Recent Progress On Wear-Resistant Materials: Designs, Properties, and Applications

REVIEW
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Recent Progress on Wear-Resistant Materials: Designs,

Properties, and Applications
Wenzheng Zhai, Lichun Bai, Runhua Zhou, Xueling Fan, Guozheng Kang, Yong Liu,
and Kun Zhou*
1. Introduction
There has been tremendous interest in the development of different
innovative wear-resistant materials, which can help to reduce energy losses Tribology is the study of friction, wear, and
the lubrication of interacting surfaces. As
resulted from friction and wear by ≈40% over the next 10–15 years. This
one of the critical tribological domains and
paper provides a comprehensive review of the recent progress on designs, a persistent phenomenon regarding the de-
properties, and applications of wear-resistant materials, starting with an formation, damage and/or removal of mate-
introduction of various advanced technologies for the fabrication of rial at contact surfaces, wear greatly affects
wear-resistant materials and anti-wear structures with their wear the lifetime of mechanical components
mechanisms. Typical strategies of surface engineering and matrix from the nanoscale to the macroscale.[1] For
example, a rapid wear of the tip of the con-
strengthening for the development of wear-resistant materials are then
ductive needle in an atomic force micro-
analyzed, focusing on the development of coatings, surface texturing, surface scope (AFM) operating in a high-current
hardening, architecture, and the exploration of matrix compositions, testing mode leads to low reliability in the
microstructures, and reinforcements. Afterward, the relationship between the assessment of electrical properties of the
wear resistance of a material and its intrinsic properties including hardness, tested material. Wear debris from ortho-
pedic joint implants is a critical cause of
stiffness, strength, and cyclic plasticity is discussed with underlying
their failure. Its accumulation in surround-
mechanisms, such as the lattice distortion effect, bonding strength effect, ing tissues can cause detrimental tissue re-
grain size effect, precipitation effect, grain boundary effect, dislocation or actions including osteolysis and sepsis.[2]
twinning effect. A wide range of fundamental applications, specifically in The omnipresent issue of wear in a vari-
aerospace components, automobile parts, wind turbines, ety of advanced technologies, as shown in
micro-/nano-electromechanical systems, atomic force microscopes, and Figure 1, continuously promotes research
in high wear-resistant materials and struc-
biomedical devices are highlighted. This review is concluded with prospects
tures that offer effective solutions to address
on challenges and future directions in this critical field. these challenges.
Dr. W. Zhai Prof. X. Fan

State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology State Key Laboratory for Strength and Vibration of Mechanical Structures
School of Mechanical Science and Engineering School of Aerospace Engineering
Huazhong University of Science and Technology Xi’an Jiaotong University
1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China 28 Xianning West, Xi’an 710049, P. R. China
Prof. L. Bai Prof. G. Kang
Key Laboratory of Traffic Safety on Track Applied Mechanics and Structure Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan
Ministry of Education Province
School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering School of Mechanics and Engineering
Central South University Southwest Jiaotong University
22 South Shaoshan Road, Changsha 410075, P. R. China 111 Second Ring Road, Chengdu 610031, P. R. China
R. Zhou, Prof. Y. Liu Prof. K. Zhou
State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Central South University Nanyang Technological University
932 Yuelushan South Road, Changsha 410083, P. R. China 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
E-mail: kzhou@ntu.edu.sg
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article Prof. K. Zhou
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202003739 Environmental Process Modelling Centre
© 2021 The Authors. Advanced Science published by Wiley-VCH GmbH. Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Nanyang Technological University
Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in 1 CleanTech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
DOI: 10.1002/advs.202003739
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Techniques used to obtain highly wear-resistant surfaces nor-

mally involve laser processing, electro processing, mechanical
processing, chemical processing, plasma processing, gas nitrid-
ing, and ion implantation.[11] These techniques can be catego-
rized into four types of approaches to increase the surface wear
resistance, which include the preparation of coatings, fabrication
of surface textures, development of surface hardening, and de-
sign of architecture.
In addition to surface engineering, matrix strengthening
demonstrates to be an effective strategy for the enhancement
of material wear resistance. In this work, matrix strengthen-
ing refers to strategies in the improvement of the wear resis-
tance of bulk metals, ceramics, or polymers. It can be realized
by composition control, microstructure design, and the addition
of reinforcements. The enhancement of these approaches re-
lies on the tailoring of deformation mechanisms[12] or the in-
troduction of hard in situ/ex situ nanoparticles.[13] These parti-
cles play an important role in the improvement of the strength
and hardness of the matrix. The uniformity and wettability
of their distribution within the matrix affect the enhancement
efficiency.
Notably, several reviews[14] on hard coating focused on its
Figure 1. Nearly ubiquitous impact of wear in various advanced technolo-
gies from nanoscale to macroscale applications.(NEMS) Reproduced
preparation and tribological properties, anti-wear polymers and
with permission.[3a] Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society; their composites, self-lubricating materials at high temperatures,
(Biomimetic) Reproduced withpermission.[3b] Copyright 2001, Elsevier; etc. With the rapid development in wear-resistant materials and
(Biomimetic) Reproduced with permission.[3c] Copyright 2016, Elsevier; their substantial impact on energy consumption, it is of great
(Wind energy, Biomedical, MEMS, and Aerospace) Reproduced with significance to offer a timely review on the recent developments
permission.[3d] Copyright 2015, Elsevier; (Water transport) Reproduced of these materials. This paper presents a comprehensive review
with permission.[3e] Copyright 2017, Elsevier; (AFM) Reproduced with
addressing critical issues related to novel designs, key proper-
permission.[3f] Copyright 2016, Elsevier; (Cosmetic) Reproduced with
permission.[3g] Copyright 2007, Elsevier. ties, and wide applications of wear-resistant materials. After the
brief introduction in this section, Section 2 summarizes typical
strategies in surface engineering and matrix strengthening for
the development of wear-resistant materials. In Section 3, corre-
Material wear processes cover one or a combination of wear lations between the material wear resistance and intrinsic prop-
mechanisms including abrasion, fretting, adhesion, fatigue, oxi- erties such as hardness, stiffness, strength, and cyclic plasticity
dation, and other tribo-chemical reactions.[4] Wear-resistant ma- are discussed together with the underlying mechanisms, includ-
terials have been sought or designed to reduce material damage ing the strain hardening effect, size effect, dislocation nucleation,
or loss due to wear. Typically, wear processes can be classified into and grain boundary sliding. Section 4 highlights the wide ap-
three types of states, namely, low, mild, and severe wear states.[5] plications of wear-resistant materials in aerospace components,
The low wear state is normally at a stress level below the elastic- automobile parts, wind turbines, micro-/nano-electromechanical
ity limit but can be characterized by the localized deformation of systems (MEMS/NEMS), AFM, and biomedical devices. Finally,
micro-asperities and plowing.[6] Micro-cracks and localized frac- Section 5 concludes with prospects on challenges and future di-
tures with tiny wear particles can be observed in the mild wear rections in this critical field.
state,[7] where the stress level is below the plasticity limit. In the
severe wear state, the stress level reaches close to or above the crit-
ical failure stress.[8] Crack propagation into the subsurface and 2. Design Strategies of Wear-Resistant Materials
macroscopic fractures with large wear flakes can be found.[9]
Many attempts have been made to impede the transition from Key strategies on the improvement of material wear resis-
low to mild wear or from mild to severe wear. As wear is a sur- tance are generally centered in surface engineering and matrix
face phenomenon, where the wear state of materials is related to strengthening. A careful modification of the structure and com-
their surface properties and structures, one of the most effective position of a surface helps to obtain high wear resistance of the
strategies to reduce wear is surface engineering. It contains a se- surface layer compared to that of the substrate. On the other
ries of physical and/or chemical surface and subsurface modifica- hand, good composition control and structure design within
tion processes but without changing the bulk properties or struc- a bulk material contribute to high wear-resistant performance
tures. For example, the thermochemical surface modification has without sacrificing mechanical properties of the material. Since
demonstrated to be an effective way to strengthen the surface strategies to achieve the target performance differ significantly,
hardness and wear resistance of metallic materials via alloying recent examples are presented separately in the following sub-
the material surface with the C or N element by diffusion.[10] sections with more details.
2.1. Surface Engineering pounds with thermodynamically driven “compositional modula-

