Unit 10- Experimental Physics

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Measurement : Measurement is the foundation for all experimental science. 100% accurate measurement is

not possible with any method.

An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual values. For example, if the
two operators use the same device or instrument for measurement. It is not necessary that both operators get

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similar results. The difference between the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.
We should know the two terms that define the error. They are true value and measured value.

Types of Errors:

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There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise from; They are:
1.Gross Errors 2.Random Errors 3.Systematic Errors

Gross Errors : This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes while

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reading, recording, and readings. The most common human error in measurement falls under this category of
measurement errors. Gross errors can be avoided by :

Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of error should be
done accurately.

• By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors.

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Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random. These can arise due to
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random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (Example: unpredictable fluctuations in

temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking
readings, etc.

For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, he may likely get different readings every
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time.

Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; They are:
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1.Environmental Errors 2.Observational Errors 3.Instrumental Errors

Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the external
conditions on the measurement. The external condition includes temperature, pressure, and humidity.

Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the
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apparatus, or an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The measurement errors also include wrong
readings due to Parallax errors.
Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of the measuring
instruments. Such errors arise due to the hysteresis of the equipment or due to friction.

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The zero error is a very common type of error. This error is common in devices like Vernier callipers and
screw gauges. The zero error can be either positive or negative. Sometimes the scale readings are worn off,
which can also lead to a bad reading.

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Instrumental error takes place due to :
• An inherent constraint of devices
• Misuse of Apparatus
• Effect of Loading

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Errors Calculation
Different measures of errors include:

Absolute Error : The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its actual value gives the

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absolute error. It is the variation between the actual values and measured values. It is given by

Absolute error = |VA-VE|

Percent Error : It is another way of expressing the error in measurement. This calculation allows us to
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gauge how accurate a measured value is with respect to the true value. Per cent error is given by the formula

Percentage error (%) = (VA-VE) / VE) x 100

Relative Error : The ratio of the absolute error to the accepted measurement gives the relative error. The
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relative error is given by the formula:

Relative Error = Absolute error / Actual value
How To Reduce Errors In Measurement :
Following points can help to reduce the error.
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• Make sure the formulas used for measurement are correct.

• Cross check the measured value of a quantity for improved accuracy.
• Use the instrument that has the highest precision.
• It is suggested to pilot test measuring instruments for better accuracy.
• Use multiple measures for the same construct.
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• Note the measurements under controlled conditions.

Significant figures:

They are used to establish the number which is presented in the form of digits. These digits carry
a meaningful representation of numbers. The term significant digits are also used often instead
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of figures.

We can identify the number of significant digits by counting all the values starting from the 1st
non-zero digit located on the left. For example, 12.45 has four significant digits.
The significant figures of a given number are those significant or important digits, which
convey the meaning according to its accuracy.

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For example, 6.658 has four significant digits. These substantial figures provide precision
to the numbers. They are also termed as significant digits.

Rules for Significant Figures:

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• All non-zero digits are significant. 198745 contains six significant digits.
• All zeros that occur between any two non zero digits are significant. For example, 108.0097
contains seven significant digits.

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• All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point and also to the left of a non-zero digit is never
significant. For example, 0.00798 contained three significant digits.
• All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point are significant, only if, a non-zero digit does
not follow them. For example, 20.00 contains four significant digits.
• All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit, after the decimal point, are

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significant. For example, 0.0079800 contains five significant digits.

Rounding Significant Figures

A number is rounded off to the required number of significant digits by leaving one or
more digits from the right. When the first digit in left is less than 5, the last digit held
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should remain constant.

When the first digit is greater than 5, the last digit is rounded up. When the digit left is
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exactly 5, the number held is rounded up or down to receive an even number.

When more than one digit is left, rounding off should be done as a whole instead of one
digit at a time.

There are two rules to round off the significant numbers:

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1. First, we have to check, up to which digit the rounding off should be performed. If the number
after the rounding off digit is less than 5, then we have to exclude all the numbers present on
the right side.
2. But if the digit next to the rounding off digit is greater than 5, then we have to add 1 to the
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rounding off digit and exclude the other numbers on the right side.

