only common mineral
made completely of silicon and oxygen.

Figure 3.34 Common

silicate minerals Mineral/Formula Cleavage Silicate Structure Example
Note that the complexity
of the silicate structure
Single tetrahedra
­increases from top to
­bottom. (Photos by a: Marcel Olivine group
None
Clemens / Shutterstock; b: E. J. (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
Tarbuck; c-g: Dennis Tasa
Olivine

Single chains
Pyroxene group
Two planes at
(Augite)
90°
(Mg,Fe)SiO3

Augite
Double chains

Amphibole group
Two planes at
(Hornblende)
60° and 120°
Ca2 (Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2

Hornblende

Sheets Biotite

Biotite
K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
Micas

One plane

Muscovite
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Muscovite

Potassium feldspar Three-dimensional Potassium

(Orthoclase) networks feldspar
Feldspars

KAlSi3O8 Two planes at

90°
Plagioclase
(Ca,Na)AlSi3O8

Quartz
None
SiO2

Quartz
 3.9 Common Silicate Minerals 105

Most silicate minerals form when molten rock cools Potassium Feldspar Figure 3.35 Feldspar
and crystallizes. Cooling can occur at or near Earth’s minerals
surface (low temperature and pressure) or at great A. Characteristic crystal
depths (high temperature and pressure). The environ- form of potassium feldspar.
B. Like this sample, most
ment during crystallization and the chemical composi-
pink feldspar belongs to
tion of the molten rock determine, to a large degree, the potassium feldspar
which minerals are produced. For example, the silicate subgroup. C. Most sodium-
mineral olivine crystallizes early, whereas quartz forms rich plagioclase feldspar
much later in the crystallization process. is light colored and has
In addition, some silicate minerals form at Earth’s a porcelain luster. D.
surface from the weathered products of other silicate A. Potassium feldspar B. Potassium feldspar showing Calcium-rich plagioclase
crystal (orthoclase) cleavage (orthoclase)
minerals. Still others are formed under the extreme feldspar tends to be gray,
pressures associated with mountain building. Each sili- blue-gray, or black in color.
cate mineral, therefore, has a structure and a chemical Plagioclase Feldspar Labradorite, the variety
composition that indicate the conditions under which it shown here, exhibits stria-
tions on one of its crystal
formed. By carefully examining the mineral constituents
faces. (Photos by Dennis Tasa
of rocks, geologists can usually determine the circum- and E. J. Tarbuck)
stances under which the rocks formed.
We will now examine some of the most common sili-
cate minerals, which we divide into two major groups on
the basis of their chemical makeup: the light silicates and
the dark silicates. C. Sodium-rich plagioclase D. Plagioclase feldspar showing
feldspar (albite) striations (labradorite)