tion,” thus resulting in isotropic coatings with enhanced mechan-
2.1.1. Coatings ical and anti-wear properties.[34]
The approach of self-organization during sliding is use-
Wear-resistant coatings generally enhance the surface durabil- ful in guiding the design of coatings or other wear-resistant
ity in a desirable way. They have been successfully deposited on materials.[35] Remarkable microstructural changes within the
substrates by different techniques including physical vapor depo- surface occur as the coatings adapt to friction and wear. Such
sition (PVD),[15] chemical vapor deposition,[16] hybrid physical– changes are responses to the external impact, based on the
chemical vapor deposition,[17] and thermal spray methods.[18] principle developed by I. Prigogine,[36] which states that the
Comprehensive summaries on microstructures,[19] characteriza- second thermodynamics law cannot eliminate the possibility of
tion methods,[14k] and selection criteria[14t] of wear-resistant coat- highly organized dissipative structures being formed in an open
ings can be found in previous review works. tribo-system. The self-organized structures are formed during
To achieve the high wear resistance of coatings, several strate- the running-in period of friction; their early formation can effi-
gies have been carried out including i) the ion bombardment ciently reduce the wear volume of coatings. Fox-Rabinovich[35,37]
treatment that applied prior to the coating deposition, which im- pointed out that the self-organization easily occurs for coatings
proves the adhesion strength due to ion-beam-induced interface with non-equilibrium states, which could be realized by the high-
mixing,[20] ii) multiple doping of elements for strengthening the energy ion impacts in modern techniques of surface engineering
integrated coating performance, such as hardness and surface such as physical vapor deposition. The non-equilibrium states
quality,[21] and iii) fabrication of composite coatings with a gra- corresponding to the complexity of coatings can be tailored
dient structure that efficiently enhances bonding strength at the by methods such as element doping, the formation of solid
interface between the coating and substrate.[22] solution and binary or ternary compounds, and the employment
The hardness of coatings is strongly related to their composi- of multi-layer structures. The future design of coatings should
tions and microstructures.[23] For instance, it is determined by further reduce their complexity and non-equilibrium states to
the resistance of the coatings to bond distortion and dislocation make them sustain more external impacts and adapt to varying
formation and propagation, which in turn depend on the number working conditions.
of obstacles such as grain and column boundaries, second-phase Recently, nanocomposite coatings have attracted intensive in-
particles, and solutes in the coatings. Such relation has promoted terest due to their exceptional physico-mechanical properties
coating designs, which can be achieved by tailoring microstruc- meeting the requirements at specific working conditions, such
tures. It has been clear that for nanocrystalline materials with as water lubrication and electrical contact.
a grain size range of 2–3 nm, the volume fraction of interfaces Nickel-based nanocomposite coatings have potential in ap-
can approach 50%. The constitution of interfaces is important plications at multiple scales due to their promising corro-
in determining the mechanical properties of coatings. The coat- sion and wear resistance, good ductility, and superior electri-
ings with supersaturated phases embedded are for wear-resistant cal properties.[38] For traditional metallic materials, wear resis-
applications because several pseudo-binary nitrides or carbides tance is related to hardness, according to the Archard theory,
show large miscibility gaps and can be fabricated by vapor de- which depicts that wear volume V is inversely proportional to
position techniques to yield effectively-quenched supersaturated the hardness at a given wear condition.[39] Ni-P nanocomposite
solid solutions that are ready for age hardening.[23] The coatings coatings were reported to show high hardness of 250–1524 HV
with optimized nanostructures and interfaces showed extremely at ambient conditions.[40] It could be further improved to 1700–
high hardness even after thermal treatments at ≈1000 °C. 2000 HV by heat treatments at 200–300 °C for 30–40 weeks.[41]
Coating hardness could also be increased by spinodal decom- Such improvement is due to the uniform dispersion of nickel
position or by the formation of precipitates that happens in sev- boride formed during the low-temperature treatments and the
eral ternary, quaternary, and multinary transition metal nitrides iron boride formed within the composite coatings.
due to their miscibility gaps.[24] In high-speed cutting applica- In the past two decades, SiC, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fer-
tions, the so-called self-lubricating coatings such as diamond-like rites, nanodiamonds, and oxide nanoparticles (e.g., CeO2 , TiO2 ,
carbon or MoS2 coatings are actually low-friction protective layers and Al2 O3 ) have been proven to be the promising nanoadditives
formed during wear sliding.[25] The better performance of these for the development of nanocomposite coatings.[40a,42] Compared
coatings can be achieved by including Mo-containing compounds to SiC nanoparticles, CNTs were demonstrated to be a good ad-
and further doping to match the lubricants used in rubbing sur- ditive for the enhancement of the wear resistance of Ni-based
faces by tuning the surface energy or to match the stiffness of the coatings.[43] They could be packed into the pores of Ni-based coat-
mechanical components.[26] Through Ti,[27] Cr,[28] Zr,[29] Ni,[30] ings to form a dense passivation layer with high wear resistance.
Ti-Si,[31] or Sb2 O3 [32] doping, MoS2 coating hardness can be in- Nanocomposite coatings including CrBN, CrSiCN, CrBCN, and
creased owing to a distortion of its crystal structure, which leads TiN-/CrN-based coatings have attracted intensive interest in wa-
to improved wear resistance. Au doping of the MoS2 coating has ter applications[44] and have been reported to show good tribolog-
a different enhancement mechanism. The good load-supporting ical properties at water lubrication conditions.[45]
ability of Au nanoparticles enables MoS2 shearing, resulting in Many studies on wear-resistant coatings focused on the de-
the superior tribological behavior of the Au-doped MoS2 coating velopment of unique structures, for example, the core–shell
compared to that of the bare MoS2 coating.[33] structure,[46] amorphous/nanocrystalline,[47] and gradient multi-
Systems with more types of elements such as ternary or qua- layer coatings.[48] A polymer coating with the core–shell struc-
ternary systems show strong segregation in the two binary com- ture of polymethylmethacrylate wrapped polytetrafluoroethylene
shows a low friction coefficient of 0.069 and wear rate of 1.04 water lubrication. Compared to the DLC and a-CNx coatings, the
× 106 mm3 N−1 . Voevodin et al.[47] fabricated nanocrystalline TiN-/CrN-based coatings showed a higher wear rate of 10–6 –10–7
WC/amorphous DLC composite coatings with a biphasic struc- mm3 (Nm)−1 with water lubrication but exhibited a better anti-
ture composed of 1 ± 3 nm sized amorphous particles and 5 ± wear behavior under corrosive conditions owing to the formation
10 nm sized nano-crystal grains. The hardness of the WC/DLC of a passive layer during the sliding process.
coatings was much higher than that of the metal-doped DLC coat- Our previous studies reported the effect of sputtering ion
ings. The superior strength, high corrosion, and wear resistance beam energy on the bonding structures, anti-corrosion behavior,
of metallic glass make it a promising material for coatings. Sa- and mechanical and tribological properties of amorphous carbon
hasrabudhe et al.[49] fabricated Fe-based amorphous coatings on films fabricated by the ion beam sputtering method within an ar-
a Zr substrate using the laser engineered net shaping technique. gon ion beam energy range of 1–3 keV. [57] Improved adhesion
The coatings consisted of crystalline phases were embedded in was obtained in the films fabricated at high ion beam energy, re-
the amorphous matrix. The content of the amorphous phase in- sulted from the collective effect of the low residual stress within
creased after the laser heat treatment, resulting in an increase the films, film graphitization, and mixed interface. The wear re-
of coating hardness up to nearly 22%. After wear tests in a 3.5% sistance of amorphous carbon films increased with the increase
NaCl solution, the wear rate of the amorphous coatings was ob- of ion beam energy. A critical parameter of hardness/elastic mod-
served to reduce by 96% compared to that of the Zr substrate. ulus, H/E, was demonstrated to be a suitable factor to evaluate
The enhancement in the wear resistance of Zr was attributed to coating wear properties.
the over 800% improvement in hardness of the Zr substrate. The wear resistance and friction coefficient of coatings depend
The coating design with a nanocrystalline/amorphous struc- on their hardness and thickness values, respectively. The inter-
ture is efficient in achieving excellent mechanical and tribological nal residual stress of coatings induced by fabrication and post-
properties. [50] The amorphous phase can solve the problems of treatment processes has an important effect on the wear resis-
lattice misfits between two different polycrystalline coating ma- tance. The residual stress of a-CNx coating can reach as high as
terials with the random orientation of the grains. Since the lat- 5 GPa after a PVD sputtering process, resulting in weak adhe-
tice misfit initiates crack formation and propagation, it needs sion to the substrate. A Ti+C/a-CNx gradient multilayer coating
to be thin enough and form a three-dimensional skeleton with with a hardness of 19 GPa was prepared by Liu et al.[48] using ion-
high elastic modulus to reduce such initiation and achieve the beam-assisted magnetron sputtering. The gradient layer existed
better anti-wear behavior of the amorphous phase. The friction between the CNx layer and the substrate. After a thermal treat-
coefficient of DLC coatings can reach a very low value owing to ment, the Ti+C layer could alleviate the internal residual stress
their chemical inertness and small contact area as a result of their of the coating as a result of the formation of misfit dislocations.
high elastic moduli.[51] The nanocrystalline phase should have a Two-dimensional (2D) materials including transition metal
nanoscale size fitting the stability limit of the crystalline phase, dichalcogenides and graphene are very attractive as the ma-
which has notable tribological behavior as the nanocrystalline terial of novel wear-resistant coatings.[3d,58] The typically used
grains improve its hardness. graphene-based materials have high mechanical strength, good
The low-temperature deposition technique is efficient to avoid lubricity, and thermal stability, thus acting as promising coat-
interdiffusion-induced decreases in hardness and thus improves ing candidates for vehicles, especially for airplanes and ships
the coating wear resistance. The nanocrystalline/amorphous by providing light weight and high wear resistance under shear
structure has been employed for the fabrication of several coat- forces.[59]
ings including nc-TiN/a-Si3 N4 , nc-TiC/a-C, and nc-TiCN/a-SiCN, Graphene-based materials can mitigate mechanical failures
which improve its strength efficiently. of coatings through surface enhancement and stress trans-
Existing references regarding amorphous coatings well cover fer. The high resistance to crack initiation and deflection as
research fields of fabrication processes,[52] microstructures,[53] well as crack branching and bridging have been determined as
mechanical behavior, corrosion,[54] and wear properties.[55] The important strengthening mechanisms of graphene-based ma-
wear behavior of amorphous coatings depends on the residual terials. Graphene has been proven to be an effective solid
stress and adhesion of coatings, which are related to the differ- lubricant,[58m,60] allowing it to be a good candidate in tribologi-
ence in the thermal expansion coefficient between the coating cal applications at both the nano- and the macroscale. Typically, a
and the substrate. The fracture toughness of coatings is a criti- small amount of graphene effectively improves the wear resis-
cal factor, which relates to the crack initiation and propagation tance of polymer coatings.[61] Meanwhile, as a monolayer ma-
during mechanical loading. Further experimental and numerical terial, graphene showed extraordinary anti-wear behavior origi-
studies on adhesion, residual stress, and fracture toughness in nated from interactions with hydrogen bonds to form sp3 car-
different amorphous coating systems are required to obtain deep bon. [62] Nevertheless, challenges in the weak bonding strength
insights into anti-wear mechanisms by controlling these critical between the metallic- or ceramic-matrix and graphene-based ma-
factors. terials hinder practical applications of the latter materials in the
Hydrogen-free DLC coatings showed a superior anti-wear be- fabrication of metallic and ceramic wear-resistant coatings.
havior compared to hydrogenated DLC:H coatings at the water Newly emerging MXenes,[58c] such as Ti3 C2 Tx -nanosheets,
lubrication condition because delamination occurred with the lat- have shown ultra-high wear resistance and good lubrication be-
ter coatings in the presence of hydrogen. [56] DLC coatings with a havior under dry conditions resulted from their graphite-like
higher content of sp2 -hybridization would be promising for water structure with low shear strength.[63] A 2.3-fold reduction in fric-
lubrication. Using the a-CNx coatings, the wear rate was main- tion and a 2.7-fold reduction in wear have been observed in
tained at an order of magnitude of 10−7 –10−8 mm3 (Nm)−1 with the Ti3 C2 Tx -nanosheet modified steel surface compared with the
bare steel under a contact pressure of 0.8 GPa and at relative-low face resulted in a wear reduction up to 72%. Sliding tests of
humidity. Ti3 C2 Tx -nanosheets show excellent anti-friction and Si3 N4 mated with steel demonstrated that the tribological behav-
anti-wear properties at moderate contact stress and low humid- ior depended on the dimple size and density rather than on the
ity conditions. Ti3 C2 /nanodiamonds composite MXene coatings dimple shape.[82] Dimples combined with a solid lubricant help
exhibit extremely high wear resistance during sliding against a in obtaining excellent tribological behavior over a wide loading
polytetrafluoroethylene counterpart owing to integrated effects of range.[83]
protective polytetrafluoroethylene for the 2D structure of Ti3 C2 , A recent research study reported that the DLC-covered tex-
rolling ability of nanodiamonds within Ti3 C2 inter/inner layers, tured surface improved anti-wear properties of implant materi-
and formation of the tribofilm.[64] als at high contact stresses.[84] He et al.[84b] found that these sur-
faces exhibited excellent anti-wear behavior at the contact stress
of 820 MPa. Samples with a dimple density of 24% showed a low
2.1.2. Surface Texturing wear rate but a high friction coefficient when compared to the
surfaces with a dimple density of 44%. The improved tribological
Surface texturing involves the controlled modification of topog- properties of these surfaces were because the hard DLC coating
raphy to produce functional surfaces.[65] Having a good design of acted as the anti-wear film to reduce surface wear, whereas the
surface textures is also one of the most effective ways to reduce textured substrate prompted the lubrication behavior by provid-
wear in MEMS/NEMS, piston-ring systems, seals, bearings, and ing a hydrodynamic lift effect between the sliding interfaces.
artificial hip implants. The surface acts as an efficient lubricant In the case of liquid lubrication, surface texturing prompts the
reservoir, delivering lubricants and trapping wear debris at con- formation of pressure-induced tribofilms by reducing the real
tact surfaces. contact area and trapping wear debris, thus providing an ad-
Several mechanisms of surface texturing for the improvement ditional load-bearing capacity.[85] A comprehensive review work
of tribological behavior were reported, including i) the enhance- summarizing its effects on piston rings, seals, roller bearings,
ment of load-carrying capacity by increasing hydrodynamic pres- and gears was carried out by Rosenkranz et al.,[86] with an em-
sure over the surface texture,[66] ii) application of additional lu- phasis on rolling and sliding contact. Gropper et al.[87] reported a
bricants over the real contact area by the inlet-suction effect,[67] review providing a detailed discussion on the tribological mech-
iii) reduction of the real contact area,[68] iv) storage of lubricants anisms of textured surfaces of sliding bearings from numerical
via the reservoir effect,[69] and v) capture of wear particles by the and experimental points of view. Table 1 summarizes the infor-
debris trapping effect.[70] mation on surface textures with the corresponding tribological
Some well-established techniques for the fabrication of surface behavior.
textures have been carried out in industries, including electro Notably, a promising strategy of integrating surface textures
discharge machining, electrochemical processing, chemical ma- with coatings is attractive in the enhancement of surface tribo-
chining, ultrasonic-assisted machining, jet machining, and laser logical behavior at severe contact conditions, where both surface
and beam machining. [71] textures and coatings show serious wear.[65a] A combination of
Surface textures with feature sizes at micro- and nanoscales surface texturing with soft metal,[97] polytetrafluoroethylene,[98]
have been applied as secure identification elements or to improve DLC,[99] or 2D material[100] coatings can provide low friction co-
the efficiency of solar cells but are sensitive to wear.[72] Laser inter- efficients and wear rates. Mechanisms of each strategy are the
ference patterning demonstrates to be effective in the fabrication reservoir effect of textures for metallic materials that shows the
of the in-volume optical grating on metallic,[73] semiconductor,[74] self-lubrication behavior during sliding, formation of transfer-
ceramic,[75] and polymer[76] surfaces, showing a good solution to films, reduction of the real contact area, and trapping effect of
this wear issue.[77] Lasagni et al.[78] fabricated line- and cross-like textures for 2D lubricant materials.
microstructures with spatial periods of 2–7 µm in DLC layers
on the steel surface by the direct laser interference patterning
method. The friction coefficient reduced from 0.18 of the initial 2.1.3. Surface Hardening
DLC layers to 0.11, which is comparable to that of the lubricated
steel. By using this technique, hierarchical-textured Ti surfaces The wear resistance of surfaces can be determined by calculat-
of hole-like structures with a spatial period of 5 µm on crater- ing the wear volume V according to the Archard’s law at a given
like structures having a spacing distance of 50 µm was obtained condition as V = KlF/H, where K is the wear coefficient; l is the
to decrease wear. [79] The reduced wear of the Ti surfaces was sliding distance; F represents the applied load; H is the hardness.
resulted from the protective effect of large craters on the small Surface hardening is a technique that commonly involves heat-
holes. The 20-year development of direct laser interference pat- ing or using mechanical methods on the metal material to im-
terning makes it a promising technique for the wear reduction of prove its surface hardness, and thus improving its resistance to
engineering applications, such as forming tools, [78] biomedical wear and fatigue. Conventional methods such as carburizing, ni-
implants, [79] and decorative or security elements. [72] triding and boriding utilize element diffusion on the component
The precise machining of micro- and nano-dimples has been surfaces need a high temperature environment. These meth-
considered to be an important surface texturing method to en- ods mainly involve large surface-hardened thickness and cause
hance the anti-friction and anti-wear properties of contacting sur- phase transformation in the underlayer microstructures, which
faces in MEMS and NEMS. [80] Tang et al.[81] analyzed the mech- increases the hardness. The latest surface hardening techniques:
anisms of the dimples in wear reduction through a numerical plasma surface diffusion,[101] duplex hardening,[102] laser surface
model and found that a 5% dimple area fraction on the sur- alloying,[103] microwave heating,[104] friction stir processing,[105]
Table 1. Microstructural parameters of dimples and test conditions and the corresponding observations for various surface textures.
Material Microstructural parameter of dimples Test parameter Typical observation Ref.
Hardened steel Diameters of 40–120 µm, depth of 5 µm, Sliding speeds of 0.012–1.2 m s−1 , Textures remained effective at severe sliding [ 82 ]
area density of 7.5–30% contact stress of 780 MPa conditions

