SPM Unit 5 - 23419379 - 2023 - 11 - 22 - 12 - 32

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SOFTWARE PROJECT
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MORE ACADEMY BSC IT: SEM – V SPM: UNIT 5
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Q1) What is ISO Standard? What are the sub characteristics of Functionality and Reliability
of ISO 9126 Software Qualities? (Nov 22)
Ans:
ISO 9126 is an international standard for the evaluation of software. The standard is divided into four parts
which addresses, respectively, the following subjects: quality model; external metrics; internal metrics; and
quality in use metrics.
The ISO 9126–1 software quality model identifies 6 main quality characteristics, namely:
1. Functionality:
· Functionality is the essential purpose of any product or service. For certain items this is relatively easy to
define, for example a ship’s anchor has the function of holding a ship at a given location.
· The more functions a product has, e.g. an ATM machine, then the more complicated it becomes to define
its functionality. For software a list of functions can be specified, i.e.a sales order processing systems
should be able to record customer information so that it can be used to reference a sales order.
2. Reliability:
· Once a software system is functioning, as specified, and delivered the reliability characteristic defines the
capability of the system to maintain its service provision under defined conditions for defined periods of
time.
One aspect of this characteristic is fault tolerance that is the ability of a system to withstand component
failure. For example, if the network goes down for 20 seconds then comes back the system should be able
to recover and continue functioning.
3. Usability:
Usability only exists with regard to functionality and refers to the ease of use for a given function.
For example, a function of an ATM machine is to dispense cash as requested. Placing common amounts
on the screen for selection, i.e. $20.00, $40.00, $100.00 etc, does not impact the function of the ATM but
addresses the Usability of the function. The ability to learn how to use a system (learnability) is also a major
sub-characteristic of usability.
4. Efficiency:
This characteristic is concerned with the system resources used when providing the required
functionality. The amount of disk space, memory, network etc. provides a good indication of this
characteristic.
As with a number of these characteristics, there are overlaps. For example, the usability of a system is
influenced by the system’s Performance, in that if a system takes 3 hours to respond the system would not
be easy to use although the essential issue is a performance or efficiency characteristic.
5. Maintainability:
The ability to identify and fix a fault within a software component is what the maintainability characteristic
addresses.
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In other software quality models this characteristic is referenced as supportability. Maintainability is

