Algebra

Algebraic inequalities are mathematical expressions that compare two quantities or expressions,
indicating whether one is greater than, less than, or equal to the other. Inequalities play a crucial role in
algebra and are used to represent relationships between variables and to solve a wide range of real-
world problems. Here's a brief overview of inequalities in algebra with examples:

 Linear Inequalities: Linear inequalities involve linear expressions (polynomials of degree 1) and
are represented with symbols such as < (less than), > (greater than), ≤ (less than or equal to),
and ≥ (greater than or equal to).

Example 1: Solve the inequality: 2x + 3 < 7

Solution: 2x + 3 < 7 2x < 7 - 3 2x < 4 x < 4/2 x < 2

 Quadratic Inequalities: Quadratic inequalities involve quadratic expressions (polynomials of

degree 2). They often have a graph that resembles a parabola.

Example 2: Solve the inequality: x^2 - 4x + 3 > 0

Solution: Factor the quadratic: (x - 3) (x - 1) > 0

To find the solution, consider the sign of each factor:

(x - 3) > 0 when x > 3

(x - 1) > 0 when x > 1

The inequality is satisfied when x > 3 or x < 1.

 Absolute Value Inequalities: Absolute value inequalities involve the absolute value of a variable
and are often represented using the |x| symbol.

Example 3: Solve the inequality: |2x - 5| < 3

Solution: Break it into two cases:

Case 1: 2x - 5 < 3 2x < 3 + 5 2x < 8 x < 4

Case 2: -2x + 5 < 3 -2x < 3 - 5 -2x < -2 x > 1

So, the solution is 1 < x < 4.

 Systems of Inequalities: Systems of inequalities involve multiple inequalities in the same

problem. The solution is the intersection of the solutions to individual inequalities.

Example 4: Solve the system of inequalities: 2x + y ≤ 5 x - 3y ≥ 1 3x + 2y < 8

Solution: The solution is the region where all three inequalities overlap in the coordinate plane.

Polynomials in Algebra
  Polynomials are fundamental mathematical expressions in algebra. They are composed of
variables, coefficients, and exponents, and they play a significant role in various mathematical
applications. A polynomial can have one or more terms, each consisting of variables raised to
non-negative integer exponents. Here's an overview of polynomials in algebra with some
examples:

Polynomial Definition: A polynomial is an expression of the form:

P(x) = a_n * x^n + a_(n-1) * x^(n-1) + ... + a_2 * x^2 + a_1 * x + a_0

where:

P(x) is the polynomial function.

a_n, a_(n-1), ..., a_2, a_1, a_0 are coefficients.

x is the variable.

n is the degree of the polynomial (the highest exponent).

Types of Polynomials:

 Constant Polynomial: A polynomial with no variable terms (degree 0).

Example: P(x) = 5

 Linear Polynomial: A polynomial with only one variable raised to the first power (degree 1).
Example: P(x) = 2x + 3
 Quadratic Polynomial: A polynomial with a variable raised to the second power (degree 2).
Example: P(x) = x^2 - 4x + 6
 Cubic Polynomial: A polynomial with a variable raised to the third power (degree 3).

Example: P(x) = 4x^3 - 2x^2 + x + 7

Operations with Polynomials:

 Addition and Subtraction: You can add and subtract polynomials by combining like terms. For
example: (2x^2 - 3x + 1) + (x^2 + 5x - 2) = 3x^2 + 2x - 1
 Multiplication: You can multiply polynomials using the distributive property. For example: (2x +
3)(x - 1) = 2x^2 - 2x + 3x - 3 = 2x^2 + x - 3
 Division: Polynomial division involves dividing one polynomial by another to find the quotient
and remainder.

Evaluating Polynomials: You can evaluate a polynomial by substituting a specific value for the variable
'x'.

For example: P(x) = 3x^2 - 2x + 5 P (2) = 3(2^2) - 2(2) + 5 = 12 - 4 + 5 = 13

Roots of Polynomials: The roots of a polynomial are the values of 'x' that make the polynomial equal to
zero.
For example, to find the roots of the polynomial: P(x) = x^2 - 4 Set P(x) = 0: x^2 - 4 = 0 (x - 2)(x + 2) = 0
So, the roots are x = 2 and x = -2.