Diameters of 35 and 50 µm, depths of Sliding speeds of 0.004–0.16 m s−1 Deeper and denser textures led to obvious [ 88 ]
20–30 and 10–13 µm decreases in friction and wear

Bearing steel Diameters of 58 and 78 µm, depths of 5 and Sliding speeds of 0.03–0.76 m s−1 , Regime transited from boundary to [ 89 ]
5.5 µm, area density of 15% and 12% contact stresses of 0.16–700 MPa hydrodynamic lubrication at higher
speeds
Diameter of 60 µm and depths of 1–2 µm, Rolling speed of 30 m s−1 , contact Friction reduced in the transverse direction [ 90 ]
grooves with pitch of 150 µm and width stresses of 700–2000 MPa

of 50 µm
Diameter of 221 µm, depth of 9.5 µm, area Sliding speeds of 0.01–0.12 m s−1 , Dimples led to increases in friction at high [ 91 ]
density of 6.7% and 26.8% contact stress of 870 MPa speeds

Diameter of 64 µm, depth of 16.5 µm, area Sliding speed of 0.015 m s−1 , contact Textures led to a 10% increase in friction [ 92 ]
density of 3.6% stress of 870 MPa

Diameter of 80 µm, depth of 5.5 µm, area Sliding speeds of 0.08–0.16 m s−1 , Friction reduced at high-load and [ 93 ]
density of 12% contact stresses of 500–700 MPa low-sliding conditions

Diameter of 200 µm, depth of 5.5 µm, area Sliding speeds of 0.09–0.55 m s−1 , Friction decreased with increasing sliding [ 94 ]
density of 7–20% contact stresses of 260–640 MPa speeds and contact stresses
Diameters of 20–60 µm and depths of Sliding speeds of 0.09–0.55 m s−1 , Dimples with the diameter of 20 µm gave [ 95 ]
0.6–1.8 µm, area density of 7% contact stresses of 390–960 MPa rise to decreases in friction
Stainless steel Diameter of 100 µm, depth of 50 µm, area Sliding speed of 0.4 m s−1 , contact Friction was reduced by 50% [ 96 ]
density of 40% stress of 1000 MPa
and high-current pulsed electron beam processing[106] are typical then adopted for the fabrication of channel-like textures with su-
approaches, which are expected to induce fine microstructures or perhydrophobicity. Abrasion wear tests showed that the durability
additional elements in the surface. of the surfaces improved by 28–59% after the plasma carburizing
Studies have been devoted to surface hardening in structural process. This process enhanced mechanical properties of the sur-
applications. For example, plasma diffusion methods endowed faces, hence preventing the severe wear of the superhydrophobic
Ti-based alloy surfaces with improved anti-wear properties by surfaces.
forming a robust surface film composed of TiC, TiN, and hard
Ti-based intermetallics.[107] The duplex hardening of steel involv-
ing the conventional hardening treatment and the surface nitrid- 2.1.4. Architecture
ing process is promising to achieve superior anti-wear properties
by increasing the surface hardness of the steel and compressive Different wear mechanisms acting simultaneously over various
residual stresses of the subsurface.[108] A slight enhancement of scales and hierarchy levels result in the hierarchical and heteroge-
wear resistance was observed in M50 steel after duplex hardening neous nature of wear. In this subsection, the design of hierarchi-
because of their intrinsic carbide precipitates. cal and heterogeneous structures on surfaces for wear reduction
As one of the efficient nonequilibrium techniques, high- are discussed.
current pulsed electron beam processing has been used to modify Multi-scale textured dimples with circular and elliptical shape
surfaces with remarkably refined and deformed microstructures arrays have been fabricated on surfaces of steel to improve its
that contain the high density of crystal defects, which enhances tribological behavior.[111] The multi-scale textured steel surfaces
their wear resistance and hardness. Lyu et al.[109] applied the high- showed a stabilized lower friction coefficient than the initial sur-
current pulsed electron beam method on surfaces of CrFeCoN- face as a result of the hydrodynamic lubrication effect. The dim-
iMo high-entropy alloys to realize their improved wear resistance ples with the 12% surface area density demonstrated to be the
by the underlying strengthening mechanisms. The high wear re- most effective in friction reduction at a normal load of 10 N
sistance and hardness were attributed to the collective effect of and sliding speeds varying from 0.09 to 0.55 m s−1 . The effect
the high density of craters, ultra-fine grains, dislocations, and de- of multi-scale and single-scale textured surfaces on the tribologi-
formed twins (see Figure 2a–f). Figure 2g shows a homogeneous cal behavior of bearing steel has been compared by Grützmacher
composition that was obtained on the modified surface after in- et al.[112] Both textured samples exhibited 20–30% reduction in
creasing the pulse number. the friction coefficient compared to the unfeatured sample over
Surface hardening has been well applied in hydrophobic sur- the rotational speeds ranging from 0.033 to 0.785 m s−1 . Specif-
faces to improve their durability. Garcia-Giron et al.[110] applied ically, the most significant reduction in friction by a factor of
a low-temperature plasma surface alloying method to improve 4.6 was obtained in the multi-scale textured sample where a hy-
steel surface hardness from 172 to 305 HV. Laser processing was drodynamic lubrication regime was formed. A mixed lubrication
Figure 2. a) Wear rates of the initial and plasma diffusion modified surfaces. Plasma diffusion modified surfaces with b) craters shown by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), c) ultra-fine grains, d) dislocations, and e,f) deformed twins shown by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images,
where the inset in (e) shows the average grain size. g) Element mapping results of plasma diffusion modified surfaces. Reproduced with permission.[109]
Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
regime could be observed in the single-scale textured sample. A MoS2 heterostructures. The interlayer shear strength of the
comprehensive discussion on multi-scale texturing in tribology fluorographene/MoS2 heterostructure (2.9 MPa) was lower by
can be found in a previous review by Grützmacher et al.[113] almost two orders of magnitude than that of the fluoro-
Hierarchical surface engineering was initially inspired from graphene/fluorographene (136 MPa) and MoS2 /MoS2 (470 MPa)
natural phenomena and is used to adjust the hydrophobicity and bilayers, which was caused by the intrinsic lattice mismatch and
adhesion on surfaces of components (Figure 3).[114] Lotus leaves the formation of periodic Moiré patterns, thereby leading to the
give the famous hierarchical surface that exhibits two-tiered extremely low energy barrier during sliding. Li et al.[122] con-
roughness resulted from the superposition of two roughness structed the micro- and nanoscale binary hierarchical structure
patterns at different length scales.[115] So far, many techniques consisting of an eroded stair-step microstructure and an inacti-
have been developed to create multi-scale surface roughness, vated nano-particle layer on the Al surface. Wear tests demon-
such as nano-scratching, laser surface texturing, chemical etch- strated that the wear rate was reduced from 1.49 × 10–5 mm2 N−1
ing, and end milling, which have been well reviewed by Grütz- of the untreated Al surface to 0.89 × 10–5 mm2 N−1 of the hier-
macher et al.[116] The friction reduction caused by hierarchical archical surface. The homogeneously-distributed nano-particles
surfaces have been observed for materials such as titanium,[117] acting as a self-lubricating part contributed to the friction re-
sapphires,[118] polymers,[119] and composite materials.[120] duction. The modified surface with hierarchical microstructures
Several novel hierarchical structures have been fabricated could preferentially peel off during the wear process, which helps
in recent years to achieve remarkable adjustment in adhe- to form a tribolayer on the surface, and thus reducing the wear.
sion and tribology. Wang et al.[121] used first-principle calcu- Wu et al.[123] designed hierarchical structures containing a
lations to analyze the nanoscale tribological behavior of fluo- compacted-surface layer, a porous sub-layer, and a barrier layer
rographene/fluorographene, MoS2 /MoS2 , and fluorographene/ by replacing the Al cathode with graphite and by tailoring the
Figure 3. Biological hierarchical surfaces and their functionality. Reproduced with permission.[114b] Copyright 2018, Elsevier.
Al3+ concentration. The hardness of the modified surface was 2– 2.2.1. Compositions
7 times of that of the initial Al alloy. The wear rate of the modified
sample was three orders of magnitude lower than that of the un- Material compositions can be manipulated by additives in the
treated Al alloy, resulted from the formation of columnar wear matrix or by the parameter optimization of fabrication and post-
debris that allows rolling friction on the wear surface. treatment processes. Dopants are widely applied in the fabrica-
Biologically-inspired multi-scale surface structures are at- tion of wear-resistant materials. They have important effects on
tractive in friction reduction.[124] Greiner et al.[125] fabricated the lattice distortion, fracture performance, plasticity, and bond-
scale-like structures with diameters varying from 13 to 150 µm ing strength of metal materials, thus influencing their wear re-
on the bearing steel surface. The friction force was reduced by sistance. For example, the doping of element Mo in fcc CrCoNi
more than 80% compared to that of the initial steel surface at alloys caused the severe lattice distortion and formation of inter-
a fast sliding speed of 170 mm s−1 . However, such structures metallic phases, resulting in obvious improvements of compres-
might lead to an increase of friction of the lubricated steel-on- sive yield strength and hardness from 518 MPa and 244 HV to
steel and steel-on-ceramic surfaces at a relative slow sliding 1973 MPa and 656 HV, respectively.[126] However, the plasticity
speed of 20 mm s−1 . These results stimulate further research of Mo-doped CrCoNi deteriorated, caused by brittle intermetallics
in the field of biologically-inspired architecture applied into formed after doping. Therefore, the balance between solid solu-
anti-friction applications. tion strengthening and embrittlement is needed to achieve the
Tuning the ratio of the elastic energy to surface energy and de- suitable fracture toughness of Mo-doped CrCoNi. By compre-
signing surfaces with the small-scale roughness overlying large- hensive comparisons, a suggested composition of CrCoNiMo0.5
scale roughness are promising ways to reduce the friction. was obtained, which possessed a good compromise between anti-
wear and mechanical properties.
Zafari et al.[127] reported the effect of La-based rare earth addi-
2.2. Matrix Strengthening tions on the microstructure and anti-wear property of AZ91 al-
loys at a load of 20 N and a sliding speed of 0.4 m s−1 . The phase
Constant endeavor has been done on the preparation of bulk microstructure changed from a continuous network of the ini-
materials with improved wear resistance. To date, several effec- tial AZ91 alloy to the spherical morphology of the doped alloys
tive strategies have centered around the control of compositions, (Figure 4a,b). No obvious change in the wear resistance of the
design of microstructures, and addition of reinforcements. This doped alloys was observed at the testing temperature of 25 °C.
subsection reviews recent experiments on matrix strengthening, As the temperature increased to 200 °C, the wear resistance of
focusing on its effect on anti-wear properties. the doped alloys was enhanced (Figure 4c). Comparing with the
wear property than pure Ag and alloys with other phases. Since
the increase of wear resistance by tuning the proportion of Al el-
ement was realized at the expense of electrical properties, further
experiments and simulations are needed to develop an optimum
doping composition.
2.2.2. Microstructures
Similar to hierarchical or heterogeneous structure designs on