The Light Silicates
The light (or nonferromagnesian) silicates are gen-
erally light in color and have a specific gravity of about
2.7, less than that of the dark (ferromagnesian) silicates.
These differences are mainly attributable to the presence
or absence of iron and magnesium, which are “heavy.”
The light silicates contain varying amounts of aluminum,
potassium, calcium, and sodium rather than iron and
magnesium.
Feldspar Group Feldspar minerals, which form the
most common mineral group, can form under a wide
range of temperatures and pressures, which partially
­accounts for their abundance (Figure 3.35). Two different
feldspar structures exist. One group of feldspar minerals
contains p­ otassium ions in its structure and is therefore
referred to as potassium feldspar. (Orthoclase and mi-
crocline are common members of the potassium feldspar
group.) The other group, called plagioclase ­feldspar, con-
tains both sodium and calcium ions that freely substitute
for one another, depending on the environment during
crystallization. Despite these differences, all feldspar
minerals have similar physical properties. They have two
planes of cleavage meeting at or near 90-degree angles,
are relatively hard (6 on the Mohs scale), and have a
luster that ranges from glassy to pearly. As a component
in igneous rocks, feldspar crystals can be identified by
their rectangular shape and rather smooth, shiny faces
(Figure 3.36).
Potassium feldspar is usually light cream, salmon
pink, or occasionally blue-green in color. The plagioclase
feldspars, on the other hand, range in color from white
to medium gray. However, color should not be used to
distinguish these groups. The only way to distinguish the
feldspars physically is to look for a multitude of fine par-
allel lines, called striations. Striations are found on some
cleavage planes of plagioclase feldspar but are not present
on potassium feldspar (see Figure 3.35).
Quartz Quartz (SiO2) is the only common silicate
mineral that consists entirely of silicon and oxygen. As
such, the term silica is applied to quartz. Because quartz
contains a ratio of two oxygen ions (O22) for every ­silicon
ion (Si41), no other positive ions are needed to attain
neutrality.
In quartz, a three-dimensional framework is devel-
oped through the complete sharing of oxygen by adjacent
silicon atoms. Thus, all the bonds in quartz are of the A. Potassium feldspar
strong silicon–oxygen type. Consequently, quartz is hard,
is resistant to weathering, and does not have cleavage.
When broken, quartz generally exhibits conchoidal frac-
ture. When pure, quartz is clear and, if allowed to grow
without interference, will develop hexagonal crystals that
develop pyramid-shaped ends. However, like most other
clear minerals, quartz is often colored by inclusions of
various ions (impurities) and forms without developing
good crystal faces. The most common varieties of quartz
are milky (white), smoky (gray), rose (pink), amethyst B. Plagioclase feldspar
(purple), and rock crystal (clear) (see Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.36 Feldspar
crystals in igneous rocks
Muscovite Muscovite is a common member of the When found in igneous
mica family. It is light in color and has a pearly luster rocks, feldspar crystals
(see Figure 3.20). Like other micas, muscovite has tend to be rectangular in
excellent cleavage in one direction. In thin sheets, shape and exhibit smooth,
muscovite is clear, a property that accounts for its use shiny faces. (Photos by E. J.
as window “glass” during the Middle Ages. Because Tarbuck)
106 Chapter 3 Matter and Minerals

muscovite is very shiny, it can often be identified by Figure 3.38 Olivine

the sparkle it gives a rock. If you have ever looked Commonly black to olive green
closely at beach sand, you may have seen the glimmer- in color, olivine has a glassy
ing brilliance of the mica flakes scattered among the luster and is commonly found
in the igneous rocks basalt and
other sand grains.
peridotite.
Clay Minerals Clay is a term used to describe a
category of complex minerals that, like the micas,
have a sheet structure. Unlike other common silicates, are olivine, the pyroxenes,
most clay minerals originate as products of the chemi- the amphiboles, dark mica
cal breakdown (chemical weathering) of other silicate (biotite), and garnet.
minerals. Thus, clay minerals make up a large percent-
age of the surface material we call soil. Because of the Olivine Group Olivine is
importance of soil in agriculture, and because of its role a family of high-temperature Dennis Tasa
as a supporting material for buildings, clay minerals silicate minerals that are Olivine-rich peridotite
are extremely important to humans. In addition, clays black to olive green in color (variety dunite)
­account for nearly half the volume of sedimentary rocks. and have a glassy luster and a
Clay minerals are generally very fine grained, which conchoidal fracture (see ­Figure 3.34). Transparent olivine
makes identification difficult, unless they are studied is occasionally used as a gemstone called peridot. Rather
microscopically. Their layered structure and weak bond- than developing large crystals, ­olivine commonly forms
ing between layers give them a characteristic feel when small, rounded crystals that give olivine-rich rocks a granu-
wet. Clays are common in shales, mudstones, and other lar appearance (­Figure 3.38). ­Olivine and related forms are
sedimentary rocks. common in the igneous rock basalt and are thought to con-
One of the most common clay minerals is k­ aolinite stitute up to 50 percent of Earth’s upper mantle.
(Figure 3.37), which is used in the manufacture of fine
china and as a coating for high-gloss paper, such as Pyroxene Group The pyroxenes are a group of diverse
that used in this textbook. Further, some clay miner- minerals that are important components in dark colored
als a­ bsorb large amounts of water, which allows them to igneous rocks. The most common member, augite, is a
swell to several times their normal size. These clays have black, opaque mineral with two directions of cleavage
been used commercially in a variety of ingenious ways, that meet at nearly a 90-degree angle. Augite is one of
­including as an additive to thicken milkshakes in fast- the dominant minerals in basalt, a common igneous rock
food restaurants. of the oceanic crust and volcanic areas on the continents
(Figure 3.39A).
The Dark Silicates Amphibole Group Hornblende is the most common
The dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates are minerals member of a chemically complex group of minerals
containing ions of iron (iron 5 ferro) and/or magnesium called amphiboles (Figure 3.39B). Hornblende is usually
in their structure. Because of their iron content, ferro- dark green to black in color, and except for its cleavage
magnesian silicates are dark in color and have a greater
specific gravity, between 3.2 and 3.6, than nonferromag- Figure 3.39 Augite and
nesian silicates. The most common dark silicate minerals hornblende
These dark-colored
silicate minerals are
common constituents
Figure 3.37 Kaolinite
of a variety of ­igneous
Kaolinite is a common clay rocks. (Photos courtesy of E. J.
mineral formed by weather- Tarbuck)
ing of feldspar minerals.
A. Augite
A. Augite