Factoring

Factoring is a fundamental algebraic technique that involves breaking down algebraic expressions,
usually polynomials, into their constituent factors. This process helps simplify complex expressions and
enables the solution of equations and the identification of important points on graphs. Factoring can be
applied to various types of expressions, and different methods exist for factoring different types of
polynomials.

Basic Factoring Techniques:

 Common Factor Factoring: This involves factoring out the greatest common factor (GCF) from a
polynomial. It's a common starting point for factoring.

Example:

Factor the GCF from 2x^2 + 4x:

2x (x + 2)

 Factoring by Grouping: For polynomials with more than two terms, you can group terms and
factor out common factors from each group.

Example:

Factor the polynomial 2x^2 - 2xy + 3x - 3y:

2x^2 - 2xy + 3x - 3y = 2x(x - y) + 3(x - y) = (x - y)(2x + 3)

Factoring Quadratic Polynomials:

 Difference of Squares: For a polynomial in the form of a^2 - b^2, it can be factored as (a + b)(a -
b).

Example: Factor x^2 - 4:

x^2 - 4 = (x + 2)(x - 2)

 Perfect Square Trinomials: For a polynomial in the form of a^2 + 2ab + b^2 or a^2 - 2ab + b^2, it
can be factored as (a ± b)^2.

Example: Factor x^2 + 4x + 4:

x^2 + 4x + 4 = (x + 2)^2

 Factoring by Quadratic Formula: Quadratic equations can be factored using the quadratic
formula.

Example: Factor x^2 + 6x + 9:

 x^2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)^2

Factoring Higher-Degree Polynomials:

 Factoring by Synthetic Division: For finding rational roots and factors of higher-degree
polynomials, synthetic division is a useful technique.

Example: Factor the polynomial 2x^3 - 7x^2 - 3x + 2 using synthetic division:

The rational roots test reveals possible roots: ±1, ±2. Testing these, you find that (x - 1) is a
factor.

Using synthetic division: (2x^3 - 7x^2 - 3x + 2)/(x - 1) = 2x^2 - 9x + 6 = 2(x - 1)(x^2 - 4x - 6).

 Factoring by Sum and Difference of Cubes: Special formulas exist for factoring sums and
differences of cubes.

Example: Factor x^3 + 8:

x^3 + 8 = (x + 2)(x^2 - 2x + 4)

Exponents and Radicals

Exponents and radicals are fundamental mathematical concepts that deal with expressing and
manipulating numbers, quantities, and expressions in different ways. They are essential for
understanding and solving a wide range of mathematical and scientific problems.

Exponents - an exponent, also known as a power, is a numerical notation that indicates how many times
a base number is multiplied by itself.

 Basic Notation: In the expression "a^n," "a" is the base, and "n" is the exponent. It means "a"
multiplied by itself "n" times.
 Laws of Exponents:
a. Product Rule: a^m * a^n = a^(m + n)
b. Quotient Rule: a^m / a^n = a^(m - n)
c. Power Rule: (a^m)^n = a^(m * n)
d. Zero Exponent Rule: a^0 = 1 (for a ≠ 0)
e. Negative Exponent Rule: a^(-n) = 1 / (a^n)

Radical- a radical, represented by the √ symbol, is a mathematical operation that indicates the inverse
operation of taking the nth root of a number.

 Basic Notation: In the expression "√x," "x" is the radicand, and the radical symbol (√) denotes
the square root. For nth roots, the notation is "√(n)(x)," where "n" is the index.
 Laws of Radicals:
a. Square Root: √(a * b) = √a * √b
b. Quotient Rule: √(a / b) = √a / √b
c. Power Rule: (√a)^n = √(a^n)
Rational and Irrational Numbers: Radicals are used to distinguish between rational and irrational
numbers. Rational numbers can be expressed as a fraction (e.g., √4 = 2), while irrational numbers cannot
(e.g., √2).

Exponents and Radicals Together:

 Radical Exponents: These involve expressions where the exponent itself is a radical.