surfaces discussed in Subsection 2.1.4, microstructure designs of
the matrix have significant effects on anti-wear properties of the
material, which greatly depend on the grain size, precipitation (or
second phases), structure of grain boundaries, dislocation, and
twins in the material.
Grain size influences the hardness of metallic materials fol-
lowing the classic Hall–Petch relation. Wang et al.[136] reported
the effect of grain sizes ranging from 0.4 to 2.2 µm on the wear
resistance of WC-Co materials. Contrary effects of grain size
on the wear resistance were observed at dry sliding and micro-
abrasion conditions (Figure 6a). At the dry sliding condition,
the wear rate was dramatically reduced by decreasing the WC
grain size, resulted from the increased hardness that mitigated
the surface deformation, fracture, and oxidation. At the micro-
abrasion condition, the effect of the extraction of Co and WC
Figure 4. SEM images of a) initial AZ91 and b) AZ91 with 3 wt% rare earth grains dominated the wear mechanism over the hardness effect
(RE) elements. c) Wear rates of AZ91 and alloys with 1, 2, and 3 wt% RE (Figure 6b–f). Thus, the wear resistance decreased with a decreas-
elements after sliding 1000 m. Reproduced with permission.[127] Copyright ing grain size.
2013, Elsevier.
In addition to the grain size effect on the wear resistance at the
microscale, the macroscale wear resistance of NiTi alloys with
grain sizes ranging from 3 to 80 nm was analyzed at different
results of the AZ91 alloy without doping, it was implied that the normal loads by Liu et al.[137] The anti-wear performance of the
decreased wear resistance originated from the 𝛽-Mg17 Al12 phase nanocrystalline NiTi alloys mainly depended on the hardness.
softening. As the test temperature increased, severe deforma- With an average grain size of 3 nm, the actual wear resistance
tion of the surface and adhesion resulted. Elements Si,[128] N,[129] of Ni-W alloys was higher than the value calculated on the basis
Cr,[130] Co,[129] Ni,[131] C,[132] and Ti[133] have demonstrated to tune of hardness. [138] The grain growth and grain boundary relaxation
anti-wear properties of the matrix efficiently. led to the additional local hardening on the worn surface, thereby
Despite the aforementioned doping strategy, plenty of stud- providing the superior wear resistance.
ies have been carried out on the effects of tuning the proportion Suárez et al.[139] prepared Ni-based composites with the addi-
of constituent elements on the matrix wear resistance. B1−x Cx tion of 1 wt% CNTs by a hot uniaxial press method. The grain size
films of various compositions were fabricated on surfaces of Si reduced from 47.54 µm of pure Ni metals to 7.58 µm of the CNT-
(100) and steel substrates by controlling the electrical power of reinforced composites, resulting in the improved hardness and
a magnetron system.[134] The hardness of the B1−x Cx films was subsequent high wear resistance of the composites. The grain
observed to be 28, 20, and 25 GPa, corresponding to the carbon refinement also enhanced the oxidation kinetics of the compos-
content of 19, 56, and 76 at%. The wear rate decreased by al- ites, which mitigated effects of a detrimental oxide surface layer
most two orders of magnitude with the increasing carbon content formed, thus improving their anti-friction behavior.
(Figure 5a). This decrease was mainly caused by the presence of Notably, Argibay et al.[140] demonstrated an inverse Hall–Petch
amorphous carbon in B1−x Cx films (Figure 5b), which facilitated relation of the CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy with a high wear
the formation of a graphitic tribolayer. Such tailoring of the x- resistance and low friction coefficient in the inert environment
proportion in B1−x C films provides ideas in tuning anti-wear and where oxidation was hindered. The low wear rate was observed
anti-friction properties of bulk materials. in coarse-grained alloys, which could be attributed to the forma-
Similarly, Ag1−x Alx alloys covering different phases were de- tion of the severe deformed surface with a near-amorphous layer.
signed for potential applications in sliding electrical contact.[135] Rapidly severe plastic deformation (SPD) has been reported to
An increase of the Al content enhanced the hardness of the occur in the coarse-grained metallic materials during the slid-
Ag1−x Alx alloys. The Al content above 25 at% led to the forma- ing process,[141] which was responsible for the change of friction
tion of the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) phase, which in turn re- and wear behavior. The low friction of pure nanocrystalline tanta-
sulted in a sharp increase in the hardness of the alloys because lum could be obtained by the formation of a nano-grained surface
the alloys with the hcp phase have fewer slip systems than those layer with sizes ranging from 10 to 50 nm where grain-boundary
with the fcc phase. Thus, the former alloys showed stronger anti- sliding occurred.[142]
Figure 5. a) Friction coefficients and wear rates at a normal load of 2 N, b) Raman spectra of B1−x Cx films, where the intensity between 1000 and
1600 cm−1 wavenumber was enhanced by the increase in the amorphous carbon content. Reproduced with permission.[134] Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
Figure 6. a) Wear rates of WC-Co with various grain sizes. SEM images showing the surface morphology of WC-Co with different grain sizes of b,c)
2.2 µm, d) 1.6 µm, e) 0.8 µm, and f) 0.4 µm after micro-abrasion tests at a contact load of 0.2 N. Reproduced with permission.[136] Copyright 2019,
Elsevier.
The SPD treatment results in the significantly grain refine- nificant effects on the wear resistance. In this case, critical factors
ment within bulk materials. At a relative low strain level, high- including the grain size, hardness, strength, ductility, strain hard-
density dislocations can be induced within deformed grains, ening ability, oxidation rate, and strain compatibility between sur-
which forms cells with thick walls and low misorientation angles. face and subsurface layers should be considered for determining
As the stain level increases, the cell walls turn into high-angle the wear resistance of SPD-processed materials. A systematic dis-
grain boundaries, and subsequently the boundaries of ultrafine cussion about the effect of these factors on wear behavior can be
grains. The hardness would thus be increased by the reduction found in a previous study by Gao et al.[143]
of the grain size. However, the wear resistance of SPD-processed The heterogeneous structure of different grain sizes plays a
bulk materials is not related to hardness alone. Their microstruc- significant role in the wear resistance. Rai et al.[144] designed
tures induced by different SPD processing parameters, such as several types of structures of steel with different grain sizes, in-
the specific SPD technique, temperature, and pressure, have sig- cluding 4 µm, 18 µm, and a bimodal grain-size distribution. The
steel with the bimodal grain size gave the highest wear resistance coefficient remained constant. However, the wear rate of the 29
as a result of the fine and strained grain effect of the heteroge- at% ones was significantly reduced as a result of the formation of
neous structure. The mechanical incompatibility between vari- more carbides that hindered the columnar grain growth.
ous domains in other heterogeneous structures including har- Wang et al.[150] reported an altered surface layer with a thick-
monic heterogeneous lamellar structures may also significantly ness of 400–800 nm on the surface of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys after
influence the wear resistance. a surface abrasion treatment. The layer consisted of ultra-fine
The strain hardening effect that plays a critical role in the wear grains with diameters of 50–120 nm and high density of disloca-
resistance due to the precipitates or second phases that hinder tions. Pre-existing precipitates dissolved during the surface abra-
the dislocation motion. The mechanism is discussed within the sion process. Precipitates of Zn, Al2 Cu, and AlCu, which were
following subsection. not observed in the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys, formed at the top sur-
face and grain boundaries. The enhanced diffusion motivated by
vacancies, dislocations, and grain boundaries would be respon-
2.2.3. Reinforcements sible for these newly-formed precipitation phases.[151] It can be
reasonably inferred that the anti-wear property of alloys can be
The application of reinforcements such as precipitates and changed as a result of drastic microstructural modifications of
second-phase particles has attracted intensive attention in the the surface. Further experiments are of importance to study ef-
fabrication of wear-resistant bulk materials strengthened by pre- fects of altering the surface layer on its tribological behavior at
cipitation and dispersion hardening. The wear resistance of these different working conditions.
materials is highly dependent on their dimension, morphol- The emerging Mxenes show the potential as reinforcement in
ogy, and content of reinforcements. Carbon nanomaterials in- polymers,[152] metals,[153] and ceramics.[154] An addition of 2 wt%
cluding fullerenes, CNTs, graphene, and nanodiamonds show Mxenes in the Al-based composite improved its bending strength
high potential as solid additives in bulk materials for high wear and hardness by 150% and 300%, respectively, which would be
resistance.[59a,60,145] Emerging 2D materials such as graphene, beneficial in enhancing its wear resistance. Unlike the addition
Mxenes, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), and transition metal of other 2D materials such as MoS2 and graphene into metals, the
dichalcogenides (TMDs) present promising enhancement ca- addition of Mxenes into the Cu-based composites did not facili-
pabilities owing to their high strength, large surface area, ul- tate the formation of a transfer layer on the contact surface.[155]
trathin thickness, as well as excellent thermal and chemical Further studies are needed to enhance the lubrication behavior
stability.[58k,m,146] of Mxenes as additives in bulk materials.
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that van der
Waals interactions between graphene and a polymer matrix could
restrict surrounding polymer chains, thus providing an addi- 3. Properties of Wear-Resistant Materials
tional strengthening effect.[147] The tribological behavior of poly- Key factors affecting material wear properties include testing con-
mers reinforced by pristine and functionalized graphene addi- ditions and intrinsic material properties. Effects of testing condi-
tives was compared by Li et al.[147] through MD simulations. tions on the tribological behavior of different types of materials
A reduction of 42.3% in wear was observed in the modified- from the macro- to nano-scale were discussed in our previous ex-
graphene reinforced polymers. Pull-out processes by MD simu- perimental and simulation studies.[156] In this section, the influ-
lations demonstrated the enhanced interfacial strength between ence of material intrinsic properties including the hardness, stiff-
the matrix and the functionalized graphene, which was resulted ness, strength, and cyclic plasticity on anti-wear behavior of the
from the stronger capability of the modified graphene in bonding materials are analyzed; correlations between the material wear
polymer chains than that of the pristine graphene, thus leading resistance and these intrinsic properties are discussed.
to the less material transfer of polymers during wear.
A combination of reinforcements and ultra-fine grained mi-
crostructures improves the anti-wear property of metallic mate- 3.1. Hardness
rials through precipitation and grain boundary hardening. Severe
plastic deformation with heat treatments is a powerful method to As discussed in Section 2, wear performance in materials with
modify metallic material structures with controllable grain size, coarse grains correlates closely with their bulk hardness. Chang-
grain boundary, dislocation density, precipitate content, and so- ing from the microcrystalline to nanocrystalline domain, as the
lute segregation. Recently, additive manufacturing (AM) having a grain size reduces, materials exhibit significantly improved wear
high degree of freedom in designing and manufacturing demon- resistance. They can be classified into two categories, depending
strates great potential in the fabrication of in situ precipitates. whether their average grain size is above or below 10 nm. The
Wear-resistant titanium nitrides (Ti2 N, TiN) and N-enriched 𝛼 wear resistance of those above 10 nm is consistent with the Ar-
phase were observed in AM-fabricated Ti-based alloys.[148] Mi- chard theory.[157] For those below 10 nm, an obvious deviation
crostructural characterizations of worn alloys revealed a phase was observed[138] and became more prominent at finer grain sizes
transformation from 𝛼 to 𝛽 grains and an SPD-induced nanocrys- (Figure 7). Such deviations were attributed to the local hardening
talline tribolayer, which resulted in an obvious reduction of wear. of the worn surface owing to the grain growth and grain bound-
Precipitates nickel aluminide and chromium carbide could be ary relaxation during the repetitive sliding.
formed in Ni-18Al-11Cr-9C and Ni-14Al-8Cr-29C alloys fabri- In view of the difference between the theoretical and actual
cated by laser engineered net shaping.[149] As the carbon content wear resistance, a linear correlation between the anti-wear prop-
of the alloys increased from 9 to 29 at%, the dry sliding friction erty and the ratio of wear-related hardness H′over compressive
Figure 7. a) Hardness of specimens with different grain sizes before and after wear with the inset showing the hardness difference and dotted line
representing the values obtained from the Hall–Petch relation. Wear volumes plotted against b) grain sizes and c) the corresponding hardness, where
the dotted line represents values calculated on the basis of Archard theories. Reproduced with permission.[138] Copyright 2010, Elsevier.
Table 2. Hardness, mass loss, and wear resistance of different materials,[158] where the relation between wear resistance R and H′/E follows R =
2.539(1000H′/E) − 1.02. .
Material Original hardness [HB] Wear-related hardness [HB] Mass loss [mg] Wear resistance [×103 kg mm−1 ]
Al6061 53.9 59.9 5.8 0.42