Dennis Tasa
B. Hornblende
B. Hornblende
Kaolinite
 3.9 Common Silicate Minerals 107

angles, which are about 60 degrees and 120 degrees, Figure 3.40 Well-formed garnet crystal
it is very similar in appearance to augite. In a rock, Garnets come in a variety of colors and are commonly
hornblende often forms elongated crystals. This helps found in mica-rich metamorphic rocks.
distinguish it from pyroxene, which forms rather blocky
crystals. Hornblende is found in igneous rocks, where it
often makes up the dark portion of an otherwise light-
colored rock (see ­Figure 3.3).

Biotite Biotite is a dark, iron-rich member of the

mica family (see Figure 3.34). Like other micas, bio-
tite possesses a sheet structure that gives it excellent 2 cm
cleavage in one direction. Biotite also has a shiny black
­appearance that helps distinguish it from the other dark
ferromagnesian minerals. Like hornblende, biotite is
a common constituent of igneous rocks, including the
rock granite. 3.9 C oncept C hec k s

Garnet Garnet is similar to olivine in that its structure
is composed of individual tetrahedra linked by metallic
ions. Also like olivine, garnet has a glassy luster, lacks
cleavage, and exhibits conchoidal fracture. Although the
colors of garnet are varied, this mineral is most often
brown to deep red. Well developed, garnet crystals have
12 diamond-shaped faces and are most commonly found
in metamorphic rocks (Figure 3.40). When transparent,
garnets are prized as semiprecious gemstones.
1. How do most silicate minerals form?
2. Apart from their difference in color, what is one main
distinction between light and dark silicates? What
accounts for this difference?
3. Based on the chart in Figure 3.34, what do muscovite
and biotite have in common? How do they differ?
4. Is color a good way to distinguish between orthoclase
and plagioclase feldspar? If not, what is a more effective
means of distinguishing them?

Eye on Earth
G lass bottles, like most other manufactured products, contain substances
obtained from minerals extracted from Earth’s crust and oceans. The
primary ingredient in commercially produced glass bottles is the mineral
quartz. Glass also contains lesser amounts of the mineral calcite. (Photo by Chris
Brignell/Shutterstock)

Question 1 In what mineral group does quartz belong?