impacted by code readability or complexity as well as modularization.
6. Portability:
This characteristic refers to how well the software can adopt to changes in its environment or with its
requirements.
The sub characteristics of this characteristic include adaptability. Object oriented design and
implementation practices can contribute to the extent to which this characteristic is present in a given
system.
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Q2) What are virtual teams? Explain their advantages and disadvantages.
ANS:
Virtual teams are groups of individuals who collaborate and work together on projects or tasks while being
geographically dispersed, often relying on communication technology and digital tools to connect and
coordinate their efforts. These teams can be entirely remote, with members located in different regions, or
they may include some co-located members who work together in a physical office while others work
remotely. Virtual teams have become increasingly common in various industries due to advances in
technology and the globalization of business.
Advantages of Virtual Teams in Project Management:
Global Talent Access: Virtual teams allow organizations to tap into a diverse pool of talent from around the
world. This provides access to specialized skills and expertise that might not be available locally.
Cost Savings: Virtual teams can help reduce costs associated with physical office spaces, commuting, and
in some cases, labor costs, as team members may reside in regions with lower living expenses.
Flexibility: Team members can often choose when and where they work, allowing for better work-life
balance and potentially increasing job satisfaction.
Diverse Perspectives: Geographically dispersed teams bring together people from different cultural
backgrounds, which can lead to a broader range of ideas and solutions, fostering innovation.
24/7 Operations: Virtual teams can operate around the clock, taking advantage of time zone differences to
provide continuous support or address urgent issues.
Reduced Commute Stress: Team members can avoid the stress and time-consuming nature of commuting,
which can lead to improved well-being and productivity.
Disadvantages of Virtual Teams in Project Management (SPM):
Communication Challenges: Virtual teams rely heavily on digital communication tools, which can lead to
misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and a lack of non-verbal cues, hindering effective communication.
Coordination Difficulties: Coordinating activities and tasks across different time zones and locations can be
challenging, leading to delays and confusion.
Isolation and Loneliness: Team members working remotely may experience feelings of isolation and
loneliness, which can impact motivation and job satisfaction.
Team Building and Trust: Building trust among team members can be more difficult when they don't have
face-to-face interactions, which can affect collaboration and team cohesion.
Security Concerns: Sharing sensitive project information and data over digital channels can pose security
risks if not adequately protected.
Cultural Differences: Working with team members from diverse cultural backgrounds can lead to
misunderstandings and conflicts if not managed effectively.
Technology Issues: Technical glitches, software compatibility problems, and unreliable internet connections
can disrupt work and hinder productivity.
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Q3) What is Testing? Explain Test Plan and Test Management? (Nov 22)
Ans:
In software project management, testing is a crucial process used to assess the quality, functionality, and
reliability of a software product. It involves executing the software under controlled conditions to identify
defects, errors, or any areas where the application does not meet its specified requirements. The primary
goal of testing is to ensure that the software performs as expected and meets the user's needs.
Test Plan:
A test plan is a formal document that outlines the approach, objectives, scope, resources, and schedule
for testing a software application. It acts as a roadmap for the testing process and provides a detailed
overview of how testing activities will be carried out during the project.
The test plan typically includes the following components:
Test Scope: Defines the boundaries and limitations of the testing process, specifying what will be tested
and what will not be tested.
Test Objectives: States the goals and purpose of the testing effort, such as identifying defects, validating
functionality, or ensuring compliance with requirements.
Test Strategy: Describes the overall approach to testing, including the types of testing to be performed
(e.g., unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing).
Test Environment: Specifies the hardware, software, and other resources required to conduct testing
effectively.
Test Schedule: Outlines the timeline for various testing activities, including start and end dates for each
testing phase.
Test Deliverables: Lists the documents and artefact’s to be produced as a result of the testing process,
such as test cases, test scripts, defect reports, etc.
Test Risks and Contingencies: Identifies potential risks that may impact the testing process and outlines
contingency plans to mitigate them
Test Execution and Reporting: Explains how test results will be recorded, tracked, and reported to
stakeholders.
Roles and Responsibilities: Clearly defines the responsibilities of each team member involved in the
testing process.
Test Management:
Test management involves the planning, monitoring, and control of the testing activities throughout the
software development lifecycle. It encompasses the coordination of resources, tools, and processes to
ensure that testing is executed efficiently and effectively.
Key aspects of test management include:
Test Planning: Creating the test plan and defining the testing strategy, objectives, and scope.
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Test Design: Developing test cases and test scenarios based on the software requirements and design
specifications.
Test Execution: Running the test cases and recording the outcomes, which involves identifying and
reporting defects.
Test Monitoring and Control: Keeping track of testing progress, analyzing test metrics, and making
adjustments as needed to meet the testing goals.
Defect Management: Managing the process of defect identification, reporting, tracking, and resolution.
Test Automation: Implementing automated testing tools and frameworks to increase test coverage and
efficiency.
Test Reporting: Communicating test results to stakeholders, highlighting the testing status, and making
recommendations for the software's release readiness.
Test Closure: Evaluating the completion criteria, gathering lessons learned, and preparing testing-related
documentation for future reference.
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Q4) What do you mean by Premature Termination? What are the reasons for projects
Premature Termination? (Nov 22)
Ans :
"Premature Termination" refers to the abrupt ending of a project before it reaches its intended completion
or desired outcome. This can happen at any stage of the project, from the initiation phase to the closing
phase. Premature Termination can have significant consequences for the project team, stakeholders, and
the organization as a whole.
Reasons for Premature Termination of software projects can be varied and may include:-
Budget Constraints:
Insufficient funding or budget cuts during the project lifecycle can lead to the termination of the project.
Scope Creep:
If the project's scope keeps expanding beyond the initial plan without proper management and control, it
can lead to resource exhaustion and premature termination.
Inadequate Planning:
Projects that are not well-planned or lack a clear roadmap are more likely to encounter roadblocks and
difficulties that may eventually result in termination.
Changing Priorities or Business Environment:
Changes in business strategies, organizational priorities, or external factors can render the project
irrelevant or unfeasible, leading to its termination.
Technological Challenges:
Unforeseen technical difficulties or problems that are too costly or time-consuming to address can force
project termination.
Resource Constraints:
If the project lacks essential resources such as skilled personnel, technology, or equipment, it may become
unviable and get terminated.
Poor Project Management:
Ineffective project management practices, including lack of communication, inadequate risk management,
or insufficient progress monitoring, can contribute to project failure.
Stakeholder Issues:
Conflicts among stakeholders, loss of support from key stakeholders, or disagreements about project goals
can lead to premature termination.
Legal or Compliance Issues:
Projects that face legal challenges or fail to meet regulatory compliance requirements may be forced to
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terminate.
Vendor or Supplier Issues:
Projects relying heavily on external vendors or suppliers may face termination if these third parties fail to
deliver as expected.
Natural or Man-made Disasters:
Catastrophic events such as natural disasters or major accidents can disrupt the project and lead to its
termination.
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Q5) Short note on Six-Sigma.
Ans
Six Sigma is a highly structured and data-driven methodology used in project management (SPM) and
quality control to improve processes and reduce defects or errors. Here's a short note on Six Sigma in
SPM:
Definition: Six Sigma is a methodology that seeks to achieve near-perfect quality by reducing process
variation and minimizing defects to a level where they occur at a rate of fewer than 3.4 defects per million
opportunities (DPMO).
Key Concepts:
DMAIC and DMADV: Six Sigma employs two main methodologies—DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze,
Improve, Control) for process improvement and DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify) for
process design and development.
Data-Driven Approach: Six Sigma relies on rigorous data collection and analysis to identify root causes of
defects and opportunities for process improvement.
Process Variation: It focuses on reducing variation in processes to improve predictability and consistency
in outcomes.
Roles: Six Sigma involves trained professionals known as Green Belts, Black Belts, and Master Black Belts
who lead and facilitate improvement projects.
Advantages in SPM:
Improved Quality: Six Sigma helps organizations achieve higher product or service quality, leading to
greater customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Cost Reduction: By reducing defects and errors, Six Sigma can lead to cost savings in rework, scrap, and
customer complaints.
Enhanced Efficiency: Six Sigma methodologies streamline processes, resulting in increased efficiency
and productivity.
Data-Driven Decision Making: It promotes data-based decision-making, which aligns well with project
management principles of objective analysis and informed choices.
Customer-Centric: Six Sigma emphasizes understanding and meeting customer requirements, which is
crucial in project management for delivering successful projects.
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Q6) What do you mean by team structure? Explain different types of team structures.
(April 19)
OR
What are the different type of Team Structure? (Nov 22)
1. Problem – Solving Teams:
· This kind of team basically comprises of a few members, ideally from 5 to 12, belonging to a particular
department coming together on a weekly basis to discuss and solve problems of their department
functioning.
· Members give their individual suggestions for process improvement and after enough deliberation,
present their advice to the higher management for further implementation.
· For example, Merrill Lynch, in the earlier days had created a problem-solving team to figure out a way to
reduce the time taken to open a new cash management account.
2. Self – Managed Teams:
· While problem-solving teams were effective in recommending solutions, they didn’t have the power to
implement them.
· Self-managed teams were built to address this challenge and apart from discussing issues, they were
responsible for implementing the solutions and taking responsibilities for their outcomes.
· From making operational decisions to interacting with customers, self-managed teams are highly effective
provided the members are motivated and driven to bring about positive change.
3. Cross – Functional Teams:
· When employees from different business functions but belonging to a similar hierarchical level come
together to achieve a common task, the team is called a cross-functional team.
· The members bring their individual expertise from their respective work area and exchange information for
a common cause.
· Whether it is finding solution to a development fault or coordinating complex projects, cross-functional