Q235 127 204.5 3.4 2.06
1Cr13 162.5 260.5 2.3 3.08
0Cr19Ni9 171.3 305.7 2.6 2.75
ZGMn13 238.3 404.3 1.6 4.46
TC11 241.5 267.5 0.9 4.48
30CrMo 246.5 281.5 3.3 2.15
TC4 317 329 0.7 5.71
AlCrFeCoNiCu 335.5 441.5 2.1 3.42
elastic modulus E was developed by Ji et al.[158] Upon the substi- The above research would be helpful in evaluating the wear
tution of original hardness H, the correlation coefficient between performance at the wheel/rail interface, which is rarely discussed
the wear resistance and the H′/E ratio was increased from 0.61 but is where severe strain hardening occurs. The strain harden-
to 0.89. The typical original hardness values, wear-related hard- ing effect on the pearlitic and bainitic rail steel has been reported
ness, and wear resistance results at the same test conditions are by Lee et al.[160] The originally soft pearlitic steel was observed
listed in Table 2. Ratio H′3 /E2 is another indicative parameter of to be hardened more than the hard bainitic steel, thus exhibit-
the material wear resistance for Ti-based alloys.[159] ing better wear resistance. The hardness of the pearlitic steel
surface was 2.5 times higher than that of the bulk after strain rigid object, those of pins supported by elastic objects were re-
hardening.[161] The increase in the rail hardness simultaneously duced by one-six and three-quarters at a low speed of 8.3 m s−1
reduced the wear of the rail and wheel at nearly the same or- and a high speed of 19.4 m s−1 , respectively.
der of magnitude. At a 10% slip level, the wear of rail materials At the nanoscale, the wear behavior of highly wear-resistant
was dominated by the contact stress and was independent of the 2D materials depends on the substrate stiffness. Different effects
hardness.[162] At higher slip levels, the frictional heat and high- of the substrate stiffness have been observed from those at the
temperature hardness were the significant factors related to the macroscale. Yao et al.[167] demonstrated that the substrate with
wear resistance of the rail and wheel system, which calls for fu- high stiffness could efficiently bear normal loads and thus allevi-
ture efforts. ate in-plane stresses in the graphene supported by the substrate
Materials with high hardness do not always show high wear through restricting its deformation. The overall load-carrying
resistance in practical applications. Steel tools with martensitic ability of the system was therefore improved. By using a well-
microstructures for high hardness cannot cut soft materials such established finite element analysis simulation, it was reported
as human hair, cheese, and potatoes, which can be attributed to that the load-carrying ability of graphene-containing systems in-
the hierarchical structures of the interacting materials and the dy- creased monotonically with the substrate stiffness. The graphene
namic boundary conditions of their co-deformation.[163] Haircut- supported by stiffer substrates exhibited higher load-carrying
ting causes nucleation, propagation, and coalescence in the hard ability at the nanoscale, indicating its better wear resistance. More
lath martensite. Such failure processes occur through the collec- efforts are required to analyze differences in effects of the sub-
tive effects of i) out-of-plane shear stresses resulted from hair strate stiffness in nano- and macroscale domains.
bending, ii) the asperity on the cutting edge with different mi-
crostructures on either side, and iii) contact alignments between
an asperity and the outermost circumferential point of hair. 3.3. Strength
In addition to the hardness and stiffness, strength has been re-

3.2. Stiffness ported to have an impact on the wear resistance of metallic mate-
rials. Zambrano et al.[168] obtained three types of steel with the
Destructive wear, characterized by a rapid increase in wear loss same hardness but different yield strength and strain harden-
within a small area, may cause an increase in friction torque and ing coefficients via thermal treatments, as shown in Table 3. The
a high amplitude of vibrations in mechanical components such wear performance was evaluated using a block-on-ring configu-
as shafts. It thus reduces the effective structural stiffness and ag- ration at the same conditions including a sliding speed of 0.13 m
gravates the stick-slip motion.[164] When the stiffness reduces to s−1 and a contact stress of 8.14 MPa. No obvious correlation be-
a critical range, a transition to catastrophic wear would occur at tween the strain hardening coefficient and wear resistance was
relatively low contact loading conditions. Several studies were car- obtained, whereas an increase in the former raised the depth of
ried out to determine the relation between the structural stiffness wear-induced deformation zones. The yield strength of the steel
and wear performance. was related to the susceptibility of specific wear mechanisms in-
Effects of the structural stiffness on wear behavior depend on cluding micro-cutting and micro-ploughing with high wear co-
loading forms during the impact-sliding process. The influence efficients, which were observed in AISI O1 and AISI 1045 steel,
of low, medium, and high structural stiffness, corresponding to respectively. An approximate quadratic relation was reported be-
5.49, 85.83, and 686.67 × 10–3 N∙m2 , respectively, on wear proper- tween the wear resistance and yield strength of the three types of
ties of Al-based alloys was reported by Tan et al.[165] The increase steel.
in structural stiffness resulted in a change of wear mechanisms A similar relation between the yield strength and wear re-
from the delamination in the low stiffness case to the ploughing sistance was obtained by Coronado et al.[169] When the harden-
in the high stiffness case. As a result, the damaged area trans- ing coefficient increases, the wear resistance decreases. Notably,
ferred mainly from the impact regime to the sliding regime. This the same hardness values could be achieved by tuning the yield
was attributed to different types of dominating load determined strength and strain hardening coefficient.[170] The collective effect
by the structural stiffness, which would lead to changes in the of these two parameters on anti-wear properties deserves more
stress field. It was thus concluded that the low and high struc- efforts.
tural stiffness cases exhibited counteraction effects on the wear Unlike metallic materials, the strength of polymers has diverse
stability, whereas the medium stiffness gave rise to the relatively effects on the wear resistance. The Ratner–Lancaster plot demon-
stable wear. strated that the anti-wear behavior of polymers was proportional
Other than the structural stiffness, substrate stiffness has a to their tensile strength and elongation.[171] By physical ageing
significant effect on wear. Ding et al.[166] reported effects of and rejuvenation, Mergler et al.[172] controlled the yield strength
the stiffness of pins on the wear performance of the stainless of polycarbonate to range from 40 to 70 MPa. Tribological and
steel/copper-impregnated carbon in a pin-on-disc device. The mechanical tests indicated that an increase in the yield strength
specimens supported by elastic objects showed higher wear re- alone without changing the molecular weight or density of entan-
sistance than those supported by rigid objects with a stiffness of glements had negligible effects on the polymer wear resistance,
2 kN m−1 . Among stiffness values of 2–46 kN m−1 , superior wear which depended on interactions between bonds and chains as
resistance was observed at a value of 19 kN m−1 . At the same stiff- well as the physical networks. The existing literature indicated
ness level, the wear resistance presented high dependence on the that a single tensile property can hardly influence the wear resis-
sliding speed. Compared to wear rates of pins supported by the tance of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylenes.[173] The ratio
Table 3. Summary of the yield strength, strain hardening coefficient, and roughness of the thermal-treated steel.
Steel Yield strength [MPa] Strain hardening coefficient Roughness [µm] Ref.
AISI 5160 633.96 ± 5.05 0.15 ± 0.01 0.3115 ± 0.007 [ 168]
AISI O1 386.53 ± 39.02 0.22 ± 0.01 0.2947 ± 0.005

AISI 1045 488.80 ± 16.09 0.28 ± 0.01 0.2781 ± 0.009
AISI 1045 530 ± 12 0.04 ± 0.01 — [ 169]
Welded AISI 1045 415 ± 20 0.22 ± 0.02 —

Welded AISI 1045 242 ± 11 0.39 ± 0.03 —
Welded AISI 1045 324 ± 13 0.31 ± 0.02 —
Table 4. Typical stress-related wear damages of ceramics.
Contact stress Wear damage
Low (below the elasticity limit) Elastic deformation, no obvious wear

Medium (below the plasticity limit) Plastic deformation-induced wear
High (close to the critical failure stress) Cracks-induced wear
Very high (above the critical stress) Fracture
of the DLC and subsurface, EDLC /ESubsurface , to a low value of 1.23,