Advantages of Arithmetic Averages (Arithmetic Mean):

1. Easy to understand
2. Useful for large data sets
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3. Provides a good estimate of the “typical” value

4. Useful for calculating other statistics
5. Works with different types of data
Least Count :

The least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be taken accurately with it.

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The least count of the metre scale is 1mm.

Least count is the smallest value any instrument can read or measure. We may hear of vernier caliper of least
count 0.02 mm, which means the minimum value vernier can measure is 0.02 mm.

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We can’t measure a value less than 0.02 mm with this vernier caliper

The same thing applied to all other instruments, a usual scale of least count of 1 mm, can measure a minimum
length of 1 mm only.

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Vernier Caliper is a widely used linear measurement instrument with the least count of 0.02
mm. It is used to measure linear dimensions like length, diameter, and depth.

The concept of least count is not restricted to just length, it applies to measurements of all
kinds – be it time, weight, current, or any other quantifiable entity.

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Least count is the smallest measurement that a measuring instrument can provide with
accuracy. All readings or measured values from an instrument are good only up to this
measure, i.e., the least count.
o The least count of a measuring instrument is inversely proportional to its precision
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value. This means, the lower the least count, the more is the precision of the
instrument.

The term "least count" refers to the smallest value or increment that a measuring
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instrument can accurately detect and differentiate.

Instruments with a smaller least count can measure more finely.

For instance, while a standard ruler might have a least count of 1 millimeter, precision
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instruments like Vernier calipers might have a least count of 0.1 millimeters or even less.

“Least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made
accurately with the given measuring instrument. A metre scale normally has graduations at 1
mm (or 0.1 cm) spacing, as the smallest division on its scale. You cannot measure lengths
with this scale with accuracy better than 1mm (or 0.1 cm).”
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Least Count vs. Precision

The least count of an instrument refers to the smallest value or increment it can
accurately measure.
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Precision, on the other hand, indicates how consistent repeated measurements are with
each other, regardless of their absolute accuracy.
Consider a digital weighing scale that can measure up to two decimal places, say 5.23 grams.
Its least count is 0.01 grams.

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If you weigh the same object multiple times and get readings like 5.23g, 5.24g, and 5.22g,
the scale is showing high precision, as the measurements are close to each other.

Least Count vs. Accuracy

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While the least count defines the smallest measurable value of an instrument, accuracy
refers to how close a measurement is to the actual or true value. An instrument can have
a low least count (high precision) but might still be inaccurate if it is not calibrated correctly.

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Calculation of Least Count:

The least count of an instrument is a measure of its precision and represents the smallest
value that the instrument can measure accurately.

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Least Count is the ratio of the main scale LC to the number of divisions on the
secondary scale.
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For example, consider a Vernier caliper where the smallest division on the main scale is 1
millimeter, and there are 10 divisions on the Vernier scale that match the length of 9
divisions on the main scale. Using the formula,
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Least Count = 1 mm / 10 = 0.1 mm

Thus, the least count of this Vernier caliper is 0.1 mm.

Least Count of Vernier Caliper

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The Vernier caliper is a precision instrument used to measure internal and external distances
with high accuracy.

The main scale of the Vernier Caliper resembles a standard ruler, featuring markings in
millimeters and centimeters on one side, and inches on the opposite side. The main scale
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provides the primary measurement, which is the value immediately to the left of the vernier
scale's zero.
 o The vernier scale, on the other hand, is a movable component that slides parallel to
the main scale. The exact point on the vernier scale that aligns perfectly with a point

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on the main scale gives the vernier reading.

The least count of the Vernier caliper is the difference between one main scale reading
and one Vernier scale reading. It represents the smallest length that can be measured
accurately using the Vernier caliper.

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Formula for Calculating the Least Count of a Vernier Caliper

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To determine the exact measurement, both the main and vernier scales are used in tandem.
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The combined reading from these scales provides the high precision for which the Vernier
Caliper is renowned.

The caliper's design also includes specialized jaws. The lower or external jaws measure
external dimensions like the length of objects or the diameter of spheres.
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In contrast, the upper or internal jaws gauge the internal dimensions, such as the inner
diameter of tubes. Additionally, there is a depth measuring strip on the Vernier Caliper,
ideal for determining the depth of vessels like beakers.
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To ascertain the least count of a Vernier Caliper, one must understand the difference
between one main scale reading and one vernier scale reading.