Question 2 Glass beer bottles are usually clear, green, or brown. Based on what
you know about how the mineral quartz is colored, what do glass manufacturers
do to get green and brown bottles?
Question 3 Why did some brewers start using brown bottles, rather than green
bottles which were popular until the 1930s.
108 Chapter 3 Matter and Minerals

3.10 Important Nonsilicate Minerals

Nonsilicate minerals are typically divided into groups, based on the negatively charged ion or com-
plex ion that the members have in common (Table 3.1). For example, the oxides contain the nega-
tive oxygen ions (O22), which are bonded to one or more kinds of positive ions. Thus, within each
mineral group, the basic structure and type of bonding is similar. As a result, the minerals in each
group have similar physical properties that are useful in mineral identification.

Although the nonsilicates make up only about 8 percent
of Earth’s crust, some minerals, such as gypsum, calcite,
and halite, occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks
in significant amounts. Furthermore, many others are
important economically. Table 3.1 lists some of the non-
silicate mineral groups and a few examples of each. A
brief discussion of a few of the most common nonsilicate
minerals follows.
Some of the most common nonsilicate minerals be-
long to one of three classes of minerals: the carbonates
(CO322), the sulfates (SO422), and the halides (Cl12, F12,
Br12). The carbonate minerals are much simpler structur-
ally than the silicates. This mineral group is composed of
the carbonate ion (CO322) and one or more kinds of posi-
tive ions. Figure 3.41A,B shows the two most common car-
bonate minerals: calcite, CaCO3 (­calcium carbonate) and
dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 (­calcium/­magnesium carbonate).
Calcite and dolomite are usually found together as the
primary constituents in the sedimentary rocks limestone
and dolostone. When calcite is the dominant mineral, the
rock is called limestone, whereas dolostone results from
a predominance of ­dolomite. Limestone has many uses,
including as road aggregate, as building stone, and as the
main ingredient in ­Portland cement.
Two other nonsilicate minerals frequently found
in sedimentary rocks are halite and gypsum (Fig-
ure 3.41C,D). Both minerals are commonly found in thick
layers that are the last vestiges of ancient seas that have
long since evaporated (Figure 3.42). Like limestone, both
­halite and gypsum are important nonmetallic resources.
­Halite is the mineral name for common table salt (NaCl).
­Gypsum (CaSO4 ? 2 H2O), which is calcium sulfate with
water bound into the structure, is the mineral of which
plaster and other similar building materials are composed.
Most nonsilicate mineral classes contain members
that are prized for their economic value. This includes
the oxides, whose members hematite and magnetite
are important ores of iron (Figure 3.41E,F). Also

Table 3.1   Common Nonsilicate Mineral Groups

Mineral Groups
[key ion(s) or element(s)] Mineral Name Chemical Formula Economic Use

Carbonates (CO322) Calcite CaCO3 Portland cement, lime

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Portland cement, lime
Halides (Cl12, F12, Br12) Halite NaCl Common salt
Fluorite CaF2 Used in steelmaking
Sylvite KCl Fertilizer
Oxides (O22) Hematite Fe2O3 Ore of iron, pigment
Magnetite Fe3O4 Ore of iron
Corundum Al2O3 Gemstone, abrasive
Ice H2O Solid form of water
Sulfides (S22) Galena PbS Ore of lead
Sphalerite ZnS Ore of zinc
Pyrite FeS2 Sulfuric acid production
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Ore of copper
Cinnabar HgS Ore of mercury
Sulfates (SO422) Gypsum CaSO4 ? 2H2O Plaster
Anhydrite CaSO4 Plaster
Barite BaSO4 Drilling mud
Native elements (single elements) Gold Au Trade, jewelry
Copper Cu Electrical conductor
Diamond C Gemstone, abrasive
Sulfur S Sulfa drugs, chemicals
Graphite C Pencil lead, dry lubricant
Silver Ag Jewelry, photography
Platinum Pt Catalyst
 3.10 Important Nonsilicate Minerals 109

Figure 3.41 Important

nonsilicate minerals
(Photos by Dennis Tasa and
E. J. Tarbuck)