an extremely low wear rate could be obtained, indicated by the
blue dot at the lower right corner of Figure 8. Thus, the control
of surface elastic modulus at a value similar to that of the subsur-
face without an excessive decrease of the hardness is promising
for the fabrication of highly wear-resistant amorphous materials.
The H/E ratio has been considered to be a valuable indicator in
Figure 8. Relationship between the wear rate and H/E ratio of metals, cer- the assessment of the abrasion wear resistance of coatings.[174q]
mets, ceramics, and amorphous materials (color-coded).[174]
The wear resistance of Ti-based composite coatings, such as
TiN-Al/TiN, TiN-AlTiN/SiN, and CrTiN-AlTiN-AlTiCrN/SiN, in-
of the maximum contact stress to yield strength 𝜎/𝜎 y matched creases with the increasing H/E ratio, [175] which is consistent
well with the tendency of the wear rate and hence would be a with above analyses. However, TiAlN, TiAlSiN coatings and the
potential coefficient to assess the polymer wear resistance. CrN/TiAlCrSiN composite coating show no correlation between
their H/E ratios and wear resistance. The coating thickness,
preparation process, microstructure, and adhesion force between
3.4. Plasticity coatings and substrates are the critical factors that should be con-
sidered in further studies to evaluate the relation between the
The ratio of hardness H to elastic modulus E, namely the H/E ratio and wear resistance.
“plasticity index,” is widely acceptable in determining the limit Ceramics exhibit high H/E ratios but are brittle because of
of elastic surface contact, which is critical in the wear resistance. their covalent and ionic bonds. Their wear mechanisms are deter-
Figure 8 shows the relationship between the wear rate and H/E mined by the contact stress. Typical stress-related wear damages
ratio of metals, cermets, ceramics, and amorphous materials. In were reported by Wang et al.,[176] as shown in Table 4. The sum-
the metal, cermet, and ceramic domains, the wear rate decreases mary of wear mechanisms at different contact stresses provides
with increasing H/E. Typically, owing to the high ductility of preliminary guidelines in the selection of ceramics in anti-wear
metals compared to that of cermets and ceramics, a negative applications.
correlation between the wear rate and plasticity index is obtained. Based on Table 4, anti-wear properties of ceramics at specific
However, the pronounced correlation is not necessarily valid in operating conditions can be improved by restraining the crack
the case of amorphous materials, where increasing wear rate initiation and propagation, which would be achieved by the re-
is observed with increased H/E ratio. This exception is because duction of grain sizes. Mishra et al.[177] compared the wear resis-
a high elastic mismatch between the surface and substrate tance between nanocrystalline SiC and single-crystalline SiC by
normally exists in the amorphous material case. This mismatch large-scale MD simulations that could accommodate 500 grains.
can induce a tensile stress at the surface/subsurface interface The latter presented higher wear resistance because of the higher
near the contact perimeter, which tends to strip the surface away hardness originated from the dislocation-mediated cyclic plastic-
from the substrate, thus affecting the wear resistance. It can be ity including the dislocation nucleation and motion. On the other
inferred that amorphous materials are wear-resistant at their hand, the deformation mechanism of the former was dominated
H/E range of 0.06–0.1. By adjusting the ratio of the elastic moduli by grain boundary sliding, characterized by the heterogeneous
Figure 9. Snapshots of wear of a) single-crystalline and b) nanocrystalline SiC sliding against a tip (blue color), where the pulling-out of a nanocrystalline
SiC grain was observed. c) Plot of the shear stress on the grain boundary against the sliding distance, where the lower panels indicate the plastic
deformation in nanocrystalline SiC caused by grain boundary sliding. d) Formation of voids at grain boundaries caused by grain boundary sliding.
Reproduced with permission.[177] Copyright 2014, Wiley-VCH.
nucleation of dislocations, formation of nano-voids, and pulling- sults obtained from the model match those of the in-service rail
out of grains (Figure 9). Similar effects of plastic deformation steel. Potential strategies can therefore be derived to alleviate the
on the wear of single crystals were demonstrated in potassium rail wear.
bromide at the nanoscale.[178] The plasticity-related wear mech-
anisms could be strengthened by high normal loading and slow
scratching speed conditions. 4. Applications of Wear-Resistant Materials
Yin and Komvopoulos[179] developed a contact-mechanical The incorporation of innovative materials and advanced process-
model on the basis of the slip-line theory of plasticity to explore ing techniques can enhance the strength, hardness, toughness,
the wear behavior of a softer surface sliding on a harder surface. and anti-wear performance of the surface, which are critical
The relation between the wear resistance and material param- to maintain durability, stability, and accuracy, and to enhance
eters including the elastic-plastic property of soft materials, to- the wear resistance and efficiency of mechanical parts from the
pographical feature of hard materials, and shear strength of the macroscale to nanoscale. This section focuses on the recent
interface was obtained, suggesting a high dependence of the for- progress on employing innovative wear-resistant materials in
mer on the H/E ratio. The relation has been demonstrated in a broad range of applications, with an emphasis on aerospace
Al2 O3 -CrN, Al2 O3 -TiC, and steel-steel sliding systems, and would components, automobile parts, wind turbines, MEMS/NEMS,
be promising for other ceramic-ceramic, ceramic-metallic, and AFM, and biomedical devices.
metallic-metallic systems.
Plastic deformation may accumulate beneath rubbing surfaces
due to high cyclic stresses. Ratcheting, characterized by the direc- 4.1. Aerospace Components
tionally accumulated plastic deformation of a material, can lead to
the formation of cracks on the material surface, thereby playing a Materials used in aerospace components exhibit desirable me-
significant role in detecting wear and fatigue behaviors. A cyclic chanical properties, reasonable density for weight reduction,
plasticity material model was developed to evaluate the ratcheting good damage tolerance for prolonged utilization at the demand-
behavior of the rail steel under cyclic rolling contact.[180] Crack ing temperature of −30–600 °C and radiation conditions.[181] The
initiation occurred when the ratcheting strain reached the ductil- widely applied materials for aerospace components include Al-,
ity limit of the steel. The ratcheting strain rate and the ductility Mg-, Ti-, and Ni-based alloys.[181b,182] Wear, specifically the fret-
limit were thus determined as the critical factors that played a ting wear incorporating synchronic and competitive processes of
deterministic role in the crack initiation lifetime. The steel with material failure by wear, corrosion, and fatigue, is one of the ma-
a low carbon content of 0.85% showed the consistent crack ini- jor concerns in bearing shafts, bolted connections, and blade-disc
tiation lifetime at a wide loading condition and better ratcheting assembly applications. An acceptable way to overcome this chal-
resistance to damage compared to that with a carbon content of lenge is the use of thermostable wear-resistant coatings with ef-
1%, thus presenting high wear and fatigue resistance. These re- fective reinforcements over the alloy bulk.[181a]
relatively low cost.[186] The transportation industry contains