This difference represents the smallest length the caliper can measure, highlighting its
precision and the reason for its widespread use in detailed measurement tasks.
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Least Count = Value of one main scale division − Value of one Vernier scale division

Steps to Calculate the Least Count of a Vernier Caliper

 1. Determine the Value of One Main Scale Division
Typically, the main scale of a Vernier caliper is graduated in millimeters (mm). So, the

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value of one main scale division is usually 1 mm.
2. Determine the Value of One Vernier Scale Division
Observe the length of 10 divisions on the Vernier scale and see how many divisions it
matches on the main scale. Let us say 10 divisions on the Vernier scale coincide with 9
divisions on the main scale.

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3. Calculate the Value of One Vernier Scale Division
Using the above observation, one Vernier scale division is equal to 9 main scale
divisions / 10 or 0.9 of a main scale division.
4. Determine the Least Count

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Subtract the value of one Vernier scale division from one main scale division –

Least Count = 1 mm − 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm

Thus, for this example, the least count of the Vernier caliper is 0.1 mm. In general, for many

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Vernier calipers, the least count is found to be 0.1 mm.

Least Count Error

The term "least count error" refers to the limitations imposed on the accuracy of a
measurement due to the least count of the measuring instrument.
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The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.

For example, a vernier caliper has the least count as 0.01cm; a spherometer may have
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a least count of 0.001 cm.
o Least count error belongs to the category of random errors but within a limited size –
it occurs with both systematic and random errors.
o If we use a metre scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations at 1 mm
division scale spacing or interval.
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o Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental techniques, etc., we can

reduce the least count error.

It is the maximum possible error that can occur due to the instrument's resolution. In
practice, the actual error might be less, but it can never exceed the least count.
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1. Least count error of an instrument is related to the resolution. It is a type of

instrumental or random error that is linked to accuracy, i.e. the precise limit of a
measuring device.
2. The least count of a measuring instrument determines the precision of the
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measurement that instrument can make. As the least count decreases, the precision
rises.
 3. While the least count indicates precision, it does not necessarily equate to accuracy.
An instrument can have a high precision but still be inaccurate if not calibrated

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correctly.
4. Least count error is a type of random error that can occur with both systematic and
random errors, but only within a specific size range.
5. When it is impossible to accurately measure an object, the least count is chosen at
random.

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6. Using an instrument with a high least count for precise tasks can lead to significant
errors.
7. Regular calibration of instruments is essential to ensure that the least count remains
consistent and that measurements are accurate.

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Screw Gauge Measurement Using the Micrometer

Get acquainted with the structure of a Screw Gauge: Some sections are movable while others are

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stationary such as Sleeve, Anvil, Spindle, Thimble Lock, Frame, Thimble, Ratchet Stop.

• Before starting to measure clean the spindle and anvil: Take a paper or a clean cloth and place it in
the midst of the spindle and the anvil. Tighten the setup slightly until the paper or cloth is jammed and
then pull it out, cleaning the setup in the process.
• Place the object in between the spindle and anvil: Place the object carefully in between the anvil and
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the spindle. The anvil is stationary in nature, thus place the object against it. The object should be
placed properly so that it does not move while taking the measurements.
• The ratchet counter needs to be rotated clockwise to tighten: make sure that the thimbles zero are
parallel to the line of the scale on the sleeve.
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• Tighten the spindle with the object in the midst: The thimble clicks when being rotated. Apply the
amount of force till it clicks three times.
• Lock the thimble while the object is in between: The spindle can be moved even if the thimble is
locked.
• Take the object out cautiously: The screw gauge accuracy can get compromised if it gets scratched
or shaken thus make sure to avoid that.
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• Before you unlock the spindle, note the reading: Re-measure the whole setup if the single setup
loosens.

Screw Gauge Measurement:

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• The thimble has a lot of different scales: The scale measures by one hundred thousand, i.e. one-tenth
of an inch or the decimal form is 0.100. Spreads in between those numbers are three lines that are a
representation of twenty-five thousandths of an inch, which is represented in decimal would be 0.025.
• The sleeve has whole numbers: The number that’s visible at the end is a representation in
thousandths. For instance, if the last number is 6, it would be finally represented as 0.500.
• Note the number of lines after the whole number: Notice the markings next to the 100 thousandth
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mark and then multiply that by 0.25.