Example: √(x^4) = (x^4)^(1/2) = x^2

 Fractional Exponents: Fractional exponents are a way to represent roots.

Example: x^(3/2) represents the square root of x cubed, which is equivalent to √(x^3).

Function and Relation

In algebra, functions and relations are fundamental concepts that describe how one set of values (the
input) is related to another set of values (the output).

Relations- a relation is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) where each input value (x) is related to an output
value (y). In a relation, the same input can be related to multiple outputs.

In relation to algebra, several basic operations are used to manipulate relations. Here are some of the
fundamental operations in relation algebra:

 Selection (σ): The selection operation is used to retrieve specific rows from a relation that satisfy
a given condition. It is analogous to the WHERE clause in SQL.

Example: σ(Age > 30)(Employees) This selects all employees from the "Employees" relation
whose age is greater than 30.

 Projection (π): The projection operation is used to extract specific columns (attributes) from a
relation. It retains only the specified attributes and eliminates the rest.

Example: π(Name, Salary)(Employees) This extracts the "Name" and "Salary" attributes from the
"Employees" relation.

 Union (∪): The union operation combines two relations, retaining all unique tuples from both
relations.

Example: R ∪ S This combines the tuples from relations R and S, eliminating duplicates.

 Difference (-): The difference operation subtracts one relation from another, resulting in a
relation that contains tuples present in the first relation but not in the second.

Example: R - S This yields a relation containing tuples from R that are not in S.

 Cartesian Product (×): The Cartesian product operation combines two relations to create a new
relation where each tuple from the first relation is paired with each tuple from the second
relation.
 Example: R × S This generates a new relation with all possible combinations of tuples from R and
S.

 Join (⨝): The join operation combines two relations based on a specified condition. It is similar
to SQL JOIN operations.

Example: R ⨝ (Department = 'Sales') S This joins relation R with relation S on the condition that
employees in R work in the 'Sales' department.

In algebra, functions are fundamental mathematical constructs that describe how one set of values (the
input or independent variable) relates to another set of values (the output or dependent variable).

1. Function - a function is a rule or a correspondence that assigns a unique output (dependent variable)
to each input (independent variable).

 The input is usually denoted by the variable "x," and the output by "f(x)" or "y."

2. Function Notation:

 A function is often represented as "f(x)" or "y," where "x" is the input variable, and "f(x)" or "y"
is the output.

For example, the function representing a linear relationship between input "x" and output "y"
could be written as "y = 2x + 3."

3. Domain and Range:

 The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values for which the function is defined.
 The range of a function is the set of all possible output values.
 These sets define the scope of the function.

4. Function Evaluation:

 To find the value of the function for a specific input, you substitute that value into the function
and calculate the output.

For example, to find the value of "y" when "x" is 5 in the function "y = 2x + 3," you would
evaluate it as "y = 2(5) + 3 = 13."

5. Types of Functions:

 Linear Functions: These are functions where the highest power of "x" is 1. They produce
straight-line graphs.
 Quadratic Functions: These are functions where the highest power of "x" is 2. They produce
parabolic graphs.
 Exponential Functions: These are functions where the variable is in the exponent. They produce
exponential growth or decay.
 Logarithmic Functions: These are functions that involve logarithms. They are used in various
contexts, including solving equations with exponential growth.
6. Graphical Representation:

 Functions can be graphed on a coordinate plane, where the x-axis represents the input and the
y-axis represents the output.
 A function is represented by a curve or set of points. Each input corresponds to a unique point
on the graph.

7. One-to-One and Many-to-One Functions:

 A one-to-one function is a function where each input corresponds to a unique output, and no
two inputs produce the same output.
 Many-to-one functions are functions where different inputs can produce the same output.

8. Inverse Functions:

 An inverse function "f^(-1)(x)" undoes the work of the original function, mapping output values
back to their corresponding input values.
 Not all functions have inverses, and for those that do, finding the inverse may require specific
conditions.

GCM and LCM

Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) or Greatest Common Factor (GCF)

The GCD of two or more numbers is the largest positive integer that divides each of the numbers
without leaving a remainder. In other words, it is the greatest common factor shared by the given
numbers.

Notation: The GCD of two numbers "a" and "b" is denoted as GCD(a, b) or GCF(a, b).