≈1600 million vehicles [187] including road vehicles, trucks,
trains, ships, and airplanes. Globally, ≈83 EJ of energy is used
in the road vehicle sector every year, of which 32% is used
to overcome friction. The percentage of energy used to over-
come friction in other transportation sectors is estimated to be
≈30%.[188] The energy consumption caused by wear is 10% of
that used to overcome friction. The implementation of novel
wear-resistant materials and advanced lubrication technologies
in transportation reduces the wear loss for vehicles because of
fewer component replacements and remanufacturing issues in-
volved. Tremendous efforts have been developed in exploring
new anti-wear materials and structures to reduce the friction and
wear over the past decades, which may be referred to ref. [189] .
AM, which enables desirable flexibility in designing and man-
ufacturing, is promising in fabricating highly wear-resistant ma-
Figure 10. Relation between the coefficients of friction and coating thick- terials used in vehicle components. In the rest of this subsection,
ness, where CoT denotes the ratio of the average thickness during wear potential applications of high-performance AM metallic materi-
to the initial thickness. Reproduced with permission.[183] Copyright 2008,
Elsevier.
als in wear reduction are discussed. By AM, Wang et al.[190] fab-
ricated the austenitic 316L stainless steel with both high yield
strength and tensile ductility, surpassing those of the conven-
A thermally-sprayed double-layer system was determined as
tional 316L steel, where an increase of the strength typically
an effective wear-resistant coating of Ti-based alloys.[183] Prior to
reduces the ductility. The high yield strength was attributed
the coating on a TiAl6V4 alloy, a 100–120 µm thickness metal-
to unique cellular structures, low-angle grain boundaries, and
lic interlayer film consisting of Cu, In, and Ni elements was de-
AM-induced dislocations (Figure 11). The superior ductility was
posited on the substrate by plasma spraying, which acted as a
related to the formation of hierarchically-heterogeneous mi-
bonding layer. A 30–50 µm thickness wear-resistant coating com-
crostructures that caused the steady and progressive strain hard-
posed of MoS2 and epoxy resin was then applied on the metal-
ening. Effects of dislocations and progressive strain hardening
lic film, yielding a double-layer coating with a total thickness
are critical in the enhancement of the wear resistance of metallic
of ≈150 µm. The thickness and friction coefficient played a de-
materials as discussed in Subsections 2.2 and 3.1.
terministic role in the identification of fretting wear with four
The introduction of zirconium nanoparticles as crystal nuclei
stages including running-in, steady-wear, coating-deterioration,
helped in the AM-fabrication of crack-free aluminum alloys with
and terminal-wear processes. A decreased friction coefficient ac-
fine-grained microstructures (Figure 12), leading to their high
companied with reduced coating thickness was observed at the
strength comparable to that of wrought counterparts.[191] The zir-
running-in process. During the steady-wear process, the coat-
conium nanoparticles were reported to preferentially react with
ing was progressively consumed at a stable friction coefficient,
Al element in the melting pool to form the Al3 Zr phase, which
which was the critical factor for determining the coating durabil-
has more than 20 matching interfaces with the Al phase, thus
ity. The friction coefficient increased at the coating-deterioration
providing low-energy nucleation sites. A good combination of the
stage with limited thickness reduction caused by the contamina-
high strength and ductility could be obtained in AM-fabricated
tion of the coating. At the terminal-wear stage, both the friction
Ti-based alloys that exhibited the ultrafine eutectoid microstruc-
coefficient and coating thickness increased as a result of debris
ture, resulted from the high cooling rate and multiple thermal cy-
accumulation. A typical relation between the friction coefficient
cling during the AM process.[192] These novel AM methods would
and relative coating thickness is presented in Figure 10.
be applied in the fabrication of complex-shaped vehicle compo-
The reinforcement content, particle, size, and distribution
nents, where solidification cracking is commonly observed in
uniformity have a significant effect on the wear resistance of
conventional counterparts.
the coatings. A homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles
or hybrid reinforcement particles within the matrix show an
outstanding enhancement effect.[184] Ranjith et al.[185] developed
4.3. Wind Turbines
high-performance Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys by the addition of 7.5 wt%
boron carbide and 2.5/5/7.5/10 wt% silicon carbide. Potassium
Fretting, abrasion, and erosion wear are the important factors for
titanium fluoride was used to enhance the bonding between the
evaluating the performance of wind turbines, where the blades
matrix and the reinforcement, which resulted in the superior
are subjected to high loading conditions and exposed to harsh en-
wear resistance and strength of the alloy with 2.5 wt% boron
vironments. Statistically, wear decreases the efficiency up to 25%
carbide.
in the first two-year period.[193] A number of wear-resistant coat-
ings such as Co-, Ni-, and Ni3 Al-based alloy coatings have been
4.2. Automobile Parts explored to protect the surface from severe wear. The high wear
resistance of Co-based alloy coatings correlates to the formation
Steel and aluminum alloys are the workhorse materials of of hard phases within their microstructures such as chromium,
transportation owing to their good mechanical properties and tungsten, molybdenum, and niobium carbides, while the
Figure 11. a) Diagrammatic sketch of the AM 316L stainless steel at various length scales. b) Electron-backscatter diffraction (EBSD) inverse-pole figure
(IPF) and c) SEM images of AM specimens, showing grain orientations and unique cellular structures. d) TEM image of the unique cells. e) High-angle
annular dark-field scanning TEM image of the cells. f) EBSD IPF image obtained at a 1 µm step size. g) EBSD image quality map showing low-angle
grain boundaries. h) Kernel average misorientation image showing the misorientation. i) TEM images of the cells with the energy dispersive spectrum
mapping. Reproduced with permission.[190] Copyright 2018, Springer Nature.
exceptional wear resistance of Ni- and Ni3 Al-based alloy coatings of an oxide layer.[195] Wear resistance at the nanoscale is one of
is attributed to the addition of a low Si content acting as a refiner deterministic factors in influencing the efficiency and reliability
and thus reducing the grain size. An addition of rare earth metals of MEMS/NEMS assemblies. The application of thin lubricant
in the Co-based alloy coatings decreases the brittleness. layers with high elastic moduli and hardness on MEMS/NEMS
Abraimova et al.[194] fabricated a highly resistant Ni superal- assembly surfaces is an accepted method in improving their
loy and hard alloy composite coatings and Ni3 Al-based alloy coat- wear resistance. DLC coatings, one of the mostly accepted hard
ings on the turbine blades by the welding method with a non- films, has been successfully applied in MEMS/NEMS devices.[196]
consumable electrode under argon protection. The deposited Alternatively, lubricant layers with molecular-level thickness
crack-free coatings showed a gradient in hardness across the coat- and relative strong bonding to the MEMS/NEMS surfaces are
ing thickness (Figure 13), which would enhance the wear resis- desirable.[197] Perfluoropolyether is expected to be a lubricating
tance and mechanical behavior of the turbines. Compared to the candidate in the magnetic disk drive of MEMS/NEMS because
composite coatings, the single-phase hard alloy coatings suffered of its advantages of outstanding lubricity, low surface tension as
from the earlier cracking caused by the insufficient ductility. Up well as high thermal and chemical stability.[198] Thermal-treated
till now, detailed data about wear-resistant materials utilized in perfluoropolyether coatings enabling partial bonding with the
turbines are limited. substrate can provide superior wear resistance for the substrate
compared to untreated coatings with complete bonding. The im-
proved anti-wear property resulted from the lubricant replenish-
4.4. Micro-/Nano-Electromechanical Systems ment effect of unbonded coatings.
Owing to their high electrical and thermal conductivities, ionic
A high surface-area-to-volume ratio extends the lifetime of liquids have been demonstrated to be an effective lubricant for
MEMS/NEMS devices as adhesion and friction are reduced. Sili- MEMS/NEMS devices. Ionic liquid films showed a dependence
con is commonly utilized in MEMS/NEMS but experiences high of the anti-wear property and durability on microstructures of
friction and wear during sliding contact owing to the formation anionic molecules, wettability, and ambient conditions.[199] Four
Figure 12. Overview of the AM process presented by the central diagrammatic sketch. a) Conventional Al powder. b) Nanoparticle-modified Al powder.
c) Typical columnar growth of dendrites during AM. d) Nanoparticle-induced uniform nucleation. e) Typical large grains and cracks by traditional AM
methods. f) Fine-equiaxed grains in the nanoparticle-modified powder. g) Typical AM Al piston. h) AM-manufactured Al HRL logo. Reproduced with
permission.[191] Copyright 2017, Springer Nature.
Figure 13. Structures with the indicated hardness of a) Ni superalloy + hard alloy composite and b) Ni3 Al-based alloy coatings, where ZhS26 was
the substrate; HAZ denotes the heat-affected zone; Hh20N80, SM64, and VKNA-2M are Ni superalloy, hard alloy, and Ni3 Al-based alloy, respectively.
Reproduced with permission.[194] Copyright 2019, Springer Nature.
types of ionic liquid films containing different anions including in the hip replacement shown in Figure 14,[14l,227] owing to their
hexafluorophosphate, tetrafluoroborate, nitrate, and perchlorate high wear and corrosion resistance as well as excellent strength
were prepared on the monocrystalline silicon substrate via a dip- and fracture toughness. Additionally, Ti alloys are applied in joint
coating method.[200] The ionic liquid film containing hexafluo- replacement due to their high corrosion resistance, good bio-
rophosphate presented the best wear resistance among the four, compatibility, desirable elastic modulus, and density similar to
making it a possible candidate to enhance the wear resistance of that of human bones.[228] High friction and wear were observed
MEMS/NEMS. in Ti alloys when they were used as articulating surfaces com-
The combination of a thin film and micro-patterning is bined with ultrahigh-molecular-weight-polyethylene (UHMWP)
another strategy to enhance the tribological performance of acetabula.[228] A possible solution is to optimize the structural de-
MEMS/NEMS. Zhao et al.[195] fabricated micro-grooves on DLC- sign of the joint systems that composed of Ti alloys at the bone
ionic liquid films by plasma etching, magnetron sputtering, and interface and CoCr alloys on the articulating surfaces, namely
dip-coating techniques. The obviously reduced friction of the metal-on-metal bearing, for example, the femoral head in Fig-
films with patterns was observed. Micro-grooves reducing the ure 14b.[14l,227] A part of the bearing system was reported to show
real contact area and thin ionic liquid films avoiding the direct unexpected failure rates, particularly in women.[14l] Mechanisms
contact between the DLC layer and the sliding tip were the causes. of this clinical observation of high failure rates are still unknown
and thus remain open to researchers.
Being the most important properties in biotribological applica-
4.5. Atomic Force Microscopes
tions, the outstanding wear resistance and desirable wettability of
ceramics make their use attractive in artificial joints. CoC, which
By detecting the interaction between its tip and a specimen, AFM
was reported to have a hundredfold reduction of fracture[229] and
can characterize the topography of the specimen surface and the
a survival rate up to ≈94% in femoral components after 17 years
stress state of the interface at the nanoscale. AFM tips always suf-
in vivo,[230] demonstrated to be a promising ceramic material for
fer from wear caused by friction, typically at high-current testing
joint replacement.
conditions. In a broad velocity range up to 100 mm s−1 , tip wear
To further improve the wear resistance of artificial joints with
showed a logarithmic dependence on the sliding velocity.[201] For
prolonged lifetime and good biocompatibility, many novel coat-
specific probes, such as the silicon nitride probe, wear can be ag-
ings have been considered, such as DLC,[231] ZrN,[232] ZrO,[233]
gravated with an increase of humidity. Ultrananocrystalline dia-
TiN,[234] TiC,[235] and NbN[236] coatings. More comprehensive
mond probes with 30–40 nm radii, smooth surfaces, and control-
reviews of recent progress on the applications of wear-resistant
lable geometries were fabricated by Liu et al.[202] In contrast with
materials in joint replacement may be referred to refs. [14l] and
the conventional silicon nitride probes with similar geometries, [227]
, where experiments and simulations were systematically
the ultrananocrystalline diamond probes demonstrated superior
discussed.
wear resistance at humidity conditions of 15% and 70% relative
Our teeth composed of enamel, dentin, and cementum
humidity (RH) and at a wide range of stresses of 2–8 GPa. An
show high mechanical strength and hardness owing to
energy model for the evaluation of probe radii identified that the
their hierarchical-structured mineralized tissues, which con-
ultrananocrystalline diamond probes possessed ultra-high wear
sist of nanocrystalline carbonated hydroxyapatite and water
resistance which was almost ten times higher than that of the
molecules.[237] The percentage volume mineralized is 45–50%
commercial silicon nitride probes. Detailed information about
in dentin[238] and ≈95% in enamel.[239] As wear causes tooth
the energy model may be referred to ref. [203] . For a detailed com-
degradations, which permanently exist during masticating,
parison, Table 5 summarizes the wear behavior of AFM probes
dental restorative materials with high wear resistance should
fabricated using different materials that show different wear re-
be applied. Among all the restorative materials, composites and
sults with several orders of magnitude. This summary would help
ceramics that have demonstrated outstanding wear resistance
in the selection of AFM probes with desirable anti-wear proper-
and hardness as well as the potential in aesthetic design are of
ties at specific testing conditions.
the utmost interest.
The application of resin-based composites in dental practices
4.6. Biomedical Devices is considerably motivated by their good bonding to teeth and
composition free of mercury.[240] The composites consist of the
Implant materials within the body would be corroded by re- dimethacrylate matrix and reinforcements of glass, quartz, col-
duced pH during inflammation in a low oxygen and high salinity loidal SiO2 , and ZrO2 . The matrix property, additive content
environment.[222] Fretting or wear accelerates the damage of pro- and property as well as the interface bonding between addi-
tective oxide films of the implant parts.[223] Ions of V, Ni, Co, and tives and the matrix strongly influence wear behaviors of the
Cr would thus be released, giving rise to cytotoxic and genotoxic composites.[241] The anti-wear behavior of glass-reinforced resin
effects.[224] Wear debris with a particle size of ≈0.05 µm can be composites was reported by Arsecularatne et al.[242] after recip-
produced within the interface between the femoral head and the rocating in vitro sliding wear tests. Fatigue wear was observed
cup of hip implants, which would be identified as invasive ob- in the resin composites reinforced by alumina silicate glass or
jects, thereby resulting in an inflammatory symptom.[225] It was strontium glass characterized by second-phase particle debond-
estimated that the wear debris related damage accounted for 4– ing and crack propagation along the interface beneath the sur-
5% of the implant failure 6–7 years after implantation.[226] face layer, whereas abrasive wear was found in those reinforced
Cobaltchromium-molybdenum and ceramics combined with by silica showing the pulling-out of the second-phase particles.
hard coatings are commonly used in artificial joints, for example, Recent studies demonstrated that nanocomposites exhibit better
Table 5. Summary of materials, wear data, and testing conditions for different types of AFM probes.
Material (probe-specimen) Testing condition Wear behavior Ref.
SiNx -Si 10 nN, 10 m s−1 , 25.6 mm Fatigue wear [204]
100 nN, 20 m s−1 , 72 mm Adhesive, abrasive, and fatigue wear with a wear rate [205]
of 5 × 10–2 mm3 (Nm)−1

Si-SiO2 1–6 µN, 20 µm s−1 , KOH solution Tribochemical wear with wear rates of 10–4 –10–2 [206]
mm3 (Nm)−1 , depending on the pH of the KOH

solution
SiNx -glasses/quartz/sapphires/ 1–6 N, 16 m s−1 , 67.5 mm sliding distance, water, Tribochemical wear independent of pH [207]
mica/SiNx /metal oxides NH4 OH, and HCl solutions

Si/SiNx -Si 10–300 nN, 5 m s−1 , 2.56–25.6 mm, 20–60% RH Wear rates of 10–4 –10–2 and 10–6 –10–5 mm3 (Nm)−1 [208]
for Si and SiNx probes, respectively, which

increased with the increasing RH
Si-Si/DLC 10–100 nN, 1 m s−1 , 0.032–70 mm, air and N2 Wear rates of 10–5 –10–3 mm3 (Nm)−1 depending on [209]
the environmental conditions

Si-piezoelectric ceramic materials 10–50 N, 2 m s−1 , 1.6–18 mm Wear rates of 10–5 –10–3 mm3 (Nm)−1 depending on [210]
the probe shapes

Si-polymers 5–100 nN, 1.5 mm s−1 , 750 m, vacuum Exponential wear rate dependent on the contact [211]
stresses
Si/SiNx coated Si-ultrananocrystalline diamonds 0 N, 3.97 m s−1 , 102.4 mm, ambient conditions Failure of Si probes and SiNx coatings [212]
SiC/Si-polymers/ SiO2 2.5–10 nN, 1.5 mm s−1 , 40–100 m, vacuum and Higher wear resistance of SiC probes [213]
ambient conditions
Si-diamonds 0 N, 4, 21 nm s−1 , 0.2–4.5 m, vacuum conditions Wear volume of 25 nm3 [214]
Carbon-coated probes-Si/SiO2 — Higher wear resistance of carbon coated probes [215]
Diamonds-Si 60 N, 2 m s−1 , 7.68 mm Wear rate of 1.9 × 10–9 mm3 (Nm)−1 [216]
CNT-polycrystalline Si 2m Higher wear resistance of CNT probes (20 times [217]
more than that of Si probes)

Polycrystalline diamond coated 1–5 N, 1 m s−1 , 0.3–1.5 mm Wear rate of 10–7 –10–6 mm3 (Nm)−1 [218]
probes-Cu/Si/SiNx
Ultrananocrystalline 0–100 nN, 3.75–20.3 m s−1 , 1.024–204.8 mm, 15% Ultrahigh wear resistance of ultrananocrystalline [202a]
diamonds-ultrananocrystalline diamonds and 70% RH diamond probes

Si-doped DLC-SiO2 1–17.5 nN, 10–250 m s−1 , 2 m, ambient conditions Wear rates of 10–7 –10–5 mm3 (Nm)−1 [219]
Ti/Pt/Au coated probes-SiO2 and highly Electric contact at ambient conditions Rapid wear [220]
oriented pyrolytic graphite

Au/Pt/Ir coated probes-Cu and highly oriented Electric contact at ultra-high vacuum conditions Weakness of metal-coated probes to the lateral force [220]
pyrolytic graphite and melting of the coating layer