teams are very effective if managed well.
4. Virtual Teams:
· In today’s world of internet and mobile technologies, it’s easier to manage physically dispersed members
with the concept of building virtual teams. Members collaborate online, participate in video conferences and
discuss in real-time to realize a common objective.
· While virtual teams are easily manageable, the members sometime lack the motivation to find solutions or
fail to trust each other due to absence of any direct interaction.
· These challenges must be addressed by monitoring the efforts of the members and recognizing their
individual contributions
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Q7) Explain five basic stages of Team development. Also state the different types of people
needed to form a balanced team. (April 23)(April 19)
OR
What are the five basics stages of Team Management? (Nov 22)
OR
Write a role of different types of people needed to form a balanced team. (Nov 19)
Ans
1. Problem – Solving Teams:
· This kind of team basically comprises of a few members, ideally from 5 to 12, belonging to a particular
department coming together on a weekly basis to discuss and solve problems of their department
functioning.
· Members give their individual suggestions for process improvement and after enough deliberation,
present their advice to the higher management for further implementation.
· For example, Merrill Lynch, in the earlier days had created a problem-solving team to figure out a way to
reduce the time taken to open a new cash management account.
2. Self – Managed Teams:
While problem-solving teams were effective in recommending solutions, they didn’t have the power to
implement them.
Self-managed teams were built to address this challenge and apart from discussing issues, they were
responsible for implementing the solutions and taking responsibilities for their outcomes.
From making operational decisions to interacting with customers, self-managed teams are highly
effective provided the members are motivated and driven to bring about positive change.
3. Cross – Functional Teams:
When employees from different business functions but belonging to a similar hierarchical level come
together to achieve a common task, the team is called a cross-functional team.
The members bring their individual expertise from their respective work area and exchange information
for a common cause.
Whether it is finding solution to a development fault or coordinating complex projects, cross-functional