Examples:

 GCD of 12 and 18: To find the GCD of 12 and 18, you can use the prime factorization method.

Prime factorization of 12: 12 = 2 * 2 * 3

Prime factorization of 18: 18 = 2 * 3 * 3

The common factors are 2 and 3. Therefore, GCD(12, 18) = 2 * 3 = 6.

 GCD of 24 and 36: To find the GCD of 24 and 36, you can again use prime factorization.

Prime factorization of 24: 24 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 3

Prime factorization of 36: 36 = 2 * 2 * 3 * 3

The common factors are 2, 2, and 3. Therefore, GCD(24, 36) = 2 * 2 * 3 = 12.

 GCD of 35 and 49: To find the GCD of 35 and 49, you can use the method of common factors.

The factors of 35 are 1, 5, 7, 35.

 The factors of 49 are 1, 7, 49.

The common factor is 7. Therefore, GCD(35, 49) = 7.

 GCD of 24, 36, and 48: To find the GCD of three numbers, you can first find the GCD of two of
them and then find the GCD of the result with the third number.

For example: GCD(24, 36) = 12 (as calculated earlier).

Now, find GCD(12, 48):

Prime factorization of 12: 12 = 2 * 2 * 3

Prime factorization of 48: 48 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 3

The common factors are 2 and 3. Therefore, GCD(12, 48) = 2 * 3 = 6.

Least Common Multiple

The Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers is the smallest positive integer that is a
multiple of all the given numbers. In other words, it is the smallest common multiple shared by the
numbers.

Notation: The LCM of two or more numbers "a" and "b" is denoted as LCM(a, b).

Examples:

 LCM of 4 and 6: To find the LCM of 4 and 6, you can use the prime factorization method.

Prime factorization of 4: 4 = 2 * 2

Prime factorization of 6: 6 = 2 * 3

To find the LCM, take the highest power of each prime factor: LCM(4, 6) = 2^2 * 3 = 12.

 LCM of 8 and 12: Similar to the previous example, you can find the LCM of 8 and 12 using prime
factorization.

Prime factorization of 8: 8 = 2 * 2 * 2

Prime factorization of 12: 12 = 2 * 2 * 3

To find the LCM, take the highest power of each prime factor: LCM(8, 12) = 2^3 * 3 = 24.

 LCM of 15 and 25: To find the LCM of 15 and 25, you can use the method of common multiples.

Common multiples of 15 and 25: 75, 150, 225, 300, ...

The smallest common multiple is 75. Therefore, LCM(15, 25) = 75.

 LCM of 24, 36, and 48: To find the LCM of three numbers, you can find the LCM of two of them
and then find the LCM of the result with the third number. For example:
 LCM(24, 36) = 72 (as calculated earlier).

Now, find LCM(72, 48) using prime factorization.

Prime factorization of 72: 72 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 3 * 3

Prime factorization of 48: 48 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 3

To find the LCM, take the highest power of each prime factor: LCM(72, 48) = 2^4 * 3^2 = 144.

AS, GS, FS

Sequences are ordered lists of numbers or terms that follow a specific pattern or rule. Three common
types of sequences are arithmetic, geometric, and the Fibonacci sequence.

Arithmetic Sequence:

 An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each term after the first is obtained
by adding a constant difference (d) to the previous term. It has a linear pattern.
 General Form: a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...

Example:

Common Difference (d): 3

Starting Term (a): 2

The sequence: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

In this example, the common difference between terms is 3.

Geometric Sequence:

 A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each term after the first is obtained
by multiplying the previous term by a constant ratio (r). It has an exponential pattern.
 General Form: a, ar, ar^2, ar^3, ...

Example:

Common Ratio (r): 2

Starting Term (a): 3

The sequence: 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, ...

In this example, the common ratio between terms is 2.

Fibonacci Sequence:

 The Fibonacci sequence is a famous sequence in which each term is the sum of the two
preceding terms. It has a recursive pattern.
 General Form: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ...
Example:

The sequence starts with two 1s.

To generate subsequent terms, you add the two previous terms: 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5,

and so on.

The sequence goes on infinitely.