Pt-coated probes-DLC 50–100 nN, 0.1–100 mm s−1 , 2 m Adhesive, abrasive, and tribochemical wear at a [201]
logarithmic wear rate, depending on the sliding

speeds
Pt/AuNi/PtIr/PtNi coated probes-piezoelectric 1–80 nN, 10–100 mm s−1 , 100–300 m Wear rate of 10–7 mm3 (Nm)−1 [221]
ceramic materials
wear resistance and chemical stability. However, mechanisms re- nano-particles,[246] reduction of microstructural defects (e.g.,
sponsible for the better performance remain unknown. micro-cracks and micro/nano-voids),[247] and by the polished
The desirable anti-wear performance, high chemical stability, surface.[248]
good biocompatibility, and great potential in the aesthetic design Thus far, most of the reported studies regarding applications
of ceramics make them good candidates of surface coatings or the of wear-resistant ceramics in teeth have been focusing on exper-
all-ceramic restoration bulk for dental materials.[243] Microstruc- imental observations; only a few efforts in the modeling of ce-
tures, fracture toughness, surface integrity, contact stresses, and ramic wear were carried out. Arsecularatne et al.[242,249] proposed
working environment are the dominating factors determining a model to describe the relationship between the wear volume V
their wear resistance. Previous research works demonstrated no of dental ceramics and applied pressure P asV = 9.83 × 10−4 P9/8 .
significant wear dependence of dental enamels on hardness.[244] Based on the existing experimental observations, specific results
Their wear resistance was more dependent on the ceramic mi- were calculated by the above model and by the Archard relation
crostructure and roughness. Generally, the reduced wear of the as shown in Figure 15.[249] The underestimated wear of ceramics
ceramics can be obtained by the increase of flexural strength and can be found in the results obtained by these models, typically
fracture toughness,[245] addition of homogeneously-distributed at higher contact loads, where the local microstructural change
Figure 14. a) Anatomies of the hip joint. b) Examples of artificial joints illustrating total hip replacement components with corresponding materials.
Left: ceramic-on-polyethylene structure; right: examples of metal-on-metal, ceramic-on-polyethylene, and metal-on-polyethylene systems. Reproduced
with permission.[141] Copyright 1995, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission.[227] Copyright 2010, Elsevier.
affected wear but was not counted within the models. Further gradient multilayer coatings exhibit exceptional wear resistance
research efforts in the development of numerical models for the- at specific working conditions such as corrosion, water lubrica-
oretical descriptions of wear behaviors with underlying mecha- tion, and electrical contact. The proper design of surface coat-
nisms are required for dental ceramics. ings with certain textures helps to achieve outstanding anti-wear
properties of surfaces at high contact stresses owing to the inte-
5. Conclusion and Outlooks grated effect of the wear-resistant coating and lubricous texture.
The surfaces with hierarchical structures substantially decrease
5.1. Concluding Remarks wear, which was three orders of magnitude lower than that of the
unprocessed ones.[123] The strong in-plane covalent bonds, ultra-
A review of achievements in the wear reduction from aspects of thin thickness, as well as high mechanical strength and flexibility
novel design strategies for the surface and matrix, intrinsic mate- of 2D nanomaterials make them the promising components in
rial properties, and wide applications has been provided. Surface hierarchical anti-wear structures.
engineering including the design of coatings, surface texturing, Several strategies on the wear resistance enhancement of bulk
surface hardening, and architecture effectively improves the wear materials without sacrificing their mechanical or electrical prop-
resistance of surfaces by the introduction of a surface layer with erties have been confirmed to be feasible, which mostly involved
higher hardness than the substrate or by the formation of a lubri- the change of microstructures and phase compositions of the
cating structure. Nanocomposite coatings, amorphous coatings, bulk. For example, the transformation from fcc to hcp crystal
2D material coatings, amorphous/nanocrystalline coatings, and structures by tuning the Al content resulted in a substantial
5.2. Current Challenges and Future Perspectives
Remarkable advances of numerous innovative wear-resistant

materials in fundamentals and applications bring prospective
challenges that will be of particular interest in the future research
on energy savings. The large-scale elaboration of nanostructures
or phase compositions through the parameter optimization of
preparation and post-treatment processes would be an effec-
tive strategy to further enhance the material wear resistance,
which focuses on the formation of nano-twins, heterogeneous
or gradient nanostructures, homogeneously-distributed in situ
precipitation, cryogenic deformation, and uniform dispersion of
2D nanomaterials in matrices with good interfacial compatibility.
Computational modeling, typically the ab initio calculations and
MD simulations, provides theoretical descriptions together with
underlying mechanisms of nanostructural features for struc-
tural design and phase transformation. The reproducibility and
stability of the designed nanostructures or phase compositions
Figure 15. Experimental and numerical simulation results of the wear vol-
are the critical factors in the design of large-scaled wear-resistant
ume, where dotted lines 1 and 2 represent the expected wear volume ob-
tained based on the numerical model and the Archard relation, respec- nanostructures or phase compositions.
tively; solid line 3 denotes the fitted curve for the experimental wear vol- Over the past decade, research attention in AM has in-
ume. Reproduced with permission.[249] Copyright 2015, Elsevier. creased exponentially on the fabrication of lightweight and high-
performance structures from polymers, ceramics and metals.
Limited data are directed toward the wear behavior analysis of the
increase in the hardness of the AgAl alloys owing to the de- AM materials. The anti-wear assessment of AM materials thus re-
creased slip systems of hcp phases.[135] Specific attention would quires tremendous research efforts. Of particular interest are the
be paid to the anti-wear effect of carbon nanomaterial reinforce- AM metallic materials with nanocrystalline and nano-twinned
ments that is highly dependent on their dimension, morphology, structures, AM amorphous materials, and AM high-entropy al-
and content. MD simulations revealed that a strengthening loys. Their outstanding mechanical properties have been demon-
effect was caused by the addition of graphene in polymers be- strated and shown great potential in anti-wear applications.
cause the van der Waals interactions between the graphene and Superlubricity has become increasingly important to mini-
polymer matrices restricted the surrounding polymer chains.[147] mize the negative effects of friction and wear, whereas the fab-
More detailed information on the effect of carbon nanomaterial rication of superlubric surfaces has only been stabilized at the
reinforcements on different types of bulk materials including micro- and nanoscale under specific surface conditions or at the
ceramics, metals, and polymers can be referred to our previous macroscale for a period of several minutes. Recently, 2D ma-
review studies.[59a,60] terials show great potential in extending superlubricity to reli-
Hardness is widely accepted as a significant parameter in able practical applications, depending on their structures and
determining the wear resistance. Very limited data are avail- sizes. The efficient use of 2D material-wrapped nanoparticles
able on the assessment of the wear resistance using other crit- would allow superlubricious contact to be maintained at extended
ical intrinsic material properties including stiffness, strength, timescale conditions. Further experimental identifications, mod-
and cyclic plasticity. The wear resistance of the bulk can be in- eling simulations, and theoretical descriptions of 2D materials
creased by controlling its hardness, fracture behavior, plasticity, are required. They focus on the fabrication of materials with large
and strength that are influenced by the lattice distortion, bond- sizes but low-defect density, development of heterostructures,
ing strength, grain sizes, precipitation, grain boundaries, disloca- and modification of materials with functionalized groups.
tions, or twins. The wear resistance of metallic materials with an Materials applied at elevated temperatures suffer from severe
average grain size above 10 nm was in consistency with the clas- wear damage. The microstructures can hardly be experimen-
sical Archard theory.[138] However, a prominent deviation from tally characterized in situ during the sliding process. MD sim-
the Archard theory was observed at the average grain size below ulations deal with micron-sized systems that are large enough to
10 nm. This deviation was attributed to the local hardening of cover grains, where one or a combination of deformation mech-
the worn surface caused by the grain growth and grain bound- anisms including the dislocation slip, grain boundary migra-
ary relaxation during the repetitive sliding. Substrate stiffness tion, and twinning take place. Their atomistic-level resolution al-
plays different roles in the surface wear resistance in macro- and lows understandings into the interplay between dislocations and
nanoscale domains. A preliminary relation between the polymer grain boundaries responsible for wear resistance. The simula-
wear and ratio of the maximum contact stress to yield strength tions would then be promising to reveal relations between the
was obtained, which would be applied in the assessment of poly- change in microstructures at high temperatures and the wear
mer wear resistance. The wear resistance of ceramic–ceramic, behavior, which are critical for high-temperature wear-resistant
ceramic–metallic, and metallic–metallic tribological systems pre- materials.
sented dependence on the H/E ratio, which has been confirmed It is hoped that the numerous achievements and the prospec-
in Al2 O3 -CrN, Al2 O3 -TiC, and steel-steel sliding systems.[179] tive challenges would boost more research interest in this field
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314. 2015, 1, 50.
Wenzheng Zhai is an assistant professor in the School of Mechanical and Engineering at Huazhong
University of Science and Technology, China. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from
Wuhan University of Technology, China in 2016. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow in the School of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore during 2016–
2017 and in the School of Mechanical Science and Engineering at Huazhong University of Science and
Technology during 2017–2019. His research interests focus on nanomaterials, surface engineering,
design of functional materials, and tribology.
Lichun Bai is an associate professor in the High-speed Train Research Center at Central South Uni-
versity, China. He obtained his B.S. degree from Lanzhou University, China in 2010 and his Ph.D.
from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore in 2016. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow in
the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Nanyang Technological University during
2016–2018. His research interests focus on micro-/nanomechanics of materials and structures, novel
computational methods for modeling material behavior, and tribology.
Kun Zhou is an associate professor in the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He received both his B.Eng. and M.Eng. degrees in
Mechanical Engineering from Tsinghua University, China in 1998 and 2001, respectively, and his Ph.D.
in Engineering Mechanics from Nanyang Technological University in 2006. His research interests fo-
cus on micro-/nanomechanics of materials, contact mechanics and tribology, novel computational
methods for modeling material behavior, and additive manufacturing. He is the Co-Editor-in-Chief of
Journal of Micromechanics and Molecular Physics.

Recent Progress On Wear-Resistant Materials: Designs, Properties, and Applications

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Recent Progress On Wear-Resistant Materials: Designs, Properties, and Applications

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REVIEW

Recent Progress on Wear-Resistant Materials: Designs,

Dr. W. Zhai Prof. X. Fan

Techniques used to obtain highly wear-resistant surfaces nor-

2.1. Surface Engineering pounds with thermodynamically driven “compositional modula-

Material Microstructural parameter of dimples Test parameter Typical observation Ref.

area density of 7.5–30% contact stress of 780 MPa conditions

20–30 and 10–13 µm decreases in friction and wear

grooves with pitch of 150 µm and width stresses of 700–2000 MPa

density of 6.7% and 26.8% contact stress of 870 MPa speeds

density of 3.6% stress of 870 MPa

density of 12% contact stresses of 500–700 MPa low-sliding conditions

density of 40% stress of 1000 MPa

Similar to hierarchical or heterogeneous structure designs on

Al6061 53.9 59.9 5.8 0.42

In addition to the hardness and stiﬀness, strength has been re-

AISI 5160 633.96 ± 5.05 0.15 ± 0.01 0.3115 ± 0.007 [ 168]

AISI O1 386.53 ± 39.02 0.22 ± 0.01 0.2947 ± 0.005

Welded AISI 1045 415 ± 20 0.22 ± 0.02 —

Table 4. Typical stress-related wear damages of ceramics.

Contact stress Wear damage

Low (below the elasticity limit) Elastic deformation, no obvious wear

of the DLC and subsurface, EDLC /ESubsurface , to a low value of 1.23,

relatively low cost.[186] The transportation industry contains

Material (probe-specimen) Testing condition Wear behavior Ref.

SiNx -Si 10 nN, 10 m s−1 , 25.6 mm Fatigue wear [204]

of 5 × 10–2 mm3 (Nm)−1

mm3 (Nm)−1 , depending on the pH of the KOH

mica/SiNx /metal oxides NH4 OH, and HCl solutions

for Si and SiNx probes, respectively, which

the environmental conditions

the probe shapes

Carbon-coated probes-Si/SiO2 — Higher wear resistance of carbon coated probes [215]

CNT-polycrystalline Si 2m Higher wear resistance of CNT probes (20 times [217]

more than that of Si probes)

diamonds-ultrananocrystalline diamonds and 70% RH diamond probes

oriented pyrolytic graphite

pyrolytic graphite and melting of the coating layer

logarithmic wear rate, depending on the sliding

5.2. Current Challenges and Future Perspectives

Remarkable advances of numerous innovative wear-resistant

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