teams are very effective if managed well.
4. Virtual Teams:
In today’s world of internet and mobile technologies, it’s easier to manage physically dispersed members
with the concept of building virtual teams. Members collaborate online, participate in video conferences and
discuss in real-time to realize a common objective.
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While virtual teams are easily manageable, the members sometime lack the motivation to find solutions
or fail to trust each other due to absence of any direct interaction.
These challenges must be addressed by monitoring the efforts of the members and recognizing their
individual contributions figure out a way to reduce the time taken to open a new cash management
account.
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Q8) What is the importance of Software Quality? Discuss six major external software
quality characteristics identified by ISO 9126. (April 19)
Ans
Software quality is a nuanced concept that requires a framework that addresses functional, structural and
the process of the software delivery. Measurement of each aspect is a key tool for understanding whether
we are delivering a quality product and whether our efforts to improve quality are having the intended
impact.
However, measurement can be costly. To balancing the effort required to measure quality versus the
benefit, you first need to understand the reasons for measuring quality. Five of reasons quality is important
to measure include:
I. Safety: Poor quality in software can be hazardous to human life and safety. Quality problems can impact
the functionality of the software products.
II. Cost: Quality issues cost money to fix. Whether you believe that a defect is 100x more costly to fix late in
the development cycle or not, doing work over because it is defective does not deliver more value than
doing it right once.
III. Customer Satisfaction (Internal): Poor quality leads stakeholders to look for someone else to do your
job or perhaps shipping your job and all your friend’s jobs somewhere else. Recognize that the
stakeholders experience as the software is being developed, tested and implemented is just as critical as
the raw number of defects.
IV. Customer Satisfaction (External): Software products that don’t work, are hard to use (when they don’t
need to be), or are buggy don’t tend not to last long in the marketplace. Remember that in today’s social
media driven world every complaint that gets online has a ripple effect. Our goal should be to avoid
problems that can be avoided.
V. Future Value: Avoiding quality problems increases the amount of time available for the next project or
the next set of features. Increasing quality also improves team morale, improved team morale is directly
correlated with increased productivity (which will increase customer satisfaction and reduce cost).
ISO 9126 is an international standard for the evaluation of software. The standard is divided into four parts
which addresses, respectively, the following subjects: quality model; external metrics; internal metrics; and
quality in use metrics.
ISO9126–1 represents the latest (and ongoing) research into characterizing software for the purposes of
software quality control, software quality assurance and Software Process Improvement (SPI).
The other parts of ISO9126, concerning metrics or measurements for these characteristics, are essential
for SQC, SQA and SPI but the main concern of this article is the definition of the basic ISO 9126 Quality
Model.
The ISO 9126–1 software quality model identifies 6 main quality characteristics, namely:
Functionality:
Functionality is the essential purpose of any product or service. For certain items this is relatively easy to
define, for example a ship’s anchor has the function of holding a ship at a given location.
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The more functions a product has, e.g. an ATM machine, then the more complicated it becomes to define
its functionality. For software a list of functions can be specified, i.e. a sales order processing systems
should be able to record customer information so that it can be used to reference a sales order. A sales
order system should also provide the following functions:
Record sales order product, price and quantity.
Calculate total price.
Calculate appropriate sales tax.
Calculate date available to ship, based on inventory.
Generate purchase orders when stock falls below a given threshold.
The list goes on and on but the main point to note is that functionality is expressed as a totality of essential
functions that the software product provides.
A function of the sales order process could be to record the sales order but we could implement a hard
copy filing cabinet for the actual orders and only use software for calculating the price, tax and ship date.
In this way the functionality of the software is limited to those calculation functions.
The relationship between software functionality within an overall business process is outside the scope of
ISO9126 and it is only the software functionality, or essential purpose of the software component, that is of
interest for ISO9126.
Reliability: Once a software system is functioning, as specified, and delivered the reliability characteristic
defines the capability of the system to maintain its service provision under defined conditions for defined
periods of time. One aspect of this characteristic is fault tolerance that is the ability of a system to withstand
component failure. For example, if the network goes down for 20 seconds then comes back the system
should be able to recover and continue functioning.
Usability: Usability only exists with regard to functionality and refers to the ease of use for a given
function. For example, a function of an ATM machine is to dispense cash as requested. Placing common
amounts on the screen for selection, i.e. $20.00, $40.00, $100.00 etc, does not impact the function of the
ATM but addresses the Usability of the function. The ability to learn how to use a system (learnability) is
also a major sub-characteristic of usability.
Efficiency: This characteristic is concerned with the system resources used when providing the required
functionality. The amount of disk space, memory, network etc. provides a good indication of this
characteristic. As with a number of these characteristics, there are overlaps. For example, the usability of a
system is influenced by the system’s Performance, in that if a system takes 3 hours to respond the system
would not be easy to use although the essential issue is a performance or efficiency characteristic.
Maintainability: The ability to identify and fix a fault within a software component is what the
maintainability characteristic addresses. In other software quality models this characteristic is referenced as
supportability. Maintainability is impacted by code readability or complexity as well as modularization.
Portability: This characteristic refers to how well the software can adopt to changes in its environment or
with its requirements. The sub characteristics of this characteristic include adaptability. Object oriented
design and implementation practices can contribute to the extent to which this characteristic is present.
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Q9) State four popular process capability models and explain any one of them
(April 19)
Ans
Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a methodology used to develop, refine maturity of an organizations
software development process. It is developed by SIE in mid1980.
It is a process improvement approach.
It Deals with the what processes should be implemented & not so much with the how processes should be
implemented.
A maturity model is a structured collection of elements that describe characteristics of effective processes.
® Place to start
® Benefit of a community’s prior experience
® Common language and a shared vision
® Framework for prioritizing action
Place to start
- The organization usually does not provide a stable environment. Success in these organizations depends
on the competence and heroics of the people in the organization and not on the use of proven processes.
- The first phase of process is very initial and important as it is the basic root of the capability models.
-It needs to be well cleared and error free so that the further process will not suffer any kind of loss or
damage.
- This level of process has a basic and consistent project management process to track the overall cost,
plan the schedule, and functionality.
-This phase can allow some iterations in starting, but after when the process starts to build at the 3rd or 4th
phase it can’t allow any changes to be made in the 1st phase itself.
- All the activities should be planned in the first process itself, which can allow other processes to perform
their allotted tasks efficiently and smoothly without any kind of disturbance.
-This phase is more valuable as compared to others because, in this process it indicates half of the idea of
the capability model which is to be made.
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Q10) Give a brief explanation of the main activities involved in Software Testing
(April 19)
Ans
Testing is the process of evaluating a system or its component(s) with the intent to find whether it satisfies
the specified requirements or not. In simple words, testing is executing a system in order to identify any
gaps, errors, or missing requirements in contrary to the actual requirements.
It depends on the process and the associated stakeholders of the project(s). In the IT industry, large
companies have a team with responsibilities to evaluate the developed software in context of the given
requirements. Moreover, developers also conduct testing which is called Unit Testing.
An early start to testing reduces the cost and time to rework and produce error-free software that is
delivered to the client. However, in Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), testing can be started from
the Requirements Gathering phase and continued till the deployment of the software.
Quality Assurance: QA includes activities that ensure the implementation of processes, procedures and
standards in context to verification of developed software and intended requirements. Focuses on
processes and procedures rather than conducting actual testing on the system.
Quality Control: It includes activities that ensure the verification of a developed software with respect to
documented (or not in some cases) requirements. Focuses on actual testing by executing the software with
an aim to identify bug/defect through implementation of procedures and process.
Testing: It includes activities that ensure the identification of bugs/error/defects in a software. Focuses on
actual testing.
Audit: It is a systematic process to determine how the actual testing process is conducted within an
organization or a team. Generally, it is an independent examination of processes involved during the testing
of a software.
Inspection: It is a formal technique that involves formal or informal technical reviews of any artifact by
identifying any error or gap. Inspection is a formal evaluation technique in which software requirements,
designs, or codes are examined in detail by a person or a group other than the author to detect faults,
violations of development standards, and other problems.
Debugging: It involves identifying, isolating, and fixing the problems/bugs. Developers who code the
software conduct debugging upon encountering an error in the code. Debugging is a part of White Box
Testing or Unit Testing. Debugging can be performed in the development phase while conducting Unit
Testing or in phases while fixing the reported bugs.
Types of Testing
Manual Testing: includes testing a software manually, i.e., without using any automated tool or any
script.
Automation Testing: is used to re-run the test scenarios that were performed manually, quickly, and
repeatedly. The tester writes scripts and uses another software to test the product.
Black-Box Testing: The technique of testing without having any knowledge of the interior workings of
the application is called black-box testing. In Black-Box Testing, tester will interact with the system's user
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interface by providing inputs and examining outputs without knowing how and where the inputs are worked
upon.
White-Box Testing: It is the detailed investigation of internal logic and structure of the code. In order to
perform white-box testing on an application, a tester needs to know the internal workings of the code.
Grey-Box Testing: It is a technique to test the application with having a limited knowledge of the internal
workings of an application. Grey box testers don't rely on the source code; instead they rely on interface
definition and functional specifications.
Testing Levels:
Functional Testing
Unit Testing
Integration Testing
System Testing
Regression Testing
Acceptance Testing
Alpha Testing
Beta Testing
Non-Functional Testing
Usability Testing
Security Testing
Portability Testing
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Q. 11 Explain the advantages of a functional organization over project organization.

(Nov 18)
ANS:
Advantages:
The functional structure gives you the least power as a project manager, but offers plenty of other
advantages:
• It works well for small teams and small projects because the function has full control over the team
members and other resources required.
• We can easily access the experts you need because they are in the same functional area.
• It’s quick to get everyone together to resolve problems related to the project.
• We can limit the project communications tools you need to use because the team is relatively small
and simple.
• We often get enthusiastic team members who are keen to work on the project because it provides
them with career opportunities.
• Project work can be a great way to motivate our team.
• If we are handing the project over to a functional team, it will be the functional team you work in,
which can make closing a project easier
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Q. 12 List the obstacles to good group decision making. Also explain Delphi decision
making process. (Nov 18)
ANS:
➢ Amanda finds that group decision making has some disadvantages:
➢ it is time consuming;
➢ it can in some cases stir up conflicts within the group; and
➢ decisions can be unduly influenced by dominant members of the group.
➢ Conflict could, in fact, be less than might be expected. Experiments have shown that people will
modify their personal judgements to conform to group norms.
➢ These arc common attitudes that are developed by a group over a period of time.
➢ We might think that this would tend to moderate the more extreme views that some individuals in
the group might hold.
➢ In fact, people in groups often make a different type of participatory decision-making might occur
when end users are consulted about the way a projected computer system is to operate.
➢ Once established group norms can survive many changes of membership in the group. decisions
that carry more risk than where they have to make the decision on their own. This is known as the
risky shift.
➢ Measures to reduce the disadvantages of group decision making One method of making group
decision making more efficient and effective is by training members to follow a set procedure. The
Delphi technique endeavours to collate the judgements of a number of experts without actually
bringing them face-to-face.
➢ Given a problem, the following procedure is carried out:
• The co-operation of a number of experts is enlisted;
• The problem is presented to the experts;
• The experts record their recommendations;
• These recommendations are collated and reproduced;
• The collected responses are recirculated;
• The experts comment on the ideas of others and modify their recommendations if so moved;
• If the leader detects a consensus then the process is stopped, otherwise the comments are recirculated to
the experts.
The big problem with this approach used to be that because the experts could be geographically dispersed
the process was time consuming.
Delphi decision making process