A. Calcite B. Dolomite C. Halite

D. Gypsum E. Hematite F. Magnetite

G. Galena H. Chalcopyrite I. Fluorite

significant are the sulfides, which are basically com- Figure 3.42 Thick bed
pounds of sulfur (S) and one or more metals. Examples of halite exposed in an
of ­important sulfide minerals include galena (lead), underground mine
Halite (salt) mine in Grand
sphalerite (zinc), and chalcopyrite (copper). In addition,
Saline, Texas. Note the
native elements—­including gold, silver, and carbon (dia-
­person for scale. (Photo by
monds)—plus a host of other nonsilicate ­minerals—fluo- Tom Bochsler)
rite (flux in making steel), corundum (gemstone, abra-
sive), and uraninite (a uranium source)—are important
economically.

3 .10 C oncept C hec k s

1. List six common nonsilicate mineral groups. What key
ion(s) or element(s) define each group?
2. What simple test can be used to distinguish calcite
from dolomite?
3. What does a deposit of halite or gypsum indicate about
the past environment at that location?
4. Refer to Table 3.1. List one mineral from each
nonsilicate class and the mineral’s economic use.
 110
GEOGRAPHICS

Gemstones
Precious stones have been prized since antiquity. Although most
gemstones are varieties of a particular mineral, misinformation
abounds regarding gems and their mineral makeup.
Important Gemstones
Gemstones are classified in one of two categories: precious or semiprecious. Precious
gems are rare and generally have hardnesses that exceed 9 on the Mohs scale.
Therefore, they are more valuable and thus more expensive than semiprecious gems.

GEM MINERAL NAME PRIZED HUES

PRECIOUS
Diamond Diamond Colorless, pinks, blues
Emerald Beryl Greens
Ruby Corundum Reds
Sapphire Corundum Blues
Opal Opal Brilliant hues
SEMIPRECIOUS
Alexandrite Chrysoberyl Variable
Amethyst Quartz Purples
Cat‘s-eye Chrysoberyl Yellows
Chalcedony Quartz (agate) Banded
Citrine Quartz Yellows
Garnet Garnet Red, greens
Jade Jadeite or nephrite Greens Reuters

Moonstone Feldspar Transparent blues The Famous Hope Diamond

Peridot Olivine Olive greens The deep-blue Hope Diamond is a 45.52-carat gem that is thought to have been cut from
Smoky quartz Quartz Browns a much larger 115-carat stone discovered in India in the mid-1600s. The original
Spinel Spinel Reds 115-carrat stone was cut into a smaller gem that became part of the crown jewels of
Topaz Topaz Purples, reds France and was in the possession of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette before they
Tourmaline Tourmaline Reds, blue-greens attempted to escape France. Stolen during the French Revolution in 1792, the gem is
thought to have been recut to its present size and shape. In the 1800s, it became part
Turquoise Turquoise Blues
of the collection of Henry Hope (hence its name) and is on display at the Smithsonian in
Zircon Zircon Reds Washington, DC.

What Constitutes a Gemstone? Naming Gemstones

When found in their natural state, most gemstones
are dull and would be passed over by most people as
“just another rock.” Gems must be cut and polished
by experienced professionals before their true beauty
is displayed. Cutting and polishing is accomplished
using abrasive material, most often tiny fragments of
diamonds that are embedded in a metal disk.
Most precious stones are given names that differ from their parent
mineral. For example, sapphire is one of two gems that are varieties
of the same mineral, corundum. Trace elements can produce vivid
sapphires of nearly every color. Tiny amounts of titanium and iron in
corundum produce the most prized blue sapphires. When the mineral
corundum contains a sufficient quantity of chromium, it exhibits a
brilliant red color. This variety of corundum is called ruby.

Shutterstock Rubies, like sapphires,

are varieties of the
mineral corundum Sapphires, showing
variations of colors

Why are diamonds used as an abrasive

material to cut and polish gemstones?

110
Charles D. Winters/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Dorling Kindersley Greg C. Grace/ Alamy