• Notice the marking that’s corresponding to the thimble scale marking (closest to it and beneath
the measurement line).
• The three numbers noted down in the earlier process should be noted and added.
Screw Gauge Formula

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There are two parameters used in every screw gauge. They are pitch and least count of a screw gauge.

• Pitch: The pitch of the screw gauge is defined as the distance moved by the spindle per revolution
which is measured by moving the head scale over the pitch scale in order to complete one full rotation.

Pitch of the screw gauge = (distance moved by a screw)/(no. of rotations given)

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• Least count: The least count of the screw is defined as the distance moved by the tip of the screw when
turned through one division of the head scale.

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Least count (LC) of the screw gauge = (pitch)/(total no.of divisions on the circular scale)

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Least count of micrometer screw gauge = (1 mm)/(100) = 0.01 mm

• Micrometer screw gauge is defined as an instrument that is used for measuring the diameter of thin
wires, the thickness of small sheets such as glass or plastics.
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Screw gauge is a mechanical tool that allows precise measurement of the diameter, radius, or
thickness of a thin wire or a thin metal sheet. It is also known as a micrometer screw gauge. It
includes two scales, a Pitch scale, and a Circular scale.
A screw gauge is used for the precise measurement of a cylindrical or a spherical object. The screw
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gauge consists mainly of a U-shaped frame and a spindle (or a screw) attached to the thimble.
Screw gauge is a measuring instrument made out of a calibrated screw used to measure small
objects' dimensions.
A screw gauge is a type of meteorological instrument used in machining, and mechanical
engineering.
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A screw gauge is used for the precise measurement of thin wires and sheets. It consists of two
scales: a Pitch Scale and a Circular Scale.

• Pitch scale is the main scale that measures the distance traveled by the spindle per
revolution (in millimeters). It is engraved with vertical lines on the barrel of the instrument.
• Circular scale is horizontally engraved on the thimble. A revolution of the circular scale is
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equivalent to about half a millimeter of screw displacement.

Screw Gauge Formula :

The two common parameters of the Screw gauge formula are Pitch and Least Count:

• Pitch: Pitch is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. This is measured by moving
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the head scale of the instrument over the pitch scale to complete one full rotation.
 • Least Count: Screw Gauge Least count is the distance that is covered by the tip of the screw
when a division of the head scale is turned.

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Screw Gauge Diagram

The diagram of a screw gauge is as given below:

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Screw Gauge Diagram
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The main elements of a screw gauge are:

• Screw: This is the screw gauge's key component that aids in measurement.
• Anvil: The spindle is moved towards the object to be measured that is put on the anvil.
• Spindle: The spindle will travel towards the anvil as the thimble is rotated.
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• Thimble: This is the rotating portion of the screw gauge.

• Thimble lock: This element can be tightened to keep the spindle in position while measuring.
It's sometimes referred to as a lock-nut or a lock-ring.
• Ratchet stop: It's utilized to keep the thimble from rotating any further than it needs to.
• Barrel/Main Scale: It's also known as a sleeve or stock, and it's a stationary component with
linear or vernier markings on it as seen in the screw gauge diagram.
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The barrel of some screw gauge versions is a rotatable cylinder, which allows for zero value
by adjusting the cylindrical barrel.

Screw Gauge Measurement Using Micrometer

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The screw gauge measurement through a micrometer can be done using the
screw gauge formula. The following steps can be implemented to record the
measurement:
1. Clean the anvil and the spindle:
2. Place the object between the spindle and anvil:
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3. Rotate the ratchet counterclockwise to tighten it:

4. Tighten the spindle with the object in the middle:
5. Lock the thimble:
6. Take the object out:
7. Note the reading:
 Note: Make a note that if the screw gauge loosens even in a single step, you have to re-m

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Screw Gauge

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measurement using a micrometer
Screw Gauge Measurement Example

Let’s assume a screw gauge with the least count of 0.01 mm. What is its total reading?