➢ The Delphi Technique is an essential project management technique that refers to an information
gathering technique in which the opinions of those whose opinions are most valuable, traditionally
industry experts, is solicited, with the ultimate hope and goal of attaining a consensus.
➢ Typically, the polling of these industry experts is done on an anonymous basis, in hopes of attaining
opinions that are unfettered by fears or identifiability.
➢ The experts are presented with a series of questions in regards to the project, which is typically, but
not always, presented to the expert by a third-party facilitator, in hopes of eliciting new ideas
regarding specific project points.
➢ The responses from all experts are typically combined in the form of an overall summary, which is
then provided to the experts for a review and for the opportunity to make further comments. This
process typically results in consensus within a number of rounds, and this technique typically helps
minimize bias, and minimizes the possibility that any one person can have too much influence on
the outcomes.
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Q. 13 Write short note on SEI capability maturity model. (Nov 18)

ANS:
The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) Capability Maturity Model (CMM) specifies an increasing
series of levels of a software development organization.
The higher the level, the better the software development process, hence reaching each level is an
expensive and time-consuming process.
Level One: Initial - The software process is characterized as inconsistent, and occasionally even chaotic.
Defined processes and standard practices that exist are abandoned during a crisis. Success of the
organization majorly depends on an individual effort, talent, and heroics. The heroes eventually move on to
other organizations taking their wealth of knowledge or lessons learnt with them.
Level Two: Repeatable - This level of Software Development Organization has a basic and consistent
project management processes to track cost, schedule, and functionality. The process is in place to repeat
the earlier successes on projects with similar applications. Program management is a key characteristic of
a level two organization.
Level Three: Defined - The software process for both management and engineering activities are
documented, standardized, and integrated into a standard software process for the entire organization and
all projects across the organization use an approved, tailored version of the organization's standard
software process for developing, testing and maintaining the application.
Level Four: Managed - Management can effectively control the software development effort using precise
measurements. At this level, organization set a quantitative quality goal for both software process and
software maintenance. At this maturity level, the performance of processes is controlled using statistical
and other quantitative techniques, and is quantitatively predictable.
Level Five: Optimizing - The Key characteristic of this level is focusing on continually improving process
performance through both incremental and innovative technological improvements. At this level, changes to
the process are to improve the process performance and at the same time maintaining statistical probability
to achieve the established quantitative process-improvement objectives.
Page 20 of 35
Q. 14 What is reliability growth model? Explain any two reliability growth models.
(Nov 18)
ANS:
The reliability growth group of models measures and predicts the improvement of reliability programs
through the testing process.
The growth model represents the reliability or failure rate of a system as a function of time or the number of
test cases.
Models included in this group are as following below:
Coutinho Model –
➢ Coutinho adapted the Duane growth model to represent the software testing process.
➢ Coutinho plotted the cumulative number of deficiencies discovered and the number of correction
actions made vs the cumulative testing weeks on log-log paper.
➢ Let N(t) denote the cumulative number of failures and let t be the total testing time.
➢ The failure rate, \lambda (t), the model can be expressed as
$$\lambda (t)=\frac{N(t)}{t} $$ $$ =\beta_0t^{-\beta_1}$$
where \beta_0\: and\: \beta_1 are the model parameters.
➢ The least squares method can be used to estimate the parameters of this model.
Wall and Ferguson Model –

➢ Wall and Ferguson proposed a model similar to the Weibull growth model for predicting the failure
rate of software during testing.
➢ The cumulative number of failures at time t, m(t), can be expressed as
$$m(t)=a_0[b(t)]^\beta $$
where \alpha_0\: and\: \alpha_1 are the unknown parameters.
➢ The function b(t) can be obtained as the number of test cases or total testing time.
➢ Similarly, the failure rate function at time t is given by
$$\lambda (t)= {m^' (t)} = {a_0\beta b^' (t){[b(t)]^{\beta -1}}}$$
➢ Wall and Ferguson tested this model using several software failure data and observed that failure
data correlate well with the model.
Page 21 of 35
Q. 15 What are the steps of conducting a post implementation project review?

(April 23) (Nov 18)
ANS:
Review the project charter to evaluate how closely the project results match the original objectives.
Review the expected deliverables (including documentation) and ensure either that these have been
delivered to an acceptable level of quality, or that an acceptable substitute is in place.
If there are gaps, how will these be closed?
Determine whether the project goals were achieved.

Is the deliverable functioning as expected?
Are error rates low enough, and is it fit for purpose?
Is it functioning well, and in a way that will adjust smoothly to future operating demands?
Are users adequately trained and supported? And are there sufficiently enough confident, skilled people in
place?
Are the necessary controls and systems in place, and are they working properly?
What routine activities are needed to support the project's success?
If there are problems here, how will these be addressed?
How does the end result compare with the original project plan, in terms of quality, schedule and budget?
Determine the satisfaction of stakeholders.

Were the end users' needs met?
Is the project sponsor satisfied?
What are the effects on the client or end user?
If key individuals aren't satisfied, how should this be addressed?
Determine the project's costs and benefits.

What were the final costs?
What will it cost to operate the solution?
What will it cost to support the solution in the future?
How do the costs compare with the benefits achieved?
If the project hasn't delivered a sufficiently large return, how can this be improved?
Identify areas for further development.

Have all of the expected benefits been achieved? If not, what is needed to achieve them?
Are there opportunities for further training and coaching that will maximize results?
Could you make further changes, which would deliver even more value?
Are there any other additional benefits that can be achieved?
Identify lessons learned.

How well were the project's deliverables assessed, and how well were timescales and costs assessed?
What went wrong, why did these things go wrong, and how could these problems be avoided next time?
What went well, and needs to be learned from?
Report findings and recommendations.

What have you learned from this review?
Do you need corrective action to get the benefits you want?
What lessons have you learned that need to be carried forward to future projects?
Does this project naturally lead on to future projects, which will build on the success and benefits already
achieved?
Page 22 of 35
Q. 16 Describe a virtual team and the advantages of forming a virtual team.

(Nov 19)
ANS:
Virtual Team:
• A virtual team is group of people to participate in common projects by making collaborative efforts to
achieve shared goals and objectives.
• These peoples performed tasks and jobs in a virtual work environment created and maintained
through IT and software technologies.
Advantage of forming a virtual team:
Cost savings - The biggest advantage of virtual team enjoyed by an organization is the associated cost
savings. The organization can do away with huge expenses on real estate, office spaces, utilities bills such
as gas, electricity, water etc. and executives’ travel.
Leverage Global Talent - Virtual Teams allows organizations to look for talent beyond their country of
origin. This brings together the experts and specialists from across the globe to work together on the
project.
Increased Productivity & Higher Profits - Members of virtual teams tend to have higher focus on the task
at hand. As a practice virtual team supports flatter organization structure. The members do not have to deal
with unnecessary bureaucracy which slows down the decision making. This enhances the productivity
which shows as higher profits.
Reduced Time to Market - Since the members span the time zones, there could be different team working
on the same project 24*7, so when one member sleeps there will be another one somewhere else who
would start work where the former had left. This shortens the product development time.
Newer Opportunities - If we see at larger societal level, virtual teams have created newer opportunities for
people who are less mobile and hesitant to relocate due to either family requirement or physical challenge.
Now any task that does not require the physical presence of a person and which can be supported by
communication technology throws an opportunity for many deserving candidates.
Page 23 of 35
Q. 17 Write a role of different types of people needed to form a balanced team.
ANS:
• Most successful teams shape their purposes in response to a demand or opportunity put in their path,
usually by the top management. This helps teams get started by broadly framing the company's
performance expectations.
• The top management is responsible for clarifying the charter, rationale and performance challenge for
the team, but management also must leave enough flexibility for the team to develop commitment
around its own spin on that purpose, set of specific goals, timing and approach.
• To lead a team effectively, you must first establish the leader. Remember that the most effective team
leaders build their relationships of trust and loyalty, rather than fear or the power of their positions.
• Once the leader is firmly established it is form the team that will enable him to achieve the task.
• Team members should never be selected on the basis of only good personal relations or designated
position in the organization structure.
• An appropriate blend of right skills must be ensured in teams. It goes without saying that no team can
claim all requisite skills at its disposal from within.
However, teams, team relationship and teamwork are very conducive to learning, acquiring and perfecting
new skills.
Page 24 of 35
Q. 18 Define the term quality. Explain McCall’s quality model. (Nov 19)(April 23)
ANS:
Quality: As software is not a tangible product, software quality is not easily definable.
Software has many quality characteristics.
However, quality management resolves around defects.
Hence, delivered defect density i.e. the number of defects per unit size in the delivered software is the
industry accepted definition of quality.
McCall's Quality Model:

Also called as General Electronics Model.
It mainly has 3 major representations for defining and identifying quality.
(A)Product Revision
(1) Maintainability: Effort required to locate and fix a fault in the program within its operating environment.
(2) Flexibility: The ease of making changes required as dictated by business by changes in the operating
environment.
(3) Testability: The ease of testing program to ensure that it is error-free and meets its specification, i.e.,
validating the software requirements.
(B)Product Transition
(1) Portability: The effort required to transfer a program from one environment to another.
(2) Re-usability: The ease of reusing software in a different context.
(3) Interoperability: The effort required to couple the system to another system.
(C)Product Operations:
(1) Correctness: The extent to which a functionality matches its specification.
(2) Reliability: The system's ability not to fail/the extent to which the system fails.
(3) Efficiency: Further categorized into execution efficiency & storage efficiency & generally means the
usage of system resources.
(4) Integrity: The protection of program from unauthorized access.
(5) Usability: The ease of using software.
Page 25 of 35
Q. 19 State and explain different levels of Capability Maturity Model (CMM).

(Nov 19)
OR
What is CMM (Capability Maturity Model)? What are the various levels of CMM?
(Nov 22)
ANS:
• Rather than just checking that a system is in place to defect faults, a customer might wish to check
that a supplier is using software development methods & tools that are likely to produce good quality
software.
• A customer will feel more confident, for instance, if they know that the supplier is using structured
methods. This attempts to place organizations producing software at one of five level of process
maturity to indicate the sophistication and quality of their software production practices.
• There in all five levels in the model.
Level 1: Initial
The procedures followed tend to be haphazard.
Some projects will be successful, but this tends to be because of the skills of particular individuals including
project managers.
There is no level 0 as so any organization would be at this level by default.
Level 2: Repeatable
Organizations at this level will have basic project management procedures in place.
However, the way an individual task is carried out will depend largely on the person doing it.
Level 3: Defined
The organization has defined the way in which each task in the software development life cycle is to be
done.
Level 4: Managed
The product and process involved in software development are subject to measurement and control.
Level 5: Maturity
Improvement in procedures are designed and implemented using the data gathered from the measurement
process.
Page 26 of 35
Q. 20 Explain the metrics correlated with Software reliability. (Nov 19)

ANS:
1. Product metrics:
➢ function point metric is a method of measuring the functionality of software development
based upon a count of inputs, outputs, master files, inquires, and interfaces.
➢ The method can be used to estimate the size of a software system as soon as these
functions can be identified. It is a measure of the functional complexity of the program.
➢ It measures the functionality delivered to the user and is independent of the programming
language.
➢ It is used primarily for business systems.
2. Project management metrics:

➢ Good management can result in better products and a relationship exists between the
development process and the ability to complete projects on time and within the desired
quality objectives.
➢ Cost increase when developers use inadequate processes.
➢ Higher reliability can be achieved by using better development process, risk management
process, configuration management process, etc.
3. Process metrics:
➢ The quality of a product is a direct function of the process, metrics can be used to estimate,
monitor and improve the reliability and quality of software.
4. Fault and failure metrics:

➢ The goal of collecting the fault and failures metrics is to be able to determine when the
software is approaching failure-free execution.
➢ Test strategy is highly relative to the effectiveness of fault metrics.
➢ Usually, failure metrics are based upon customer information regarding failures found after
release of the software.
➢ The failure data collected is therefore used to calculate failure density, Mean Time between
Failures (MTBF) or other parameters to measure to predict software reliability.
Page 27 of 35
Q. 21 Discuss the reasons for project closure. (Nov 19) (April 19)
OR
Explain the different reason for which a project may need to be terminated.
(Nov 18)
ANS:
-Project is closed when it has reached its stated objectives i.e. it has been successfully implemented and
been handed over to its user. A successful project is simply developed to its customer.
-A project may be closed when it is transferred to another organizational division to take the work forward.
Such a decision may be taken if the management feels that the current project team is not a position to
reach the project objectives.
-Another reason for project closure or rather premature project closure is when the project manager
reaches the conclusion that the project is unfeasible and that the objectives are out of reach, resulting in a
prematurely closed down project.
-A project on perfect course may face closure on changed requirements of the user naming the project
redundant and forcing to call of the project.
-Crises within the organization or customer may force the closure of a project.
-Sudden an unanticipated changes in technology may force the closure of a project.
-Budgetary issues may force the closure of a project.
-Absence of key project personnel may force project closure.
-The planning of project closure should be top priority and should be planned for in the inceptive stages of a
project as it’s elevated the chances of a successful completion.
-The importance accorded to the closure stage of the project can be gauged when organization employ a
specific manager, who possess an appropriate set of skills and knowledge of project closure, to overlook
this phase of the project.
Page 28 of 35
Q. 22 Differentiate between product versus process quality management. (April 23)

Product Quality Management and Process Quality Management are two key aspects of quality
management that focus on different dimensions of delivering a high-quality product or service. Here's a
differentiation between these two concepts:
1. Definition:
• Product Quality Management: This primarily deals with the quality of the end result or output, such
as a product or service that is delivered to the customer. It is concerned with ensuring that the
product meets or exceeds customer expectations and conforms to established quality standards.
• Process Quality Management: This focuses on the quality of the processes and activities used to
create a product or deliver a service. It is concerned with optimizing and standardizing the
processes to consistently produce high-quality outputs.
2. Primary Focus:
• Product Quality Management: The primary focus is on the characteristics and attributes of the final
product or service. It aims to measure, control, and improve the quality of the end result to meet
customer requirements.
• Process Quality Management: The primary focus is on the methods, techniques, and procedures
used to produce the product or service. It aims to ensure that the processes are efficient, effective,
and capable of consistently delivering high-quality results.
3. Evaluation:
• Product Quality Management: Quality is evaluated by assessing the product's attributes, features,
performance, and reliability. This often involves inspections, testing, and customer feedback.
• Process Quality Management: Quality is evaluated by monitoring and measuring the processes
themselves. It involves analyzing process metrics, identifying variations, and making continuous
improvements to enhance process efficiency and effectiveness.
4. Goal:
• Product Quality Management: The primary goal is to meet or exceed customer expectations, deliver
a defect-free product, and ensure customer satisfaction.
• Process Quality Management: The primary goal is to establish well-defined and standardized
processes that consistently produce high-quality products or services. It focuses on preventing
defects at the source rather than detecting and fixing them later.
5. Approach:
• Product Quality Management: This is often reactive in nature, as it involves identifying and
addressing defects or quality issues after they have occurred in the final product. It emphasizes
quality control and assurance.
• Process Quality Management: This is proactive in nature, as it aims to prevent defects by designing
and maintaining efficient and effective processes. It emphasizes quality planning and improvement.
6. Tools and Techniques:
• Product Quality Management: Tools and techniques may include inspections, testing, quality audits,
root cause analysis, and customer feedback analysis.
Page 29 of 35
• Process Quality Management: Tools and techniques may include process mapping, statistical
process control (SPC), Six Sigma methodologies, Lean principles, and process optimization
techniques.
7. Continuous Improvement:
• Product Quality Management: While it strives for continuous improvement in the product itself, it
may not directly address process improvements unless product defects are traced back to process
issues.
• Process Quality Management: Emphasizes continuous improvement of processes as a fundamental
principle. It seeks to identify and eliminate root causes of defects and inefficiencies in processes to
achieve long-term quality gains.
In summary, while both product and process quality management are essential components of overall
quality management, they focus on different aspects of achieving and maintaining quality. Product quality
management ensures that the final deliverable meets customer expectations, while process quality
management concentrates on optimizing and standardizing the processes to consistently produce high-
quality products or services.
Page 30 of 35
Q. 23 Explain chief programmer team and also state its advantages and disadvantages
(April 23)
Chief Programmer Team Components:
1. Chief Programmer (CP):
• The CP is a highly experienced and skilled programmer who takes on a leadership role.
They are responsible for making critical design and architectural decisions for the project.
• The CP is also responsible for coordinating the work of the team members, setting coding
standards, and ensuring that the project stays on track.
2. Programmers (Team Members):
• The team consists of other programmers who work under the CP's guidance. These team
members are responsible for coding, testing, and implementing the software based on the
CP's specifications and design decisions.
• Team members may also provide feedback and suggestions to the CP, but the ultimate
authority for technical decisions rests with the CP.
Advantages of the Chief Programmer Team:
1. Strong Technical Leadership: The presence of a highly skilled CP provides clear technical
leadership and expertise. This can help in making sound architectural decisions and avoiding
design flaws.
2. Efficient Decision-Making: The CP's centralized decision-making authority can lead to faster and
more efficient project progress, as there is no need for lengthy consensus-building processes.
3. Clear Accountability: The CP is accountable for the project's success, which helps in ensuring that
key decisions are made with a focus on the project's objectives.
4. Knowledge Transfer: The hierarchical structure allows for knowledge transfer from the CP to team
members, helping less experienced programmers learn and grow.
5. Reduced Communication Overhead: With a clear leader, communication channels can be
streamlined, reducing the risk of miscommunication.
Disadvantages of the Chief Programmer Team:
1. Single Point of Failure: The CP's absence or any mistakes made by the CP can have a significant
impact on the project's success. This approach can be risky if the CP leaves the project or becomes
unavailable.
2. Limited Collaboration: The hierarchical structure may stifle creativity and input from team members,
as they may feel less empowered to contribute ideas or innovations.
3. Scalability Issues: This approach may work well for smaller projects, but it may become less
effective and scalable as projects grow in size and complexity.
4. Dependency on the CP's Availability: The project's progress may be hindered if the CP becomes a
bottleneck due to other commitments or workload.
5. Less Resilience to Changing Requirements: The rigid structure may struggle to adapt to rapidly
changing project requirements or unforeseen challenges.
Page 31 of 35
In summary, the Chief Programmer Team can be an effective approach for certain software development
projects, especially those with clear technical requirements and a need for strong technical leadership.
However, it also comes with risks, particularly in terms of dependence on the CP and potential limitations in
collaboration and adaptability. The suitability of this approach depends on the specific project's
characteristics and the availability of a capable CP.
Page 32 of 35
Q.24 Why are projects not closed properly? (April 23)

Projects may not be closed properly for various reasons, even though project closure is a crucial phase in
the project management process. The failure to close a project effectively can lead to lingering issues,
unmet objectives, and missed opportunities for improvement. Here are some common reasons why
projects may not be closed properly:
1. Lack of Awareness of the Importance of Closure:
• Some project stakeholders, including team members and managers, may not fully
appreciate the significance of project closure. They may view it as a bureaucratic task rather
than a critical step in the project's success.
2. Time and Resource Constraints:
• Project teams may face time and resource constraints as they work to complete the project's
primary objectives. As a result, they may prioritize immediate tasks over project closure
activities.
3. Scope Creep and Uncertainty:
• Projects can be subject to scope changes and uncertainty, which can make it challenging to
determine when the project is truly complete. Project managers may delay closure until all
uncertainties are resolved.
4. Incomplete Documentation:
• Proper project closure often requires comprehensive documentation, including final reports,
lessons learned, and financial summaries. If project documentation is incomplete or not up to
date, it can hinder the closure process.
5. Resource Reallocation:
• After project execution, team members may be reassigned to other projects or tasks. This
can lead to a lack of available resources for closing activities.
6. Lack of a Formal Closure Process:
• Some organizations may not have well-defined and documented processes for closing
projects. Without clear guidance, project teams may not know how to proceed with closure.
7. Perceived Success without Closure:
• In some cases, project teams may perceive a project as successful once the primary
deliverables are met and may not see the need for formal closure activities.
8. Communication Breakdown:
• Poor communication among project stakeholders can lead to misunderstandings about the
closure process and its importance. Team members may not receive clear instructions on
what is expected during closure.
9. Change in Project Leadership:
• If there is a change in project leadership or key team members at the end of the project, it
can disrupt the closure process. New leaders may not be aware of the closure requirements.
Page 33 of 35
10. Pressure to Move On to the Next Project:

• In organizations with a project-focused culture, there may be pressure to start the next
project quickly. This can lead to a rush to conclude the current project without proper
closure.
11. Failure to Capture Lessons Learned:
• One of the critical aspects of project closure is capturing and documenting lessons learned.
If this step is skipped, valuable insights that could improve future projects are lost.
12. Contractual and Legal Issues:
• Projects involving contractual agreements or legal matters may require additional time for
closure due to contractual obligations, disputes, or negotiations.
Page 34 of 35
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607A, 6th floor, Ecstasy business park, city of joy, JSD

Abhay More abhay_more

In other software quality models this characteristic is referenced as supportability. Maintainability is

Advantages of Virtual Teams in Project Management:

Disadvantages of Virtual Teams in Project Management (SPM):

The test plan typically includes the following components:

Key aspects of test management include:

Changing Priorities or Business Environment:

Poor Project Management:

Legal or Compliance Issues:

Vendor or Supplier Issues:

Natural or Man-made Disasters:

Q5) Short note on Six-Sigma.

What are the different type of Team Structure? (Nov 22)

1. Problem – Solving Teams:

2. Self – Managed Teams:

3. Cross – Functional Teams:

· Whether it is finding solution to a development fault or coordinating complex projects, cross-functional

1. Problem – Solving Teams:

2. Self – Managed Teams:

3. Cross – Functional Teams:

Whether it is finding solution to a development fault or coordinating complex projects, cross-functional

Record sales order product, price and quantity.

Calculate total price.

Calculate appropriate sales tax.

Calculate date available to ship, based on inventory.

Generate purchase orders when stock falls below a given threshold.

It is a process improvement approach.

® Benefit of a community’s prior experience

® Common language and a shared vision

® Framework for prioritizing action

Q. 11 Explain the advantages of a functional organization over project organization.

• Project work can be a great way to motivate our team.

Delphi decision making process

Q. 13 Write short note on SEI capability maturity model. (Nov 18)

Wall and Ferguson Model –

Q. 15 What are the steps of conducting a post implementation project review?

Determine whether the project goals were achieved.

Determine the satisfaction of stakeholders.

Determine the project's costs and benefits.

Identify areas for further development.

Identify lessons learned.

Report findings and recommendations.

Q. 16 Describe a virtual team and the advantages of forming a virtual team.

Advantage of forming a virtual team:

Q. 17 Write a role of different types of people needed to form a balanced team.

McCall's Quality Model:

Q. 19 State and explain different levels of Capability Maturity Model (CMM).

Q. 20 Explain the metrics correlated with Software reliability. (Nov 19)

2. Project management metrics:

4. Fault and failure metrics:

-Sudden an unanticipated changes in technology may force the closure of a project.

-Budgetary issues may force the closure of a project.

-Absence of key project personnel may force project closure.

Q. 22 Differentiate between product versus process quality management. (April 23)

Q.24 Why are projects not closed properly? (April 23)

10. Pressure to Move On to the Next Project:

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