= 2.5 + 38 x 0.01
= 2.5 + 0.38
= 2.88 mm
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Solution: The main scale reading is 2.5 mm and the circular scale reading is 38.
Thus, the total reading = MSR + CSR x LC
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Working Principle of Screw Gauge
Screw gauge operates on the principle of a screw. The screw gauge formula
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measures the rotation of the screw, thereby converting smaller distances into
larger ones. Two parameters are used for screw gauge measurement – pitch
and least count.

• The ratio of the moved distance to the number of rotations is known as

the pitch of the screw gauge.
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• The ratio of pitch to the total number of divisions that is there on the
circular scale is known as the screw gauge least count.
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Screw gauge measuring the diameter of

wire
A differential screw is a crucial component of an analog screw gauge that
enables small magnitudes. These screws have several threads, each

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corresponding to axial movement when spun one at a time. That is, each 360
degrees spin of the screw spans a minimal axial distance.

• This distance is referred to as the screw's lead or pitch of the screw

gauge. Even if the object to be measured is tiny, the size of the thing can

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be determined by turning the thimble, which rotates the screw.
• The minute dimension is transformed into more extensive rotations that
are much easier to comprehend.
• The dimension of the wire measured is displayed on an LCD screen in

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digital screw gauges.

Uses of Screw Gauge

There are various uses of screw gauge which are as follows:

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With an accuracy of 0.001cm, a screw gauge is used to measure the
diameter of circular objects, primarily wires.
The radius of wires and other circular objects can be found using a screw
gauge.
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• A screw gauge is also used to determine the thickness of a piece of paper.
• Metal sheet and glass slab thickness can be identified using a screw
gauge.
• Uniform thickness of any shape can be found using a screw gauge.
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A travelling microscope is an instrument for measuring length with a typically in the order
of 0.01mm. The precision is such that better-quality instruments have measuring scales
made from avoid misreadings due to thermal effects. The instrument comprises
a microscope mounted on two rails fixed to, or part of a very rigid bed.
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The position of the microscope can be varied coarsely by sliding along the rails, or finely by
turning a screw. The eyepiece is fitted with fine cross-hairs to fix a precise position, which is
then read off the vernier scale.

Some instruments, such as that produced in the 1960s by the Precision Tool and
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Instrument Company of Thornton Heath, Surrey, England, also measure vertically. The
purpose of the microscope is to aim at reference marks with much higher accuracy than is
possible using the naked eye.

It is used in laboratories to measure the refractive index of flat specimens using the
geometrical concepts of ray
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It is also used to measure very short distances precisely, for example the diameter of a
capillary tube. This mechanical instrument has now largely been superseded by electronic-
and optically based measuring devices that are both very much more accurate and
considerably cheaper to produce.
Travelling microscope consists of a cast iron base with machined-Vee-top surface and is
fitted with three levelling screws. A metallic carriage, clamped to a spring-loaded bar slides

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with its attached vernier and reading lens along an inlaid strip of metal scale.

The scale is divided in half millimeters. Fine adjustments are made by means of a
micrometer screw for taking accurate reading. Both vernier reading to 0.01mm or 0.02mm.
Microscope tube consists of 10x Eyepice and 15mm or 50mm or 75mm objectives.

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The Microscope, with its rack and pinion attachment is mounted on a vertical slide, which
too, runs with an attached vernier along the vertical scale. The microscope is free to rotate n
vertical plane. The vertical guide bar is coupled to the horizontal carriage of the microscope.

A Travelling microscope is a compound microscope that is fitted on a vertical scale. It

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carries a vernier scale along the main scale and can be moved upward or downward.
Below is an experiment to determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.

Adjustment of a Travelling microscope

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To get sufficient light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
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5. Mark point P on the microscope’s base using black ink.
6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical
and focus on P.
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7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab with the least thickness over the mark P.
9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P1.
10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7.
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the slab’s surface.
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12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
13. For reading, R3 on the verticle scale repeat step 7.
14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.
15. Record the observations.
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Precautions : The parallax in a microscope should be removed properly.

1. To avoid backlash error, the microscope should be moved upward.

Sources Of Error : 1.The scale used in the microscope might not be calibrated properly.
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2.The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick.